title: Social Liberal Party (Brazil)

text: PSL was originally founded on 30 October 1994 by businessman Luciano Bivar as a social liberal party. It was registered on the Superior Electoral Court on 2 June 1998.


title: Social Liberal Party (Brazil)

text: In the 2002 legislative elections, PSL won 1 out of 513 seats in the Chamber of Deputies and no seats in the Federal Senate. In the 2006 legislative elections, the party won no seats in the Chamber of Deputies or the Federal Senate. In the 2010 legislative elections, PSL won 1 seat in the Chamber of Deputies and no seats in the Federal Senate, maintaining the same results in the 2014 legislative elections.


title: Social Liberal Party (Brazil)

text: In 2015, PSL underwent a reform led by the internal social liberal wing Livres, with names such as political scientist and journalist Leandro Narloch reinforcing the party's affiliation with social liberal policies. PSL also supported the impeachment of former president Dilma Rousseff.


title: Social Liberal Party (Brazil)

text: On 5 January 2018, conservative and former Social Christian politician Jair Bolsonaro became a member of the party, which prompted the Livres wing to leave the party in protest of Bolsonaro's social conservative views. After the exit of Livres, the party followed a national conservative path, changed its colors from purple to the more nationalist blue, yellow and green (the colors of Brazil's flag) and since then has discussed a name change either to Republicans ("Republicanos") or Mobilize ("Mobiliza"). On 5 March 2018, Bivar stepped down from party's presidency and Gustavo Bebianno was appointed as acting president.


title: Social Liberal Party (Brazil)

text: Bolsonaro eventually became PSL's nominee for the 2018 presidential election, exceeding polling forecasts to receive 46% of the popular vote in the first round. Bolsonaro's coattails helped elect 52 deputies and 4 senators from PSL, which made it the second largest political party in the post-2018 Chamber of Deputies. It also became the largest single party in the legislative assemblies of both Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. On 28 October 2018, Bolsonaro was elected president with 55.13% of the votes, defeating Workers' Party's Fernando Haddad. He took office on 1 January 2019.


title: Social Liberal Party (Brazil)

text: On 29 October 2018, Bivar was re-appointed as party's president. On 12 November 2019, Bolsonaro announced his departure from the party following disagreements with the national executive.


title: Social Liberal Party (Brazil)

text: On October 6, 2021, the party voted to merge with the Democrats (DEM) to establish the Brazil Union party. The new party plans to use the number 44 as its electoral number. The merger was approved by the Superior Electoral Court and officially became registered on 8 February 2022. As such, both PSL and DEM were disbanded.


title: Social Liberal Party (Brazil)

text: Since Bolsonaro's entrance in the party, PSL has changed much of its ideologies. It went from a social-liberal party with an economic liberal group Livres to a far-right and right-wing populist party, abandoning its former cultural liberalism and keeping its economic liberal policies, supporting privatisation and decentralisation, while at the same time adopting cultural conservatism as well as social-conservative policies regarding abortion, legalization of marijuana, and teaching of gender identity in schools.


title: Murder 3

text: Murder 3 is a 2013 Indian Hindi-language psychological thriller film. It is the third instalment in the "Murder film series" and sequel to the 2011 film, "Murder 2". Directed by Vishesh Bhatt and produced by Mukesh Bhatt from Vishesh Films. This is the third installment in the series and unlike its predecessors, is an official remake of the Colombian thriller "The Hidden Face". "Murder 3" was released on 15 February 2013 to mixed reviews and was a flop.


title: Murder 3

text: The film opens with Vikram (Randeep Hooda), a hot-shot fashion and wildlife photographer, viewing a video of his girlfriend, Roshni (Aditi Rao Hydari) telling him she is leaving him. Vikram becomes distraught. While drinking away his sorrows at a bar, he meets Nisha Sengupta (Sara Loren) and they have a relationship where Nisha moves into the house that Vikram was sharing with Roshni. Vikram becomes a suspect in the disappearance of Roshni, however, the investigators can find no evidence of Vikram's involvement in Roshni's disappearance.


title: Murder 3

text: It is revealed that the house is owned by a British lady who shows Roshni a secret room built to hide her husband just in case someone came to look for him because he was in British Army at the time of 1947. The room is self-contained


title: Murder 3

text: In a flashback, it is also shown that Roshni, jealous of Vikram's relationship with one of his colleague, decided to pretend she is leaving him. She creates the video saying she is leaving as she hides in the secret room. The room has some one way mirrors where she can observe Vikram's reaction. When she decides he has had enough she looks for the key and realises she lost the key and is now trapped in the room with no way to contact him.


title: Murder 3

text: Nisha finds the key to the secret room, but she doesn't know what it is used for. Nisha eventually figures out that Roshni is trapped in the house because Roshni is able to communicate through tapping on the pipes in the secret room. As Nisha is ready to open the door, she pauses and decides not to rescue Roshni because she might lose Vikram after that. Nisha struggles with her decision, but decides to open the door and check on Roshni when the investigators give Nisha a package containing some images. As Nisha is checking on Roshni laying in a bed in the secret room, Roshni surprises Nisha and knocks her out with a glass bottle and leaves Nisha locked in the room. After Roshni comes out of the secret room, she sees the images and the package, which are pictures of Vikram and his colleague in compromising situations, shattering her. She decides to leave the house. She leaves that picture of Vikram with his colleague on mirror and also sticks her necklace to show Vikram that she is out and then she sends the keys of the room to the investigator who actually loves Nisha. The investigator comes and arrests Vikram while Nisha is stranded in the room as both Vikram and the investigator have no knowledge about the room and the key. The final scene shows Roshni tearing her and Vikram's photograph and is going on a highway road in a car alone, happy on leaving the devastated and arrested Vikram.


title: Murder 3

text: The makers of the films, who also worked on "Murder" and "Murder 2" decided that Emraan Hashmi would not be returning for the third movie and that Randeep Hooda would play the leading role Asin Thottumkal was originally considered for the lead female role, however, she was not happy with the script and the role went to Esha Gupta. Yet, talks with Gupta fell through and Aditi Rao Hydari was finally cast as the female lead. Pakistani actress Sara Loren was then chosen as the second female lead.


title: Murder 3

text: Mahesh Bhatt said ""Murder 3" is the 2013 equivalent of his 1983 controversial film, Arth. Then it was the institution of marriage that was deconstructed and 30 years later Murder 3 deconstructs love and questions its very existence in today's world of relationship crimes. Now that we have the official rights of the film ("The Hidden Face"), we look to doing it justice and taking the Murder franchise forward."


title: Murder 3

text: Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave it 4 out of 5 and stated that Murder 3 "is one of the finest thrillers to come out of Vishesh Films. An outstanding story narrated with ferocious enthusiasm. Vishesh Bhatt hits a boundary in his very first attempt!" Madhureeta Mukherjee of The Times Of India gave it 3 out of 5, while commenting 'This one's no bloody Valentine, but watch it if you like it twisted.' Komal Nahta wrote, 'On the whole, Murder 3 is a fair entertainer'.Nabanita of OneIndia also gave it 3 out of 5 while commenting that it has thrills but it fails to captivate. Roshni Devi of Koimoi gave it 2.5 out of 5, saying that it is worth a watch. Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave it 2.5/5 stars and stated 'Murder 3, a thriller that vacillates between the taut to the toxic, packs enough punch and panache to keep the audience glued, if not sweep them off their feet. It tweaks the formula just a tad – it goes somewhat easy on the erotic component of the Murder franchise, opts for a markedly stronger emotional spine, and gives the female characters more than usual space.'


title: Murder 3

text: Anupama Chopra gave it 2/5 while writing that 'With a little more imagination, Murder 3 could have been deliciously dark'. Sukanya Verma for Rediff.com has given 2/5 stars and says "Murder 3" has some badly-acted thrills.


title: Murder 3

text: The soundtrack of the film is composed by Pritam, Anupam Amod & Roxen (band). The lyrics are penned by Sayeed Quadri. The soundtrack was released on 2 February 2013. The songs were immensely popular specially the songs "Teri Jhuki Nazar" and "Hum Jee Lenge" was immensely popular among the masses while the other tracks like "Mat Azma Re" and "Jaata Hai Tujh Tak" were also very popular gaining good critical review and mass appeal. The music focused on the Rock Genre and was unique in the Murder brand.


title: Murder 3

text: The soundtrack received positive critical response. Planet Bollywood gave it 7.5/10 calling it a great album. Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama gave it 3.5/5 while Koimoi gave it 3/5.


title: Alto

text: The musical term alto, meaning "high" in (Latin: ), historically refers to the contrapuntal part higher than the tenor and its associated vocal range. In 4-part voice leading alto is the second-highest part, sung in choruses by either low women's or high men's voices. In vocal classification these are usually called contralto and male alto or countertenor.


title: Alto

text: Such confusion of "high" and "low" persists in instrumental terminology. Alto flute and alto trombone are respectively lower and higher than the standard instruments of the family (the standard instrument of the trombone family being the tenor trombone), though both play in ranges within the alto clef. Alto recorder, however, is an octave higher, and is defined by its relationship to tenor and soprano recorders; alto clarinet is a fifth lower than B-flat clarinet, already an 'alto' instrument. There is even a contra-alto clarinet, (an octave lower than the alto clarinet), with a range B♭ – D.


title: Alto

text: In choral music for mixed voices, "alto" describes the lowest part commonly sung by women. The explanation for the anomaly of this name is to be found not in the use of adult falsettists in choirs of men and boys but further back in innovations in composition during the mid-15th century. Before this time it was usual to write a melodic "cantus" or "superius" against a tenor (from Latin "tenere", to hold) or 'held' part, to which might be added a contratenor, which was in counterpoint with (in other words, against = contra) the tenor. The composers of Ockeghem's generation wrote two contratenor parts and designated them as "contratenor altus" and "contratenor bassus"; they were respectively higher and lower than the tenor part. From these derive both the modern terms "alto" (and contralto) and "bass".


