title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In 1929, the new KPJ leadership put the Comintern's call to violence into practice, but instead of all-out revolt, the efforts were consisted of leaflets and several shoot-outs with the police. KPJ losses were heavy and included death of several significant leaders including Đaković and imprisonment of its most active members by specially convened antisubversive tribunals. In turn, the Sremska Mitrovica Prison became a makeshift KPJ training school as the prison allowed grouping of political prisoners.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: On instructions from the Comintern, non-Serb members of the KPJ were to advocate breakup of Yugoslavia as a construct of the Western Powers. However at the time, most of their efforts were invested in struggle against the JSDS and debating revolutionary merits of literature written by Miroslav Krleža. By 1932, membership dwindled to less than 500, the KPJ maintained its leadership divided in at least two locations at all times in 1928–1935, including at least one abroad in Moscow, Prague, Vienna, or Paris.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Also acting on Comintern July 1932 instructions to promote and aid national revolt in Croatia, Slovenia, Montenegro, and Macedonia, the KPJ sought to establish ties with the Bulgaria-based Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, but the organisation was suffering from its internal weaknesses and suppressed by 1934. There were also overtures towards Italian-based Ustaše as a Croatian secessionist organisation. KPJ leaders praised the Ustaše-initiated Lika uprising in 1932, hoping to steer Ustaše to the political left. Even though support for Ustaše efforts in Lika and Dalmatia was declared through "Proleter" newspapers in December 1932, the bulk of contact with them was limited to contact with fellow prison inmates trying to engage them over the shared goal of breakup of Yugoslavia.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The ultra-leftist line pursued since 1928 was abandoned in 1933 when Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany. Instead, the KPJ turned the idea of forming a popular front together with other anti-fascist organisations. The strategy aimed to attract broad coalition of allies since it was no longer thought feasible to achieve quick introduction of communist rule. The popular front strategy coincided with assignment of Milan Gorkić to the KPJ leadership from his posting at the Comintern in 1932. Gorkić set about to introduce discipline to the KPJ top ranks and establish ties with the JSDS, the HSS, the Montenegrin Federalist Party, the Slovene Christian Socialists, and pro-Russian right wing organisations in Serbia with Moscow now advocating Yugoslav unity. This placed the KPJ at odds with the Comintern which continued to advocate breakup of Yugoslavia until signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in August 1939. Still, Gorkić largely stayed out of Yugoslavia. In 1934, he appointed Tito, just released from jail, to organise secret KPJ congress in Ljubljana later that year. Gorkić was appointed the general secretary of the KPJ in 1936, with Sreten Žujović and Rodoljub Čolaković as central committee members. Tito was appointed by the Comintern as the organisational secretary of the KPJ in Moscow in September of the same year and he moved to Vienna a month later.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In July 1937, Gorkić was summoned from his Paris base to Moscow where he was arrested. In addition to him, there were about 900 communists of Yugoslav origin or their supporters in the Soviet Union who fell victim to the Stalin's Great Purge as did 50 other KPJ officials posted in Moscow including Cvijić, Ćopić, Filipović, Marković, and Novaković. The Soviet subsidy to the KPJ was suspended. The move left Tito in de facto control of the KPJ as his position was ranked second only to the one held by Gorkić.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Tito spent 1937 and early 1938 in Yugoslavia organising the KPJ there as a disciplined covert organisation drawing new members loyal to the communist ideas and Tito personally from all nations within Yugoslavia, except Macedonians. During this period, Tito intervened in conflict among groups of KPJ members incarcerated in Sremska Mitrovica. The conflict centred on the popular front strategy advocated by Hebrang and supported by Moša Pijade, Josip Kraš, and Đuro Pucar and denounced by Petko Miletić backed by Milovan Đilas and Aleksandar Ranković – the latter labelled Wahhabites by Pijade because of their radicalism. The conflict escalated to an attempt to kill Hebrang. Tito worked with Pijade to arrange a compromise by including Đilas and Ranković in the temporary KPJ leadership along with Croatian moderate popular front supporters Kraš and Andrija Žaja as well as Soviet-educated Slovene Edvard Kardelj.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In 1937, the Comintern compelled the KPJ to formally establish the Communist Party of Croatia (, KPH) and the Communist Party of Slovenia (). The two parties were nominally independent, but actually within the KPJ. This was later the precedent for establishment of communist parties in other parts of Yugoslavia. Still the KPH leadership headed by Kraš and Žaja came into conflict with Tito in 1938 when the KPH supported the HSS instead of the Party of the Working People as the KPJ front founded for participation in 1938 parliamentary elections.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The temporary leadership put together by Tito remained largely unchanged when Tito received the Comintern mandate to lead the KPJ in 1939. Miletić was released from prison that year and sought to replace Tito. Months later he disappeared after he was summoned to Moscow and arrested by the NKVD as a victim of a series of purges in the KPJ in 1937–1940 which strengthened Tito's position.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In 1940, the KPJ successfully completed the campaign to diminish influence of Krleža and his literary adherents who were advocating Marxist ideas and opposed Stalinisation fearing totalitarianism. Also, Tito removed Kraš and Žaja from the leading positions in the KPH and replaced them by Rade Končar.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In October 1940, the Fifth Land Conference of the KPJ was held covertly in Zagreb, as the final act of Tito's campaign to assume full control of the party. The conference represented a full takeover of now organisationally stronger, centralized, disciplined, and bolshevized, but politically isolated KPJ by Tito in full alignment with the leftist line pursued by the Comintern at the time. The national question was placed at the centre of the KPJ policy at the conference where Tito criticised long gone Marković and Gorkić for lack of understanding of the issue. As Tito consolidated his control, the KPJ membership grew to 6,000 in 1939 and to 8,000 by 1941, with many more other supporters.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The final months of 1940 were marked by militarisation of politics in Yugoslavia leading to incidents such as the armed clash between the KPJ and the far-right Yugoslav National Movement in October leaving five dead and 120 wounded. The structural changes of the KPJ, strategic use of the national question and social emancipation to mobilise supporters made the party ideologically and operationally ready for armed resistance in the approaching war.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: During brief resistance of the Royal Yugoslav Army against the Axis invasion of the country, Tito was in Zagreb. Two days after outbreak of hostilities, the KPJ and the KPH requested arms from the 4th Army headquarters to help defend the city, but they were denied. With the Yugoslav defeat imminent, the KPJ instructed its 8,000 members to stockpile weapons in anticipation of armed resistance, which would spread, by the end of 1941 to all areas of the country except Macedonia.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Building on its experience in clandestine operation across the country, the KPJ proceeded to organise the Yugoslav Partisans, as resistance fighters led by Tito. The KPJ assessed that the German invasion of the Soviet Union had created favourable conditions for an uprising and its politburo founded the Supreme Headquarters of the National Liberation Army of Yugoslavia () with Tito as commander in chief on 27 June 1941.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In terms of military training, the Partisans relied on those among its ranks who had completed the mandatory national service in the Royal Yugoslav Army or fought in the Spanish Civil War. Many KPJ members were veterans of that conflict, and would go on to assume commanding positions in the Partisan ranks. In addition to military training, political training was given increasing importance as the war progressed. It was provided by political commissars based on the Soviet model. The commissaries were a part of the detachment staff, units originally ranging in size from 50 to 500 or even 1,000. A commissar's cap badge was made distinct from other Partisans. Namely, the red star on their cap was defaced with the hammer and sickle. The move drew criticism from the Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation (, OF) civil resistance organisation – which accused the KPJ of creating its own army. In response, Slovene Partisan commissars' caps were adorned with red stars defaced with letters "OF" instead. By 1942, typically 30–50 percent of Partisan unit personnel declared themselves as communists. Selection of personnel deemed the best for 14 Proletarian Brigades increased this share in those units – to more than 60 percent in some instances. According to Yugoslav sources, the Partisan forces grew to 800,000 by 1945 through volunteers, conscription of men aged 17–50, and defections of enemy troops promised amnesty.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: KPJ's strategic approach was complex because of pressures from the Comintern prioritising social struggle competing with the national liberation in substantially regionally uneven circumstances resulting from Axis partitioning of Yugoslavia, especially from creation of Axis-satellite of the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH).


