title: History of operating systems

text: Computer operating systems (OSes) provide a set of functions needed and used by most application programs on a computer, and the links needed to control and synchronize computer hardware. On the first computers, with no operating system, every program needed the full hardware specification to run correctly and perform standard tasks, and its own drivers for peripheral devices like printers and punched paper card readers. The growing complexity of hardware and application programs eventually made operating systems a necessity for everyday use.


title: History of operating systems

text: The earliest computers were mainframes that lacked any form of operating system. Each user had sole use of the machine for a scheduled period of time and would arrive at the computer with program and data, often on punched paper cards and magnetic or paper tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be debugged via a control panel using dials, toggle switches and panel lights.


title: History of operating systems

text: Symbolic languages, assemblers, and compilers were developed for programmers to translate symbolic program-code into machine code that previously would have been hand-encoded. Later machines came with libraries of support code on punched cards or magnetic tape, which would be linked to the user's program to assist in operations such as input and output. This was the genesis of the modern-day operating system; however, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge University in England the job queue was at one time a washing line from which tapes were hung with different colored clothes-pegs to indicate job-priority.


title: History of operating systems

text: As machines became more powerful the time to run programs diminished, and the time to hand off the equipment to the next user became large by comparison. Accounting for and paying for machine usage moved on from checking the wall clock to automatic logging by the computer. Run queues evolved from a literal queue of people at the door, to a heap of media on a jobs-waiting table, or batches of punch-cards stacked one on top of the other in the reader, until the machine itself was able to select and sequence which magnetic tape drives processed which tapes. Where program developers had originally had access to run their own jobs on the machine, they were supplanted by dedicated machine operators who looked after the machine and were less and less concerned with implementing tasks manually. When commercially available computer centers were faced with the implications of data lost through tampering or operational errors, equipment vendors were put under pressure to enhance the runtime libraries to prevent misuse of system resources. Automated monitoring was needed not just for CPU usage but for counting pages printed, cards punched, cards read, disk storage used and for signaling when operator intervention was required by jobs such as changing magnetic tapes and paper forms. Security features were added to operating systems to record audit trails of which programs were accessing which files and to prevent access to a production payroll file by an engineering program, for example.


title: History of operating systems

text: All these features were building up towards the repertoire of a fully capable operating system. Eventually the runtime libraries became an amalgamated program that was started before the first customer job and could read in the customer job, control its execution, record its usage, reassign hardware resources after the job ended, and immediately go on to process the next job. These resident background programs, capable of managing multi step processes, were often called monitors or monitor-programs before the term "operating system" established itself.


title: History of operating systems

text: An underlying program offering basic hardware-management, software-scheduling and resource-monitoring may seem a remote ancestor to the user-oriented OSes of the personal computing era. But there has been a shift in the meaning of OS. Just as early automobiles lacked speedometers, radios, and air-conditioners which later became standard, more and more optional software features became standard features in every OS package, although some applications such as database management systems and spreadsheets remain optional and separately priced. This has led to the perception of an OS as a complete user-system with an integrated graphical user interface, utilities, some applications such as text editors and file managers, and configuration tools.


title: History of operating systems

text: The true descendant of the early operating systems is what is now called the "kernel". In technical and development circles the old restricted sense of an OS persists because of the continued active development of embedded operating systems for all kinds of devices with a data-processing component, from hand-held gadgets up to industrial robots and real-time control-systems, which do not run user applications at the front-end. An embedded OS in a device today is not so far removed as one might think from its ancestor of the 1950s.


title: History of operating systems

text: The broader categories of systems and application software are discussed in the computer software article.


title: History of operating systems

text: The first operating system used for real work was GM-NAA I/O, produced in 1956 by General Motors' Research division for its IBM 704. Most other early operating systems for IBM mainframes were also produced by customers.


title: History of operating systems

text: Early operating systems were very diverse, with each vendor or customer producing one or more operating systems specific to their particular mainframe computer. Every operating system, even from the same vendor, could have radically different models of commands, operating procedures, and such facilities as debugging aids. Typically, each time the manufacturer brought out a new machine, there would be a new operating system, and most applications would have to be manually adjusted, recompiled, and retested.


title: History of operating systems

text: The state of affairs continued until the 1960s when IBM, already a leading hardware vendor, stopped work on existing systems and put all its effort into developing the System/360 series of machines, all of which used the "same" instruction and input/output architecture. IBM intended to develop a single operating system for the new hardware, the OS/360. The problems encountered in the development of the OS/360 are legendary, and are described by Fred Brooks in "The Mythical Man-Month"—a book that has become a classic of software engineering. Because of performance differences across the hardware range and delays with software development, a whole family of operating systems was introduced instead of a single OS/360.


title: History of operating systems

text: IBM maintained full compatibility with the past, so that programs developed in the sixties can still run under z/VSE (if developed for DOS/360) or z/OS (if developed for MFT or MVT) with no change.


title: History of operating systems

text: IBM also developed TSS/360, a time-sharing system for the System/360 Model 67. Overcompensating for their perceived importance of developing a timeshare system, they set hundreds of developers to work on the project. Early releases of TSS were slow and unreliable; by the time TSS had acceptable performance and reliability, IBM wanted its TSS users to migrate to OS/360 and OS/VS2; while IBM offered a TSS/370 PRPQ, they dropped it after 3 releases.


title: History of operating systems

text: Several operating systems for the IBM S/360 and S/370 architectures were developed by third parties, including the Michigan Terminal System (MTS) and MUSIC/SP.


title: History of operating systems

text: Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating systems in the 1960s, for batch processing and later developed the MACE operating system for time sharing, which was the basis for the later Kronos. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and time sharing use. Like many commercial time sharing systems, its interface was an extension of the DTSS time sharing system, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages.


title: History of operating systems

text: In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. PLATO was remarkably innovative for its time; the shared memory model of PLATO's TUTOR programming language allowed applications such as real-time chat and multi-user graphical games.


title: History of operating systems

text: For the UNIVAC 1107, UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced the EXEC I operating system, and Computer Sciences Corporation developed the EXEC II operating system and delivered it to UNIVAC. EXEC II was ported to the UNIVAC 1108. Later, UNIVAC developed the EXEC 8 operating system for the 1108; it was the basis for operating systems for later members of the family. Like all early mainframe systems, EXEC I and EXEC II were a batch-oriented system that managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers; EXEC 8 supported both batch processing and on-line transaction processing. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BASIC system.


title: History of operating systems

text: Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 in 1961 with the MCP (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages, with no software, not even at the lowest level of the operating system, being written directly in machine language or assembly language; the MCP was the first OS to be written entirely in a high-level language - ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL 60 - although ESPOL had specialized statements for each "syllable" in the B5000 instruction set. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being one of the first commercial implementations of virtual memory. The rewrite of MCP for the B6500 is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of computers.


title: History of operating systems

text: GE introduced the GE-600 series with the General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS) operating system in 1962. After Honeywell acquired GE's computer business, it was renamed to General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS). Honeywell expanded the use of the GCOS name to cover all its operating systems in the 1970s, though many of its computers had nothing in common with the earlier GE 600 series and their operating systems were not derived from the original GECOS.


title: History of operating systems

text: Project MAC at MIT, working with GE and Bell Labs, developed Multics, which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels.


title: History of operating systems

text: Digital Equipment Corporation developed TOPS-10 for its PDP-10 line of 36-bit computers in 1967. Before the widespread use of Unix, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community. Bolt, Beranek, and Newman developed TENEX for a modified PDP-10 that supported demand paging; this was another popular system in the research and ARPANET communities, and was later developed by DEC into TOPS-20.


title: History of operating systems

text: Scientific Data Systems/Xerox Data Systems developed several operating systems for the Sigma series of computers, such as the Basic Control Monitor (BCM), Batch Processing Monitor (BPM), and Basic Time-Sharing Monitor (BTM). Later, BPM and BTM were succeeded by the Universal Time-Sharing System (UTS); it was designed to provide multi-programming services for online (interactive) user programs in addition to batch-mode production jobs, It was succeeded by the CP-V operating system, which combined UTS with the heavily batch-oriented Xerox Operating System.


title: History of operating systems

text: Digital Equipment Corporation created several operating systems for its 16-bit PDP-11 machines, including the simple RT-11 system, the time-sharing RSTS operating systems, and the RSX-11 family of real-time operating systems, as well as the VMS system for the 32-bit VAX machines.


title: History of operating systems

text: Several competitors of Digital Equipment Corporation such as Data General, Hewlett-Packard, and Computer Automation created their own operating systems. One such, "MAX III", was developed for Modular Computer Systems Modcomp II and Modcomp III computers. It was characterised by its target market being the industrial control market. The Fortran libraries included one that enabled access to measurement and control devices.


title: History of operating systems

text: IBM's key innovation in operating systems in this class (which they call "mid-range"), was their "CPF" for the System/38. This had capability-based addressing, used a machine interface architecture to isolate the application software and most of the operating system from hardware dependencies (including even such details as address size and register size) and included an integrated RDBMS. The succeeding OS/400 (now known as IBM i) for the IBM AS/400 and later IBM Power Systems has no files, only objects of different types and these objects persist in very large, flat virtual memory, called a single-level store.


title: History of operating systems

text: The Unix operating system was developed at AT&T Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s, originally for the PDP-7, and later for the PDP-11. Because it was essentially free in early editions, easily obtainable, and easily modified, it achieved wide acceptance. It also became a requirement within the Bell systems operating companies. Since it was written in the C language, when that language was ported to a new machine architecture, Unix was also able to be ported. This portability permitted it to become the choice for a second generation of minicomputers and the first generation of workstations, and its use became widespread. Unix exemplified the idea of an operating system that was conceptually the same across various hardware platforms. Because of its utility, it inspired many and later became one of the roots of the free software movement and open-source software. Numerous operating systems were based upon it including Minix, GNU/Linux, and the Berkeley Software Distribution. Apple's macOS is also based on Unix via NeXTSTEP and FreeBSD.