title: Alto

text: The contralto voice is a matter of vocal timbre and tessitura as well as range, and a classically trained solo contralto would usually have a range greater than that of a normal choral alto part in both the upper and lower ranges. However, the vocal tessitura of a classically trained contralto would still make these singers more comfortable singing in the lower part of the voice. A choral non-solo contralto may also have a low range down to D (thus perhaps finding it easier to sing the choral tenor part), but some would have difficulty singing above E. In a choral context mezzo-sopranos and contraltos might sing the alto part, together with countertenors, thus having three vocal timbres (and two means of vocal production) singing the same notes.


title: Alto

text: Alto is rarely used to describe a solo voice (except in the case of soloists in choral works), though there is a multitude of terms in common usage in various languages and in different cultures for solo singers in this range. Examples include contralto, countertenor, "haute-contre", and "tenor altino" among others.


title: Alto

text: In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the alto is the second-highest vocal range, above the tenor and bass and below the soprano. The alto range in choral music is approximately from F (the F below middle C) to F (the second F above middle C). In common usage, alto is used to describe the voice type that typically sings this part, though this is not strictly correct. Alto, like the other three standard modern choral voice classifications (soprano, tenor and bass) was originally intended to describe a part within a homophonic or polyphonic texture, rather than an individual voice type; neither are the terms alto and contralto interchangeable or synonymous, though they are often treated as such.


title: Alto

text: Although some women who sing alto in a choir are contraltos, many would be more accurately called mezzo-sopranos (a voice of somewhat higher range and different timbre). Men singing in this range are countertenors, although this term is a source of considerable controversy, some authorities preferring the usage of the term "male alto" for those countertenors who use a predominantly falsetto voice production (boys singing in their natural range may be termed "boy altos").


title: Lemnos

text: Lemnos or Limnos (; ) is a Greek island in the northern Aegean Sea. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within the Lemnos regional unit, which is part of the North Aegean region. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Myrina. At , it is the 8th-largest island of Greece.


title: Lemnos

text: Lemnos is mostly flat, but the west, and especially the northwest part, is rough and mountainous. The highest point is Mount Skopia at the altitude of 430 m. The chief towns are Myrina, on the western coast, and Moudros on the eastern shore of a large bay in the middle of the island. Myrina (also called Kastro, meaning "castle") possesses a good harbour. It is the seat of all trade carried on with the mainland. The hillsides afford pasture for sheep, and Lemnos has a strong husbandry tradition, being famous for its Kalathaki Limnou (PDO), a cheese made from sheep and goat milk and melipasto cheese, and for its yogurt. Fruit and vegetables that grow on the island include almonds, figs, melons, watermelons, tomatoes, pumpkins and olives. The main crops are wheat, barley, sesame; in fact Lemnos was Constantinople's granary after the Byzantine Empire lost its Anatolian possessions in the 1320s. Lemnos also produces honey (from thyme-fed bees), but, as is the case with most products of a local nature in Greece, the produced quantities are little more than simply sufficient for the local market. Muscat grapes are grown widely, and are used to produce an unusual table wine that is dry yet has a strong Muscat flavor. Since 1985 the variety and quality of Lemnos wines have increased greatly.


title: Lemnos

text: The climate in Lemnos is mainly Mediterranean. Winters are generally mild, but there will be a snowfall occasionally. Strong winds are a feature of the island, especially in August and in winter time, hence its nickname "the wind-ridden one" (in Greek, Ανεμόεσσα). The temperature is typically 2 to 5 degrees Celsius less than in Athens, especially in summertime.


title: Lemnos

text: For ancient Greeks, the island was sacred to Hephaestus, god of metallurgy, who—as he tells himself in "Iliad" I.590ff—fell on Lemnos when Zeus hurled him headlong out of Olympus. There, he was cared for by the Sinties, according to "Iliad", or by Thetis (Apollodorus, "Bibliotheca" I:3.5), and there with a Thracian nymph Cabiro (a daughter of Proteus) he fathered a tribe called the Kaberoi. Sacred initiatory rites dedicated to them were performed in the island. Its ancient capital was named Hephaistia in the god's honour.


title: Lemnos

text: Hephaestus' forge, which was located on Lemnos, as well as the name "Aethaleia", sometimes applied to it, points to its volcanic character. It is said that fire occasionally blazed forth from Mosychlos, one of its mountains. The ancient geographer Pausanias relates that a small island called Chryse, off the Lemnian coast, was swallowed up by the sea. All volcanic action is now extinct.


title: Lemnos

text: The earliest inhabitants are said to have been a Thracian tribe, whom the Greeks called "Sintians", "robbers". The name "Lemnos" is said by Hecataeus to have been applied in the form of a title to Cybele among the Thracians. The worship of Cybele was characteristic of Thrace, where it had spread from Asia Minor at a very early period. Hypsipyle and Myrina (the name of one of the chief towns) are Amazon names, which are always connected with Asiatic Cybele-worship.


title: Lemnos

text: According to the epitome of the "Bibliotheca" traditionally attributed to Apollodorus ("Epitome" I:9), when Dionysus found Ariadne abandoned on Naxos, he brought her to Lemnos and there fathered Thoas, Staphylus, Oenopion, and Peparethus. Pliny the Elder in his "Natural History" (xxxvi. 13) speaks of a remarkable labyrinth in Lemnos, which has not been identified in modern times.


title: Lemnos

text: According to a Hellenic legend, the women were all deserted by their husbands for Thracian women, and in revenge they murdered every man on the island. From this barbarous act, the expression "Lemnian deeds" became proverbial among the Hellenes. According to Apollonius of Rhodes' "Argonautica" the Argonauts landing soon after found only women in the island, ruled by Hypsipyle, daughter of the old king Thoas. From the Argonauts and the Lemnian women were descended the race called Minyans, whose king Euneus, son of Jason and Hypsipyle, sent wine and provisions to the Achaeans at Troy. According to later Greek historians, the Minyans were expelled by a Pelasgian tribe who came from Attica.


title: Lemnos

text: The historical element underlying these traditions is probably that the original Thracian people were gradually brought into communication with the Greeks as navigation began to unite the scattered islands of the Aegean; the Thracian inhabitants were technologically primitive in comparison with the Greek mariners.


title: Lemnos

text: In another legend, Philoctetes was left on Lemnos by the Greeks on their way to Troy; and there he suffered ten years' agony from his wounded foot, until Odysseus and Neoptolemus induced him to accompany them to Troy. According to Sophocles, he lived beside Mount Hermaeus, which Aeschylus makes one of the beacon points to flash the news of Troy's downfall home to Argos.


title: Lemnos

text: The ruins of the oldest human settlement in the Aegean islands found so far have been unearthed in archaeological excavations on Lemnos by a team of Greek, Italian and American archaeologists at the Ouriakos site on the Louri coast of Fyssini in Moudros municipality. The excavation began in early June 2009 and the finds brought to light, consisting mainly of high quality stone tools, are from the Epipaleolithic Period, indicating a settlement of hunters and gatherers and fishermen of the 12th millennium BC.


title: Lemnos

text: A rectangular building with a double row of stepped seats on the long sides, at the southwest side of the hill of Poliochne, dates back to the Early Bronze Age and was possibly used as a kind of Bouleuterion.


title: Lemnos

text: In August and September 1926, members of the Italian School of Archaeology at Athens conducted trial excavations on the island. The overall purpose of the excavations was to shed light on the island's pre-Hellenic "Etrusco-Pelasgian" civilization, following the discovery of the "Lemnos stele", bearing an inscription philologists related to the Etruscan language. The excavations, with then-current political overtones, were conducted on the site of the city of Hephaistia (i. e., Palaiopolis) where the Pelasgians, according to Herodotus, surrendered to Miltiades of Athens in 510 BC, initiating the social and political hellenization of the island. There, a necropolis (ca. 9th–8th centuries BC) was discovered, revealing bronze objects, pots, and over 130 ossuaries. The ossuaries contained distinctly male and female funeral ornaments. Male ossuaries contained knives and axes whereas female ossuaries contained earrings, bronze pins, necklaces, gold-diadems, and bracelets. The decorations on some of the gold objects contained spirals of Mycenaean origin, but had no Geometric forms. According to their ornamentation, the pots discovered at the site were from the Geometric period. However, the pots also preserved spirals indicative of Mycenaean art. The results of the excavations indicate that the Early Iron Age inhabitants of Lemnos could be a remnant of a Mycenaean population and, in addition, the earliest attested reference to Lemnos is the Mycenaean Greek "ra-mi-ni-ja", "Lemnian woman", written in Linear B syllabic script. Professor Della Seta reports:


title: Lemnos

text: The lack of weapons of bronze, the abundance of weapons of iron, and the type of the pots and the pins gives the impression that the necropolis belongs to the ninth or eighth century B.C. That it did not belong to a Greek population, but to a population which, in the eyes of the Hellenes, appeared barbarous, is shown by the weapons. The Greek weapon, dagger or spear, is lacking: the weapons of the barbarians, the axe and the knife, are common. Since, however, this population … preserves so many elements of Mycenaean art, the Tyrrhenians or Pelasgians of Lemnos may be recognized as a remnant of a Mycenaean population.


title: Lemnos

text: According to Homer, Lemnos was inhabited by the Sintians. Thucydides mentions Tyrrhenians as the pre-Greek inhabitants.


title: Lemnos

text: Homer speaks as if there were one town in the island called Lemnos. In Classical times there were two towns, Myrina (also called Kastro) and Hephaistia, which was the chief town. Coins from Hephaestia are found in considerable number, and various types including the goddess Athena with her owl, native religious symbols, the caps of the Dioscuri, Apollo, etc. Few coins of Myrina are known. They belong to the period of Attic occupation, and bear Athenian types. A few coins are also known which bear the name of the whole island, rather than of either city.