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In Macedonia, the regional organisation led by Metodi Shatorov switched allegiance from the KPJ to the Bulgarian Communist Party, practically recognising Bulgarian annexation of the area. Collapse of Užice Republic, a Partisan-controlled territory in occupied Serbia in 1941 during a German and Chetnik offensive was, in part, helped by views of local peasants who viewed Chetnik propaganda more favourably than communist social radicalism in light of preservation of their property.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Following the German defeat at Moscow in late 1941, the KPJ leadership thought that the war was nearly over and went to ensure full control by the KPJ in the country. In the period until spring of 1942, this policy was generally confined to Montenegro and eastern Herzegovina, and in a lesser draconian form to the area of present-day Vojvodina and Slovenia. It largely consisted of killing of class enemies where individual Partisan units were given quotas of required executions. It also meant forced labour for peasants deemed idle or even untidy. The targeted populations were driven to support Chetniks or other Axis forces, and the policy thus undermined the overall struggle – in turn causing the KPJ to criticise the perpetrators ignoring the role of its Central Committee in formulation of the policy. Similarly, the KPJ penalised Petar Drapšin and Miro Popara as proponents of the policy, but ignored similar roles played by Đilas, Ivan Milutinović, and Boris Kidrič. In spring of 1942, the policy known as the Leftist errors was abandoned.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Policies employed by the NDH, enforced by the Ustaše against Serbs and ceding of Dalmatia to Italy through the Treaties of Rome created a natural base for Partisan recruitment among the Serbs, and Croats (particularly in Dalmatia) respectively. Furthermore, establishment of the NDH fractured the HSS into three groups – one supporting the armed resistance, another supporting the NDH, and an indecisive group around HSS leader Vladko Maček employing a waiting tactic. In February 1942, the KPH leadership under Hebrang saw this as an opportunity for the Croatian Partisans to wrest the position of the central patriotic force among Croats from the HSS.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In effect, Hebrang thus pursued a policy close to the wartime Soviet coalitionist views, supporting a certain level of involvement of the former members of the HSS, and the Independent Democratic Party, as well as representatives of associations and trade unions in the political life as a form of a "mass movement", including in the work of the State Anti-fascist Council for the National Liberation of Croatia as the top tier political body intended to grow into the future People's Parliament of Croatia.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Furthermore, Hebrang declared support for more moderate social policies, and advocated Croatia's autonomy within the Yugoslav federation. He argued that Serbs of Croatia should be primarily loyal to the Croatian federal unit which would ensure their political representation and preservation of their culture. Nonetheless, the increased Croatian character of the KPH caused anxiety among the Serbs. The independent policy pursued by the KPH brought Tito and Hebrang into conflict with pursuit of nationalist policy as the principal charge against the KPH. Due Hebrang's popularity, the KPJ wanted to avoid antagonising Croats during the wartime struggle and instead, just two weeks before the Red Army and the Partisans took the capital from Germans, reassigned Hebrang to Belgrade to become the minister of industry and filled the leading role in the KPH with Vladimir Bakarić.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In November 1942, the Partisans captured the town of Bihać and secured control over a large part of western Bosnia, Dalmatia and Lika they named the Bihać Republic. In the town, a pan-Yugoslav assembly – the Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (, AVNOJ) – was established in the town at the initiative of Tito and the KPJ later that month. At its founding meeting, the AVNOJ adopted the principle of federal state as the solution for future. In the wake of the Bihać meeting, there were land councils established as political bodies representative of individual parts of the future federation.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The AVNOJ convened for the second time in Jajce in November 1943, declaring itself as the future parliament of the new Yugoslav state, affirmed commitment to forming a democratic federation without specifying any details of such federation. It also denied authority of the Yugoslav government-in-exile and forbade the King Peter II return to the country. A month before the Jajce meeting, the central committee of the KPJ created the National Committee for the Liberation of Yugoslavia as the new Yugoslav government, and the AVNOJ confirmed its composition – including Tito as its president. Tito's position was reinforced through the Tito–Šubašić Agreements he concluded with the government-in-exile in the second half of 1944 and early 1945. On the basis of those agreements, the government-in-exile was replaced with the Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia with Tito as the Prime Minister on 7 March 1945.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: During the war, the KPJ added new organisations based on foreseen federal units. In 1943, it established the Communist Party of Macedonia () and, in the final days of the war in May 1945, the KPJ founded the Communist Party of Serbia (). By the end of the war, the KPJ's membership reached just over 141,000.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In 1945, the KPJ worked to broaden its support, and discredit its political opponents. Since the politicians included in the government-in-exile only returned to Yugoslavia in March 1945, and Vladko Maček remained abroad, there was no well-organised political opposition to the KPJ. The People's Front of Yugoslavia (, NFJ) was established in autumn of 1945, nominally a coalition of nearly all political parties in the country. A notable exception was Milan Grol's Democratic Party which was charged with the Serbian nationalism. Besides the KPJ, the NFJ included weak and poorly organised bourgeois parties: the Yugoslav Republican Party, the Independent Democratic Party, the Agriculturalist's Union, the Socialist Party, the JSDS, the Croatian Republican Peasant Party (, HRSS), and a group of politicians organised as the Forward () group. While non-communist parties in the NFJ hoped for equality, Tito primary saw the NFJ as a tool for neutralization of political opposition by allying them with the KPJ. Due to weakness of the non-communist parties in the NFJ, the KPJ dominated the group.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In preparation of the 1945 elections, the AVNOJ was expanded by addition of pre-war members of parliament deemed not compromised by cooperation with the Axis powers. In effect, this meant addition of liberal and left-leaning politicians who could not be accused of collaborating with the Axis. Civil rights were curbed in the summer of 1945 when new legislation on crimes against the people and the state, curtailing the rights of assembly and freedom of the press. Middle and lower levels of bureaucracy were filled with the ranks of former Partisans.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Following a boycott proclamation by the Grol's Democrats, the elections were carried out like a referendum–voting for the NFJ and against it. The NFJ slate received the highest approval in Croatia where the HRSS was aligned with the KPJ (81%), followed by Slovenia (78%) despite non-participation by the pre-war parties in the NFJ slate there, and the lowest support in Serbia (67%). This result is attributed to monarchism and the boycott. Ultimately, 88,43% of the electorate voted, and the NFJ was supported by 88,69% of the votes cast. The suffrage was universal for everyone over the age of 18 (including women for the first time), except those charged with Axis collaboration. Former Partisans could vote even if under 18. The KPJ received 404 representatives of 524 (77%) in the bicameral Constituent Assembly.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: According to Đilas and Vladimir Velebit, the KPJ expected to win a majority of 60–65% even if the election were to guarantee fair competition. They based the opinion on the belief that the KPJ offered the opportunity to live in peace, an agrarian reform, and on post-war euphoria. In 1946, the parliament adopted a new Constitution implementing the ethnic federalism as the KPJ's solution for the national question, modelled on the Soviet Union. By 1947, the KPJ declared that its programme was the NFJ's programme and that the KPJ is in the forefront of the NFJ. Tito linked the collapse of the pre-war Yugoslavia with the multi-party system of government, justifying suppression of political opposition parties in the post-war context–calling the multi-party system incompatible with the socialist order and unnecessary. In October 1948, the four existing republican communist parties were complemented by two more: the Communist Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Communist Party of Montenegro.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Objectives of the Soviet foreign policy gradually brought the USSR in conflict with the KPJ. Their relationship was complicated as the KPJ led armed resistance against the Axis while the Soviet foreign relations were initially constrained by provisions of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, and then with alliance with the Western Allies who supported the Yugoslav government-in exile until shortly after the initial Tito–Šubašić Agreement. As Yugoslavia was not fully in the Soviet post-war sphere of influence, Tito pursued a foreign policy course seeking to integrate Albania into the Yugoslav federation, support the Greek communist guerrillas, and broaden ties between Yugoslavia and Bulgaria–potentially unifying the countries. Conclusion of the 1947 Bled Agreement seeking closer ties with Bulgaria, and imminent deployment of Yugoslav Army to Albania prompted a political confrontation with the USSR. The clash culminated in the Tito–Stalin split and the KPJ was expelled from the Cominform in 1948. For political reasons, the rift was presented as ideological rather than geopolitical one. The KPJ initially reacted to Stalin's criticism by adopting corrective measures in the field of collectivisation described as more Stalinist than those employed by Stalin himself.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The KPJ saw purges of real or perceived Stalin supporters and other political opponents of the regime. In 1948–1951 period, more than 50,000 KPJ members (nearly 20% of its membership) were registered as political opponents and ejected, but the party expanded its ranks by more than half a million members in the same time frame. Virtually all parties within the NFJ or otherwise were dismantled following the Stalin letters in which the Soviet leader accused the KPJ of being diluted by the NFJ. The only exception was the HRSS, which was temporarily allowed to continue operating.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The exact number of those arrested remains uncertain, but in 1983, Radovan Radonjić stated that 16,288 were arrested and convicted, including 2,616 belonging to various levels of the KPJ leadership. According to Ranković, 51,000 people were killed, imprisoned or sentence to forced labour, a majority of them without trial. Prisoners were held at numerous sites, including a special-purpose prison camp built on the uninhabited Adriatic islands of Goli Otok and Sveti Grgur in 1949.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In view of the circumstances and the ideological aspect of the Yugoslav–Soviet split, the KPJ found it necessary to differentiate the Yugoslav political system from the Soviet one. Since the KPJ labelled the USSR undemocratic, it was necessary to devise and highlight KPJ's innovative approach to communist rule. This was pursued through workers' self-management legislation introduced in 1950, as well as through opposition to Stalinism and inter-war Yugoslav unitarism. The approach led to a period of ideological revisionism in which established doctrines could be questioned.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Even though Soviet and Cominform propaganda drew attention to inequalities in the economic development of various parts of Yugoslavia, alleging restoration of capitalism, and national oppression of the underdeveloped nations, the clash between strict centralisation and decentralisation appeared as a conflict between political principle and economic priorities. In 1950, Yugoslav authorities sought to combat unsustainable labour practices and improve production efficiency through introduction of workers' councils and the system which later became known as "socialist self-management".