title: History of operating systems

text: The Pick operating system was another operating system available on a wide variety of hardware brands. Commercially released in 1973 its core was a BASIC-like language called Data/BASIC and a SQL-style database manipulation language called ENGLISH. Licensed to a large variety of manufacturers and vendors, by the early 1980s observers saw the Pick operating system as a strong competitor to Unix.


title: History of operating systems

text: Beginning in the mid-1970s, a new class of small computers came onto the marketplace. Featuring 8-bit processors, typically the MOS Technology 6502, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800 or the Zilog Z80, along with rudimentary input and output interfaces and as much RAM as practical, these systems started out as kit-based hobbyist computers but soon evolved into an essential business tool.


title: History of operating systems

text: While many eight-bit home computers of the 1980s, such as the BBC Micro, Commodore 64, Apple II series, the Atari 8-bit, the Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum series and others could load a third-party disk-loading operating system, such as CP/M or GEOS, they were generally used without one. Their built-in operating systems were designed in an era when floppy disk drives were very expensive and not expected to be used by most users, so the standard storage device on most was a tape drive using standard compact cassettes. Most, if not all, of these computers shipped with a built-in BASIC interpreter on ROM, which also served as a crude command line interface, allowing the user to load a separate disk operating system to perform file management commands and load and save to disk. The most popular home computer, the Commodore 64, was a notable exception, as its DOS was on ROM in the disk drive hardware, and the drive was addressed identically to printers, modems, and other external devices.


title: History of operating systems

text: Furthermore, those systems shipped with minimal amounts of computer memory—4-8 kilobytes was standard on early home computers—as well as 8-bit processors without specialized support circuitry like an MMU or even a dedicated real-time clock. On this hardware, a complex operating system's overhead supporting multiple tasks and users would likely compromise the performance of the machine without really being needed. As those systems were largely sold complete, with a fixed hardware configuration, there was also no need for an operating system to provide drivers for a wide range of hardware to abstract away differences.


title: History of operating systems

text: Video games and even the available spreadsheet, database and word processors for home computers were mostly self-contained programs that took over the machine completely. Although integrated software existed for these computers, they usually lacked features compared to their standalone equivalents, largely due to memory limitations. Data exchange was mostly performed through standard formats like ASCII text or CSV, or through specialized file conversion programs.


title: History of operating systems

text: Since virtually all video game consoles and arcade cabinets designed and built after 1980 were true digital machines based on microprocessors (unlike the earlier "Pong" clones and derivatives), some of them carried a minimal form of BIOS or built-in game, such as the ColecoVision, the Sega Master System and the SNK Neo Geo.


title: History of operating systems

text: Modern-day game consoles and videogames, starting with the PC-Engine, all have a minimal BIOS that also provides some interactive utilities such as memory card management, audio or video CD playback, copy protection and sometimes carry libraries for developers to use etc. Few of these cases, however, would qualify as a true operating system.


title: History of operating systems

text: The most notable exceptions are probably the Dreamcast game console which includes a minimal BIOS, like the PlayStation, but can load the Windows CE operating system from the game disk allowing easily porting of games from the PC world, and the Xbox game console, which is little more than a disguised Intel-based PC running a secret, modified version of Microsoft Windows in the background. Furthermore, there are Linux versions that will run on a Dreamcast and later game consoles as well.


title: History of operating systems

text: Long before that, Sony had released a kind of development kit called the Net Yaroze for its first PlayStation platform, which provided a series of programming and developing tools to be used with a normal PC and a specially modified "Black PlayStation" that could be interfaced with a PC and download programs from it. These operations require in general a functional OS on both platforms involved.


title: History of operating systems

text: In general, it can be said that videogame consoles and arcade coin-operated machines used at most a built-in BIOS during the 1970s, 1980s and most of the 1990s, while from the PlayStation era and beyond they started getting more and more sophisticated, to the point of requiring a generic or custom-built OS for aiding in development and expandability.


title: History of operating systems

text: The development of microprocessors made inexpensive computing available for the small business and hobbyist, which in turn led to the widespread use of interchangeable hardware components using a common interconnection (such as the S-100, SS-50, Apple II, ISA, and PCI buses), and an increasing need for "standard" operating systems to control them. The most important of the early OSes on these machines was Digital Research's CP/M-80 for the 8080 / 8085 / Z-80 CPUs. It was based on several Digital Equipment Corporation operating systems, mostly for the PDP-11 architecture. Microsoft's first operating system, MDOS/MIDAS, was designed along many of the PDP-11 features, but for microprocessor based systems. MS-DOS, or PC DOS when supplied by IBM, was designed to be similar to CP/M-80. Each of these machines had a small boot program in ROM which loaded the OS itself from disk. The BIOS on the IBM-PC class machines was an extension of this idea and has accreted more features and functions in the 20 years since the first IBM-PC was introduced in 1981.


title: History of operating systems

text: The decreasing cost of display equipment and processors made it practical to provide graphical user interfaces for many operating systems, such as the generic X Window System that is provided with many Unix systems, or other graphical systems such as Apple's classic Mac OS and macOS, the Radio Shack Color Computer's OS-9 Level II/MultiVue, Commodore's AmigaOS, Atari TOS, IBM's OS/2, and Microsoft Windows. The original GUI was developed on the Xerox Alto computer system at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in the early 1970s and commercialized by many vendors throughout the 1980s and 1990s.


title: History of operating systems

text: Since the late 1990s, there have been three operating systems in widespread use on personal computers: Apple Inc.'s macOS, the open source Linux, and Microsoft Windows. Since 2005 and the Mac transition to Intel processors, all have been developed mainly on the x86 platform, although macOS retained PowerPC support until 2009 and Linux remains ported to a multitude of architectures including ones such as 68k, PA-RISC, and DEC Alpha, which have been long superseded and out of production, and SPARC and MIPS, which are used in servers or embedded systems but no longer for desktop computers. Other operating systems such as AmigaOS and OS/2 remain in use, if at all, mainly by retrocomputing enthusiasts or for specialized embedded applications.


title: History of operating systems

text: In the early 1990s, Psion released the Psion Series 3 PDA, a small mobile computing device. It supported user-written applications running on an operating system called EPOC. Later versions of EPOC became Symbian, an operating system used for mobile phones from Nokia, Ericsson, Sony Ericsson, Motorola, Samsung and phones developed for NTT Docomo by Sharp, Fujitsu & Mitsubishi. Symbian was the world's most widely used smartphone operating system until 2010 with a peak market share of 74% in 2006. In 1996, Palm Computing released the Pilot 1000 and Pilot 5000, running Palm OS. Microsoft Windows CE was the base for Pocket PC 2000, renamed Windows Mobile in 2003, which at its peak in 2007 was the most common operating system for smartphones in the U.S.


title: History of operating systems

text: In 2007, Apple introduced the iPhone and its operating system, known as simply iPhone OS (until the release of iOS 4), which, like Mac OS X, is based on the Unix-like Darwin. In addition to these underpinnings, it also introduced a powerful and innovative graphic user interface that was later also used on the tablet computer iPad. A year later, Android, with its own graphical user interface, was introduced, based on a modified Linux kernel, and Microsoft re-entered the mobile operating system market with Windows Phone in 2010, which was replaced by Windows 10 Mobile in 2015.


title: History of operating systems

text: Operating systems originally ran directly on the hardware itself and provided services to applications, but with virtualization, the operating system itself runs under the control of a hypervisor, instead of being in direct control of the hardware.


title: History of operating systems

text: On mainframes IBM introduced the notion of a virtual machine in 1968 with CP/CMS on the IBM System/360 Model 67, and extended this later in 1972 with Virtual Machine Facility/370 (VM/370) on System/370.


title: History of operating systems

text: On x86-based personal computers, VMware popularized this technology with their 1999 product, VMware Workstation, and their 2001 VMware GSX Server and VMware ESX Server products. Later, a wide range of products from others, including Xen, KVM and Hyper-V meant that by 2010 it was reported that more than 80 percent of enterprises had a virtualization program or project in place, and that 25 percent of all server workloads would be in a virtual machine.


title: History of operating systems

text: In many ways, virtual machine software today plays the role formerly held by the operating system, including managing the hardware resources (processor, memory, I/O devices), applying scheduling policies, or allowing system administrators to manage the system.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: The Danny Thomas Show (titled Make Room for Daddy for its first three seasons) is an American sitcom that ran from 1953 to 1957 on ABC and from 1957 to 1964 on CBS. Starring Danny Thomas as a successful night club entertainer, the show focused on his relationship with his family, yet went through a number of significant changes in cast and characters during the course of its run. Episodes regularly featured music by Thomas, guest stars and occasionally other cast members as part of the plot.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: In March 1953, Thomas first signed the contract for the show with ABC and chose Desilu Studios to film it using its three-camera method. Two proposed titles during pre-production were "The Children's Hour" and "Here Comes Daddy".