title: Lemnos

text: A trace of the Lemnian language is found on a 6th-century inscription on a funerary stele, the Lemnos stele. Lemnos later adopted the Attic dialect of Athens.


title: Lemnos

text: Coming down to a better authenticated period, it is reported that Lemnos was conquered by Otanes, a general of Darius Hystaspis. But soon (510 BC) it was reconquered by Miltiades the Younger, the tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese. Miltiades later returned to Athens and Lemnos was an Athenian possession until the Macedonian empire absorbed it. By 450 BC, Lemnos was an Athenian cleruchy. The Athenian settlers brought with them Athenian drama, dated to at least 348 BC. However, the tradition of theater seems to date back to the 5th century, and recent excavations at the site Hephaisteia suggest that the theater dated to the late 6th to early 5th century.


title: Lemnos

text: On a barren island near Lemnos there was an altar of Philoctetes with a brazen serpent, bows and breastplate bound with strips, to remind of the sufferings of the hero.


title: Lemnos

text: In 197 BC, the Romans declared it free, but in 166 BC gave it over to Athens which retained nominal possession of it until the whole of Greece was made a province of the Roman Republic in 146 BC. After the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Lemnos passed to the Byzantine Empire.


title: Lemnos

text: Pliny the Elder writes about a labyrinth on Lemnos which was built by the architects Zmilis, Rhoecus and Theodorus, who were all natives of Lemnos.


title: Lemnos

text: As a province of the Byzantine Empire, Lemnos belonged to the theme of the Aegean Sea, and was a target of Saracen raids in the 10th century and of Seljuk raids in the 11th century. Following the dissolution and division of the Empire after the Fourth Crusade, Lemnos (known by Westerners as "Stalimene") was apportioned to the Latin Empire, and given as a fief to the Navigajoso family under the Venetian (or possibly of mixed Greek and Venetian descent) "megadux" Filocalo Navigajoso. Filocalo died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Leonardo and his daughters, who partitioned the island into three fiefs between them. Leonardo retained the title of "megadux" of the Latin Empire and half the island with the capital, Kastro, while his sisters and their husbands received one quarter each with the fortresses of Moudros and Kotsinos. Leonardo died in 1260 and was succeeded by his son Paolo Navigajoso, who resisted Byzantine attempts at reconquest until his death during a siege of the island by the Byzantine admiral Licario in 1277. Resistance continued by his wife, but in 1278 the Navigajosi were forced to capitulate and cede the island back to Byzantium.


title: Lemnos

text: During the last centuries of Byzantium, Lemnos played a prominent role: following the loss of Asia Minor, it was a major source of food, and it played an important role in the recurring civil wars of the 14th century. As the Ottoman threat mounted in the 15th century, possession of Lemnos was demanded by Alfonso V of Aragon in exchange for offering assistance to the beleaguered Byzantines, while the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, offered it to the Genoese captain Giustiniani Longo, if the Ottoman besiegers were driven off. Dorino I Gattilusio, the ruler of Lesbos, also acquired Lemnos as his fief shortly before the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.


title: Lemnos

text: Following the fall of Constantinople (1453), and thanks to the intercession of Michael Critobulus, Sultan Mehmed II recognized Dorino I Gattilusio's possession of Lemnos and Thasos in exchange for an annual tribute of 2,325 gold coins. When Dorino died in 1455, his son and successor Domenico was only granted Lemnos, however. In 1456, Mehmed II attacked and captured the Gattilusi domains in Thrace (Ainos and the islands of Samothrace and Imbros). During the subsequent negotiations with Domenico Gattilusio, the Greek populace of Lemnos rose up against Domenico's younger brother Niccolò Gattilusio and submitted to the Sultan, who appointed a certain Hamza Bey as governor under the Bey of Gallipoli, Isma'il. Mehmed granted a special legal charter ("kanun-name") to Lemnos, Imbros, and Thasos, at this time, later revised by Selim I in 1519. In 1457 a Papal fleet under Cardinal Ludovico Scarampi Mezzarota captured the island. Pope Callixtus III (in office 1455–1458) hoped to establish a new military order on the island, which controlled the exit of the Dardanelles, but nothing came of it as Isma'il Bey soon recovered Lemnos for the Sultan.


title: Lemnos

text: In 1464, during the First Ottoman–Venetian War,the Venetians seized Lemnos and other former Gattilusi possessions, but the area reverted to Ottoman control in accordance with the 1479 Treaty of Constantinople. In the aftermath, the Kapudan Pasha, Gedik Ahmed, repaired the island's fortifications and brought in settlers from Anatolia. At this time, the administration of the island was also reformed and brought in line with Ottoman practice, with a governor ("voevoda"), judge ("kadi"), and elders ("kodjabashis") heading the local Greek inhabitants. In the late-16th century, Lemnos is recorded, along with Chios, as "the only prosperous island of the Archipelago". It had 74 villages, three of them inhabited by Turkish Muslims.


title: Lemnos

text: In July 1656, during the Fifth Ottoman–Venetian War, the Venetians captured the island again following a major victory over the Ottoman fleet. The Ottomans under Topal Mehmed Pasha recovered it barely a year later, on 15 November 1657, after besieging the capital of Kastro for 63 days. The famous Sufi poet Niyazi Misri was exiled to Lemnos for several years during the late 17th century. In 1770 Russian forces under Count Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov besieged Kastro for 60 days during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The fortress had just surrendered when an attack by the Ottoman fleet on the Russian vessels in Mudros Bay forced the Russians to withdraw (24 October 1770).


title: Lemnos

text: Under Ottoman rule, Lemnos initially formed part of the "sanjaks" of Gallipoli or Mytilene under the Eyalet of the Archipelago, but was constituted as a separate "sanjak" in the reforms of the mid-19th century, at the latest by 1846. Abolished in 1867, the sanjak was re-formed in 1879 and existed until the island's capture by the Greeks in 1912. It comprised the islands of Lemnos (Limni in Turkish), Agios Efstratios (Bozbaba), Imbros (Imroz) and Tenedos (Bozcaada).


title: Lemnos

text: The French scholar Vital Cuinet, in his 1896 work "La Turquie d'Asie", recorded a population of 27,079, of which 2,450 were Muslims and the rest Greek Orthodox.


title: Lemnos

text: On 8 October 1912, during the First Balkan War, Lemnos became part of Greece. The Greek navy under Rear Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis took it over without any casualties from the Ottoman Turkish garrison, who were returned to Anatolia. Peter Charanis, born on the island in 1908 and later a professor of Byzantine history at Rutgers University recounts when the island was liberated and Greek soldiers were sent to the villages and stationed themselves in the public squares. Some of the children ran to see what Greek soldiers looked like. ‘‘What are you looking at?’’ one of them asked. ‘‘At Hellenes,’’ the children replied. ‘‘Are you not Hellenes yourselves?’’ a soldier retorted. ‘‘No, we are Romans." the children replied, which might seem odd at a first glance, but indicates that in parts of Greece the locals self-identified as a continuation of the Eastern, Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire ("Ρωμιοί").


title: Lemnos

text: Moudros Bay became a forward anchorage for the Greek fleet, which enabled it to keep watch on the Dardanelles and prevent a foray by the Ottoman Navy into the Aegean. The Ottomans' two attempts to achieve this were beaten back in the battles of Elli and Lemnos. Thus the Ottomans were prevented from supplying and reinforcing their land forces in Macedonia by sea, a critical factor in the success of the Balkan League in the war.


title: Lemnos

text: During World War I, in early 1915, the Allies used the island to try to capture the Dardanelles Straits, some away. This was done chiefly by the British and largely due to the urging of Winston Churchill. The harbour at Moudros was put under the control of British Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss, who was ordered to prepare the then largely unused harbour for operations against the Dardanelles.


title: Lemnos

text: The harbour was broad enough for British and French warships, but lacked suitable military facilities, which was recognized early on. Troops intended for Gallipoli had to train in Egypt, and the port found it difficult to cope with casualties of the Gallipoli campaign. The campaign was called off in evident failure at the close of 1915. Moudros' importance receded, although it remained the Allied base for the blockade of the Dardanelles during the war. The town of Lemnos, Victoria, Australia, established in 1927 as a soldier settlement zone for returning First World War soldiers, was named after the island. There are three Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) cemeteries on the island, the first one for the 352 Allied soldiers in Portianou, the second one for the 148 Australian and 76 New Zealander soldiers in the town of Moudros and the third one for the Ottoman soldiers (170 Egyptian and 56 Turkish soldiers).


title: Lemnos

text: After the Red Army victory in the Russian Civil War in 1920, many Kuban Cossacks fled the country to avoid persecution from the Bolsheviks. A notable evacuation point was the Greek island of Lemnos where 18,000 Kuban Cossacks landed, though many later died of starvation and disease. Most left the island after a year.


title: Lemnos

text: During World War II, the island was occupied by the Germans on 25 April 1941, in the wake of the Wehrmacht’s invasion of Greece, by the Infanterie Regiment 382/164 Inf.Division under the command of Oberst Wilhelm-Helmuth Beukemann. The same bay of Moudros used by the Allies in WWI served as a base for German ships controlling the northern Aegean sea. An important fact is that the occupation forces included German punitive bataillon, the famous 999 units, in this case the 999th Light Afrika Division (Wehrmacht) and its Afrika Schützen Regiment 963 (later Festungs Infanterie Bataillon 999). These included many German and Austrian antifascist political prisoners enrolled by force, many of whom then joined the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS), such as Wolfgang Abendroth. Partially evacuated since August 1944, the island was liberated on 16 and 17 of October 1944 by the Greek Sacred Band (World War II) or Greek Sacred Squadron under the command of the British Raiding Forces (as part of the SAS or Special Air Service).


title: Lemnos

text: Today the island has about 30 villages and settlements. The province includes the island of Agios Efstratios to the southwest which has some exceptional beaches.