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: However, the 1946 Yugoslav constitution followed the model of the Soviet federation in which the federal parliament legislates laws applicable to the federal units and has the power to overrule the units' legislation. In 1952, Kardelj drafted constitutional amendments to reflect the reality of the reforms of 1950–1951. This led to codification of the reforms as 1953 Yugoslav constitutional amendments seeking to reflect the economic power of each constituent republic, while ensuring equal representation of each federal unit in the assembly to counterbalance this.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The KPJ proclaimed shift from party monopolising power to the ideological leader of the society, decentralised its structure, and rebranded itself (and correspondingly its republican organisations) as the League of Communists of Yugoslavia (, SKJ) at its sixth congress held in Zagreb in 1952. The name was inspired by the 1847–1852 Communist League. The constitutional amendments, adopted in January 1953, were only the second step in a series of five constitutional reforms reflecting the social development of Communist-ruled Yugoslavia, but the principles introduced in 1953 were retained in all subsequent Yugoslav constitutions.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: After the Yugoslav rapprochement with the USSR, Đilas feared Yugoslavia would switch to full control of the society by the central government. He thought that was possible due to influence of Ranković–the Đilas's primary competitor as a potential successor to Tito. Đilas wrote a series of articles for "Borba" criticising bureaucratism and Communist exclusive claim to power. He took the criticism further in a compilation of essays, accusing the KPJ of elitism and enjoying privileges. In response, Đilas was removed from the KPJ central committee in January 1954 and soon he left the KPJ. In a subsequent "The New York Times" interview, he called for a multi-party system in Yugoslavia – and this led to his imprisonment. Đilas was pardoned in 1966.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: At the 7th Congress of the SKJ held in 1958, the party became more centralised. This was achieved by largely revoking decision-making powers previously given to republican branches of the SKJ. The party programme published at the Congress praised emerging Yugoslav consciousness and a series of articles was published advocating creation of unified Yugoslav culture. This decision built on introduction of the option of declaring one's ethnicity as Yugoslav in the 1953 census, and the régime-sponsored 1954 Novi Sad Agreement on the single Serbo-Croatian language. Thus launched Yugoslavism campaign sought to replace federalism with unitarism. Ranković became the most prominent advocate of the campaign. He sought support from the League of Communists of Bosnia and Herzegovina (, SKBiH) and from the League of Communists of Montenegro (, SKCG) – with some success in the latter. In 1963, Serbia and Montenegro concluded several agreements on strengthening economic and cultural ties, including construction of the Belgrade–Bar railway.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The campaign was publicly criticised through an exchange of letters published in "Borba". The proponents of the campaign, largely ethnic Serbs, were accused of scheming to abolish republics and resurrect Greater Serbian chauvinism. Particular opposition came from the League of Communists of Croatia (, SKH) and the League of Communists of Macedonia (, SKM). They were joined in an informal national-liberal coalition by the League of Communists of Slovenia (, ZKS) and, in a less prominent role, by the leadership of Vojvodina. In early 1963, Tito was compelled to publicly warn about chauvinism and reassure non-Serbs that merger of nations was not contemplated while defending the concept of Yugoslavism. Finally, at the 8th Congress of the SKJ held in 1964, Tito and Kardelj gave speeches criticising those thinking about merging nations of Yugoslavia as proponents of bureaucratic centralisation, unitarism and hegemony. There was no further mention of Yugoslavism at the Congress and the republican branches of the SKJ were given back their decision-making powers to reflect specificities and national character of the republics. The 8th Congress thus abandoned Yugoslavism in favour of decentralisation.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The SKJ promoted the notion of "Yugoslav socialist patriotism". The concept was described by its advocates as the feeling or awareness and love of the socialist self-management community. According to the SKJ, the concept was unrelated to nationalism and ethnicity. The notion was also claimed to support values and traditions of ethnic groups living in Yugoslavia.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The 1950s workers' self-management-based reforms created a distorted socialist market economy where prices were regulated, and regulations often changed. The policy allowed municipal-level authorities to establish and protect enterprises against market forces. Tito said that those enterprises, dubbed "political factories", were only capable of producing losses. They competed for funding provided by federal investment funds – often through lobbying by republican-level officials - making the republics compete for limited resources.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In 1958, a miners' strike in Trbovlje fed into overall discontent in Slovenia regarding Yugoslav economic policy, and especially the management of federal investment funds. The event marked the first sign of growing divisions over economic development of the country and the political framework of the economic system. By 1961–62, the Yugoslav economy was in recession. The situation prompted small-scale economic reforms, which were quickly cancelled thereafter but led to a debate on economic issues. The debate coincided with adoption of the 1963 constitution expanding powers of the republics, and the 8th SKJ Congress expanding powers of the SKJ branches in 1964.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: As a form of concession to the conservative factions within the SKJ, two new offices were created under the new constitution, taken by Ranković and Petar Stambolić. The former became the Vice-President, and the latter the federal Prime Minister - as the position was separated from that of the President.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Republican leaderships advocated different economic development models. The ZKS in Slovenia and the SKH in Croatia favoured decentralisation and reduction of investment subsidies, and criticised the so-called political factories in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in Kosovo. The SKM leadership in Macedonia favoured decentralisation because they feared Serbian domination more than the loss of federal funding.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Author Sabrina Ramet described the competing factions in the SKJ at the federal and republican levels in the 1962–87 period as "liberals" and "conservatives," based on whether they supported or opposed calls for decentralisation. Those holding the middle ground were termed "brokers" and included Tito, Bakarić, and Stambolić.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: An opposing camp was formed by the League of Communists of Serbia (, SKS), the SKBiH in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the SKCG in Montenegro, who advocated continuing existing economic practices. In March 1966, the reformist group prevailed in the central committee of the SKJ, which supported economic reforms.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: These coalitions varied as particular interests shifted. By the end of the decade, Vojvodina no longer supported Croatian and Slovenian positions, but on the other hand the SKCG in Montenegro was no longer in full alignment with the Serbian SKS, while Croatia's SKH sought support from Kosovo's communists.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The reform debate was initially confined to economists, but by 1964 it was taken up in political forums and media, where opposing factions accused each other of exploiting one another. These allegations built upon mutual resentments. Non-Serb population saw Serbs (and Montenegrins) as overrepresented at all levels of federal SKJ offices, in the security services, and in the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) officer corps.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In addition, the growing development gap between Slovenia, Croatia, and Vojvodina on one hand and the rest of the country on the other was also a source of tensions. According to US consul to Zagreb, Helene Batjer, during the mid-1960s nationalism had increased as the result of years of economic austerity, political oppression, unprofitable investments in underdeveloped regions, and the failure of political leaders to deliver on their promises. It was also a form of protest against the dominant role of federal officials who were generally considered in Slovenia and Croatia to represent Serbia's interests. According to Batjer, about 50% of members of ZKS in Slovenia and SKH in Croatia espoused nationalist views by then.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In 1965, the pro-reform campaign was presented as a push against inefficient economic practices. It led to a transfer of economic authority from the federal level to the republics, and to the abolition of the federally controlled general investment fund. Its assets were transferred to three federal Belgrade-based banks, while the republican-level communist party officials increased their influence over economies of their respective republics.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: By early 1966, it was evident that the economic reform did not produce the desired results. The SKJ discussed the failure and blamed the Serbian leadership for resistance to the reform. In the spring of 1966, Kardelj persuaded Tito to remove Aleksandar Ranković from the SKJ central committee and the position of the vice president of Yugoslavia. He was accused of plotting to seize power disregarding the decisions of the 8th Congress of the SKJ on decentralisation, and abuse of the State Security Administration directly or through allies. Specifically, he was accused of illegally wire-tapping SKJ leadership, including Tito.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The investigation of the Ranković affair was handled by a six-member commission with one member drawn from each republic. It was chaired by Krste Crvenkovski (Macedonia) and its members were Đuro Pucar (Bosnia), Blažo Jovanović (Montenegro), Dobrivoje Radosavljević (Serbia), Miko Tripalo (Croatia), and France Popit (Slovenia). Even though they were not members of the commission, the investigation was directed by Kardelj, Bakarić, and Stambolić who controlled the commission through influence exerted on its members. Ranković was not informed of the accusations and the investigation until shortly before the plenum held on Brijuni Islands on 1 July 1966.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Ranković was eventually removed from all his offices and expelled from the central committee. His allies and successors as federal ministers of the interior, Svetislav Stefanović and Vojin Lukić, were also dismissed and expelled from the SKJ. On the initiative of SKJ's Kosovo organisation, supported by the SKCG, the SKBiH, and the SKM, Ranković was also expelled from the SKJ. Even though the SKJ took care to replace Ranković in all his former federal posts with ethnic Serbs, his ouster was perceived in Serbia and elsewhere in Yugoslavia as a Serbian defeat or even humiliation, resulting in Serb resentment.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Shortly after the fall of Ranković, the SKM of Macedonia called for political reforms. They proposed even greater decentralisation of the SKJ and giving veto powers to republican branches at federal-level decision-making by the SKJ. The plan was opposed by the SKS in Serbia but was supported to various degrees by others. While the debate was ongoing, the SKS leadership was replaced by liberal-leaning anti-nationalists Marko Nikezić and Latinka Perović who were made president of the central committee and the secretary of the executive committee respectively.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: While Nikezić and Perović did not support the economic aspects of the reform advocated by the SKH in Croatia, they welcomed the call for greater liberalisation of media and politics. In 1969, the 9th Congress remained silent on the veto rights, but granted the branches the right to appoint federal-level officials and adopt their own statutes.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Provincial SKJ organisations in Kosovo and Vojvodina were raised to the level of provincial communist parties in 1968. Thus were formed the League of Communists of Vojvodina (, SKV) and the League of Communists of Kosovo (, SKK), which were simultaneously part of the Serbian SKS and the federal SKJ. This left only the party organisation in the JNA under direct control of the federal-level SKJ.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In the atmosphere of the inter-republican disagreement on reform of banking and trade, the conflict assumed increasingly nationalist rhetoric. In 1967 and 1968, the Yugoslav constitution was amended once again, further reducing federal authority in favour of the constituent republics. The reformist forces grew in November 1968 when Marko Nikezić and Latinka Perović took helm of the SKS and advocated development through introduction of market economy practices and non-interference in other republics' affairs. The 9th Congress of the SKJ was held in March 1969, marking the peak of the reformist coalition. It pushed for decentralisation of all aspects of society. In the late 1960s, the relations between Slovenia's ZKS and Croatia's SKH became more strained, but the SKH and the Macedonian SKM successfully pressured the federal SKJ to adopt the principle of unanimity in decision-making, thus obtaining veto power for the republican branches of the SKJ in April 1970.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In the late 1960s, Croatia saw a resurgence of the national sentiment and Croatian nationalism primarily through the cultural organisation Matica hrvatska, in response to instances of actual or perceived Serbian dominance. The SKH had no official position regarding Matica hrvatska until late 1969 or early 1970. Then a reformist faction of the SKH led by Savka Dabčević-Kučar and Miko Tripalo gained control of the party and aligned themselves with Matica hrvatska to secure wider support in an intra-SKH power-struggle with a conservative faction.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: For the SKH, grievances included economic issues such as rate of retention of hard currency earnings by Croatia-based companies, but the complaints were expanded to include various political demands seeking increased autonomy and opposition to over-representation of ethnic Serbs in security services, politics, and elsewhere. A particular point of contention was the matter of distinguishing Croatian language from Serbo-Croatian.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: On 1 December 1971, Tito convened the 21st session of the SKJ presidium as a joint meeting with the SKH leaders where the SKH leadership was roundly criticised and told to regain control over nationalists. Within days, Dabčević-Kučar and Tripalo resigned, and tens of thousands of members were expelled from the SKH. Even as thousands were persecuted for political crimes, Tito sought to undercut nationalist support by granting economic reform demands.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: In January 1972, the SKJ adopted a programme of an ongoing fight against nationalism. In the process, reformist forces were targeted – Stane Kavčič was forced to resign in Slovenia, and the SKM faction of Krste Crvenkovski was ousted in Macedonia. In Serbia, Nikezić and Perović were accused of pursuing economic practices incompatible with socialism and forced to resign. Their replacements were obedient but mediocre politicians.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Namely, 1971 constitutional amendments transferred significant powers away from the federation to the republics, and the new constitution adopted in 1974 preserved the 1971 reforms nearly completely. It even expanded republican economic powers by putting into law the reformist demands in the sectors of banking, commerce, and foreign currency. The purges of early 1970s drove many reformist communists and the social-democratic-minded away from politics in the final decades of Yugoslavia.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: After Tito's death in 1980 the party adopted a collective leadership model, with the party presidency rotating annually. The party's influence declined and the party moved to a federal structure giving more power to party branches in Yugoslavia's constituent republics. Party membership continued to grow reaching two million in the mid-1980s but membership was considered less prestigious than in the past.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: Slobodan Milošević became President of the League of Communists of Serbia in 1987 and combined certain Serbian nationalist ideologies with opposition to liberal reforms. The growing rift among the branches of the Communist Party and their respective republics came to a head at the SKJ's 14th Congress, held in January 1990. The SKJ renounced its monopoly of power and agreed to allow opposition parties to take part in elections. However, rifts between Serbian and Slovenian Communists led the SKJ to dissolve into different parties for each republic.


title: League of Communists of Yugoslavia

text: The Communist associations in each republic soon adopted the "socialist" or "social-democratic" monikers, transforming into movements which were left-oriented, but no longer strictly communist.


title: Tughril

text: Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril ibn Mika'il (), better known as Tughril (; also spelled Toghril), was a Turkmen chieftain, who founded the Seljuk Empire, ruling from 1037 to 1063.


title: Tughril

text: Tughril united many Turkmen warriors of the Central Asian steppes into a confederacy of tribes and led them in conquest of Khorasan and eastern Persia. He would later establish the Seljuk Sultanate after conquering Persia and taking the Abbasid capital of Baghdad from the Buyids in 1055. Tughril relegated the Abbasid Caliphs to state figureheads and took command of the caliphate's armies in military offensives against the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimids in an effort to expand his empire's borders and unite the Islamic world.


title: Tughril

text: Before the advent of the Seljuks, Persia was divided between several warring local powers, such as the Saffarids, Buyids, Kakuyids, and Ghaznavids. As a result, it suffered from continuous war and destruction. However, under Tughril peace and prosperity were brought to the country and to Mesopotamia, a transition that was further reinforced due to the Seljuks' assimilation to Iranian-Muslim culture.


title: Tughril

text: "Tughril" was the Old Turkic word for a bird of prey, possibly the Crested goshawk. In early Turkic history and culture, starting from the Uyghur Khaganate and onwards, it was used as a personal name.


title: Tughril

text: Tughril was born in , most likely in the Central Asian steppes, where nomadic Oghuz Turks were roaming to find pasture for livestock. After the death of his father Mikail, Tughril and his brother Chaghri were reportedly raised by their grandfather Seljuk (the eponymous founder of the Seljuks) in Jand. It was seemingly during this period that the Seljuk family converted to Islam, at least nominally. In the following decades, the Seljuks were employed as mercenaries under the warring factions of Transoxiana and Khwarazm, in exchange for pasture for their herds.


title: Tughril

text: In the 1020s, Tughril and his other relatives were serving the Kara-Khanids of Bukhara. In 1026, the Kara-Khanids were driven out of Bukhara by the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Seljuk's son Arslan Isra'il fled to a place near Sarakhs, where he asked Mahmud for permission to settle in the area in return for military aid. Mahmud, however, had Arslan Isra'il put in prison, where the latter soon died. Meanwhile, Tughril and Chaghri remained loyal to their Kara-Khanid overlords, although there were disputes between them in 1029; in 1032, they fought alongside the Kara-Khanids at the Battle of Dabusiyya.


title: Tughril

text: After the Kara-Khanid ruler Ali-Tegin's death, however, the Seljuks changed their allegiance to the ruler of Khwarazm, Harun, but were repelled by the Oghuz ruler Shah Malik in 1035. The Seljuks then went to the same place as Arslan Isra'il, and asked the son of Mahmud, Mas'ud I, for asylum. Mas'ud, however, considered the nomadic Turks to be dangerous and sent an army under his commander-in-chief Begtoghdi. The army was shortly defeated by the Seljuks, who forced Mas'ud to surrender Nasa, Farava and Dihistan in return for Seljuk recognition of Ghaznavid authority and protection of the region from other Turkic tribes.


title: Tughril

text: In 1037, the Seljuks also forced the Ghaznavids to cede them Sarakhs, Abivard and Marw. The Seljuks then slowly began to subdue the cities of Khorasan, and, when they captured Nishapur, Tughril proclaimed himself Sultan of Khorasan.


title: Tughril

text: Mas'ud, after having returned to Khorasan, expelled the Seljuks from Herat and Nishapur. He soon marched towards Merv to completely remove the Seljuk threat from Khorasan. His army included 50,000 men and 12 to 60 war elephants.


title: Tughril

text: The Battle of Dandanaqan shortly took place near Merv, where the army of Mas'ud was defeated by a much smaller army under Tughril, his brother Chaghri Beg, and the Kakuyid prince Faramurz. Mas'ud thus permanently lost control of all of western Khorasan. This victory marked the foundation of the Seljuk Empire, which was now rapidly expanding west.


title: Tughril

text: Tughril then installed Chagri as the governor of Khorasan and prevented a Ghaznavid reconquest, then moved on to the conquest of the Iranian plateau from 1040 to 1044; in 1041–1042, Tughril conquered Tabaristan and Gurgan, and appointed a certain Mardavij ibn Bishui as the governor of the region. In 1042/3, he conquered Ray and Qazvin, and at the same his suzerainty was acknowledged by the Justanid ruler of Daylam. The Sallarid ruler of Shamiran also shortly acknowledged his overlordship. In 1054, Tughril forced the Rawadid ruler of Azerbaijan, Abu Mansur Wahsudan, to acknowledge his authority. Tughril's name was placed in the "khutba" (Friday prayer), while a son of Wahsudan, possibly Abu'l-Hayja Manuchihr, was sent as a Seljuk hostage to Khurasan. In the same year, Tughril's forces were contending in Anatolia with the Byzantines.


title: Tughril

text: In 1055 he was commissioned by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Qa'im to recapture Baghdad from the Buyids. A revolt by Turcoman forces under his foster brother İbrahim Yinal and the efforts of Buyid forces led to the loss of the city to the Fatimid Caliph in 1058. Two years later Tughril crushed the rebellion, personally strangling İbrahim with his bowstring and entered Baghdad. He then married the daughter of the Abbasid Caliph near the city of Tabriz.


title: Tughril

text: Tughril died on 4 October 1063 in Ray, at the age of seventy. Having no children, he had nominated his infant nephew Sulayman (a son of Chaghri Beg) as his successor. The vizier al-Kunduri supported this choice and may have been the one to suggest it to greatly expand his authority as the regent of the child. The succession was contested by Chaghri Beg's more competent and elder son Alp Arslan, who had ruled Khurasan since his father's death in 1059. Alp Arslan quickly asserted his authority over the whole empire, becoming the first Seljuk ruler to rule over both Tughril's and Chaghri's lands.


title: Tughril

text: One of his wives was Altun Jan Khatun. She was a Turkic woman, probably from Khwarazm, and had been married to Khwarazm Shah Shah Malik, with whom she had a son named Anushirvan. They married in around 1043. She died in 1061. Another wife was Akka Khatun. After Tughril's death, she married Alp Arslan. Another of his wives was the daughter of Abu Kalijar. They married in 1047–48. Another wife was the widow of his brother Chaghri Beg, and mother of his son, Suleiman. They married after Chaghri's death in 1060. Another wife was Sayida Khatun. She was the daughter of Abbasid Caliph Al-Qaim. In 1061, Tughril sent the "qadi" of Ray to Baghdad, to ask her hand in marriage to him. The marriage contract was concluded in August–September 1062 outside Tabriz, with a marriage proportion of one hundred thousand dinars. She was brought to the Sultan's palace in March–April 1063. After Tughril's death, Alp Arslan sent her back to Baghdad in 1064. In 1094, Caliph Al-Mustazhir compelled her to remain in her house in lest she should intrigue for his overthrow. She died on 20 October 1102.


title: Tughril

text: Sultan Tughril was undoubtedly a military genius. Though his military campaigns inflicted serious damage on the productive forces of many conquered states, they paved the way for the establishment of the first powerful medieval empire of the Turks that linked "the East and the West". The formation of a vast empire objectively led to important changes in socio-economic, political and cultural life. The role of the landowning aristocracy markedly increased. Gradually, a new apparatus of state administration and an imperial system of civil and military administration took shape.


title: Tughril

text: Tughril's conquests had an impact on the lives of not only the people of annexed states, but also the nomads themselves, who participated in the establishment of the new state. Noticeable changes in the life of the Oguz-Turkmen tribes occurred as they settled in Khorasan, Iran, Iraq, Syria, Transcaucasia and Asia Minor. The transition of compact groups of nomads to a semi-settled and sedentary life and agriculture took place. The old tribal ties broke up; feudal relations received a new incentive for further development, although remnants of archaic institutions remained for a long time. The Seljuk nobility began to gradually merge with the feudal aristocracy of the conquered lands.


title: Giant clam

text: The giant clams are the members of the clam genus Tridacna that are the largest living bivalve mollusks. There are actually several species of "giant clams" in the genus "Tridacna", which are often misidentified for "Tridacna gigas", the most commonly intended species referred to as "the giant clam".


title: Giant clam

text: "Tridacna gigas" is one of the most endangered clam species. Antonio Pigafetta documented these in his journal as early as 1521. One of a number of large clam species native to the shallow coral reefs of the South Pacific and Indian oceans, they can weigh more than , measure as much as across and have an average lifespan in the wild of over 100 years. They are also found off the shores of the Philippines and in the South China Sea in the coral reefs of Sabah (Malaysian Borneo).


title: Giant clam

text: The giant clam lives in flat coral sand or broken coral and can be found at depths of as much as 20 m (66 ft). Its range covers the Indo-Pacific, but populations are diminishing quickly, and the giant clam has become extinct in many areas where it was once common. The maxima clam has the largest geographical distribution among giant clam species; it can be found off high- or low-elevation islands, in lagoons or fringing reefs. Its rapid growth rate is likely due to its ability to cultivate algae in its body tissue.


title: Giant clam

text: Although larval clams are planktonic, they become sessile in adulthood. The creature's mantle tissues act as a habitat for the symbiotic single-celled dinoflagellate algae (zooxanthellae) from which the adult clams get most of their nutrition. By day, the clam opens its shell and extends its mantle tissue so that the algae receive the sunlight they need to photosynthesise.


title: Giant clam

text: Young "T. gigas" are difficult to distinguish from other species of Tridacninae. Adult "T. gigas" are the only giant clams unable to close their shells completely. Even when closed, part of the mantle is visible, unlike the very similar "T. derasa". However, this can only be recognized with increasing age and growth. Small gaps always remain between shells through which retracted brownish-yellow mantle can be seen.


title: Giant clam

text: "Tridacna gigas" has four or five vertical folds in its shell; this is the main characteristic that separates it from the similar shell of "T. derasa", which has six or seven vertical folds. As with massive deposition of coral matrices composed of calcium carbonate, the bivalves containing zooxanthellae have a tendency to grow massive calcium carbonate shells. The mantle's edges are packed with symbiotic zooxanthellae that presumably utilize carbon dioxide, phosphates, and nitrates supplied by the clam.


title: Giant clam

text: The mantle border itself is covered in several hundred eyespots about .5mm in diameter. Each one consists of a small cavity containing a pupil-like aperture and a base of one hundred or more photoreceptors. These receptors allow "T. gigas" to respond to sudden dimming of light by withdrawing their mantles and partially closing their shells, presumably to protect from potential predators. They do not retract their mantles in response to increased illumination, but it has been observed that a change in the direction of light results in a shift in mantle orientation. In addition to a dimming response, "T. gigas" also responds to the movement of an object before a shadow has been cast. In order for this to happen, an image forming optical system is required as the response is based on the local dimming of one part of the generated image relative to the rest. This sequential dimming of receptors caused by the movement of a dark object allows enough time for the mantle to be retracted before a potential predator is directly overhead and casting a shadow.


title: Giant clam

text: The largest known "T. gigas" specimen measured . It was discovered around 1817 on the north western coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, and its shells are now on display in a museum in Northern Ireland. The joint weight of the two shells is , which suggests that the live weight of the animal would have been roughly .


title: Giant clam

text: Another unusually large giant clam was found in 1956 off the Japanese island of Ishigaki. However, it was not examined scientifically before 1984. The shell's length was and the weight of the shells and soft parts was . Scientists estimated the live weight to be around .


title: Giant clam

text: While giant clams filter-feed, symbiotic algae provide them with an essential supplementary source of nutrition. These plants consist of unicellular algae, whose metabolic products add to the clam's filter food. This enables giant clams to grow as large as one meter in length even in nutrient-poor coral-reef waters. The clams cultivate algae in a special circulatory system which enables them to keep a substantially higher number of symbionts per unit of volume.


title: Giant clam

text: In very small clams— dry tissue weight—filter feeding provides about 65% of total carbon needed for respiration and growth; larger clams (10 g) acquire only 34% of carbon from this source. A single species of zooxenthellae may be symbionts of both giant clams and nearby reef–building (hermatypic) corals.


title: Giant clam

text: "Tridacna gigas" reproduce sexually and are hermaphrodites (producing both eggs and sperm). Self-fertilization is not possible, but this characteristic does allow them to reproduce with any other member of the species. This reduces the burden of finding a compatible mate, while simultaneously doubling the number of offspring produced by the process. As with all other forms of sexual reproduction, hermaphroditism ensures that new gene combinations be passed to further generations.


title: Giant clam

text: Since giant clams cannot move themselves, they adopt broadcast spawning, releasing sperm and eggs into the water. A transmitter substance called "spawning induced substance" (SIS) helps synchronize the release of sperm and eggs to ensure fertilization. The substance is released through a syphonal outlet. Other clams can detect SIS immediately. Incoming water passes chemoreceptors situated close to the incurrent syphon, which transmit the information directly to the cerebral ganglia, a simple form of brain.


title: Giant clam

text: Detection of SIS stimulates the giant clam to swell its mantle in the central region and to contract its adductor muscle. Each clam then fills its water chambers and closes the incurrent syphon. The shell contracts vigorously with the adductor's help, so the excurrent chamber's contents flows through the excurrent syphon. After a few contractions containing only water, eggs and sperm appear in the excurrent chamber and then pass through the excurrent syphon into the water. Female eggs have a diameter of . Egg release initiates the reproductive process. An adult "T. gigas" can release more than 500 million eggs at a time.


title: Giant clam

text: Spawning seems to coincide with incoming tides near the second (full), third, and fourth (new) quarters of the moon phase. Spawning contractions occur every two or three minutes, with intense spawning ranging from thirty minutes to two and a half hours. Clams that do not respond to the spawning of neighboring clams may be reproductively inactive.


title: Giant clam

text: The fertilized egg floats in the sea for about 12 hours until eventually a larva (trocophore) hatches. It then starts to produce a calcium carbonate shell. Two days after fertilization it measures . Soon it develops a "foot," which is used to move on the ground; it can also swim to search for appropriate habitat.


title: Giant clam

text: At roughly one week of age, the clam settles on the ground, although it changes location frequently within the first few weeks. The larva does not yet have symbiotic algae, so it depends completely on plankton. Free floating zooxanthellae are also captured while filtering food. Eventually the front adductor muscle disappears and the rear muscle moves into the clam's center. Many small clams die at this stage. The clam is considered a juvenile when it reaches a length of . It is difficult to observe the growth rate of "T. gigas" in the wild, but laboratory-reared giant clams have been observed to grow a year.


title: Giant clam

text: The main reason that giant clams are becoming endangered is likely to be intensive exploitation by bivalve fishing vessels. Mainly large adults are killed, since they are the most profitable.


title: Giant clam

text: The giant clam is considered a delicacy in Japan (known as "himejako"), France, Southeast Asia and many Pacific Islands. Some Asian foods include the meat from the muscles of clams. On the black market, giant clam shells are sold as decorative accoutrements. At times large amounts of money were paid for the adductor muscle, which Chinese people believed have aphrodisiac powers.


title: Giant clam

text: As is often the case with uncharacteristically large species, the giant clam has been historically misunderstood. It was known in times past as the "killer clam" and "man-eating clam", and reputable scientific and technical manuals once claimed that the great mollusc had caused deaths; versions of the "U.S. Navy Diving Manual" even gave detailed instructions for releasing oneself from its grasp by severing the adductor muscles used to close its shell.


title: Giant clam

text: In an account of the discovery of the Pearl of Lao Tzu, Wilburn Cobb said he was told that a Dyak diver was drowned when the "Tridacna" closed its shell on his arm.


title: Giant clam

text: Today the giant clam is considered neither aggressive nor particularly dangerous. While it is certainly capable of gripping a person, the shell's closing action is defensive, not aggressive, and the shell valves close too slowly to pose a serious threat. Furthermore, many large individuals are unable to completely close their shells.


title: Giant clam

text: Mass culture of giant clams began at the Micronesian Mariculture Demonstration Center in Palau (Belau). A large Australian government-funded project from 1985 to 1992 mass-cultured giant clams, particularly "T. gigas" at James Cook University's Orpheus Island Research Station, and supported the development of hatcheries in the Pacific Islands and the Philippines. Recent developments in aquaculture, specifically at Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institute in Fort Pierce, Florida, and in the Marshall Islands, have succeeded in tank-raising "T. gigas", both for use in home aquariums and for release into the wild.


title: Giant clam

text: Seven of the ten known species of giant clams in the world are found in the coral reefs of the South China Sea. A programme to propagate endangered giant clams for release into the wild has been ongoing since 2007. Undertaken by the Marine Ecology Research Centre (www.merc-gayana.com) based in Gaya Island just west of Sabah's capital, Kota Kinabalu, the programme successfully nurtured all seven species of the giant clams found in Malaysian waters to sufficient maturity for them to be placed in an ocean nursery for the first time during an awareness month from 22 March until 22 April 2012 in Maloham Bay. This marine awareness month had been planned to highlight and celebrate MERC's success in raising the giant clam larvae (called "spats") to juvenile stage, to highlight the importance of the giant clams and to raise awareness and support with the general public on the threats that are faced by the giant clams within the sea. During this marine awareness month, the coral restoration programme entered its final stage and attachment of 1000 one-year-old coral fragments grown at MERC's ocean nursery onto the coral reef were done throughout the month. The coral restoration programme is aimed to provide the giant clams with a suitable home surroundings when they are big enough in the future to be placed onto the reef.


title: Giant clam

text: There is concern among conservationists about whether those who use the species as a source of livelihood are overexploiting it. The numbers in the wild have been greatly reduced by extensive harvesting for food and the aquarium trade. The species is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning international trade (including in parts and derivatives) is regulated.


title: Kneecapping

text: Kneecapping is a form of malicious wounding, often as torture, in which the victim is injured in the knee. The injury is typically inflicted by a low-velocity gunshot to the knee pit with a handgun. The term is considered a misnomer by medical professionals because only a very small minority of victims suffer damage to the kneecap. A review of eighty kneecapping victims found that only two had a fractured kneecap. Some victims have their elbows and ankles shot as well.


title: Kneecapping

text: The severity of the injury can vary from simple soft tissue damage to a knee joint fracture with neurovascular damage. The latter requires several weeks in hospital and intensive outpatient physiotherapy for recovery. If the damage is too great, amputation may be necessary, but this rarely occurs. In Northern Ireland thirteen people had their legs amputated as a consequence of limb punishment shootings over the duration of the Troubles. In the long term it is estimated that one out of five victims will walk with a limp for the rest of their lives.


title: Kneecapping

text: During the Troubles in Northern Ireland, paramilitaries considered themselves to be law enforcers in their own areas. They used limb punishment shootings to punish drug pushers and child molesters. If the crime was considered to be grave, the victim was also shot in the ankles and elbows, leaving them with six gunshot wounds (colloquially known as a six pack). Approximately 2,500 people were victims of these punishment shootings through the duration of the conflict. Those who were attacked carried a social stigma with them.


title: Kneecapping

text: The Red Brigades, an Italian militant organization, employed these punishment shootings to warn their opponents. They used the method to punish at least 75 people up to December 1978.


title: Kneecapping

text: The Bangladesh Police have started kneecapping in the country since 2009 to punish the opposition and preventing them from participating in protests against the government. Human Rights Watch (HRW) has published a report on kneecapping in Bangladesh.


title: Kneecapping

text: During the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Israeli soldiers have been accused of systematically kneecapping over 100 Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank since 2016, primarily teenagers.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The University of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA) is a public research university in San Antonio, Texas. With over 34,000 students across its four campuses spanning 758 acres, UTSA is the largest university in San Antonio and the eighth-largest by enrollment in the state of Texas. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity" and offers 159 degree options from its nine colleges.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Established in 1969, UTSA has become the third largest institution within the University of Texas System by enrollment. The university has a local economic impact of $1.2 billion and the UTSA Institute for Economic Development generates $2.9 billion in direct economic impact nationwide. The university's restricted research expenditures have grown to $64.3 million while total research expenditures grew to $134 million in FY20.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Student-athletes compete as the UTSA Roadrunners and are a member of Conference USA. The football team, which was founded in 2011, has competed in Conference USA since 2013, previously playing a stint in the WAC and as an FCS independent.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The University of Texas at San Antonio was officially founded on June 5, 1969, by the 61st Texas Legislature as H.B. 42 and signed into law by Governor Preston Smith. Frank Lombardino, a conservative Democrat who represented northwest Bexar County in the state legislature, was known as the "father of UTSA" due to his impassioned advocacy for the institution. When Governor Smith signed the bill officially establishing the university, he did so on the back of Lombardino in a ceremony in front of the Alamo. At the university's inaugural commencement, the first diploma was also signed on Lombardino's back.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In 1970, the University of Texas Board of Regents appointed the university's first president, Arleigh B. Templeton, who served from 1970 to 1972, and received a land donation of in far northwest San Antonio for the site of UTSA. The architecture firm of Ford, Powell and Carson Inc. was assigned to develop a master plan for the university. O'Neil Ford, the designer of both the Tower of the Americas and the Trinity University tower, designed the campus to be reminiscent of an Italian village.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The 671 graduate students composing the first class at the university were admitted in September 1973. Upperclassmen and lowerclassmen were admitted in 1975 and 1976, respectively. Students temporarily attended class at the Koger Center, which also housed administrative offices until 1975, when construction on the Main Campus was completed. Enrollment during this time numbered 4,433 students. UTSA began with five colleges: Business, Fine and Applied Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences, Multidisciplinary Studies and Science and Mathematics.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: By 1975, the university's future colors were being openly discussed among student leaders and the administration. UTSA's third color of blue was selected, beating out other proposed colors such as "fiesta red" and "cactus green". The John Peace Library opened the next year, serving as the new administrative headquarters for the university.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The discussion of a university mascot soon followed the selection of school colors. In the fall of 1977 an election was held to determine the school's mascot, with "the armadillos" and "the stars" taking the top two spots. However, the referendum was declared void by the student government and a new election was held with nine candidates and a write-in option. The top two choices from the second election, the roadrunner and the armadillo, campaigned in a competitive run-off. On December 9, 1977, the roadrunner was announced as UTSA's first and only mascot.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: James W. Wagener, a graduate of Southern Methodist University and former acting dean of the University of Texas Health Science Center, was selected to be UTSA's third president in 1978. The Alumni Association was formed that same year, providing a new avenue of support for the university. The first Fiesta UTSA was also held in April 1978, with multiple bands playing throughout the day and culminating in a school dance. At the end of the 1970s, enrollment numbered 9,400 undergraduate and graduate students.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The Paisano, the university's award-winning newspaper, was established in 1981 as the first independent student publication in the state. During the fall of that year, the university began playing collegiate athletics. It was immediately elected to Division I status in the NCAA. The Student Representative Assembly headed the burial of a time capsule in 1983, the university's 10th anniversary, instructing it to be opened on June 5, 2023.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In 1986, UTSA acquired the Institute of Texan Cultures, a center for multicultural education in the state, as a campus. During this year, both the University Center and Chisholm Hall, the university's first on-campus housing complex, opened.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: On the first day of fall classes in 1996, a campus shooter stormed into the John Peace Library. The perpetrator, Gregory Tidwell, murdered head of cataloging Stephen L. Sorensen before fatally shooting himself in the chest.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The University Center grew significantly in the late 1990s, breaking ground on its newest expansion in 1995. This new 97,500-square foot, $13.2 million building, dubbed "UC Phase II", included the new Retama Auditorium and UTSA Bookstore. The Downtown Campus opened the doors to its permanent location on Interstate Highway 10 and Cesar Chavez Blvd. (then Durango Blvd.) in 1997.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Ricardo Romo, a graduate of The University of Texas at Austin and UCLA, became UTSA's fifth president in May 1999. He began with the ambitious agenda of aggressively expanding UTSA, both physically and academically, laying out the university's "Roadmap to Excellence". During his tenure, UTSA would grow 68% in student enrollment and add numerous new programs and facilities.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In the mid-2000s decade, UTSA embarked on a long-term campaign to dramatically increase its national prestige and selectivity. A "Master Plan" was created in 2007 as a guide for this campaign and to direct the future physical growth of the institution. The "UTSA 2016" strategic plan, formulated at the same time, is guided by the Master Plan and forms the basis for the development of the university into a "premier research institution" by 2016. John T. Montford—a San Antonio businessman, former chancellor of the Texas Tech University System, and a member of the Texas State Senate from 1983 to 1996—eventually established the UTSA presidents Dinner and, in 2007, the event raised US$4.6 million.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: From 2006 to 2009, UTSA completed over $250 million in construction projects. The $84 million five-story Biotechnology, Sciences and Engineering (BSE) Building opened its doors in 2006. The university underwent extensive remodeling in 2009, renovating older buildings such as the John Peace Library (JPL), the Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS, now known as the McKinney Humanities or MH) and the Multidisciplinary Studies (MS) buildings. A new ceramics studio broke ground in 2009 and two adjacent science buildings underwent $24 million in renovations. The $83 million Applied Engineering and Technology building (AET) also opened its doors in 2009. A year later the AET Library opened as the nation's first completely bookless library on a college or university campus.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Proposition 4 was passed by Texas voters in November 2009. This piece of legislation named 7 emerging research universities in Texas, UTSA being one, that could compete for additional state funds in an effort to increase the number of Tier One institutions in Texas. Factors such as research expenditures, graduate degrees awarded and scholarly productivity all play a part in which schools receive the most funding.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The first-time undergraduate acceptance rate, a common measurement for institutional selectivity, was 60% for the Fall of 2013. U.S. News & World Report ranks UTSA's admissions process as "selective". In 2010, the university hit a population benchmark of 30,000 students, signifying a growth rate of more than 39% over the past decade. UTSA was one of the fastest growing universities in Texas during this decade reaching nearly 31,000 students by 2012.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: However, in 2011, the Center for College Affordability and Productivity ranked UTSA's freshman as the second most "unhappy" in the country, based solely on low retention rates. Associate Vice President David Gabler refuted this claim, telling 1200 WOAI the survey is completely "bogus". The members of Student Government Association responded by sponsoring a resolution rebuking the claims, pointing out the Coordinated Admissions Program skews freshmen retention rates. As of 2011, roughly 30% of CAP students do not return to the university for their second year.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The North Paseo Building, a $15 million office building, began housing ROTC operations when it opened in October 2011. The Bauerle Road Garage, a 5-level parking facility with office space, opened in 2012. Dining services also expanded in 2008, continuing through 2011.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: That same year, the university also fielded its long-anticipated football team as an NCAA FCS independent, with Larry Coker as the inaugural head coach. Today the university has nearly 150,000 alumni, 17 athletic sports, and more than 1200 tenured and tenure-track faculty. The following year, 2012, UTSA, the city's sole NCAA Division I university at the time, became a member of the Western Athletic Conference; one year later, it moved to Conference USA. An athletic complex was constructed slightly west of the main campus and features pedestrian-friendly mixed-use areas. The complex, dubbed "Park West", adds another 125 acres to the university's property.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Ricardo Romo, who had served as president since 1999, resigned on March 3, 2017, after having been placed on administrative leave. Pedro Reyes served as interim president from February through August 2017. On September 1, 2017, Thomas Taylor Eighmy, the vice chancellor for research and engagement at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville, began serving as UTSA's sixth president.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: UTSA has become a nationally ranked research university with US$68.1 million delegated toward research expenditures for fiscal year 2017. A stated goal of the UTSA Master Plan is the enhancement of the university's research infrastructure.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: On June 9, 2017, UTSA introduced the largest construction project in its history with the announcement of a $95 Million Science And Engineering Building which opened in Fall 2020. On September 6, 2018, UTSA announced it had received a $15 million gift from San Antonio business leader Graham Weston and $70 million commitment from The University of Texas System Board of Regents for construction of two new facilities at its Downtown Campus for a National Security Collaboration Center and a proposed School of Data Science which will be the first and only Data Science school in the state of Texas.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In November 2018, a video emerged online of a Black student being escorted out of an A&P lecture by uniformed officers. The student had allegedly been resting her feet on the chair in front of her and when her professor asked her to sit properly, she purportedly refused. The professor then called campus police. Reaction to the video led the university's President Taylor Eighmy to issue a statement saying the university needed to "take a hard look at our campus climate — especially for students of color — and enact systemic change to make UTSA a more inclusive campus." The University conducted an investigation into the incident, with the professor suspended for the remainder of the semester. The investigation found that racial bias was not a factor in the incident, and the professor completed classroom management training through the university's Teaching and Learning Services. After returning to the classroom in 2019, the professor was suspended again and a second investigation conducted by the university. A petition saying she had been "ousted unfairly", and requesting her reinstatement was signed by over 900 students, however the she was not asked to return to the university.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: It was announced on June 29, 2021, that the departments and programs under both The College of Engineering and the College of Architecture, Construction and Planning were to be combined to form the new College of Engineering and Integrated Design (CEID) at UTSA which was officially launched on September 1, 2021. Soon after CEID's announcement, UTSA revealed that it would be acquiring the Southwest School of Art. The art school will become part of a new school within UTSA's College of Liberal and Fine Arts, thus expanding the university's geographical footprint in San Antonio.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The Main Campus, the oldest and largest of the three, was born out of a 600-acre donation to the University of Texas Board of Regents. It proved to be so controversially remote to the city (at the time) that many San Antonians nicknamed it "University of Texas at Boerne" or "UT Boerne". The Main Campus opened its doors in 1975. Prior to that, classes were held at the Koger Center at Babcock Road and Loop 410. Roadrunner Cafe, the university's first dining hall, was erected in 2005. In 2006, UTSA acquired a 125-acre swath of land on Hausman Road to build its future athletics complex, bringing the Main Campus up to 725 acres in total. Up until 2009, it was known as the "1604 Campus", at which point it was renamed the "Main Campus" so as to better reflect its importance within the university and community as a whole. Students can also live at one of the campus' five housing complexes: Chisholm Hall, Alvarez Hall, Laurel Village, Chaparral Village and University Oaks.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In 2014 the "New" North Paseo building (NPB) was completed and now houses Computer Science and Cyber Security labs and classrooms. The NPB is also home to the Center for Infrastructure Assurance and Security (CIAS), Center for Education and Research in Information and Infrastructure Security (CERIIS), and the Institute for Cyber Security. The architecture firm that was responsible for the NPB received an honor from the AIA Austin Design Awards Competition.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The UTSA Master Plan, is the university's structural plan for the future, focuses on developing the Main Campus in several key areas. Its plans for the campus include the expansion of academic facilities, major growth in on-campus amenities, implementing a long-term strategy for parking and the establishment of a college town.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The Downtown Campus in Downtown San Antonio houses parts of the College of Engineering and Integrated Design, College for Health, Community and Policy, and College of Education and Human Development. Many of the university's community outreach centers and institutes including the Texas State Data Center and The Urban Education Institute are located at the downtown campus as well. In early 1993, the demolition of Fiesta Plaza made way for what would become the Downtown Campus. While construction was underway, the campus made its temporary home at Cypress Tower on Main Street, offering its first classes in January 1994. Its permanent location on I-10 and Cesar E. Chavez Boulevard (formerly Durango Boulevard) was completed in 1997. Today, the Downtown Campus is composed of four buildings, an 18,138 square foot library and parking for over 2,200 vehicles all in over 18 acres of space. A new bus-rapid transit line, VIA Primo, opened in late 2012. Together with a VIA Express route, allows students to quickly commute between the UTSA Main Campus and the Downtown Campus. The Master Plan states some of goals for the Downtown Campus include the expansion of on-campus amenities, the reinforcement of the campus' identity and the growth of civic spaces.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In 2018 UTSA President Eighmy announced a new $90 million 10-year advancement plan for the downtown campus which includes a $15 million gift from San Antonio business leader Graham Weston to support the university's proposed School of Data Science. At the same time, UTSA actively engaged in highly collaborative discussions with the City of San Antonio and Bexar County for the transfer of downtown parcels of land, valued at $13 million, to the university. Those parcels will be the sites for the new school, a National Security Collaboration Center, and for the expansion of the UTSA College of Business.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The Hemisfair Campus, also in Downtown San Antonio, stands as the third branch of UTSA, holding the 182,000 square-foot Institute of Texan Cultures. It hosts the Texas Folklife Festival, an annual event celebrating the various cultures of Texas and their roles in the multicultural state. The ITC (as it is commonly known) was originally built as a $10 million project for HemisFair '68, with the stated goal of promoting awareness of the history and ethnic diversity of Texas. It was turned over to the University of Texas System after the conclusion of the world's fair, being designated as a campus of UTSA in 1986. It serves as a valuable asset for historical research, housing both UTSA's archives and an impressive historic photography collection with over 3 million images. The ITC formalized an agreement with the Smithsonian Institution in 2010 to obtain affiliate status. As an affiliate of the Smithsonian, the institute has access to much of its vast resources, such as workshops, speakers and programs. Funding for the ITC primarily comes from legislative appropriations, event admissions fees, grants and contributions. The City of San Antonio is currently developing a long-term strategic plan for HemisFair Park, and the university is still considering multiple options for its own vision of the facility. As UTSA continues to grow and expand, the institute will develop alongside it as a nationally recognized research institution of equal caliber.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Located less than 2 miles west of the Main campus, the 125-acre Park West Campus is currently home to the UTSA Roadrunners soccer and track-and-field facilities. Park West is also designated as a host site for community sporting events. Construction of a new 80,000-square-foot state of the art outpatient facility is slated to be complete by summer 2023, once complete it will offer Student-athletes access to enhanced imaging and surgical services, primary care, orthopedics, physical therapy and other specialties. The center will ultimately support the sports medicine program for UTSA student-athletes and provide future collaborative opportunities in academics, research and health care delivery.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The University of Texas at San Antonio is composed of nine colleges which offer 66 bachelor's, 68 master's, and 25 doctoral degree programs in total: the Alvarez College of Business; the College of Education and Human Development; the College of Engineering and Integrated Design; the Honors College; the College of Liberal and Fine Arts; the College for Health, Community and Policy; the College of Sciences and University College. All programs are fully accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, and the UTSA College of Business is accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The College of Sciences collaborates with other leading research institutions in San Antonio such as Southwest Research Institute, Texas Biomedical Research Institute and UT Health-San Antonio. Since 2005, UTSA and Southwest Research Institute have maintained a joint doctoral program focusing on space physics.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: UTSA is the receipt of the CAE-Cyber Operations, CAE-Information Assurance Research (CAE-R), and CAE-Cyber Defense designations making it one of the few universities in the nation to hold three National Center of Excellence designations from the National Security Agency.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: UTSA, which is designated as a Hispanic Serving Institution, became the recipient of Excelencia in Education's "Seal of Excelencia" in 2020 and is one of only 14 colleges and universities nationwide to earn this prestigious certification.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Students and alumni at UTSA have been awarded prestigious fellowships such as the Ford Foundation Fellowship, National Science Foundation's Research Fellowship, The Barry Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Foundation, and the Fulbright scholarship. In 2021 UTSA was the only Texas university to receive four Barry Goldwater Scholars awards, being accompanied by fellow national universities such as Carnegie Mellon University, University of Michigan, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard University.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The outcome of the Human Health Initiative, launched by UTSA in November 2018 resulted in The College for Health, Community and Policy being established in 2019 as an innovative new college dedicated to advancing human health. The six-year undergraduate graduation rate of UTSA's Roadrunner cohort increased to 50.8%, as of Fall 2019.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: "U.S. News & World Report" ranks UTSA among national universities, which have a full range of undergraduate and graduate programs and are committed to producing groundbreaking research. According to "U.S. News & World Report"s 2022 rankings, UTSA is ranked 299–391 among national universities,156–209 among U.S. public ones, and 26th in the nation as a Top Performer on Social Mobility.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: UTSA was recognized by "Times Higher Education" as one of the best universities under 50 years old in 2012, 2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, 2018, and 2019.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In 2014 UTSA was ranked the top Cybersecurity program in the nation according to a national survey of certified information technology security professionals conducted by The Ponemon Institute for Hewlett-Packard. As of 2016, the UTSA cybersecurity graduate programs ranked among the top two in the nation with Carnegie Mellon University being the top program .


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In the 2019 edition of the "100 Most Secure College Campuses" "in the US", UTSA was ranked the 2nd safest university in the state of Texas and the 30th safest in the United States.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Intelligent.com 2020 edition of "Best Online Cyber Security Degrees" ranked UTSA's online cybersecurity degree program 15th overall in the nation and first in the nation in providing academic support for students pursuing a cybersecurity degree online. UTSA's online cybersecurity program also ranked first overall in the state of Texas.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In the 2020 Global M.B.A. Rankings by "CEO Magazine," The College of Business’ Executive M.B.A. program at UTSA is ranked 8th globally. In addition, UTSA's M.B.A. program is ranked as a Tier One Global M.B.A. program.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The College of Architecture, Construction and Planning ranks second in the nation in awarding degrees to Hispanic students, according to Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The University of Texas at San Antonio is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very High Research Activity" and as a "Texas Tier One" institution. The university reached a new record of $140 million for research expenditures in fiscal year 2021. UTSA students and faculty conduct advanced research in many cross-disciplinary fields of study. Identified areas of research excellence include Advanced Materials, Cloud Computing, Cyber Security and Data Analytics, Integrative Biomedicine, Social and Educational Transformation, and Sustainable Communities and Critical Infrastructure. UTSA is home to 33 research centers and institutes and is a member of the National Academies' Government-University-Industry Research Roundtable (GUIRR).


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: UTSA operated the Center for Archaeological Research, which in 1984 did a study of the former Hot Wells hotel, spa and bathhouse on the San Antonio River in the southside of San Antonio. The survey determined all which remained of the resort were remnants of the 1902 hotel building, bathhouse ruins, and stones of a small nearby building. In 2015, work was authorized by the Bexar County Commissioners Court to begin restoring Hot Wells.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: A 2007 study released by Academic Analytics showed UTSA was ranked fifth among other large research universities in the state of Texas for faculty scholarly productivity. The Office of the Vice President for Research publishes "Discovery", an annual magazine dedicated to highlighting the research, academic and creative achievements of the UTSA community. First printed in 2007, the publication is a member of the University Research Magazine Association, an organization that promotes excellence among the scholarly publications of universities.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: A three-year partnership between UTSA and Microsoft was announced in April 2014. The purpose of the arrangement is the research and development of sustainable technologies to increase the energy efficiency and economic viability of data centers.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The University of Texas at San Antonio is home to the Curtis Vaughan Jr. Observatory and a member of the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), a consortium of US institutions and international affiliates that operates world-class astronomical observatories on behalf of NASA and NSF.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The UTSA Center for Advanced Measurements in Extreme Environments (CAMEE) collaborates with NASA to push the boundaries of current measurement and modeling technology by conducting research in harsh and extreme environments. CAMEE also studies the challenging conditions produced when traveling at hypersonic speeds.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The U.S. Department of Energy selected UTSA to lead the Cybersecurity Manufacturing Innovation Institute (CyManII). This federal research institute focuses on achieving energy efficiency, job creation, technical innovation and security of supply chain networks and automation for goods such as electric vehicles, solar panels and wind turbines. The National Security Collaboration Center (NSCC) at UTSA, is the home base for the CyManII.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In 2013, the University of Texas at San Antonio established Facilitated Acceptance to Medical Education (FAME), an accelerated medical program to rising high school seniors. Accepted students, after completing a three-year undergraduate education at UTSA, matriculate to UT Health-San Antonio.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: In December 2019, UTSA established the Bold Promise program which offers high-quality, affordable education to incoming freshmen who come from middle and low-income Texan families. Those that qualify will have their tuition and fees covered 100% for eight fall/spring semesters taken within a 4-year time period. Costs are covered by scholarships, grants or tuition exemptions from federal, state and/or institutional funds.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Launched in fall 2013, the UTSA Top Scholar program is a premier scholar program combining a comprehensive, four-year, merit based scholarship with personalized experiences in academics, leadership and service, including a global opportunity, for high achieving students.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: There are 350 student organizations on campus. Some organizations that receive funding from the University Student Services fee. These sponsored student organizations are the only Registered Student Organizations (RSOs) that may use "UTSA" in their name.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Beaks Up Speak Up is an organization supported by the UTSA Office of Student Activities, that educates the student body on issues related to being an active bystander. The organization facilitates a culture of care for all members of the UTSA community to recognize potential harm, choose to respond, and act in a way that positively influences the outcome for other people. The group facilitates workshops on a variety of topics that impact the physical, mental and emotional wellbeing of others, assists campus partners with resources that would aid in successfully reducing risk through their programming, and teaches marketable skills to students.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The Campus Activities Board (CAB) is the largest student program board on campus. It fosters traditions and community at the university by coordinating large-scale events such as Best Fest, Fiesta UTSA and various homecoming functions.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The College Democrats and College Republicans at UTSA both date back to the late 1970s. The two organizations have brought notable public officials to campus such as Bill White, Congressman Joaquin Castro, Congressman Pete Gallego, Judge Juanita Vasquez-Gardener, State Senator Joe J. Bernal, Councilman John Clamp, and Senator Bob Krueger.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: Greek life at UTSA is directed by the four governing bodies: the Panhellenic Council (6 chapters), the Interfraternity Council (11 chapters), the National Pan-Hellenic Council (7 chapters), and the Multicultural Greek Council (7 chapters). Greek life was first established in 1977 and since then has contributed greatly to student life all around campus.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The Interfraternity Council (IFC) oversees 11 fraternities. Member chapters include Alpha Epsilon Pi (Colony), Alpha Sigma Phi, Alpha Tau Omega, Kappa Sigma, Lambda Chi Alpha, Phi Delta Theta, Phi Gamma Delta (Colony), Pi Kappa Phi, Sigma Pi, Sigma Alpha Epsilon (Colony), and Tau Kappa Epsilon. All organizations in the IFC belong to either the North-American Intrafraternity Conference or the Fraternity Leadership Association. Sigma Phi Epsilon, the university's oldest fraternity, and Phi Gamma Delta were both removed from campus in 2011 and 2009, respectively. Alpha Lambda Tau, a fraternity for homosexual men that received national attention, was also governed under the IFC while it was active.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The Panhellenic Council (PHC) oversees the women's social sororities of Alpha Delta Pi, Alpha Omicron Pi, Alpha Sigma Alpha, Gamma Phi Beta, Phi Mu, and Zeta Tau Alpha. Previous members of the Panhellenic Council include Alpha Sigma Tau (Beta Lambda, 1979-1982) and Sigma Kappa (Zeta Nu, 1978-2017).


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) has seven chapters. Its members compose of historically African American entities that make up the Divine 9 that promote cultural diversity. The seven chapters are Alpha Kappa Alpha, Delta Sigma Theta, Kappa Alpha Psi, Omega Psi Phi, Phi Beta Sigma, Zeta Phi Beta and Sigma Gamma Rho.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: The Multicultural Greek Council, which promotes diversity among its membership, has seven chapters as of Spring 2018: Alpha Sigma Rho, Delta Xi Nu, Gamma Beta, Kappa Delta Chi, Omega Delta Phi, Sigma Lambda Alpha, and Sigma Lambda Beta.


title: University of Texas at San Antonio

text: UTSA has one of the most extensive Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) programs in the United States and is the nation's seventh largest Air Force ROTC program with over 200 cadets. In 2009, the school's Air Force ROTC detachment won the Right of Line Award, the most prestigious award among all Air Force ROTC units, ranking first in the Southwest Region out of 36 detachments for producing the most second lieutenants in the Air Force. At the national level, (among 144 detachments), UTSA was ranked second behind Purdue University. UTSA also has a large Air Force ROTC program among Hispanic Serving Institutions . In 2009, The AFROTC unit was awarded 36 slots for field training compared to Texas A&M University, which had 32.