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: Thomas played the role of Danny Williams, a successful comedian and nightclub entertainer at the Copa Club, based on the iconic New York City nightclub the Copacabana. In the show's first iteration as "Make Room for Daddy", Jean Hagen played Thomas' serious and loving wife Margaret. Their daughter Terry was played by Sherry Jackson and their son Rusty by Rusty Hamer. The show's premise involved Danny rarely having time to spend with his family and Margaret having to deal with the children virtually on her own. She often felt neglected by Danny, and on several occasions felt like leaving him. Margaret was a society woman and strict with the children, but loved her family.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: Louise Beavers made several appearances during this era as the Williams' maid, Louise Evans, and often was at odds with Danny and sided with Margaret in most of the couple's arguments. Nana Bryant often appeared as Margaret's kind mother, of whom Danny and the children were fond, but Margaret, who had been raised by her aunt and uncle because of her mother often being away on stage tours, was not as warm to her mother. (Bryant died in late 1955, and rather than the character being recast, she simply disappeared. When Louise Beavers became ill in 1955, Amanda Randolph assumed the role of Louise.)


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: Hans Conried had nineteen guest appearances as Danny's eccentric Lebanese "Uncle Tonoose". (In real life, Thomas was Lebanese, Conried was not.) Other frequent guests included Bill Dana as José Jiménez, Annette Funicello as an Italian exchange student named Gina Manelli, and Thomas' protégée Italian teenaged singer Piccola Pupa. Other notable guest stars included band leader and musician Harry James, who appeared in the episode "The Trumpet Player", child pianist Ginny Tiu playing Li Chow in "The Chinese Doll" and Jimmy Durante, who appeared as himself in the episode "Danny and Durante". Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz appeared in one episode together as their characters from "I Love Lucy", and appearing as themselves in various episodes were Bob Hope, Jack Benny, Milton Berle, Max Baer, Sammy Davis Jr., Dinah Shore, and Dean Martin. Tony Bennett made his TV debut in 1957 as Danny's singing cousin Stephen from Toledo, and Paul Anka played a young up-and-coming singer, as did Bobby Rydell. Zsa Zsa Gabor played a nightclub performer. Tennessee Ernie Ford portrayed a singer named Kentucky Cal. Brenda Lee plays Danny's maid, whom he hires as a singer.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: For its first four years, "Make Room For Daddy" on ABC (retitled "The Danny Thomas Show" ahead of its fourth season) garnered decent ratings, but failed to make the list of the top 30 programs. Shortly after the third season finished filming, Jean Hagen left the show over dissatisfaction with her role and frequent clashes with Danny Thomas. Thomas was upset with her for leaving, and felt the show would not last without her. However, he decided to push on. At the start of the fourth season, both Thomas and producer Sheldon Leonard were faced with a serious dilemma—how to explain Hagen's absence. To have "Danny" and "Margaret" divorce in that era would have been unacceptable to television audiences, so it was explained that Margaret had died suddenly off-screen. It was a risky move because until this time, no character on a TV situation comedy had died.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: Danny was now a widower juggling a performing career while raising two children on his own. With the absence of Jean Hagen, character actress-comedienne Mary Wickes (who had worked with Thomas and singer-actress Doris Day in the 1952 Warner Bros. musical film "I'll See You in My Dreams") was cast in the recurring role of Liz O'Neill, Danny Williams's no-nonsense press agent. Wickes remained with the show until 1958. During the show's fourth season, it was Liz, along with Louise and Danny's friends, who often looked after the children while he was touring. He decided to move them to a boarding school, but later relented and the family moved into a new apartment. Also in that year, Danny dated a few other women and nearly got engaged to a widowed singer until he found out she did not like children. By season's end, the ratings had suffered and it was decided that a wife and mother was needed to complete the family unit.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: In a four-part story arc that began airing in April 1957, son Rusty fell ill with the measles and Danny hired Kathy O'Hara (Marjorie Lord), a young Irish nurse, to look after him. Kathy was a widow with a little girl (played by Lelani Sorenson). Danny and Kathy became fast friends and, not surprisingly, Danny quickly fell in love with her, as did the kids. In the season finale, the two became engaged. In a curious twist, ABC at this point canceled the series, which proved to be fortunate. In the spring of 1957, "I Love Lucy", which had reigned as the top-rated show for almost all of its six-year run on CBS, was ending production. When CBS heard that ABC was cancelling the series, CBS picked it up as part of its 1957-58 schedule.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: "The Danny Thomas Show" made its CBS debut on Monday, October 7, 1957, at 9:00 inheriting the time slot vacated by "I Love Lucy". The fifth-season premiere episode, "Lose Me In Las Vegas", had Danny and Kathy already married and on their honeymoon. The Williams family moved into a larger brand-new apartment and, with the change of network, the producers also changed Kathy's daughter. Lelani Sorenson was dropped from the cast and replaced by Angela Cartwright as Linda. Linda then was adopted by Danny, and the show's ratings dramatically increased. At the end of its fifth season, "The Danny Thomas Show" posted its highest rating, ranking at No. 2. During this season, Amanda Randolph was sick and rarely appeared as Louise, who was said to be recovering from the flu, with Kathy doing most of the housework.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: In the early part of the sixth season, Sherry Jackson left the show and the character of Terry was said to have gone to a girls school in Paris. Jackson commented on her close friendship with Jean Hagen and why she left the series, saying, "The major perk was Jean Hagen. I adored her. We had a great time. She and I were best buddies; she was my only friend from the "Make Room for Daddy" cast. What made me specifically want to leave the show? I had a five-year contract, Jean had a three-year contract. Jean was thoroughly fed up with the series and made it clear that she didn't want to come back. When she left, I was devastated. I didn't want to continue, either. I wanted to break my contract. They wouldn't let me leave, but gave me less to do; that's why I'm in fewer shows from ages 14–16."


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: In Season 7, the character of Terry was brought back, but recast with Penney Parker. Terry was featured in a seven-episode story arc that had her engaged and eventually married to Pat Hannigan (Pat Harrington, Jr.), a nightclub friend of Danny's. After the wedding, the Hannigans moved to California and Terry was rarely mentioned, never to be seen on the show again.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: In the last two seasons, with Thomas and Lord tired of their roles, Danny and Kathy both regularly traveled, and for much of the tenth season they toured Europe (with a handful of episodes featuring location footage). Rusty and Linda were looked after by Danny's manager, Charlie Halper (Sid Melton) and his wife Bunny (Pat Carroll). During the 11th and final season, Thomas decided to retire from the show and the program ended in the spring of 1964, finishing as still one of the most popular television programs and ranking at number nine.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: The theme music was various versions (changing over the years) of the traditional Irish song, "Danny Boy".


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: Reruns of the show (Using the original title, "Make Room for Daddy") were aired weekdays on NBC from October 4, 1960, to March 26, 1965. The episodes shown were from season one through season nine). CBS aired primetime repeats April 19 through September 6, 1965, on Monday nights at 9:30 p.m (Eastern time). Subsequently, most of the CBS episodes were then syndicated in fall, 1967, and offered to local stations. The first four seasons from ABC were not put into syndication.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: From February 1, 1987, to 1991, the show's fifth through ninth seasons were shown on Nick at Nite. TV Land and GoodLife Television aired the majority of the episodes from the fourth season through the seventh season (and select episodes from seasons eight and nine).


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: In 2014, the series joined the weekday line up of Cozi TV, where it has as of 2021 stopped airing but did broadcast all the 1956–1964 episodes which includes the season after Jean Hagen left the show (1956–1957). Cozi-TV also added the final two seasons of the show (Seasons 10 and 11) that had not been shown in any package of reruns since 1965.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: On September 28, 2004, Questar released the complete fifth season on Region 1 DVD. The set includes two special episodes: the fourth-season finale, "Danny's Proposal", and the pilot for "The Andy Griffith Show".


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: The complete sixth season on DVD was released on January 22. 2008. It was released by a different company than the one that had handled the fifth-season package, and contained uncut episodes with vintage second-run opening titles from the early 1960s NBC network daytime reruns.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: Several of the early episodes with Jean Hagen can be purchased on discount DVDs, as these episodes have entered public domain because of lapsed copyright.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: The series played a role in the creation of another long-running sitcom, "The Andy Griffith Show". In the seventh season, Danny Thomas is arrested by Sheriff Andy Taylor (Andy Griffith) and detained in the small town of Mayberry in an episode titled "Danny Meets Andy Griffith". The episode aired on February 15, 1960, and "The Andy Griffith Show" premiered later that year on October 3.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: The series also crossed over to several other series, including "The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour" and "The Joey Bishop Show".