title: Lemnos

text: The fictional island of Altis, the setting of the 2013 tactical shooter game Arma 3, is inspired by Lemnos, with many settlements and major sites such as Lemnos International Airport, the town of Myrina, and Mount Skopio appearing in-game, all under pseudonyms.


title: Lemnos

text: The present municipality of Lemnos was formed on the merger of the following four former municipalities, each of which became municipal units, following the 2011 local government reform:


title: Lemnos

text: Lemnos and the smaller island of Agios Efstratios previously formed part of Lesbos Prefecture. In 2011, the prefecture was abolished and Lemnos and Agios Efstratios now form Lemnos Regional Unit. Lemnos Province, abolished in 2006, comprised the same territory as the present regional unit.


title: Lemnos

text: The municipal units of Atsiki, Moudros, Myrina and Nea Koutali are subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):


title: Lemnos

text: In 2001 the island had 12,116 regular dwellings, of which 65% were stone-built, and 90.2% had pitched roofs made of red tiles.


title: Lemnos

text: The island's economically active population in 2001 was 6,602. Of them, 12% were employers, 20.5% self-employed, 55.3% wage-earners, 7.1% unpaid, auxiliary family members, and 5.1% did not declare line of occupation. Of the economically active population, 17.9% worked in agriculture, 5.3% in light manufacturing, 11% in construction, 6.7% in hotels and restaurants, and the rest in other lines of business.


title: Lemnos

text: The only airport is Lemnos International Airport, east of Myrina. The island is well served by ferries from Piraeus (Athens), Laurium, Thessaloniki and Kavala.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Megalithic Temples of Malta () are several prehistoric temples, some of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites, built during three distinct periods approximately between 3600 BC and 2500 BC on the island country of Malta. They had been claimed as the oldest free-standing structures on Earth until the discovery of Göbekli Tepe. Archaeologists believe that these megalithic complexes are the result of local innovations in a process of cultural evolution. This led to the building of several temples of the Ġgantija phase (3600–3000 BC), culminating in the large Tarxien temple complex, which remained in use until 2500 BC. After this date, the temple-building culture disappeared.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Ġgantija temples were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. In 1992, the UNESCO Committee further extended the existing listing to include five other megalithic temple sites. These are Ħaġar Qim (in Qrendi), Mnajdra (in Qrendi), Ta' Ħaġrat Temples (in Mġarr), Skorba Temples (in Żebbiegħ) and Tarxien Temples (in Tarxien). Nowadays, the sites are managed by Heritage Malta, while ownership of the surrounding lands varies from site to site. Apart from these, there are other megalithic temples in Malta which are not included in the UNESCO World Heritage list.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: Many of the names used to refer to the different sites carry a link with the stones used for their building. The Maltese word for boulders, 'ħaġar', is common to "Ta' Ħaġrat" and "Ħaġar Qim". While the former uses the word in conjunction with the marker of possession, the latter adds the word "'Qim"', which is either a form of the Maltese word for 'worship', or an archaic form of the word meaning 'standing'.""


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: Maltese folklore describes giants as having built the temples, which led to the name Ġgantija, meaning 'Giants' tower'. The Maltese linguist Joseph Aquilina believed that Mnajdra (Arabic: منيدرة) was the diminutive of 'mandra' (Arabic: مندرة), meaning a plot of ground planted with cultivated trees (the same usage is in Egypt colloquial today); however he also named the arbitrary derivation from the Arabic root 'manzara (Arabic: منظرة), meaning 'a place with commanding views.' The Tarxien temples owe their name to the locality where they were found (from "Tirix", meaning a large stone), as were the remains excavated at Skorba.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The temples were the result of several phases of construction from 5000 to 2200 BC. There is evidence of human activity in the islands since the Early Neolithic Period (ca. 5000 BC); testified by pottery shards, charred remains of fires and bones. The dating and understanding of the various phases of activity in the temples is not easy. The main problem found is that the sites themselves are evolutionary in nature, in that each successive temple brought with it further refinement to architectural development.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: Furthermore, in some cases, later Bronze Age peoples built their own sites over the Neolithic temples, thus adding an element of confusion to early researchers who did not have modern dating technology. Sir Temi Żammit, an eminent Maltese archaeologist of the late nineteenth century, had dated the Neolithic temples to 2800 BC and the Tarxien Bronze Age culture to 2000 BC. These dates were considered "considerably too high" by scholars, who proposed a reduction of half a millennium each. However, radiocarbon testing favoured Żammit's dating. A theory that the temple art was connected with an Aegean-derived culture collapsed with this proof of the temples' elder origins.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The development of the chronological phases, based on recalibrated radiocarbon dating, has split the period up to the Bronze Age in Malta into a number of phases. The first evidence of human habitation in the Neolithic occurred in the Għar Dalam phase, in c. 5000 BC. The Temple period, from c. 4100 BC to roughly 2500 BC, produced the most notable monumental remains. This period is split into five phases; however, the first two of these left mostly pottery shards. The next three phases, starting from the Ġgantija phase, begins in c. 3600 BC, and the last, the Tarxien phase, ends in c. 2500 BC.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Ġgantija phase is named after the Ġgantija site in Gozo. It represents an important development in the cultural evolution of neolithic man on the islands. To this date belong the earliest datable temples and the first two, if not three, of the stages of development in their ground plan: the lobed or kidney-shaped plan found in Mġarr east, the trefoil plan evident in Skorba, Kordin and various minor sites, and the five-apsed plan Ġgantija South, Tarxien East.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Saflieni phase constitutes a transitional phase between two major periods of development. Its name derives from the site of the Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni.This period carried forward the same characteristics of the Ġgantija pottery shapes, but it also introduces new biconical bowls.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Tarxien phase marks the peak of the temple civilisation. This phase is named after the temple-complex at Tarxien, a couple of kilometres inland from the Grand Harbour. To it belong the last two stages in the development of the temple plan. The western temple at Ġgantija represents, along with other units in Tarxien, Ħaġar Qim and L-Imnajdra, the penultimate stage in development, that is, the introduction of a shallow niche instead of an apse at the far end of the temple. The final stage is testified in only one temple, the central unit at Tarxien, with its three symmetrical pairs of apses. The Temple culture reached its climax in this period, both in terms of the craftsmanship of pottery, as well as in sculptural decoration, both free-standing and in relief.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: Spiral reliefs resembling those at Tarxien once adorned the Ġgantija temples, but have faded to a level where they are only clearly recognisable in a series of drawings made by the artist Charles Frederick de Brocktorff in 1829, immediately after the temples' excavation. The Tarxien phase is characterised by a rich variety of pottery forms and decorative techniques. Most shapes tend to be angular, with almost no handles or lugs. The clay tends to be well prepared and fired very hard, while the surface of the scratched ware is also highly polished. This scratched decoration remains standard, but it becomes more elaborate and elegant, the most popular motif being a kind of volute.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Maltese temple complexes were built in different locations, and over a wide span of years; while each individual site has its unique characteristics, they all share a common architecture. The approach to the temples lies on an oval forecourt, levelled by terracing if the terrain is sloping. The forecourt is bounded on one side by the temples' own façades, which faces south or south-east. The monuments' façades and internal walls are made up of orthostats, a row of large stone slabs laid on end.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The centre of the façades is usually interrupted by an entrance doorway forming a "trilithon", a pair of orthostats surmounted by a massive lintel slab. Further trilithons form a passage, which is always paved in stone. This in turn opens onto an open space, which then gives way to the next element, a pair of D-shaped chambers, usually referred to as 'apses', opening on both sides of the passage. The space between the apses' walls and the external boundary wall is usually filled with loose stones and earth, sometimes containing cultural debris including pottery shards.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The main variation in the temples lies in the number of apses found; this may vary to three, four, five or six. If three, they open directly from the central court in a trefoil fashion. In cases of more complex temples, a second axial passage is built, using the same trilithon construction, leading from the first set of apses into another later pair, and either a fifth central or a niche giving the four or five apsial form. In one case, at the Tarxien central temple, the fifth apse or niche is replaced by a further passage, leading to a final pair of apses, making six in all. With the standard temple plan, found in some thirty temples across the islands, there is a certain amount of variation both in the number of apses, and in the overall length—ranging from 6.5m in the Mnajdra east temple to 23m in the six-apsed Tarxien central temple.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The external walls were usually built of coralline limestone, which is harder than the globigerina limestone used in the internal sections of the temples. The softer globigerina was used for decorative elements within the temples, usually carvings. These features are usually sculpted in relief, and they show a variety of designs linked to vegetative or animal symbolism. These usually depict running spiral motifs, trees and plants as well as a selection of animals. Although in their present form the temples are unroofed, a series of unproven theories regarding possible ceiling and roof structures have been debated for several years.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Ġgantija temples stand at the end of the Xagħra plateau, facing towards the south-east. Its presence was known for a very long time, and even before any excavations were carried out a largely correct plan of its layout was drawn by Jean-Pierre Houël in the late eighteenth century. In 1827, the site was cleared of debris—the soil and remains being lost without proper examination. The loss resulting from this clearance was partially compensated by the German artist Brochtorff, who painted the site within a year or two from the removal of the debris. This is the only practical record of the clearance.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: A boundary wall encloses the temples. The southerly one is the elder, and is better preserved. The plan of the temple incorporates five large apses, with traces of the plaster that once covered the irregular wall still clinging between the blocks.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Ta' Ħaġrat temple in Mġarr is on the eastern outskirts of the village, roughly one kilometer from the Ta' Skorba temples. The remains consist of a double temple, made up of two adjacent complexes, both in the shape of a trefoil. The two parts are both less regularly planned and smaller in size than many of the other neolithic temples in Malta, and no blocks are decorated. Sir Temi Żammit excavated the site in 1925–27. A village on the site that pre-dates the temples by centuries has provided plentiful examples of what is now known as "Mġarr phase" pottery.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The importance of this site lies less in the remains than in the information garnered from their excavations. This monument has a typical three-apsed shape of the Ġgantija phase, of which the greater part of the first two apses and the whole of the façade have been destroyed to ground level. What remains are the stone paving of the entrance passage, with its perforations, the "torba" floors, and a large upright slab of coralline limestone. The north wall is in better shape; originally the entrance opened on a court, but the doorway was later closed off in the Tarxien phase, with altars set in the corners formed by the closure. East of this temple, a second monument was added in the Tarxien phase, with four apses and a central niche. Before the temples were built, the area had supported a village over a period of roughly twelve centuries.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The oldest structure is the eleven-metre-long straight wall to the west of the temples' first entrance. The deposit against it contained material from the first known human occupation of the island, the Għar Dalam phase. Among the domestic deposits found in this material, which included charcoal and carbonised grain, there were several fragments of daub, accidentally baked. The charcoal fragments were then radiocarbon dated, and their age analysis stood at 4850 BC.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: Ħaġar Qim stands on a ridge some two kilometers away from the villages of Qrendi and Siġġiewi. Its builders used the soft globigerina limestone that caps the ridge to construct the temple. One can clearly see the effects of this choice in the outer southern wall, where the great orthostats are exposed to the sea-winds. Here the temple has suffered from severe weathering and surface flaking over the centuries.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The temple's façade is typical, with a trilithon entrance, a bench and orthostats. It has a wide forecourt with a retaining wall, through which a passage runs through the middle of the building. This entrance passage and first court follow the common, though considerably modified, Maltese megalithic design. A separate entrance gives access to four enclosures, which are independent of each other and replace the north-westerly apse.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: L-Imnajdra temples lies in a hollow 500 metres from Ħaġar Qim. It is another complex site in its own right, and it is centred on a near circular forecourt. Three adjacent temples overlook it from one side, while a terrace from the other separates it from a steep slope that runs down to the sea. The first buildings on the right are small irregular chambers, similar to the enclosures in Ħaġar Qim. Then there is a small trefoil temple, dating from the Ġgantija phase, with pitted decorations. Its unusual triple entrance was copied on a larger scale in the second temple. The middle temple was actually the last to be built, inserted between the others in the Tarxien phase, after 3100 BC. It has four apses and a niche.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The third temple, built early in the Tarxien phase and so second in date, opens on the court at a lower level. It has a markedly concave façade, with a bench, orthostats and trilithon entrance.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The southern temple is oriented astronomically aligned with the rising sun during solstices and equinoxes; during the summer solstice the first rays of sunlight light up the edge of a decorated megalith between the first apses, while during the winter solstice the same effect occurs on a megalith in the opposite apse. During the equinox, the rays of the rising sun pass straight through the principal doorway to reach the innermost central niche.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The Tarxien temple complex is found some 400 metres to the east of the Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni. The three temples found here were seriously excavated in the early twentieth century by Temi Żammit. Unlike the other sites, this temple is bounded on all sides by modern urban development; however, this does not detract from its value. One enters into the first great forecourt of the southern temple, marked by its rounded façade and a cistern, which is attributed to the temple. The earliest temple to the north-east was built between 3600 and 3200 BC; it consisted of two parallel sets of semi-circular apses, with a passage in the middle.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: The south and east temples were built in the Tarxien phase, between 3150 and 2500 BC. The second one has three parallel semi-circular apses, connected by a large passage; the third one has two parallel sets of apses with a passage in a direction parallel to that of the first temple. The first temple is solidly built with large stones, of which some are roughly dressed. The walls are laid with great accuracy, and are very imposing in their simplicity. The second temple is more elaborately constructed, the walls being finished with greater care, some of the standing slabs being decorated with flat raised spirals. In one of the chambers, two bulls and a sow are cut in low relief across one of the walls. The third temple has a carelessly-built frame, but most of its standing stones are richly decorated with carved patterns.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: Malta has various other megalithic temples and related sites apart from those included in the UNESCO World Heritage list. These include:


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: Some of these sites were excavated but afterwards reburied, such as the Debdieba site. Others, such as Kordin I and II, were destroyed. The other temples usually consist of only a few scattered megaliths or remains, but some such as Buġibba Temple (which is now in the grounds of a hotel) are in better condition. A few sites, such as Ta' Marżiena, have never been excavated. Tas-Silġ contains few megalithic remains, but many more Bronze Age and later remains since the site was used until at least the ninth century AD.


title: Megalithic Temples of Malta

text: Apart from these, cart ruts were found at Misraħ Għar il-Kbir, but these may or may not date from the temple period. A submerged site known as Ġebel ġol-Baħar possibly exists off the coast of Malta, but it is not proven to be a megalithic temple.


title: D-IX

text: D-IX is a methamphetamine-based experimental performance enhancer developed by Nazi Germany in 1944 for military application. The researcher who rediscovered this project, Wolf Kemper, said that "the aim was to use D-IX to redefine the limits of human endurance." One dose contained 5 mg oxycodone (brand name Eukodal, an analgesic opioid), 5 mg cocaine, and 3 mg methamphetamine (brand name Pervitin).


title: D-IX

text: German doctors were enthusiastic about the results, and planned to supply all German troops with the pills, but the war ended before D-IX could be put into mass production, though it did see limited use among a handful of Neger and Biber pilots.


title: D-IX

text: Due to increased Allied pressure on the German war effort, Nazi Germany had grown desperate for more soldiers to continue the war effort, and one way to mitigate the massive losses was to increase the combative power of existing Wehrmacht soldiers. Though simpler drugs, such as Pervitin and Isophan, helped to keep soldiers stimulated, in March 1944, Vice Admiral Hellmuth Heye requested a drug that could also give users superhuman strength and a boosted sense of self-esteem.


title: D-IX

text: Pharmacologist , and a group of other researchers, were commissioned to develop the drug in Kiel and, by later that year, had developed a formula which contained, in each tablet, 5 mg of oxycodone (brand name Eukodal), 5 mg of cocaine, and 3 mg of methamphetamine (then called Pervitin, now available under the brand name Desoxyn).


title: D-IX

text: Nazi researchers found that equipment-laden prisoners from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp could march for up to a day without rest, while carrying a backpack.


title: Hug

text: A hug is a form of endearment, universal in most human communities, in which two or more people put their arms around the neck, back, or waist of one another and hold each other closely. If more than two people are involved, it may be referred to as a group hug. Hugs can last for any duration.


title: Hug

text: The origins of the word are unknown, but two hypotheses exist. The first is that the verb "hug" (first used in the 1560s) could be related to the Old Norse word "hugga", which meant to comfort. The second hypothesis is that the word is related to the German word "hegen", which means to foster or cherish, and originally meant to enclose with a hedge.


title: Hug

text: A hug, sometimes in association with a kiss, is a form of nonverbal communication. Depending on culture, context and relationship, a hug can indicate familiarity, love, affection, friendship, brotherhood, flirting or sympathy. A hug can indicate support, comfort, and consolation, particularly where words are insufficient. A hug usually demonstrates affection and emotional warmth, sometimes arising from joy or happiness when reunited with someone or seeing someone absent after a long time. A non-reciprocal hug may demonstrate a relational problem. A hug can range from a brief one-second squeeze, with the arms not fully around the friend, to an extended holding. The length of a hug in any situation is socially and culturally determined. In the case of lovers, and occasionally others, the hips may also be pressed together. The emotionality of the hug can also influence the direction of the hug. The direction of hugs generally corresponds with handedness, with right-handed people tending to lead with the right hand, but a heightened emotional state makes it slightly more likely for people to lead with the left hand. This small but significant effect has been attributed to right-hemispheric emotional processing.


title: Hug

text: While less common, hugging may be undertaken as part of a ritual or social act in certain social groups. It is a custom in some cultures such as France, Spain and Latin America for male friends to hug (as well as slap each other on the back) in a joyous greeting. A similar hug, usually accompanied by a kiss on the cheek, is also becoming a custom among Western women at meeting or parting. In Portugal and Brazil, it is common, mostly among males, to finish letters and emails with "Um abraço" or "Abraço" ("a hug", or "hug") followed by the sender's signature. Similar formulas may be used in oral communication. In the Roman Catholic rite of the Holy Mass, a hug may be substituted for a kiss or handshake during the kiss of peace ritual.


title: Hug

text: In May 2009, "The New York Times" reported that "the hug has become the favorite social greeting when teenagers meet or part these days" in the United States. A number of schools in the United States have issued bans on hugs, which in some cases have resulted in student-led protests against these bans.


title: Hug

text: A Canadian journalistic investigation in 2015 noted the popularity of the hug in bromance among young francophone adults in Quebec.


title: Hug

text: Unlike some other types of physical contact, a hug can be practiced publicly and privately without stigma in many countries, religions and cultures, within families, and also across most age and gender lines, but is generally an indication that people are familiar with each other. Moving from a handshake (or touch-free) relationship to a hug relationship is a sign of a closer friendship.


title: Hug

text: An unexpected hug can be regarded as an invasion of a person's personal space, but if it is reciprocated it is an indication that it is welcome. Some Western culture commentators advise avoiding hugs at work to prevent uncomfortable moments, especially with people who dislike hugging. Also, a person, especially a child, may caress and hug a doll or stuffed animal. Young children also hug their parents when they feel threatened by an unfamiliar person, although this may be regarded as clinging onto rather than hugging because it demonstrates a need for protection rather than affection.


title: Hug

text: Some cultures do not use hugging as a sign of affection or love, such as the Himba in Namibia. During the Islamic fasting month of Ramadan, it is halal (permissible) for someone to hug one's significant other during daylight hours if one has self-control. However, if accompanied by libidinous urges, it is haram (sinful). Hugging between the opposite gender outside the same family is usually avoided in most Islamic communities.