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: Morey Amsterdam guest-starred as Buddy Sorrell of "The Dick Van Dyke Show" in the episode "The Woman Behind the Jokes", season 11, episode 4.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: Some episodes featured Bill Dana as José Jiménez, which led to the spin-off series "The Bill Dana Show". Danny Thomas played himself in one episode.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: The show ended in 1964, but Danny Thomas, Marjorie Lord, Angela Cartwright, Rusty Hamer, Sherry Jackson, Amanda Randolph and Hans Conried returned in 1965 for a two-hour-long "reunion" special on NBC, "The Danny Thomas TV Family Reunion", considered the first TV reunion show, and "Make More Room for Daddy", which aired as an episode of "The Danny Thomas Hour" in November 1967. Shortly after filming the second special in 1967, Randolph died suddenly of a stroke at the age of 70. A CBS reunion special, "Make Room for Granddaddy", was aired in 1969. The special did so well that it was picked up as a series by CBS, but Thomas considered its assigned time slot to be too quiet and pulled the show.


title: The Danny Thomas Show

text: ABC brought it back on a weekly basis in 1970, in "Make Room for Granddaddy". For the series premiere, Sherry Jackson reprised her role of oldest daughter Terry. No mention was made of her husband Pat Hannigan. Instead, for this new version of the series, Terry's husband was named Bill, who was a soldier. In this episode, Terry left her son, six-year-old Michael (played by Michael Hughes), in the care of grandparents Danny and Kathy so she could join Bill, who was stationed overseas. In addition to Lord, Hamer and Cartwright, the only other returning regulars were Sid Melton as Charley Halper and Hans Conried as Uncle Tonoose. During that season, new characters were played by Stanley Myron Handelman and former football player Roosevelt Grier. Pat Carroll did not reprise her role of Bunny Halper and her character was never mentioned on this series. The show lasted only one year, producing 24 episodes; its cancellation came at a time when the networks were purging content favoring older, rural and other less affluent viewers after the loss of a half-hour of daily program time in 1971. According to Lord, the series faced many obstacles, including the unprofessionalism and inexperience of the child actor Michael Hughes, the absence of Sheldon Leonard as producer/director to control Thomas and improve the quality of the scripts, and the fact that ABC switched the time slot of the show from Wednesday nights at 8:00 pm to Thursday nights at 9:00 pm. As a result, the ratings went from mediocre to poor.


title: Mithridatism

text: Mithridatism is the practice of protecting oneself against a poison by gradually self-administering non-lethal amounts. The word is derived from Mithridates VI, the King of Pontus, who so feared being poisoned that he regularly ingested small doses, aiming to develop immunity.


title: Mithridatism

text: Mithridates VI's father, Mithridates V, was assassinated by poisoning by a conspiracy among his attendants. After this, Mithridates VI's mother held regency over Pontus (a Hellenistic kingdom, 281 BC–62 AD) until a male heir came of age. Mithridates was in competition with his brother for the throne and his mother began to favor his brother. Supposedly, during his youth, he began to suspect plots against him at his own mother's orders and was aware of her possible connection with his father's death. He then began to notice pains in his stomach during his meals and suspected his mother had ordered small amounts of poison to be added to his food to slowly kill him off. With other assassination attempts, he fled into the wild.


title: Mithridatism

text: While in the wild, it is said that he began ingesting non-lethal amounts of poisons and mixing many into a universal remedy to make him immune to all known poisons.


title: Mithridatism

text: After Mithridates' death, many Roman physicians claimed to possess and improve the formula. In keeping with most medical practices of his era, Mithridates' anti-poison routines included a religious component, supervised by the "Agari"; a group of Scythian shamans derived from Indian Aghoris who never left him.


title: Mithridatism

text: It has been suggested that Russian mystic Rasputin's survival of a poisoning attempt was due to mithridatism, but this has not been proven.


title: Mithridatism

text: Indian epics talk about this practice as well. It has been said that, during the rule of the king Chandragupta Maurya (320–298 BC), there was a practice of selecting beautiful girls and administering poison in small amounts until they grew up, thus making them insensitive to poison. These maidens were called "vishakanyas" (visha 'poison' + kanya 'maiden'). It was believed that making love with vishakanyas could result in the death of their partners, hence they were employed to kill enemies.


title: Mithridatism

text: The emperor Bindusara was the son of the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya and his queen Durdhara. According to the "Rajavalikatha", a Jain work, the original name of this emperor was Simhasena. According to a legend mentioned in the Jain texts, Chandragupta's Guru and advisor Chanakya used to feed the emperor with small doses of poison to build his immunity against possible poisoning attempts by the enemies. One day, Chandragupta, not knowing about the poison, shared his food with his pregnant wife, Queen Durdhara, who was seven days away from delivery. The queen, not immune to the poison, collapsed and died within a few minutes. Chanakya entered the room the very time she collapsed, and in order to save the child in the womb, he immediately cut open the dead queen's belly and took the baby out, by that time a drop of poison had already reached the baby and touched its head due to which the child got a permanent blueish spot (a "bindu") on his forehead. Thus, the newborn was named "Bindusara".


title: Mithridatism

text: It is important to note that mithridatism is not effective against all types of poison. Immunity is generally only possible with biologically complex types which the immune system can respond to. Depending on the toxin, the practice can lead to the lethal accumulation of a poison in the body. Results depend on how each poison is processed by the body, i.e. on how the toxic compound is metabolized or passed out of the body.


title: Mithridatism

text: However, in some cases, it is possible to build up a metabolic tolerance against specific non-biological poisons. This involves conditioning the liver to produce more of the particular enzymes that metabolize these poisons. For example, heavy drinkers develop a tolerance to the effects of alcohol. However, metabolic tolerance can also lead to accumulation of the less toxic metabolized compound which can slowly damage the liver. With alcohol this generally leads to conditions such as alcoholic fatty liver disease.


title: Mithridatism

text: Metabolic tolerance is not effective on all types of non-biological poisons. Exposure to certain toxic substances, such as hydrofluoric acid and heavy metals, is either lethal or has little to no effect. Arsenic is a minor exception as some people actually have a genetic adaptation granting them higher resistance. Another minor exception is cyanide which can be metabolized by the liver. The enzyme rhodanese converts the cyanide into the much less toxic thiocyanate. This process allows humans to ingest small amounts of cyanide in food like apple seeds and survive small amounts of cyanide gas from fires and cigarettes. However, unlike alcohol, one cannot effectively condition the liver against cyanide. Relatively larger amounts of cyanide are still highly lethal because while the body can produce more rhodanese the process also requires large amounts of sulfur-containing substrates.


title: Mithridatism

text: Mithridatism has been used as a plot device in fiction and on-screen; including the Indian fantasy series "Chandrakanta", Alexandre Dumas's "The Count of Monte Cristo", Holly Black's "The Cruel Prince", Nathaniel Hawthorne's "Rappaccini's Daughter", Yoshiaki Kawajiri's "Ninja Scroll", Dorothy Sayers's "Strong Poison", Agatha Christie's "Curtain", William Goldman's "The Princess Bride" (as well as its film adaptation), and the American historical series "The Borgias".


title: Mithridatism

text: In Michael Curtis Ford's historical novel "The Last King", on the life and conquests of Mithridates VI, the technique is used by Mithridates.


title: Mithridatism

text: A. E. Housman's "Terence, this is stupid stuff" (originally published in "A Shropshire Lad") invokes mithridatism as a metaphor for the benefit that serious poetry brings to the reader. The final section is a poetic rendition of the Mithridates legend.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Patrick Walter Brown (born May 26, 1978) is a Canadian politician who has served as the 51st and current mayor of Brampton since 2018. Entering politics when he won a seat on the Barrie City Council in 2000, Brown later joined the Conservative Party and became a member of Parliament (MP) in 2006. He represented Barrie in the House of Commons until 2015, when he was elected as leader of the Ontario Progressive Conservative (PC) Party and resigned his seat in Parliament. Brown was subsequently elected to represent Simcoe North in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario and became the leader of the Opposition. He served as leader until 2018, when he was expelled from the caucus. He later returned to municipal politics and was elected mayor of Brampton. In 2022, Brown contested for the federal Conservative leadership election, but was disqualified following claims his campaign violated the "Canada Elections Act". He was subsequently re-elected as mayor of Brampton.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown was born in Toronto, to Judy (née Tascona) and lawyer Edmond Brown. His father moved to Canada from the British Isles and worked as a criminal lawyer. Edmond was a former federal New Democratic Party candidate for the riding of Davenport in 1979 and 1980. His mother, Judy, is of partial Italian descent, and an educator (teacher and principal) from Barrie. He was raised in the Roman Catholic faith.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: He graduated from St. Michael's College School, a private Catholic school in Toronto. He studied political science at the University of Toronto, and graduated with a law degree from the University of Windsor. During his second year at law school, he was one of 10 recipients of the As Prime Minister Award. He worked for Magna International in their legal department for four years.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown served two terms as president of the Progressive Conservative Youth Federation (PCYF), a position he held from 1998 to 2002. He also served on the executive of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, as a vice president. As PCYF President, Brown was one of the early supporters of a united right and was criticized for his decision to support a united right from party leader Joe Clark and Member of Parliament Scott Brison. Brown was later re-elected as PCYF president with 81 per cent of the vote against Jonathan Frate of Manitoba. Brown was the Deputy Chairman of the International Young Democrat Union (IYDU). He has also represented Canada on a number of international assistance projects hosted by the IYDU.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown was elected to the Barrie City Council in 2000 at age 22, and was re-elected in 2003. He served on various committees, including the Budget Committee. Brown's primary focus while on council was health care, despite it being a provincial responsibility. In response to a shortage of doctors, Brown founded the Physician Recruitment Task Force with the Royal Victoria Hospital to help attract more doctors to Barrie.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In the lead up to the 2004 federal election, Brown put his name forward as a candidate for the Conservative Party nomination race for the riding of Barrie. Brown defeated Rod Jackson and Douglas Edwards to win the party nomination in what Jackson considered a nasty race. In the election, he lost to Liberal incumbent Aileen Carroll by 1,295 votes. Brown ran again in 2006, this time defeating Carroll by 1,523 votes.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In November 2010, the Canadian Taxpayers Federation expressed concern about how Patrick Brown used his House of Commons of Canada account. He sent flyers to his riding which included a letter of support and a flyer from Barrie City Councillor Michael Prowse. Brown used his House of Commons account to pay for the mailing because Michael Prowse could not afford to send the flyer out himself.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In the 2011 election, Brown was elected to his third term in office. In 2012, it was reported that Brown had the highest publicly funded expenditures on public service announcement flyers with $81,159.97.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In September 2014, he announced his intention to run in the 2015 Ontario PC party leadership election. He registered as a leadership candidate on November 20, 2014. He said that, unlike the other candidates, he was not involved in the four consecutive losses that have kept the Ontario PCs out of power since 2003. At the time of his jump to provincial politics, he chaired the Conservative Party of Canada's Greater Toronto Area caucus and the Canada-India Parliamentary Association.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In 2007, Brown founded a charity hockey game known as "Hockey Night in Barrie". "Hockey Night in Barrie" was a yearly summer event hosted at the Barrie Molson Centre that had participation from current and former NHLers, known personalities from across Canada, and locals from the police department, fire department, and hospitals in Simcoe County. All funds raised from each game contributed to local hospitals and charities in the Simcoe County region. Hockey Night in Barrie raised $2 million, with the majority of proceeds going towards the development of the Royal Victoria Regional Health Centre’s Cancer Centre and a new eight-bed youth mental health inpatient unit. In addition to the Royal Victoria Regional Health Centre, the game also supported for the Orillia Soldiers’ Memorial Hospital and Georgian Bay General Hospital for the 9th annual charity game in 2016. Money raised from the game contributed to the Orillia Soldiers’ Memorial Hospital's new Neo-Natal Intensive Care Unit. The game has featured NHL players like Connor McDavid, Aaron Ekblad, Steven Stamkos, Rick Nash, Brian Little, Mark Scheifele, and Andrew Mangiapane; former NHLers such as Wendell Clark, Darcy Tucker, Mike Gartner, Dale Hawerchuk, Bernie Nicholls, Gary Roberts, and Shane Corson; and has featured personalities like Prime Minister Stephen Harper, Hockey Night in Canada’s Don Cherry and Ron Maclean, Ontario journalist Steve Paikin, Alan Thicke, Walter Gretzky and Jennifer Robinson, among others. In 2018, Brown passed on organizational leadership to Barrie-Springwater-Oro-Medonte MP Alex Nuttall for its eleventh annual charity hockey game.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: On September 28, 2014, Brown announced his intention to run in the contest to replace Progressive Conservative leader Tim Hudak. From the outset of his campaign, Brown positioned himself as an outsider, challenging the leadership of the PC Party, which had been defeated in the last four provincial elections. In the most recent election campaign, in 2014, the party election platform included a commitment to cut 100,000 public service jobs over 4 years through attrition. As the only one of the original five leadership candidates who was not a member of the Ontario legislature, Brown was not involved in the promise, which he considered ill-advised, Brown's rivals attempted to use this same lack of previous involvement in provincial politics as an argument against his leadership bid.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In March, Brown emerged as the front-runner in the leadership election, having sold over 40,000 of the 70,000 memberships in the party. During the campaign, Brown was successful in bringing many new members to the party, many of whom came from ethnic communities. The past four leadership contests had been won by those who sold the most memberships.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown was endorsed by the Campaign Life Coalition and the Ontario Landowners Association. During Brown's leadership bid both special interest groups actively supported him by selling Ontario PC Party memberships amongst their members.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown was criticized by his main rival, Christine Elliott, for not resigning his federal seat during the leadership campaign. Brown was absent from the House of Commons for some votes during the leadership campaign, attending 56 per cent of the votes from September to December in 2014. However, his overall attendance for votes in 2014 was 83 per cent. A spokesperson for Prime Minister Stephen Harper confirmed that members are not expected to step down but are expected to "continue to fulfill their parliamentary responsibilities, including membership on committees and attendance at votes."