title: Hug

text: In August 2017, in the south Indian state of Kerala, a sixteen-year-old boy was expelled from school for hugging a girl after she won a prize at an arts competition. When the Kerala State Commission for Protection of Child Rights ordered the school to re-enroll the boy, it was challenged in the High Court. The Court nullified the commission's order and upheld the school principal's order to expel the student, saying "The school principal is the institution’s guardian, vested with powers to take action necessary to maintain discipline and morality in the school. The child rights commission cannot interfere there."


title: Hug

text: Hugging has been proven to have health benefits. One study has even shown that hugs increase levels of oxytocin and reduce blood pressure.


title: Hug

text: Hugging can also buffer against the release of the stress hormone cortisol if a romantic partner hug is shared before a stressful situation. This effect was however only observed for women and not for men.


title: Hug

text: Based on significant research indicating that a 20-second-or-longer hug releases oxytocin, Leo Buscaglia encourages people to hug for 21 days consecutively and to have each day a hug that lasts for a minimum of 21 seconds. He recommends "getting lost in the hug," encouraging people to slow down and "use the power of the hug to be fully present in the moment".


title: Hug

text: A group hug involves more than two people embracing each other by wrapping their arms around one another in order to physically express their bond with each other. A group hug has been found to be a useful tool in group therapy to cement a sense of cohesion among the participants after a session, although it may cause discomfort for group members who shy away from physical contact.


title: Hug

text: Cuddling is a related form of physical intimacy in which two people hold one another with each other's arms wrapped around the other's body for an extended period of time. Cuddling can be with family members, friends or lovers. Similar to hugging, cuddling is a more affectionate and intimate embrace, normally done for a longer period of time (usually lasting from a few minutes to several hours). In contrast to hugging, which can often be a nonverbal greeting or parting tradition, cuddling is usually shared between two people who are lying down together or sitting somewhere in an intimate manner. Like hugging, cuddling makes the body release oxytocin, which has a variety of effects. In some cities around the United States, cuddling has evolved into a social activity, where individuals gather for the purpose of cuddling.


title: Silvia Saint

text: Silvia Saint, born Silvie Tomčalová (born 12 February 1976) is a former Czech pornographic actress. In 1996 she was "Penthouse" Pet of the Year in the Czech edition of the magazine. She has appeared in over 300 pornographic movies.


title: Silvia Saint

text: Silvia Saint was born Silvia Tomcalova on February 12, 1976, in what is now the Czech Republic. She was an only child who faced many hardships in her life including poverty and the death of her father when she was young.


title: Silvia Saint

text: Saint began as an erotic modeling, first lingerie, then nude in magazines and finally to pornographic films. She was "Penthouse Pet of the Year" in 1996 (Czech edition). After her introduction to the American porn industry she became the October 1998 "Penthouse Pet of the Month" (U.S. edition).


title: Silvia Saint

text: Saint's early films were shot in Europe, many for Private Media Group. She performed in a Private Media Group sex in space-themed pornographic film "", which featured a brief scene filmed in a Russian aircraft flying a parabolic track (similar to NASA's Vomit Comet). The film featured around 20 seconds of Saint and Nick Lang (who both portray astronauts living on a space station) having penetrative sex in freefall. The scene was nominated for a Nebula Award, but it did not win.


title: Silvia Saint

text: Saint was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award at Torino Sex 2005, Turin's second annual Delta of Venus Fair.


title: Silvia Saint

text: In 2006 she won the rights to the Internet domain name silviasaint.com from a cybersquatter in a Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy action. In 2007, the mobile game "Sylvia Saint in Erotic Pool" was released for Java ME-supported phones. Since 2007 she has only starred and performed in lesbian sex movies, while also taking care of the auditions as director and producer to her official website.


title: M2M (band)

text: M2M were a Norwegian pop duo comprising Marit Larsen and Marion Raven. Larsen and Raven had been friends since the age of five, and formed a music duo when they were eight. They released a children's album in 1996 when Larsen was 12 and Raven was 11, under the name "Marit & Marion". The album was nominated for a Spellemannprisen award and the band changed their name to M2M after signing a record deal with Atlantic Records in 1998. M2M were frequently praised for writing most of their songs and performing their own instruments, something which was considered to set them aside from the majority of teen pop music artists.


title: M2M (band)

text: Their debut single, "Don't Say You Love Me" (1999), was both a critical and commercial success, and remained their biggest hit. Their debut album, "Shades of Purple" (2000), was critically acclaimed and sold over 1.5 million units worldwide. Despite critical acclaim, their second album, "The Big Room" (2001), did not perform as well commercially, and the duo broke up in 2002, with each pursuing a solo career. A greatest hits album, "" (2003), was released after they disbanded. M2M sold over 2 million albums.


title: M2M (band)

text: Marit Larsen and Marion Raven come from Lørenskog in the district east of Oslo. They met at a playground when they were five and became best friends. Discovering they had similar interests in music, they began singing together. The two girls formed a music duo when they were eight, naming it "Hubba Bubba" after their favourite bubble gum. At the time, Raven was learning to play piano and Larsen was learning guitar. They also starred together in professional musical productions such as "Annie" and "The Sound of Music". In 1996, when Larsen was 12 and Raven was 11, they released a children's album in Norway, "Synger Kjente Barnesanger" ("Sing Famous Children's Songs"), under the name "Marit & Marion". The album was nominated for a Spellemannprisen award. After the record's release, they started writing their own pop songs and sent demo recordings out; one of the demos ended up at Atlantic Records and they were signed to a worldwide contract in 1998. Following being offered the contract they considered shortening their name to M&M, though decided against that after discovering there was a candy that uses that name in the United States. Instead, they held a competition for fans to come up with a name, and one girl suggested M2M.


title: M2M (band)

text: As M2M, their first single was "Don't Say You Love Me" after they signed to Atlantic Records in 1998. It was featured in the closing credits of the film "" and was chosen as the lead single from the film's soundtrack, being released on 26 October 1999. Promoted by a "nonstop marketing effort", advanced airing on Radio Disney and the affiliation with Pokémon, the single experienced commercial success. It charted at No. 2 in Norway and No. 4 in both Australia and New Zealand. Additionally, it was certified Gold in both Australia and America, and was nominated for the year's best song at the 2000 Spellemannprisen awards. In November 1999, M2M performed the song on the episode "Band on the Run" of TV series "One World". The duo released their debut album, "Shades of Purple", in early 2000. It was well received critically, and reached No. 7 in Norway, No. 89 on the Billboard 200 and No. 1 on Top Heatseekers chart. The second single from the album, "Mirror Mirror" (2000), was certified gold in the United States. A third single, "Everything You Do" (2000), reached No. 21 on the United States Hot Dance Singles Sales.


title: M2M (band)

text: Throughout 2000, M2M appeared on episodes of "All That", "Top of the Pops", "Say What? Karaoke" and MTV's "Hot Zone". M2M performed live at Walt Disney World's Epcot park on 12 February 2000. Their performance was recorded and appeared on an episode of Disney Channel in Concert on 29 April, which focused on both M2M and BBMak. Following the Disney recording they were scheduled to perform a series of concerts at high-schools across America; in early April 2000 they had to cancel their performance at a high-school in Arlington Heights, Illinois, as they were obligated to return to Norway to meet high-schooling commitments. In June 2000, M2M were named "Discovery of the Year" by the Singapore Radio Association. In September that year, they toured the United States with Hanson, performing as the bands' opening act. Despite having sold over 1 million copies of "Shades of Purple" and over 1.5 million singles by September 2000, M2M were still considered a risk by their investors, who at that time were only coming close to recuperating the down payment they had made to promote the duo. In early 2001 they were featured in Atlantic Records' "Teensation" TV concerts, which were designed to promote "rising stars". Concerts were filmed at Hard Rock Live in Florida and aired on Music Choice.


title: M2M (band)

text: M2M's second album "The Big Room", was released in Asia in late 2001 and had been released worldwide by April 2002. It was considered to have a more mature, less pop-oriented sound. The first single from the album was "Everything" (2001), which reached No. 6 in Norway and No. 27 in Australia. The second single, "What You Do About Me" (2002), was less successful, only charting at No. 46 in Australia. Another track, "Don't", was made available as a promotional single in the United States. While giving a positive review of the single, Chuck Taylor said it was frustrating to see the lack of chart success of M2M's singles in America, considering the duo's talent "shines like a beacon high in the sky". The promotion for their second album included appearing on the 100th episode of "Dawson's Creek". Following the appearance, they were being considered for regular roles on the then-upcoming "Dawson's Creek" spin-off series "Young Americans", and shortly thereafter they were selected as spokeswomen for the Pantene Pro-Voice concert series, a talent competition that promoted young, female songwriters in the United States. M2M were chosen as the opening act for Jewel's "This Way" tour, which commenced on 14 June 2002.


title: M2M (band)

text: Despite "The Big Room" being critically acclaimed, it was not as commercially successful as their first album, which "Verdens Gang" attributed to a lacklustre promotion campaign by Atlantic Records. Halfway through their tour with Jewel in mid-July, M2M were removed as the opening act by Atlantic, who cited disappointing sales of "The Big Room", which at that time had sold around 100,000 units in America. Shocked and disappointed by the decision, M2M returned to Norway, and ceased performing together. Raven was immediately offered a solo record contract from Atlantic, though she later withdrew from the offer.


title: M2M (band)

text: Interviewed in 2007, Larsen said that while the break-up was peaceful, "when [they] decided it had to end, it really had to end", adding "we started to pull each other in different directions, because I wanted to make really good pop music and Marion wanted to go rock". Interviewed in 2013, Raven said that she and Larsen had always agreed they would keep performing together as long as they were having a good time, and they ended because it was not fun anymore, also saying that while they had been inseparable as children, as 18-year-olds they had become quite different. A greatest hits album, "", was released in 2003. M2M sold over 2 million albums; 1.5 million albums were sold in Asia by April 2002.