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: The campaign started with five candidates including Vic Fedeli, Lisa MacLeod, and Monte McNaughton. All three withdrew in early 2015 citing membership recruitment or financial reasons.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: On May 9, 2015, Brown was elected leader, defeating his only remaining opponent, Christine Elliott, winning with 61.8 per cent of the membership vote.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown resigned his seat in the House of Commons on May 13, 2015, after winning the leadership and led the Progressive Conservative party from outside the legislature during most of the summer. On July 22, 2015, Garfield Dunlop agreed to step down as MPP for Simcoe North on August 1 in order to open up a seat for Brown. A provincial by-election, called for September 3, 2015, was won by Brown.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Under his leadership, the Ontario PC Party won five by-elections, including Sault Ste. Marie and Scarborough-Rouge River, two seats which had been previously held by the governing Liberals. Despite his record, Brown faced accusations of corruption and favouritism over hand picked candidates and unfair nomination contests.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: On January 24, 2018, Brown was accused by two women of engaging in sexual misconduct, which dated back to the time he was a federal MP. Brown denied the allegations and initially refused to step down. Four senior staffers from Brown's campaign had advised him that he should resign as party leader; he did not accept their advice. In consequence all four staffers resigned from his campaign team. After pressure from within the party, he resigned as leader in the early hours of January 25. A day later, fellow MPP, Lisa MacLeod revealed that she heard rumors about similar allegations from former National Hockey League player, Eric Lindros. Dimitri Soudas, former director of communications to Prime Minister Stephen Harper and volunteer for the campaign, suggested the allegations were baseless, saying, “All media organizations were turning over every single stone that they could find, and they couldn’t find anything.” A "Globe and Mail" article revealed that Brown's staff had expressed similar concern with Brown's past relationships after he became leader. One of these was with Tamara Macgregor, a former staffer within Brown's office and daughter of Karma Macgregor, then former party candidate to Ottawa West—Nepean.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: The day after he resigned, Brown was succeeded on an interim basis by Nipissing MPP Vic Fedeli. Fedeli, who was unanimously elected by caucus, asked Brown to take a leave of absence from Queen's Park while he defended himself against the allegations. In addition, Fedeli announced that he would not sign Brown's nomination papers if he attempted to run in a Barrie riding at the June 7 provincial election. Brown had intended on running in Barrie—Springwater—Oro-Medonte in that election, but Fedeli's announcement would mean that he would have to run as an independent.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In one incident, there was an allegation that Brown exposed himself to a teenager and asked her to engage in oral sex after plying her with alcohol. The accuser alleged that she was an 18-year-old high school student when the oral sex incident occurred; but on February 13, three weeks after the first public report, she amended her claim to say she was a year older than she had previously maintained, and was therefore over the legal drinking age. Corrections were subsequently made on the initial news articles. In the other incident, Brown was alleged to have kissed, without consent, a female aide in his employ while in his bedroom. Brown later took a lie detector test and claimed that he felt his name was cleared. No charges were laid as a result of either alleged incident and on April 23, 2018, he sued CTV for $8 million in damages. He then entered the Ontario PC leadership race less than one or two hours before the deadline.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In March 2022, Brown and CTV reached a settlement, where CTV expressed "regrets" over the incorrect reporting of certain details in the article; no money was paid out to Brown by CTV as part of the settlement.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown was ejected from the PC caucus on February 16, 2018, following reports that he was claiming he hadn't actually resigned as party leader and a series of Facebook posts in which he attacked the credibility of his accusers. Later that same day, Brown registered as a candidate for the Progressive Conservative leadership election, pending approval from the party, and on February 21, after being vetted, Brown was given the "green light" by the PC Party to run for the leadership.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: On February 20, PC MPP Randy Hillier filed complaints to the Ontario integrity commissioner alleging that Brown had breached the province's ethics rules around down payments over his 2016 purchase of a $2.3 million waterfront house on Lake Simcoe, a loan from a friend and undeclared travels. The house was listed for sale in 2018. On April 28, 2018, a 60-page report by the commissioner found out that Brown breached the "Member's Integrity Act" four times over matters involving his personal finances, but there was insufficient evidence to find him in breach over alleged travel violations.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown withdrew his candidacy for party leadership on February 26, 2018, citing the difficulties of simultaneously running for leader while fighting against allegations against him. His withdrawal came days after the revelation that the integrity commissioner was investigating Brown for alleged financial improprieties and several hours after a report revealing his apparent interference, while he was leader, in a Tory candidate nomination that is then being investigated by Hamilton Police for fraud. Brown's supporters cited harassment against members of his family as one cause of his decision to withdraw. Brown's $100,000 registration fee was not refunded by the party.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: After the election of Doug Ford as the new leader, there were rumors that Brown would not be allowed to run under their banner.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: The Progressive Conservative Party's nomination committee unanimously ruled on March 15, 2018, that Patrick Brown would not be eligible to run as a PC candidate in Barrie—Springwater—Oro-Medonte for the June 7, 2018 election. Brown announced on Twitter shortly afterward that he would not run as an independent candidate in Barrie—Springwater—Oro-Medonte. It was later reported by the "National Post" that a Snover Dhillon, a convicted fraudster banned by the federal Conservatives, played a role in all those nomination irregularities. Following his departure from provincial politics, Brown restarted his law practice and accepted a job as vice-president of a telecommunications company in Vaughan.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: According to reports by the "National Post" Brown was "urged" by supporters to run for Chair of the Regional Municipality of Peel in the 2018 Peel Region municipal elections, the first in which the position is directly elected. Brown registered his candidacy for regional chair on July 3, 2018. On July 27, 2018, Brown registered his candidacy for the Brampton mayoral election following Premier Doug Ford's announcement that regional chair elections in Peel Region would be cancelled. Incumbent Brampton mayor Linda Jeffrey suggested "that Brown jumped into the race, and city, at the last minute in a bid to 'rehabilitate' his career", while Brown suggested that Jeffrey's "lack of leadership has contributed to rising property taxes and shootings" in the city.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown's platform includes a "poverty action plan" that would require a minimum percentage of new housing to meet affordable standards, and rental properties being redeveloped to include equal amounts of rental spots before and after the process. His "Public Safety Initiative" would include more front line police officers, strengthening the mental health program, and affordable recreation for youth.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown defeated incumbent Linda Jeffrey by a narrow margin on October 22, 2018. In his acceptance speech, he thanked former Ontario premier Bill Davis for his endorsement and said, "I’ve got so much hope in my heart for what’s ahead for Brampton. You know why? I know we can turn this around, I know Brampton is going to be back, Brampton is going to become an economic engine". According to the "Toronto Star", Jeffrey had the backing of "PC party operatives — Doug Ford’s campaign manager organized a fundraiser for her".


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In June 2019, Brown and Brampton City Council launched a public pressure campaign demanding greater healthcare funding from the provincial government. In this campaign, city council asked citizens of Brampton to sign a petition and share their healthcare stories with the #FairDealforBrampton hashtag. In a media release, the City of Brampton highlighted that residents receive $1,000 less in healthcare funding per person than the provincial average, that there are 55 per cent fewer hospital beds than other Ontario municipalities, and there are unmatched increases in funding compared to the exponential growth of Brampton each year.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: The three demands of the provincial government highlighted by city council within the Fair Deal for Brampton campaign included: immediate funding to Brampton Civic Hospital and Peel Memorial Centre to support the increasing demand from the community, arranging fund for the completion of Phase 2 at the Peel Memorial Centre and constructing a new healthcare facility for Brampton to meet the needs of the growing population.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: On January 22, 2020, Brampton City Council declared a unanimous healthcare emergency for the City of Brampton. With data from William Osler Health System indicating a hospital occupancy rate consistently over 100 per cent over 2019. The motion called on the provincial government to provide funding for Brampton Civic Hospital and Peel Memorial Centre and to assist in moving ahead with the Phase 2 expansion of 850 beds at Peel Memorial Centre.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: On January 24, 2020, the provincial government committed to the funding of a new hospital in Brampton. In a statement to the "Brampton Guardian", Brown said “I recognize the fact that the crisis we’re in wasn’t created in a year. That this has been a crisis that has emerged over the last 15 to 20 years and the fact that we’re at the table talking to the premier directly about it when only two days ago we had our physicians and patients come forward with a plea for help.”


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In June 2019, Brown and Brampton City Council passed a unanimous motion to support a legal challenge to Quebec's Bill 21, a secularism based law that would make it illegal for government employees in positions of authority (public school teachers, police officers, judges, etc.) to wear religious symbols at their place of employment. Brampton has one of the largest south Asian populations in Canada, one of the populations that this bill would specifically impact. In explaining the justification for passing this motion as a municipality outside of Quebec, Brown stated, “Brampton is Canada’s most diverse big city. And if Brampton's not going to defend Canadian multiculturalism, then who is?" Brown also invited other municipalities to replicate the City of Brampton's motion and join the legal challenge. In addition to joining the legal challenge, Brown also seconded a motion at the Peel Police Services Board to direct Peel police to “place select advertising within Quebec promoting a career at the Peel Regional Police.” The motion stood to recruit and provide opportunities for Quebecers who would be negatively impacted by the law.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In August of 2019, Brown held the first ever Hockey Night in Brampton aimed at fundraising for Brampton Civic Hospital and Osler Health Centre. In total, the game raised $411,000, with proceeds contributing directly to the Cardiology Program at Brampton Civic Hospital. The game saw participation from NHLers, Jason Spezza, Sean Monahan, Malcolm Subban, Connor Brown, Casey Cizikas and personalities such as Nav Bhatia.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: On March 13, 2022, Brown announced his candidacy for the Conservative Party of Canada leadership. On July 5, 2022, Brown was disqualified from the race by the party's Leadership Election Organizing Committee (LEOC). In a statement, Ian Brodie, the chair of the committee, said that the disqualification was recommended by the party's chief returning officer after receiving information on alleged violations of the financial provisions of the "Canada Elections Act" by Brown's campaign.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown identifies himself as a "pragmatic conservative", and after becoming leader he tried to move the Ontario PC Party in a socially libertarian and fiscally conservative direction. At his first Ontario PC Convention as the new leader, Brown confirmed his belief in man-made climate change and announced his support for a revenue-neutral price on carbon. Brown was also the first Ontario PC leader to march in the Toronto Pride Parade. Among his political mentors, Brown lists former Ontario Premier Bill Davis, former Quebec Premier Jean Charest and former Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Much of Brown's time at Queen's Park was spent criticizing and debating the government's energy policies. He promised to dismantle the "Green Energy Act", rein in executive salaries at Hydro One, and place a moratorium on the signing of new energy contracts.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Patrick Brown's first private member's bill in the Ontario Legislature was Bill 136, the Estate Administration Tax Abolition Act, which was an attempt to eliminate Ontario's estate administration (probate) tax (originally introduced by the PC government of Mike Harris in 1998). The bill was supported by Brown's fellow PCs but opposed by the governing Liberals and third party New Democrats, and was voted down 51-24 on division at second reading.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: During his tenure as Ontario PC leader, Brown was noted for his close relationship with many of Ontario's diverse ethnic communities. He spoke in the Legislature in support of a motion condemning Islamophobia, and was one of the first Canadian politicians to refer to the Tamil Genocide. Brown has a personal relationship with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, who refers to him as "Patrick Bhai" ("Brother Patrick") and named him an honorary citizen of Gujarat.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: His critics called him "policy-lite" since he made no policy statements during the Progressive Conservative leadership campaign. After winning the leadership race, he focused his plan on four main issues which he suggested would lead to a more prosperous province: less red tape, improved transportation corridors, affordable energy, and addressing Ontario's growing skills gap.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown's maintaining of the party as centre-right surprised some political commentators who expected a socially conservative shift. As a federal MP, Brown had been one of the more socially conservative members of the Conservative caucus. As an MP, Brown voted to re-open the same-sex marriage and abortion debates, and also voted against legalizing euthanasia and including gender expression in the "Canadian Human Rights Act". He later said those votes were to represent his constituents. Brown said that he didn't intend to revisit any of these issues in the provincial legislature. As a candidate in the 2022 Conservative leadership election, he reiterated his pro-choice stance though he also stated he thinks abortions should be rare and wants to encourage alternatives to abortion.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In June 2015, Brown expressed his intent to participate in the Toronto Pride parade. His decision to do so marked the first time a PC leader has ever officially marched in the major Toronto Pride parade event and signified an incremental evolution of the provincial party's history with the LGBTQ+ community. In the email to his caucus, Brown said, “If there is anyone in your riding that you want me to call who may not support my decision, I am happy to call them personally.” Brown marched alongside the advocacy group LGBTory in the parade, a group that he has consulted with on several occasions, including when the Ontario Liberal government introduced LGBT-inclusive sex-ed curriculum changes in 2015.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: In an interview with the Canadian Press, Brown stated, “Any policy that attempts to limit a woman’s right to choose or the ability of same-sex couples to marry are off limits, period.” In addressing the prospect of losing members of the party because of this more affirmative tone for the Ontario PCs, Brown said, “Frankly, I think I opened the party up to tens of thousands more who simply want a reasonable, thoughtful, modern, inclusive PC party,” so I'm not worried about a few leaving.”


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: As Mayor of Brampton in June of 2019, Brown wrote an op-ed in the "Toronto Star" discussing the historical and political importance of the Toronto’s Pride Parade and called on provincial and federal conservative leaders including Doug Ford and Andrew Scheer to officially march in the Toronto and Ottawa parades. In 2019, Brown and Brampton City Council marched in the Toronto Pride Parade as an official delegation for the first time in the city’s history.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown is a critic of the Sri Lankan government, particularly of its treatment of Sri Lankan Tamils. He has labelled the atrocities faced by Tamil civilians in Sri Lanka a genocide. Brown was an advocate of Bill 104, which officially declared the Sri Lankan government's actions a genocide. In January 2021, following the demolition of a Mullivaikkal monument at Jaffna University by university authorities, he vowed to build a similar monument in Brampton. In November 2021, Brown commemorated "Maaveerar Naal" on behalf of the city. In a video privately shared to members of the Tamil Canadian community, he stated that if he became Prime Minister, he would lift the terrorist designation of the LTTE and apologize for its listing, arguing that the LTTE's actions were "acts of self-defence against a Sri Lankan government that was acting in a manner that was a modern atrocity" and that "rather than it being a symbol of terrorism, the tiger is a symbol of, in my opinion, self-defence against the government committing war crimes." He also argued that "[t]oo many Tamil Canadians continue to be stigmatized due to this ban" and that the ban is "unduly affecting family reunification and professional opportunities."


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown's wife, Genevieve Gualtieri, is the niece of current Progressive Conservative MPP Rudy Cuzzetto who represents Mississauga—Lakeshore. They lived in the Lorne Park neighbourhood of Mississauga, but simultaneously had a lease in Brampton; they have since moved within the city. In July 2019 the couple announced the birth of their first child, a boy.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: Brown is the nephew of Joe Tascona, a former Progressive Conservative MPP who represented Barrie—Simcoe—Bradford.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: After his forced resignation, Brown penned a book called "Takedown: The Attempted Political Assassination of Patrick Brown". The book was released as scheduled, in October 2018, which happened to be after Brown won the mayoralty of Brampton.


title: Patrick Brown (politician)

text: There was negative reaction to the release from the Ontario provincial government of Doug Ford, and from the previous incumbent, Linda Jeffrey.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby sevens (commonly known as simply sevens and originally known as seven-a-side rugby) is a variant of rugby union in which teams are made up of seven players playing seven-minute halves, instead of the usual 15 players playing 40-minute halves. Rugby sevens is administered by World Rugby, the body responsible for rugby union worldwide. The game is popular at all levels, with amateur and club tournaments generally held in the summer months. Sevens is one of the most well distributed forms of rugby, and is popular in parts of Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas, and especially in the South Pacific.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby sevens originated in Melrose, Scotland in the 1880s; the Melrose Sevens tournament is still played annually. The popularity of rugby sevens increased further with the development of the Hong Kong Sevens in the 1970s and was later followed by the inclusion of the sport into the Commonwealth Games for the first time in 1998 and the establishment of the annual World Rugby Sevens Series in 1999 and the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series in 2012. In 2016, rugby sevens was contested in the Summer Olympics for the first time. It has also been played in regional events such as the Pan American Games and the Asian Games, and in 2018 a women's tournament was played for the first time at the Commonwealth Games.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby sevens is sanctioned by World Rugby, and is played under similar laws (with exceptions noted below) and on a field of the same dimensions as the 15 player game. While a regular rugby union match lasts at least 80 minutes, a normal sevens match consists of two halves of seven minutes with a two-minute half-time break. Previously, the final of a competition could be played over two halves of ten minutes each, but beginning in 2017, final-round matches were limited to seven-minute halves (excluding ties) in an effort to reduce injuries. Sevens scores are generally comparable to regular rugby scores, but scoring occurs much more frequently in sevens, since the defenders are more spaced out. The scoring system is the same as regular rugby union, namely five points for a try, three points for a penalty or drop goal and two points for a post-try conversion.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The shorter match length allows rugby sevens tournaments to be completed in a day or a weekend. Many sevens tournaments have a competition for a cup, a plate, a bowl, and a shield, allowing many teams of different standards to avoid leaving empty-handed.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Sevens tournaments are traditionally known for having more of a relaxed atmosphere than fifteen-a-side games, and are often known as "festivals". Sevens tournaments gained their "popularity as an end of season diversion from the dourer and sterner stuff that provides the bulk of a normal season's watching." Fans frequently attend in fancy dress, and entertainment is put on for them.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The Hong Kong Sevens tournament has been especially important in popularising the game in Asia, and rugby sevens has been important as a form of international rugby "evangelism"; hence it is perhaps the most widely played form of the game, with tournaments in places as far apart as Bogota and Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur and Kenya, Singapore and Scandinavia, as well as the countries in which rugby union is well known.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Sevens is played on a standard rugby union playing field. The field measures up to long and wide. On each goal line are H-shaped goal posts. The goal posts are on the goal line. This is unlike American football in which the posts are behind the back of the goal line.


title: Rugby sevens

text: There are several variations in laws which apply to rugby sevens, primarily to speed up the game and to account for the reduced number of players. The main changes can be summarised as follows:


title: Rugby sevens

text: Teams are composed of seven players – three forwards and four backs. Scrums are made up of three players from each team. The chart below shows a team's typical formation at scrum time, with three forwards bound into the scrum, a scrum-half waiting to retrieve the ball once it exits the scrum, and three backs positioned to receive a pass.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The numbers shown here are for illustrative purposes only. Unlike rugby fifteens, where a player's number corresponds to his position, numbering in rugby sevens is more flexible. In a squad of twelve players, the players will be numbered one through twelve. The starting players can have any of the twelve numbers, not necessarily one through seven. No set numbers differentiate positions; for example, numbers one through three are not reserved for forwards, but can be worn by any squad player.


title: Rugby sevens

text: In open play, a typical defensive formation involves a line of six defenders, with one sweeper behind the line. With the attacking team using all seven players against the defending team's six in the line, the attacking team often attempts to move the ball to create an overload. The defensive line can be put under pressure if the defending team makes a tackle and commits players to the ruck; with fewer players in the defending line, it leaves more space for the attacking team to exploit.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby sevens tends to be played at a faster pace than rugby fifteens. Because of the faster nature of the game, sevens players are often backs or loose forwards in fifteens rugby. The differences are most notable on game restarts. Because scrums in sevens involve three players forming one row instead of eight players forming three rows, scrums tend to assemble more quickly, require fewer restarts, and the ball exits the scrum more quickly. Penalties in sevens are generally taken with a quick tap, instead of a kick for touch and a line out, resulting in the ball being put back in play more quickly. When a player is tackled and a ruck is formed, the ball tends to exit the ruck more quickly, as the attacking team generally has only three players involved in the ruck – the tackled player, one support player, and one scrum-half.


title: Rugby sevens

text: At Loretto School in Musselburgh, Scotland, the then headmaster Hely Hutchinson Almond got the schoolboys to play short-sided matches in the 1860s and 1870s. This was to improve the players passing. A full rugby union match, at the time, was twenty-a-side and individualism was the style. Almond stated that he:


title: Rugby sevens

text: urged on his boys in the sixties that if only they would pass constantly and systematically to each other, they would baffle any side unaccustomed to such tactics.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Almond, a pioneer in collectivism in rugby union, struggled to get his schoolboys to get used to the system. The schoolboys stated this was 'funking'; but by 1872 he was organising eleven-a-side matches with Edinburgh Academicals. In 2007, Almond was nominated for the IRB Hall of Fame but was not inducted.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Collectivism did eventually take hold with new clubs, and Scotland exported it through Sevens around the world, and sides like New Zealand and South Africa quickly realised the benefits of collectivism. The bigger clubs in Scotland were reluctant to change their ways. They were winning, and could attract the best individualists from other clubs to maintain their position. In 1895 the "Scottish Referee" newspaper was still criticising West of Scotland for not using the collective method.


title: Rugby sevens

text: In England, the push for smaller sides eventually resulted in the formation of rugby league; and there was experimentation with numbers in the north of England prior to the split. There was a six-a-side tournament in Huddersfield in September 1879, played under regular rules but with 10 minute halves. Other tournaments were played over the next few years across the North before being replaced by a nine-a-side game. Matches attracted large crowds and raised thousands to support the clubs or local hospital charities. In August 1890, Yorkshire suspended 8 teams and in September Lancashire banned games with less than 15-a-side over allegations of professionalism; short sided games effectively ended in England.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby sevens was initially conceived in 1883 by Ned Haig and David Sanderson, who were butchers from Melrose, Scotland as a fund-raising event for their local club, Melrose RFC. The first-ever sevens match was played at The Greenyards, the Melrose ground, where it was well received. Two years later, Tynedale was the first non-Scottish club to win one of the Borders Sevens titles at Gala in 1885.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby union sevens' popularity in the Borders spread north throughout Scotland:- Aberdeen hosting Sevens in 1889; Edinburgh hosting Sevens in 1896; Glasgow hosting Sevens in 1898; Dundee hosting Sevens in 1901. The popularity of Sevens exploded in the 1920s and 1930s. From the 19th century to today, over 150 Sevens tournaments in Scotland are known; and though some tournaments have folded; new tournaments continue to be born.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Sevens remain popular in Scotland; and the Melrose Sevens annually attracts around 12,000 spectators to the small Borders town. The Melrose Sevens centenary tournament in 1983 attracted 17,500 fans.


title: Rugby sevens

text: A rugby sevens tournament was played by St. Helens Cricket Club on 29 May 1886; and the final took place a week later. A rugby sevens tournament was organised by Warrington F.C. (a rugby club) on their athletics day on 14 August 1886 but it was not repeated. A rugby sevens match was played in Chorley, Lancashire as part of the Chorley Rugby and Athletic club's sports day on 22 July 1888; another match looks to have taken place the following year on 24 August 1889. The Rainford Athletics Club hosted a Sports Day on 7 August 1888 with a 3 team rugby sevens tournament, but this was a one-off and not repeated. Sevens then ended in England and it would be a long wait for any future English Sevens tournaments to arrive, with the exception of a Whitsuntide event, which included sevens, at Hexham in 1894 which seemed to go ahead without official backing. The Hexham Whitsuntide Sports committee tried to invite Hawick RFC as their star guests, but without backing this did not come off.


title: Rugby sevens

text: For a long time the English Rugby Union held against rugby sevens being played in England. English clubs, particularly those close to the Scottish border and aware of the game's success in Scotland, wanted to play their own tournaments. Their pleas went in vain.


title: Rugby sevens

text: England finally hosted its first Sevens tournament in 1921 as the Scottish game crept south over the border. This was on 23 April 1921 by Carlisle rugby club; they beat a Hawick 'B' side in the final. Next was on 3 September 1921 in north east England at the Percy Park Sevens in North Shields. It was close to the Scottish Borders and Scottish sides were invited to play in the tournament with local English sides. The final was contested between Selkirk and Melrose; with Selkirk winning the event.


title: Rugby sevens

text: First played in 1926, the Middlesex Sevens were set-up by Dr J.A. Russell-Cargill, a London-based Scot. The tournament was intended as a fundraiser for King Edward VII Hospital. It raised £1,600; at a time when standard admission was a shilling, and stand seats cost five shillings. This became England's premier Sevens tournament:- it had some formidable figures on its sub-committee such as Wavell Wakefield and Bill Ramsay; it was close to London – and 10,000 spectators attended the second Middlesex tournament; and it helped rugby in London develop – featuring the aforementioned Wavell Wakefield, Carl Aarvold (later Recorder of the City of London) of Blackheath FC, Wick Powell of London Welsh RFC, and John Tallent, who would later become chairman of the Four Home Unions Tours Committee. Invitation sides graced the Sevens tournament:- such as Sale RFC in 1936, which included such players as Wilf Wooller and Claude Davey of and Ken Fyfe of amongst their backs; and in 1939, Cardiff RFC, which included players such as Wilf Wooller again, and Les Spence and Wendy Davis.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The Earl of Dalhousie became Governor-General of India in the middle of the nineteenth century. He took his summers in the Indian western Himalayas. His base there, also called Dalhousie, and the neighbouring Khajjiar region, remains known as a 'Little Scotland of India'. Teams from Dalhousie and Chamba played various sports against one another at the Khajjiar Gymkhana. The Chamba side was a mixed civilian and native side; the Dalhousie side was a military side. On 29 June 1886 at 1am they played a rugby sevens match, as the Dalhousie players favoured rugby union; and the Chamba players, that had already beaten Dalhousie in cricket and association football, confidently obliged. The Dalhousie side unsurprisingly won the match; with the newspaper report seeming to blame Chamba's native players for the loss, a sad reflection of the times.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Sevens then spread from Scotland to Dunedin; a Scottish expatriate city in New Zealand. The first Dunedin Sevens tournament was the Charity tournament in aid of Dunedin hospital on 28 September 1889. From Dunedin, sevens spread north to Christchurch where Canterbury Rugby Union held a Sevens tournament on 16 September 1893. On 23 May 1894, sevens had almost reached the North Island with a tournament in Nelson.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The first notice of a Sevens tournament in Australia is that of Central Queensland Rugby Union's tournament in Rockhampton on 4 July 1891. The Wanderers won the tournament beating the Waratahs and the Berserkers.


title: Rugby sevens

text: In Ireland, Douglas RFC of Cork attempted to host a Sevens tournament on 8 December 1900. However, due to inclement weather this did not come off. The first Sevens tournament in Ireland was then the Belfast tournament of 30 April 1921 in aid of the Warriors Day fund. This was run by the northern branch of the IRFU.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The next country to host a Sevens tournament was Argentina; arriving again via Scottish expatriates. The Buenos Aires Cricket & Rugby Club hosted their own Sevens event on 9 July 1921. The Buenos Aires club defeated Belgrano Athletic Club in the final. The Buenos Aires club went on to host Sevens tournaments on 9 July every year; however a pitch-invasion tradition at the final meant that no further winners were recorded until 1937. The 9 July is Argentina's Independence Day holiday; and a feast is often prepared in celebration. It is said that the pitch invasion tradition started when a bell, announcing that food was ready, rang out during the final.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The first-ever officially sanctioned tournament for national teams was the 1973 International Seven-A-Side Tournament held at Murrayfield as part of the "Scottish Rugby Union's Celebration of Rugby" centenary celebrations.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Due to the success of the format, the Scottish connection continued in the establishment of the Hong Kong Sevens in the 1970s. Founded largely by expats such as "Tokkie" Smith, the Hong Kong Sevens were ahead of their time and an influential force in the modernisation of rugby union. For example, the Hong Kong Sevens was one of the first rugby union tournaments to attract major sponsorship when the airline Cathay Pacific sponsored the inaugural tournament in 1976. They also provided a level of cosmopolitan international competition, which tended not to exist in rugby before the first Rugby World Cup in 1987, especially since was not seen as one of the "Big Eight". By 1986, the Hong Kong Sevens were held up as a positive example to others, although many of the smaller nations' teams were largely made up of expatriates.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby sevens continues to be popular in the Scottish Borders, where the ten most prestigious tournaments make up a league competition known as the Kings of the Sevens. In honour of the role of Melrose RFC in the creation of rugby sevens, the club was inducted, along with Haig, to the IRB Hall of Fame in 2008. Top club sides and international sides frequently enter the Sevens tournaments in Scotland; the Melrose Sevens, as the founding event of the sport, being the most prestigious.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Sevens has also taken strong root in the Pacific island nations of Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, as well as in Kenya. In many minor rugby nations, such as in Poland, development has tended to concentrate on rugby sevens as a means of introducing the sport to people. Rugby sevens has become popular in places such as Hong Kong, Singapore and Dubai, which are not so successful in the fifteen-a-side code. In addition, seven of the 15 current "core teams" that compete in all legs of the World Series represent nations that are not within the recognised top tier of the 15-man game – Fiji, Samoa, Kenya, the United States, Canada, Portugal, and Japan.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Recently there has been the introduction of many new teams to the sevens circuit such as Russia and Germany.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby league also has a long heritage in the seven-a-side game. The world record rugby league crowd for sevens was 80,000 in Roundhay Park, Leeds, 1932, before a royal audience. In the modern era, however, small-sided rugby league has concentrated on the Nines format, which boasts similar adaptations to the league code as sevens does with the union code.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The World Series has been held every season since the 1999–2000 inaugural season. Each season the Sevens Series holds from seven to eleven tournaments, from around October and concluding around June. Most tournaments see 16 teams competing – mostly "core teams" that participate in each event, but also some teams that win the right to participate in select events.


title: Rugby sevens

text: New Zealand has been the dominant force in the Sevens Series, winning 13 out of the 23 seasons, including the first six seasons from 1999–2000 to 2004–05. In recent years, however, several other teams have challenged New Zealand's dominance. Fiji won the Series in 2005–06 and again in 2014–15 and 2015–16; South Africa won in 2008–09 and 2016–17; and Samoa claimed the 2009–10 crown. Other strong contenders include England and Australia, each of whom have had several top four finishes in recent seasons. The 2015 London Sevens, saw the United States win their first-ever tournament in the World Series.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Notable World Series players include England's Dan Norton, who has scored more tries (>230) than any other player; and England's Ben Gollings, who has scored more points (2,652) than any other player.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The Rugby Women's Sevens Series has been held every season since the 2012-13 inaugural season. Each season the Sevens Series holds from five to six tournaments, usually starting around November and concluding around June. Most tournaments see 12 teams competing – mostly "core teams" that participate in each event, but also some teams that win the right to participate in select events.


title: Rugby sevens

text: New Zealand have been the most dominant team in the series since its establishment by winning four of the six competitions held up to and including 2018.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The International Olympic Committee voted in 2009 to include rugby sevens on the program for the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. There were two open spots for sports and initially seven sports began the bidding for inclusion in the 2016 program. The event debuted in an Olympic program at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Two issues related to differences between the structures of rugby union and the Olympics were sorted out before the 2016 Olympic Games. The issue of a combined British team has proven less of a problem in rugby union. World Rugby chief executive Mike Miller endorsed the concept of a combined British sevens team in 2011 for the 2016 Olympics and beyond. Another issue is the status of Northern Ireland. World Rugby recognises the Irish Rugby Football Union as the sport's governing body for the entire island of Ireland. By contrast, the International Olympic Committee recognises the British Olympic Association as the governing body of the UK Olympic team, while the Olympic Council of Ireland usually fields teams representing all of Ireland in sports which are organised on an all-Ireland basis. Northern Irish sevens players play for the Irish team.


title: Rugby sevens

text: In the men's competition Fiji won the gold medal in the sport's Olympic debut, with Great Britain taking the silver and South Africa the bronze. The women's gold medal was won by Australia, with New Zealand taking silver and Canada bronze.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The Rugby World Cup Sevens is held every four years and is the premier international rugby sevens tournament outside of the Olympic Games. The first tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993 with England becoming the first team to win the event. Fiji and New Zealand are the most successful, with Fiji winning two World Cups and New Zealand winning three World Cups. In the men's competition teams compete for the Melrose Cup and in the women's competition, launched in 2009, teams compete for the Women's Rugby World Cup Sevens Trophy.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Beginning with the 2018 edition, which was held in San Francisco, United States, the World Cup Sevens is held in the middle of the Summer Olympic cycle, two years after each Olympics. As part of the drive to include Sevens as an Olympic sport, World Rugby proposed ending the World Cup event entirely to ensure the Olympic event had the greatest prestige. However, following feedback, World Rugby and the IOC recognised the benefit to keeping the typically much larger World Cup event (24 teams), but to align it timewise with the more streamlined Olympic tournament (12 to 16 teams).


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby sevens has been played at each of the Commonwealth Games every four years since its first appearance at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and was the first major international multisports event to include the sport. Rugby sevens is a "Core" sport by the Commonwealth Games Federation, necessitating its appearance at all future games. The New Zealand team has won the gold medal four times with South Africa winning the tournament at Glasgow 2014 beating the defending champions in the final. Through the 2014 Games in Glasgow, it was the last remaining male-only sport at the Commonwealth Games, after women's boxing was added for those Games. Women's sevens made its Commonwealth Games debut in the 2018 Games. The New Zealand teams won the gold medal in both the men's and women's competitions.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Rugby sevens is played at various regional multi-sport competitions, including the Asian Games and the Pacific Games. Rugby union was formerly played at the World Games, but this has ceased as rugby is now an Olympic sport.


title: Rugby sevens

text: A men's rugby sevens was introduced at the Asian Games in 1998. A women's tournament was added in 2010.


title: Rugby sevens

text: Men's rugby sevens at the Pan American Games has been held every four years since the 2011 Pan American Games, with Canada, Argentina, and the United States placing for medals each time. Women's rugby sevens was later added to the program for the 2015 Pan American Games.


title: Rugby sevens

text: The Rugby Europe Sevens Grand Prix Series serves as a regional qualifier for two types of tournaments. The top two finishing teams each year who are not core members of the World Rugby Sevens Series advance to the Hong Kong Sevens, the qualifying tournament for teams vying to achieve core team status in the World Rugby Sevens Series. The Europe Grand Prix also serves as a regional qualifier for major quadrennial tournaments, such as the summer Olympics and the Rugby World Cup Sevens.


title: Rugby sevens

text: In Europe, Portugal dominated in sevens during the Championship era (2002–10); only twice the team did not win the trophy, in 2007 and 2009, when both times the championships were won by Russia.


title: Rugby sevens

text: In the Grand Prix Series era from 2011 to the present, the champions became England and France; both teams won the trophy twice in a row. Portugal won the first edition, while Russia is the current champion.