title: M2M (band)

text: Both Larsen and Raven went on to pursue solo careers. Raven released her debut solo album "Here I Am" in 2005, an alternative rock album considered to be a major change from her musical style with M2M. Her debut single "Break You" (2005) remains her highest charting solo song, reaching No. 9 in Norway. In 2006 she featured with Meat Loaf on a cover of the song "It's All Coming Back to Me Now", which found international success including reaching No. 1 in Norway. In 2014 she released her third studio album, "Scandal, Vol. 1".


title: M2M (band)

text: Larsen released her debut solo album, "Under the Surface", in 2006. K. Ross Hoffman from AllMusic said the album drew equally from "folk, pop, and country". Her fourth studio album, "When the Morning Comes", was released in 2014. Three of her singles have reached No. 1 in Norway, including "If a Song Could Get Me You" (2008), which also reached the top spot in Germany and Austria.


title: M2M (band)

text: M2M wrote many of their own songs and played their own instruments, even when performing live, which is considered rare among teen pop artists. In 1999 Ron Shapiro from Atlantic Records said "What was extraordinary about them from the beginning was that they had an incredibly accessible pop sound and contemporary visual for what's happening today, coupled with a truly organic


title: M2M (band)

text: song writing and musical instrument prowess (...) It's rare to find truly mainstream contemporary pop artists today who are also extremely skilled live performance artists and talented songwriters". That same year Stephanie McGrath from "AllPop.com" said M2M's music "breathes fresh, brusque Norwegian air into the world of pop music dominated by Britney Spears wanna-bes and Orlando-born boy bands", noting that instead of typical teen subjects like true love or candy, M2M's songs were about "taking things slow or not betraying your friends." Reviewing "Shades of Purple", Michael Paoletta from "Billboard" said the album's tracks showed a "seasoned singing style that is, quite frankly, the antithesis of teen sensations like Britney Spears", concluding "Beautifully sun-kissed, "Shades of Purple" is poised to be the soundtrack of spring/summer 2000.


title: M2M (band)

text: M2M recorded "The Big Room" in just six days, saying they wanted to be like The Beatles or Simon & Garfunkel, who also recorded their albums quickly. Commenting on "The Big Room", Karen Tye from the "Herald Sun" praised M2M for using "down-to-earth tunes and thoughtful lyrics" instead of revealing outfits to propel them into the limelight, unlike many of their pop counterparts. M2M described their second album as "organic pop", as they used all real instruments in recording, while most pop albums use computerised ones.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Nuclear proliferation is the spread of nuclear weapons, fissionable material, and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information to nations not recognized as "Nuclear Weapon States" by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, commonly known as the "Non-Proliferation Treaty" or "NPT". Proliferation has been opposed by many nations with and without nuclear weapons, as governments fear that more countries with nuclear weapons will increase the possibility of nuclear warfare (up to and including the so-called countervalue targeting of civilians with nuclear weapons), de-stabilize international or regional relations, or infringe upon the national sovereignty of nation states.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Four countries besides the five recognized Nuclear Weapons States have acquired, or are presumed to have acquired, nuclear weapons: India, Pakistan, North Korea, and Israel. None of these four is a party to the NPT, although North Korea acceded to the NPT in 1985, then withdrew in 2003 and conducted announced nuclear tests in 2006, 2009, 2013, 2016, and 2017. One critique of the NPT is that the treaty is discriminatory in the sense that only those countries that tested nuclear weapons before 1968 are recognized as nuclear weapon states while all other states are treated as non-nuclear-weapon states who can only join the treaty if they forswear nuclear weapons.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Research into the development of nuclear weapons was initially undertaken during World War II by the United States (in cooperation with the United Kingdom and Canada), Germany, Japan, and the USSR. The United States was the first and is the only country to have used a nuclear weapon in war, when it used two bombs against Japan in August 1945. After surrendering to end the war, Germany and Japan ceased to be involved in any nuclear weapon research. In August 1949, the USSR tested a nuclear weapon, becoming the second country to detonate a nuclear bomb. The United Kingdom first tested a nuclear weapon in October 1952. France first tested a nuclear weapon in 1960. The People's Republic of China detonated a nuclear weapon in 1964. India conducted its first nuclear test in 1974, which prompted Pakistan to develop its own nuclear program and, when India conducted a second series of nuclear tests in 1998, Pakistan followed with a series of tests of its own. In 2006, North Korea conducted its first nuclear test.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Early efforts to prevent nuclear proliferation involved intense government secrecy, the wartime acquisition of known uranium stores (the Combined Development Trust), and at times even outright sabotage—such as the bombing of a heavy-water facility in Norway thought to be used for a German nuclear program. These efforts began immediately after the discovery of nuclear fission and its military potential. None of these efforts were explicitly public, because the weapon developments themselves were kept secret until the bombing of Hiroshima.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Earnest international efforts to promote nuclear non-proliferation began soon after World War II, when the Truman Administration proposed the Baruch Plan of 1946, named after Bernard Baruch, America's first representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. The Baruch Plan, which drew heavily from the Acheson–Lilienthal Report of 1946, proposed the verifiable dismantlement and destruction of the U.S. nuclear arsenal (which, at that time, was the only nuclear arsenal in the world) after all governments had cooperated successfully to accomplish two things: (1) the establishment of an "international atomic development authority," which would actually own and control all military-applicable nuclear materials and activities, and (2) the creation of a system of automatic sanctions, which not even the U.N. Security Council could veto, and which would proportionately punish states attempting to acquire the capability to make nuclear weapons or fissile material.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Baruch's plea for the destruction of nuclear weapons invoked basic moral and religious intuitions. In one part of his address to the UN, Baruch said, "Behind the black portent of the new atomic age lies a hope which, seized upon with faith, can work out our salvation. If we fail, then we have damned every man to be the slave of Fear. Let us not deceive ourselves. We must elect World Peace or World Destruction... We must answer the world's longing for peace and security." With this remark, Baruch helped launch the field of nuclear ethics, to which many policy experts and scholars have contributed.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Although the Baruch Plan enjoyed wide international support, it failed to emerge from the UNAEC because the Soviet Union planned to veto it in the Security Council. Still, it remained official American policy until 1953, when President Eisenhower made his "Atoms for Peace" proposal before the U.N. General Assembly. Eisenhower's proposal led eventually to the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1957. Under the "Atoms for Peace" program thousands of scientists from around the world were educated in nuclear science and then dispatched home, where many later pursued secret weapons programs in their home country.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Efforts to conclude an international agreement to limit the spread of nuclear weapons did not begin until the early 1960s, after four nations (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France) had acquired nuclear weapons (see List of states with nuclear weapons for more information). Although these efforts stalled in the early 1960s, they renewed once again in 1964, after China detonated a nuclear weapon. In 1968, governments represented at the Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee (ENDC) finished negotiations on the text of the NPT. In June 1968, the U.N. General Assembly endorsed the NPT with General Assembly Resolution 2373 (XXII), and in July 1968, the NPT opened for signature in Washington, DC, London and Moscow. The NPT entered into force in March 1970.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Since the mid-1970s, the primary focus of non-proliferation efforts has been to maintain, and even increase, international control over the fissile material and specialized technologies necessary to build such devices because these are the most difficult and expensive parts of a nuclear weapons program. The main materials whose generation and distribution are controlled are highly enriched uranium and plutonium. Other than the acquisition of these special materials, the scientific and technical means for weapons construction to develop rudimentary, but working, nuclear explosive devices are considered to be within the reach of industrialized nations.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Since its founding by the United Nations in 1957, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has promoted two, sometimes contradictory, missions: on the one hand, the Agency seeks to promote and spread internationally the use of civilian nuclear energy; on the other hand, it seeks to prevent, or at least detect, the diversion of civilian nuclear energy to nuclear weapons, nuclear explosive devices or purposes unknown. The IAEA now operates a safeguards system as specified under Article III of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968, which aims to ensure that civil stocks of uranium and plutonium, as well as facilities and technologies associated with these nuclear materials, are used only for peaceful purposes and do not contribute in any way to proliferation or nuclear weapons programs. It is often argued that the proliferation of nuclear weapons to many other states has been prevented by the extension of assurances and mutual defence treaties to these states by nuclear powers, but other factors, such as national prestige, or specific historical experiences, also play a part in hastening or stopping nuclear proliferation.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Dual-use technology refers to the possibility of military use of civilian nuclear power technology. Many technologies and materials associated with the creation of a nuclear power program have a dual-use capability, in that several stages of the nuclear fuel cycle allow diversion of nuclear materials for nuclear weapons. When this happens a nuclear power program can become a route leading to the atomic bomb or a public annex to a secret bomb program. The crisis over Iran’s nuclear activities is a case in point.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Many UN and US agencies warn that building more nuclear reactors unavoidably increases nuclear proliferation risks. A fundamental goal for American and global security is to minimize the proliferation risks associated with the


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: expansion of nuclear power. If this development is "poorly managed or efforts to contain risks are unsuccessful, the nuclear future will be dangerous". For nuclear power programs to be developed and managed safely and securely, it is important that countries have domestic “good governance” characteristics that will encourage proper nuclear operations and management:


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: These characteristics include low degrees of corruption (to avoid officials selling materials and technology for their own personal gain as occurred with the A.Q. Khan smuggling network in Pakistan), high degrees of political stability (defined by the World Bank as “likelihood that the government will be destabilized or overthrown by unconstitutional or violent means, including motivated violence and terrorism”), high governmental effectiveness scores (a World Bank aggregate measure of “the quality of the civil service and the degree of its independence from political pressures [and] the quality of policy formulation and implementation”), and a strong degree of regulatory competence.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: At present, 189 countries are States Parties to the "Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons", more commonly known as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty or NPT. These include the five Nuclear Weapons States (NWS) recognized by the NPT: the People's Republic of China, France, Russian Federation, the UK, and the United States.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Notable non-signatories to the NPT are Israel, Pakistan, and India (the latter two have since tested nuclear weapons, while Israel is considered by most to be an unacknowledged nuclear weapons state). North Korea was once a signatory but withdrew in January 2003. The legality of North Korea's withdrawal is debatable but as of October 9, 2006, North Korea clearly possesses the capability to make a nuclear explosive device.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The IAEA was established on 29 July 1957 to help nations develop nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. Allied to this role is the administration of safeguards arrangements to provide assurance to the international community that individual countries are honoring their commitments under the treaty. Though established under its own international treaty, the IAEA reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The IAEA regularly inspects civil nuclear facilities to verify the accuracy of documentation supplied to it. The agency checks inventories, and samples and analyzes materials. Safeguards are designed to deter a diversion of nuclear material by increasing the risk of early detection. They are complemented by controls on the export of sensitive technology from countries such as the UK and the United States through voluntary bodies such as the Nuclear Suppliers Group. The main concern of the IAEA is that uranium not be enriched beyond what is necessary for commercial civil plants, and that plutonium which is produced by nuclear reactors not be refined into a form that would be suitable for bomb production.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Traditional safeguards are arrangements to account for and control the use of nuclear materials. This verification is a key element in the international system which ensures that uranium in particular is used only for peaceful purposes.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Parties to the NPT agree to accept technical safeguard measures applied by the IAEA. These require that operators of nuclear facilities maintain and declare detailed accounting records of all movements and transactions involving nuclear material. Over 550 facilities and several hundred other locations are subject to regular inspection, and their records and the nuclear material being audited. Inspections by the IAEA are complemented by other measures such as surveillance cameras and instrumentation.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The inspections act as an alert system providing a warning of the possible diversion of nuclear material from peaceful activities. The system relies on;


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: All NPT non-weapons states must accept these full-scope safeguards. In the five weapons states plus the non-NPT states (India, Pakistan and Israel), facility-specific safeguards apply. IAEA inspectors regularly visit these facilities to verify completeness and accuracy of records.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The terms of the NPT cannot be enforced by the IAEA itself, nor can nations be forced to sign the treaty. In reality, as shown in Iraq and North Korea, safeguards can be backed up by diplomatic, political and economic measures.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: While traditional safeguards easily verified the correctness of formal declarations by suspect states, in the 1990s attention turned to what might not have been declared. While accepting safeguards at declared facilities, Iraq had set up elaborate equipment elsewhere in an attempt to enrich uranium to weapons-grade. North Korea attempted to use research reactors (not commercial electricity-generating reactors) and a nuclear reprocessing plant to produce some weapons-grade plutonium.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The weakness of the NPT regime lay in the fact that no obvious diversion of material was involved. The uranium used as fuel probably came from indigenous sources, and the nuclear facilities were built by the countries themselves without being declared or placed under safeguards. Iraq, as an NPT party, was obliged to declare all facilities but did not do so. Nevertheless, the activities were detected and brought under control using international diplomacy. In Iraq, a military defeat assisted this process.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: In North Korea, the activities concerned took place before the conclusion of its NPT safeguards agreement. With North Korea, the promised provision of commercial power reactors appeared to resolve the situation for a time, but it later withdrew from the NPT and declared it had nuclear weapons.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: In 1993 a program was initiated to strengthen and extend the classical safeguards system, and a model protocol was agreed by the IAEA Board of Governors 1997. The measures boosted the IAEA's ability to detect undeclared nuclear activities, including those with no connection to the civil fuel cycle.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Innovations were of two kinds. Some could be implemented on the basis of IAEA's existing legal authority through safeguards agreements and inspections. Others required further legal authority to be conferred through an Additional Protocol. This must be agreed by each non-weapons state with IAEA, as a supplement to any existing comprehensive safeguards agreement. Weapons states have agreed to accept the principles of the model additional protocol.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: As of 3 July 2015, 146 countries have signed the Additional Protocols and 126 have brought them into force. The IAEA is also applying the measures of the Additional Protocol in Taiwan. Under the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, Iran has agreed to implement its protocol provisionally. Among the leading countries that have not signed the Additional Protocol are Egypt, which says it will not sign until Israel accepts comprehensive IAEA safeguards, and Brazil, which opposes making the protocol a requirement for international cooperation on enrichment and reprocessing, but has not ruled out signing.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The greatest risk from nuclear weapons proliferation comes from countries that have not joined the NPT and which have significant unsafeguarded nuclear activities; India, Pakistan, and Israel fall within this category. While safeguards apply to some of their activities, others remain beyond scrutiny.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: A further concern is that countries may develop various sensitive nuclear fuel cycle facilities and research reactors under full safeguards and then subsequently opt out of the NPT. Bilateral agreements, such as insisted upon by Australia and Canada for sale of uranium, address this by including fallback provisions, but many countries are outside the scope of these agreements. If a nuclear-capable country does leave the NPT, it is likely to be reported by the IAEA to the United Nations Security Council, just as if it were in breach of its safeguards agreement. Trade sanctions would then be likely.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: IAEA safeguards can help ensure that uranium supplied as nuclear fuel and other nuclear supplies do not contribute to nuclear weapons proliferation. In fact, the worldwide application of those safeguards and the substantial world trade in uranium for nuclear electricity make the proliferation of nuclear weapons much less likely.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The Additional Protocol, once it is widely in force, will provide credible assurance that there are no undeclared nuclear materials or activities in the states concerned. This will be a major step forward in preventing nuclear proliferation.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The Nuclear Suppliers Group communicated its guidelines, essentially a set of export rules, to the IAEA in 1978. These were to ensure that transfers of nuclear material or equipment would not be diverted to unsafeguarded nuclear fuel cycle or nuclear explosive activities, and formal government assurances to this effect were required from recipients. The Guidelines also recognised the need for physical protection measures in the transfer of sensitive facilities, technology and weapons-usable materials, and strengthened retransfer provisions. The group began with seven members—the United States, the former USSR, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Canada and Japan—but now includes 46 countries including all five nuclear weapons states.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: The International Framework for Nuclear Energy Cooperation is an international project involving 25 partner countries, 28 observer and candidate partner countries, and the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Generation IV International Forum, and the European Commission. Its goal is to "[..] provide competitive, commercially-based services as an alternative to a state’s development of costly, proliferation-sensitive facilities, and address other issues associated with the safe and secure management of used fuel and radioactive waste."


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: According to Kenneth D. Bergeron's "Tritium on Ice: The Dangerous New Alliance of Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear Power", tritium is not classified as a "special nuclear material" but rather as a by-product. It is seen as an important litmus test on the seriousness of the United States' intention to nuclear disarm. This radioactive, super-heavy, hydrogen isotope is used to boost the efficiency of fissile materials in nuclear weapons. The United States resumed tritium production in 2003 for the first time in 15 years. This could indicate that there is a potential nuclear arms stockpile replacement since the isotope naturally decays.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: In May 1995, NPT parties reaffirmed their commitment to a Fissile Materials Cut-off Treaty to prohibit the production of any further fissile material for weapons. This aims to complement the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty of 1996 (not entered into force as of June 2020) and to codify commitments made by the United States, the UK, France and Russia to cease production of weapons material, as well as putting a similar ban on China. This treaty will also put more pressure on Israel, India and Pakistan to agree to international verification.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: On 9 August 2005, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons. Khamenei's official statement was made at the meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna. As of February 2006 Iran formally announced that uranium enrichment within their borders has continued. Iran claims it is for peaceful purposes but the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the United States claim the purpose is for nuclear weapon research and construction.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: India, Pakistan and Israel have been "threshold" countries in terms of the international non-proliferation regime. They possess or are quickly capable of assembling one or more nuclear weapons. They have remained outside the 1970 NPT. They are thus largely excluded from trade in nuclear plants or materials, except for safety-related devices for a few safeguarded facilities.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: In May 1998 India and Pakistan each exploded several nuclear devices underground. This heightened concerns regarding an arms race between them, with Pakistan involving the People's Republic of China, an acknowledged nuclear weapons state. Both countries are opposed to the NPT as it stands, and India has consistently attacked the Treaty since its inception in 1970 labeling it as a lopsided treaty in favor of the nuclear powers.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Relations between the two countries are tense and hostile, and the risks of nuclear conflict between them have long been considered quite high. Kashmir is a prime cause of bilateral tension, its sovereignty being in dispute since 1948. There is a persistent low-level bilateral military conflict due to the alleged backing of insurgency by Pakistan in India, and the infiltration of Pakistani state-backed militants into the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, along with the disputed status of Kashmir.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Both engaged in a conventional arms race in the 1980s, including sophisticated technology and equipment capable of delivering nuclear weapons. In the 1990s the arms race quickened. In 1994 India reversed a four-year trend of reduced allocations for defence, and despite its much smaller economy, Pakistan was expected to push its own expenditures yet higher. Both have lost their patrons: India, the former USSR, and Pakistan, the United States.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: But it is the growth and modernization of China's nuclear arsenal and its assistance with Pakistan's nuclear power programme and, reportedly, with missile technology, which exacerbate Indian concerns. In particular, as viewed by Indian strategists, Pakistan is aided by China's People's Liberation Army.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: Nuclear power for civil use is well established in India. Its civil nuclear strategy has been directed towards complete independence in the nuclear fuel cycle, necessary because of its outspoken rejection of the NPT. Due to economic and technological isolation of India after the nuclear tests in 1974, India has largely diverted focus on developing and perfecting the fast breeder technology by intensive materials and fuel cycle research at the dedicated center established for research into fast reactor technology, Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research (IGCAR) at Kalpakkam, in the southern part of the country. At the moment, India has a small fast breeder reactor and is planning a much larger one (Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor). This self-sufficiency extends from uranium exploration and mining through fuel fabrication, heavy water production, reactor design and construction, to reprocessing and waste management. It is also developing technology to utilise its abundant resources of thorium as a nuclear fuel.


title: Nuclear proliferation

text: India has 14 small nuclear power reactors in commercial operation, two larger ones under construction, and ten more planned. The 14 operating ones (2548 MWe total) comprise: