title: Super Bowl LV halftime show

text: In addition to his streaming figures, the show also had an immediate commercial impact on the Weeknd's sales. Per "Billboard", the Weeknd's music sales increased 36,500 in combined sales of songs and albums on February 7, the day of the Super Bowl, an increase of 385% from the 7,500 sold the previous day. The increase of sales of songs was 454% (an increase to 32,500 from the 6,000 sold the previous day), and the increase of albums was 138% (an increase to 4,000 from the under 2,000 sold previous day). Billboard reported that most of his February 7 sales were in songs he had included in his halftime show setlist. The nine songs in the setlist sold a collective 29,000 downloads on February 7, compared to the 4,500 downloads they had sold the previous day. The best-performing song was "Blinding Lights", which accounted for 29% of his overall February 7 sales and 32% of his February song sales, selling 10,000 copies, an increase of 423% from the 2,000 copies it had sold the previous day. Of the eight other songs performed in the setlist, on February 7 "Save Your Tears" sold 4,000 copies (an increase of 245%), "Can't Feel my Face" sold 3,500 copies (a increase of 987%), "Earned It" sold 3,000 copies (an increase of 1,240%), "Starboy" sold 2,500 copies (a 1,175% increase), "I Feel It Coming" sold 2,500 copies (a 1,021% increase), and "The Hills" sold 2,000 (a 771% increase). His best-selling album on February 7 was The Highlights, which sold 1,500 copies (an increase of 120%). The greatest hits album had been released two days before the halftime performance. His second-best-selling album on February 7 was his most recent studio album, "After Hours", which sold 1,000 copies (an increase of 67%).


title: Super Bowl LV halftime show

text: The creation and preparations for the halftime show was featured in the documentary "The Show", directed by Nadia Hallgren. The documentary, which was produced by the halftime show sponsor Pepsi's in-house content studio and Boardwalk Pictures, aired on Showtime on September 24, 2021.


title: Voiced velar nasal

text: The voiced velar nasal, also known as agma, from the Greek word for 'fragment', is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. It is the sound of "ng" in English "sing" as well as "n" before velar consonants as in "English" and "ink". The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is codice_1. The IPA symbol is similar to , the symbol for the retroflex nasal, which has a rightward-pointing hook extending from the bottom of the right stem, and to , the symbol for the palatal nasal, which has a leftward-pointing hook extending from the bottom of the left stem. Both the IPA symbol and the sound are commonly called 'eng' or 'engma'.


title: Voiced velar nasal

text: As a phoneme, the velar nasal does not occur in many of the indigenous languages of the Americas or in many European, Middle Eastern or Caucasian languages, but it is extremely common in Australian Aboriginal languages and is also common in many languages of Sub-Saharan Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia and Polynesia. While almost all languages have and , is rarer. Only half of the 469 languages surveyed in had a velar nasal phoneme; as a further curiosity, many of them limit its occurrence to the syllable coda. In many languages that do not have the velar nasal as a phoneme, it occurs as an allophone of before velar consonants. An example of it used this way is the English word "income", of which the pronunciation can be realized as either or .


title: Voiced velar nasal

text: An example of a language that lacks a phonemic or allophonic velar nasal is Russian, in which is pronounced as laminal denti-alveolar even before velar consonants.


title: Voiced velar nasal

text: Some languages have the pre-velar nasal, which is articulated slightly more front compared with the place of articulation of the prototypical velar nasal, though not as front as the prototypical palatal nasal - see that article for more information.


title: Voiced velar nasal

text: Conversely, some languages have the post-velar nasal, which is articulated slightly behind the place of articulation of a prototypical velar nasal, though not as back as the prototypical uvular nasal.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: Matthew John Dowd (born May 29, 1961) is an American political pundit and consultant. He was the chief strategist for the Bush–Cheney 2004 presidential campaign and was an ABC News political analyst. On September 29, 2021, he announced a run for lieutenant governor of Texas as a Democrat against the incumbent, Dan Patrick. On December 7, 2021, Dowd announced the end of his campaign.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: Dowd was born in Detroit, Michigan, to an Irish Catholic family. He grew up the third of 11 children; his father was an auto executive and his mother was an elementary school teacher before becoming a homemaker. His parents were Republicans. Dowd attended Cardinal Newman College in St. Louis, Missouri. Dowd attributes his early interest in politics to the Watergate Committee hearings during the summer of 1973 when he was 12 years old.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: Dowd volunteered for the campaign of Rep William Broomfield R-MI and, while attending college in St. Louis, Missouri, for the campaign of Governor Joseph P. Teasdale D-Mo. He also worked on the staff of Rep. Dick Gephardt, D-Mo. He began his political career as a Democrat, as a member of Senator Lloyd Bentsen's, D-Tex., Senate and campaign staffs. He also worked for, among others, Texas Lt. Governor Bob Bullock. In 1999, he switched parties to become a Republican.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: During the 2004 presidential election, Dowd was chief strategist for George W. Bush's re-election campaign.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: As reported in "The New York Times" on April 1, 2007, Dowd had come to feel a deep frustration with and great disappointment in George W. Bush, whom he criticized for failing to call the nation together in a time of war, for ignoring the will of the American public with regard to the Iraq War, for his re-nomination of former UN ambassador John Bolton after his rejected confirmation and for failing to hold Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld accountable for the Abu Ghraib scandal. According to "Democracy Now!", Dowd claims to have undergone a change of heart regarding the Iraq War, and adopted a position advocating a withdrawal from that country, after contemplating the likelihood of his own son's deployment to the country, as well as after seeing Bush refuse to meet with anti-war-mother Cindy Sheehan in summer 2005, while he was entertaining Lance Armstrong at his ranch in Crawford, Texas; President Bush had previously met with Sheehan in June 2004. Dowd cited these incidents, as well as Bush's handling of the Hurricane Katrina disaster, as reasons for this change. Upon leaving the Bush administration, Dowd has not been on speaking terms with former White House political adviser Karl Rove. Sidney Blumenthal, in an opinion piece in "Salon", titled "Matthew Dowd's not-so-miraculous conversion", described Dowd as an "opportunist".


title: Matthew Dowd

text: In December 2007, he was introduced on ABC's "Good Morning America" as its new political contributor. He also appears on the same network's "This Week" with George Stephanopoulos.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: On December 2, 2010, Dowd penned an opinion piece in the "National Journal" defending WikiLeaks, writing that, "Republicans and Democrats seem to agree on a few things: That the government, in the name of fighting terrorism, has the right to listen in on all of our phone conversations and read our e-mails, even if it has no compelling reason for doing so."


title: Matthew Dowd

text: Dowd is a founding partner of Vianovo, a strategy consultancy. He has taught at the University of Texas Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs. As of 2015, he is also a visiting Fellow at the University of Chicago Institute of Politics.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: He is co-author of the "New York Times" bestseller "Applebee's America: How Successful Political, Business and Religious Leaders Connect with the New American Community". His book "A New Way: Embracing the Paradox as We Lead and Serve" was released in 2017.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: Dowd has criticized former President Trump's Twitter use as being dangerous, impulsive and counterproductive. Dowd was especially upset with tweets aimed at the leader of North Korea.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: Dowd came under widespread criticism when, during the first impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump, he tweeted about a congresswoman, "Elise Stefanik is a perfect example of why just electing someone because they are a woman or a millennial doesn’t necessarily get you the leaders we need." Congresswoman Stefanik called the tweet "disgusting, sexist and shameful". After significant pressure Dowd apologized and removed the tweet in question.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: In October 2021, the Texas Politics Project at the University of Texas at Austin, Democrat Lieutenant Governor Primary vote choice poll had Matthew Dowd with 13% of the primary vote. In early December, however, Dowd announced he was ending his bid for the post, citing a desire for more diversity in the race.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: Dowd has married and divorced twice. He has three sons from his first marriage. His second marriage ended in divorce after one of his twin infant daughters died in the hospital. His eldest son, Daniel, is an Army veteran of Operation Iraqi Freedom and was deployed to Baghdad from 2007 to 2009 as a signals intelligence specialist.


title: Matthew Dowd

text: In 2013 it was reported that Dowd was in a relationship with Maria Shriver, the ex-wife of former California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, however, Shriver confirmed she was single in May 2017.


title: Amarcord

text: Amarcord () is a 1973 comedy-drama film directed by Federico Fellini, a semi-autobiographical tale about Titta, an adolescent boy growing up among an eccentric cast of characters in the village of Borgo San Giuliano (situated near the ancient walls of Rimini) in 1930s Fascist Italy. The film's title is a univerbation of the Romagnol phrase ("I remember"). The title then became a neologism of the Italian language, with the meaning of "nostalgic revocation". The central role of Titta is based on Fellini's childhood friend from Rimini, Luigi Titta Benzi. Benzi became a lawyer and remained in close contact with Fellini throughout his life.


title: Amarcord

text: Titta's sentimental education is emblematic of Italy's "lapse of conscience". Fellini skewers Mussolini's ludicrous posturings and those of a Catholic Church that "imprisoned Italians in a perpetual adolescence" by mocking himself and his fellow villagers in comic scenes that underline their incapacity to adopt genuine moral responsibility or outgrow foolish sexual fantasies.


title: Amarcord

text: The film won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, and was nominated for two more Academy Awards: Best Director and Best Original Screenplay.


title: Amarcord

text: In Borgo San Giuliano, a village near Rimini, the arrival of fluffy poplar seeds floating on the wind heralds the arrival of spring. As night falls, the inhabitants make their way to the village square for a traditional bonfire in which the Old Witch of Winter is ritually burned. The townspeople play pranks on one another, explode fireworks, cavort with loose women and make lewd noises when the civically minded lawyer lectures on the history of the region.


title: Amarcord

text: School under Fascism is a tedious cavalcade of dry facts recited by instructors of varying levels of engagement and skill. All Titta and his fellow students can do is goof off or skip class when not called upon to solve math problems or identify obscure historical details. When Titta goes to confession, he manages to avoid telling Don Balosa about his masturbatory activities and attempt to seduce Gradisca, a glamorous older woman, because the priest is more concerned with floral arrangements.


title: Amarcord

text: Fascist officials come for a tour, and the schoolchildren are required to perform athletic routines for their approval. Titta's friend Ciccio daydreams about being married to his crush, Aldina, by the giant face of Mussolini. Surreptitiously wired into the bell tower of the town church, a gramophone plays a recording of "The Internationale", but it is soon shot at and destroyed by gun-crazy Fascists. Owing to his anarchist past, Titta's father Aurelio is brought in for questioning and forced to drink castor oil. He limps home in a nauseous state to be washed by his wife, Miranda.


title: Amarcord

text: One summer afternoon, the family visits Uncle Teo, Aurelio's brother, confined to an insane asylum. They take him out for a day in the country, but he escapes into a tree, repeatedly yelling, ""Voglio una donna!"" ("I want a woman!"). All attempts to bring him down are met with stones that Teo carries in his pockets. A dwarf nun and two orderlies finally arrive on the scene. Marching up the ladder, the nun reprimands Teo, who obediently agrees to return to the asylum.


title: Amarcord

text: Fall arrives. The town's inhabitants embark in small boats to meet the passage of the SS "Rex", the regime's proudest technological achievement. By midnight they have fallen asleep waiting for its arrival. Awakened by a foghorn, they watch in awe as the liner sails past, capsizing their boats in its wake. Titta's grandfather wanders lost in a disorienting fog so thick it seems to smother the house and the autumnal landscape. Walking out to the town's Grand Hotel, Titta and his friends find it boarded up. Like zombies, they waltz on the terrace with imaginary female partners enveloped in the fog.


title: Amarcord

text: The annual car race provides the occasion for Titta to daydream of winning the grand prize, Gradisca. One evening he visits the buxom tobacconist at closing time. She becomes aroused when he demonstrates he is strong enough to lift her, but is annoyed when he becomes overwhelmed as she presses her breasts into his face. She gives him a cigarette then coldly sends him home.


title: Amarcord

text: Winter brings with it record snowfall. Miranda nurses a sick Titta to health, then as spring arrives again, dies of an illness herself. Titta is devastated. Later, the village attends the reception for Gradisca's marriage to a Fascist officer. As Gradisca drives off with her "Carabiniere", someone notices that Titta has gone too.


title: Amarcord

text: A scene was shot that was later cut from the film by Fellini. The scene was shot without sound. It is described, however, in the novelization published by Rizzoli in 1973 and involves the contessa's loss of a diamond ring down her toilet. Carlini, or "Eau de cologne", the man who empties the town's cesspits, is called to retrieve it. This scene is available on the Criterion release of the film.


title: Amarcord

text: Released in Italy on 18 December 1973, "Amarcord" was an "unmitigated success". Critic Giovanni Grazzini, reviewing for the Italian newspaper "Corriere della Sera", described Fellini as "an artist at his peak" and the film as the work of a mature, more refined director whose "autobiographical content shows greater insight into historical fact and the reality of a generation. Almost all of "Amarcord" is a macabre dance against a cheerful background".


title: Amarcord

text: Russell Davies, British film critic and later a BBC radio host, compared the film to the work of Thornton Wilder and Dylan Thomas: "The pattern is cyclic ... A year in the life of a coastal village, with due emphasis on the seasons, and the births, marriages and deaths. It is an "Our Town" or "Under Milk Wood" of the Adriatic seaboard, concocted and displayed in the Roman film studios with the latter-day Fellini's distaste for real stone and wind and sky. The people, however, are real, and the many non-actors among them come in all the shapes and sizes one cares to imagine without plunging too deep into Tod Browning freak territory."


title: Amarcord

text: Rapidly picked up for international distribution after winning an Oscar for Best Foreign Film in 1975, the film was destined to be Fellini's "last major commercial success". In 2008, the film was voted at number 50 on the list of the "100 Greatest Films" by the French magazine "Cahiers du cinéma".


title: Amarcord

text: When "Amarcord" opened in New York City, critic Vincent Canby lauded it as possibly "Fellini's most marvelous film ... It's an extravagantly funny, sometimes dreamlike evocation of a year in the life of a small Italian coastal town in the nineteen-thirties, not as it literally was, perhaps, but as it is recalled by a director with a superstar's access to the resources of the Italian film industry and a piper's command over our imaginations. When Mr. Fellini is working in peak condition, as he is in "Amarcord" (the vernacular for 'I remember' in Romagna), he somehow brings out the best in us. We become more humane, less stuffy, more appreciative of the profound importance of attitudes that in other circumstances would seem merely eccentric if not lunatic."


title: Amarcord

text: Rating the film four out of four stars, critic Roger Ebert discussed Fellini's value as a director: "It's also absolutely breathtaking filmmaking. Fellini has ranked for a long time among the five or six greatest directors in the world, and of them all, he's the natural. Ingmar Bergman achieves his greatness through thought and soul-searching, Alfred Hitchcock built his films with meticulous craftsmanship, and Luis Buñuel used his fetishes and fantasies to construct barbed jokes about humanity. But Fellini ... well, moviemaking for him seems almost effortless, like breathing, and he can orchestrate the most complicated scenes with purity and ease. He's the Willie Mays of movies." Ebert ranked the film fourth on his "10 Best Films of 1973" list. He later included the film on his "Great Movies" list. Jay Cocks of "Time" magazine considered it "some of the finest work Fellini has ever done—which also means it stands with the best that anyone in film has ever achieved."


title: Amarcord

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "Amarcord" holds an approval rating of 87%, based on 46 reviews, with an average rating of 8.2/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Ribald, sweet, and sentimental, "Amarcord" is a larger-than-life journey through a seaside village and its colorful citizens." In the British Film Institute's 2012 "Sight & Sound" polls of the greatest films ever made, "Amarcord" was ranked 30th among directors.


title: Amarcord

text: In 1984, "Amarcord" became the first film released for home video fully letterboxed, as implemented by RCA for their Capacitance Electronic Disc videodisc format. The film was later released on DVD twice by The Criterion Collection, first in 1998, then re-released in 2006 with an anamorphic widescreen transfer and additional supplements. Criterion re-issued the 2006 release on Blu-ray Disc in 2011.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Book censorship is the removal, suppression, or restricted circulation of literary, artistic, or educational material – of images, ideas, and information – on the grounds that these are morally or otherwise objectionable according to the standards applied by the censor. Censorship is "the regulation of speech and other forms of expression by an entrenched authority". The overall intent of censorship, in any form, is to act as "a kind of safeguard for society, typically to protect norms and values [...] censorship suppresses what is considered objectionable from a political, moral, or religious standpoint."


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The Marshall University Libraries, which conduct research on banned books in the United States, have defined a banned book as one that has been "removed from a library, classroom, etc." and a challenged book as one that "has been requested to be removed from a library, classroom, etc." by a censor.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Public and school libraries in the US have the ability to limit children's choice of books to read. This problem "highlights the tension between parental authority and society, but it is ultimately about defining American Value." It has been suggested that as there are parental guidance to films, there is a need for something similar for books. Some of the banned books are valuable in helping children discover their identities or educate themselves. These are not all banned in all states, by all educators.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Sponsors of literacy in education have carried out censorship, including parents, school boards, lobbying groups, clergy, librarians and teachers. Banning, one of the most permanent and effective method of censorship, begins with a challenge and then progresses until the book is no longer available to any student in a school, library or district. In many cases, books are banned or petitioned to be banned by parents who are concerned about the material their children are reading. People For The American Way reported that in the school year from 1991–1992, the success of censors in having books removed in some capacity rose to 41 percent from 34 percent in the previous year. In response, several professional organizations such as the American Library Association (ALA), the Freedom to Read Foundation, and the National Coalition Against Censorship have employed various initiatives to help combat book censorship in all its forms. Combating book censorship with their advocacy for First Amendment rights, these long-standing organizations have been at the center of multiple Supreme Court cases spanning from the early 1970s.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: During the 17th century, a typical form of book censorship in the United States was book burning. In October 1650, William Pynchon's pamphlet, "The Meritorious Price of Our Redemption", was criticized and promptly burned by the Puritan government. This book burning in Boston, Massachusetts is often referred to and even considered the "first book burning in America".


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: On March 3, 1873, the "Comstock Law" was passed by the United States Congress under the Grant administration; also referred to as an Act for the "Suppression of Trade in, and Circulation of, Obscene Literature and Articles of Immoral Use". The Act criminalized usage of the U.S. Postal Service to send any of the following items: erotica, contraceptive, abortifacients, sex toys, personal letters alluding to any sexual content or information, or any information regarding the above items. The Act not only restrained the distribution of pornography but also the spread of medical journals that held information regarding contraceptives and abortion. In Washington, D.C., where the federal government has direct jurisdiction, the act also made it a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment, to sell, give away, or have in possession any "obscene" publication. Half of the states passed similar anti-obscenity statutes that also banned possession and sale of obscene materials.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: "Leaves of Grass", Walt Whitman's collection of poetry, was withdrawn in Boston in 1881, after the District Attorney threatened criminal prosecution for the use of explicit language in some poems. The work was later published in Philadelphia. This version went through five editions of 1,000 copies each. Its first printing, released on July 18, 1882 sold out in a day.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Mark Twain's book "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" has been challenged. It was first published in the United States in February 1885 and was promptly banned by librarians in Massachusetts in March of the same year. The book has faced further scrutiny in recent times due to Twain's frequent use of the word "nigger" as well as the novel being described as "racially insensitive," and as "perpetuat[ing] racism." It has since been, and still remains, among the top 100 most challenged books up to date.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In 1915, architect William Sanger was charged under New York law for disseminating contraceptive information. His wife, Margaret Sanger, was similarly charged in 1915 for her work "The Woman Rebel". Sanger circulated this work through the U.S. postal service, effectively violating the Comstock Law. On appeal, her conviction was reversed on the grounds that contraceptive devices could legally be promoted for the cure and prevention of disease.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The publication of Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" in 1859 "unleashed a controversy that resonates even today. In presenting a revolutionary theory of evolution, the British naturalist challenged the biblical creation story and provoked the ire of detractors who accused him of 'dethroning God'. Despite the surrounding controversy, "On the Origin of Species" remained uncensored in the United States into the 1920s, when high school curricula started to incorporate the theory of Darwinian evolution." It was soon after banned in parts of America following the Scopes Trial in Tennessee. The Tennessee ban remained until 1967, "when the Supreme Court declared it in conflict with the First and Fourteenth Amendments".


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The banning of books became more prevalent during the twentieth century as modernist and progressive writers such as James Joyce, Theodore Dreiser, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and John Steinbeck began their literary careers. These authors did not refrain from revealing their opinions about controversial subject matter. For example, Hemingway's "A Farewell to Arms" depicts the grim realities of World War I, and the story of the two lovers, Frederic Henry and Catherine Barkley, includes graphic details of a childbirth gone awry. This story strays greatly from traditionalist literature, the majority of American literature at the time, which depicted good prevailing over evil. Some cities, including Boston, banned "A Farewell to Arms" in 1929, labeling the book "salacious."


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In addition, Boston in the 1920s censored other novels, such as "The American Mercury", "Elmer Gantry", "An American Tragedy", "Lady Chatterley's Lover", and the published text of the play "Strange Interlude". The rise of censorship in Boston aroused local opposition. An article in a 1929 issue of "The Harvard Crimson" stated: "it has become so tiresome to reproach Boston for their constant repression of creative work, that we are beginning to surrender in despair." The Boston censors countered that the censorship was justified because according to the U.S. federal political system, it is the duty of the states to implant their educational policies. The texts selected for the schools are ultimately approved by the state. School boards, as part of the Tenth Amendment, do have the right to select which state-approved text should be placed in the libraries. Over the years, parents on school boards have challenged their state's selection of certain books for their libraries. The main reasons of the parents and school boards is to protect children from content deemed by them as inappropriate.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The state of Georgia created the Georgia Literature Commission in 1953, which initially described its role as aiding local prosecutors in enforcing the state's obscenity laws. In 1958, it gained the power to issue subpoenas and injunctions to stop publication. It censored hundreds of publications, but became less powerful after court rulings against it in the 1960s, and was abolished in 1973.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In 2022, a report by the American Library Association found that book censorship had increased to unprecedented levels. The report noted that much of the censorship was directed towards books featuring LGBT and racial minority perspectives, and described a growing trend of harassment and intimidation of librarians.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: School boards have frequently been involved in litigation involving the rights of freedom to read, which is considered by some organizations to be encompassed in the First Amendment. Some legal cases have reached state supreme courts and the United States courts of appeals. Cases like "Evans v. Selma Union High School District of Fresno County" in 1924 ruled "The mere act of purchasing a book to be added to the school library does not carry with it any implication of the adoption of the theory or dogma contained therein, or any approval of the book itself except as a work of literature fit to be included in a reference library." In "Minarcini v. Strongsville City School District" in 1976, the court upheld the school district's decision to not allow certain texts to be used in a curriculum, but "found the removal of the books from the library to be unconstitutional, referring to the library as a 'storehouse of knowledge.'"


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Censorship has also been addressed by the United States Supreme Court in the case "Island Trees School District v. Pico" in 1982. This case involved the school board removing certain books that it deemed inappropriate. The court came to the conclusion that, "The First Amendment imposes limitations upon a local school board's" discretion to remove books from high and junior high school libraries. The case was brought to the Supreme Court by five students who challenged their school board's decision to remove nine books from the school's library, after a challenge came from an organization called Parents of New York United. The Supreme Court ruled that, under the First Amendment, "Local school boards may not remove books from school library shelves simply because they dislike the ideas contained in those books". Justice William Brennan, who wrote the opinion, reasoned that "Local school boards have broad discretion in the management of school affairs, but such discretion must be exercised in a manner that comports with the transcendent imperatives of the First Amendment". Brennan continues that school boards do have "absolute discretion to choose academic materials" and what texts are used in classrooms, so removing books from curriculum would not be unconstitutional, as long as a school board's discretion is not "exercised in a narrowly partisan or political manner." Finally, he comments on the library, saying it is a distinct institution as it represents the First Amendment's "role in affording the public access to discussion, debate and the dissemination of information and ideas." "


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Books are often challenged by concerned parents who desire to protect their children from the themes or content within books. Books can be banned for more than one reason as well. As of the ten years preceding 2016, the top three reasons cited for challenging materials as reported to the Office of Intellectual Freedom were:


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: According to the American Library Association (ALA), there are also more than 20 other reasons for censorship, including the material containing or being: anti-ethnic, cultural sensitivity, racism, sexism, anti-family, nudity, offensive language, other offensive items, abortion, drug/alcohol/smoking, gambling, gangs, violence, suicide, homosexuality, sexually explicit, political viewpoint, religious viewpoint, occult/Satanism, unsuited for age group, inaccurate, technical errors, and other objections. According to People for the American Way, "sexually explicit" material was the most frequent cause of book challenges in the decade from 1990 to 2000, while "offensive language" was responsible for the second-most number.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Numerous books have been suppressed "because of language, racial characterization, or depiction of drug use, social class, or sexual orientation of the characters, or other social differences that the challengers viewed as harmful to the readers." There are many examples of books being suppressed on social grounds in the United States. Dawn Sova authored "Literature Suppressed on Social Grounds", an essay that lists books that have been banned or challenged on the preceding grounds to raise awareness of why books are censored. A few examples of this type of censorship are J. D. Salinger's "The Catcher in the Rye", Ken Kesey's "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest", and Mark Twain's "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn". All of these stories have main characters who disrespect authority and don't live according to societal norms and social rules. Holden Caulfield, Randle McMurphy, and Huck Finn are similar in their use of vulgar language and anti-traditionalist world views. All of these books have themes of characters who are idolized for breaking the rules and living life that is full of pleasures instead of listening and adhering to traditional order. Sova suggests that censors have sought to ban these books because they fear that the rebellious nature of the characters will lead children to follow them, meaning they will have no respect for their parents, the law or teachers.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" (1884) by Mark Twain was listed by the American Library Association as the 5th most commonly banned book in the U.S. due to racism in 2007. NewSouth Books received media attention for publishing an expurgated edition of the work that censored the words "nigger" and "Injun". A parent in a school district in Arizona attempted to have the novel banned in a case that reached the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in the case "Monteiro v. The Tempe Union High School District" (1998).


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In August 1939, the Board of Supervisors of Kern County, California passed a resolution to ban "The Grapes of Wrath" from county libraries and schools. The head librarian of the Kern County Free Library, Gretchen Knief, despite personally protesting to the supervisors, complied with the ban. The ban is said to have been largely a product of the county's reliance upon agriculture, and Knief's compliance, along with a lack of official support from librarians. The ban was rescinded in 1941.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In September 2020, the Burbank Unified School District in California removed from required reading "To Kill a Mockingbird", "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn", "Of Mice and Men", "The Cay", and "Roll of Thunder, Hear My Cry" from middle school and high school curriculum after parents showed concerns over racism.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The State Department, the Central Intelligence Agency and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics sought to suppress an academic work about the influence of the China lobby in congress and the executive branch of the US Government, and about heroin trafficking by the Chinese Nationalist Party, then the ruling party of the military dictatorship in Taiwan. The suppression was instigated by the Chinese Nationalist Party through their embassy, after they initially threatened a libel suit against the publisher, MacMillan.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Books have been suppressed for their political content by local governments and school districts. In particular books that some perceive to promote anarchism, communism or socialism have a history of being suppressed in the United States. "The Communist Manifesto" by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels was frequently challenged and widely restricted in libraries because of its communist ideas, especially during the Red Scare in the 1950s. George Orwell's "Nineteen Eighty-Four" was challenged in Jackson County, Florida in 1981 because it was deemed "pro-communist and contained explicit sexual matter." In 1980, Irwin Schiff published the "Federal Mafia" which was found to be fraudulent by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Reviews for Theodore Dreiser's "The "Genius"" (1915) were mixed at best. "The Kansas City Star", like many Midwestern dailies, labeled the novel "a procession of sordid philandering," while the "Milwaukee Journal" derided Dreiser as a "literary Caliban," wallowing in depravity. Many libraries and bookstores refused to stock the book, and the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice threatened legal action, leading Dreiser's supporters to issue their own call to arms. Critic Willard Huntington Wright, former editor of the "Los Angeles Times Book Review" and "The Smart Set" and a Dreiser admirer of long standing, threw himself "wholeheartedly into an anti-censorship campaign on behalf of [the novel]. Along with Alfred Knopf, John Cowper Powys, [publisher Ben] Huebsch, and H.L. Mencken, [he] circulated petitions and drummed up support wherever he could for the man he believed to be the most significant, unjustly harassed writer of the day." Eventually, five hundred writers signed an Authors' League petition on behalf of "The "Genius"," including Willa Cather, Max Eastman, Robert Frost, Sinclair Lewis, Jack London, Amy Lowell, Jack Reed, Edwin Arlington Robinson, Ida Tarbell, and Booth Tarkington.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The foreword to the 1923 reissue of the novel addressed the censorship issue directly: "It has been urged that this book is detrimental to the morals of the young and might have had a bad effect upon people with weak moral sense, but are thousands of perfectly normal and responsible people to be denied this form of aesthetic stimulation simply because it is harmful to children and perverts?"


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Copies of the literary journal "The Little Review" containing episodes from James Joyce's novel "Ulysses" were seized by the United States Postal Service under the Comstock law. "Ulysses" was suppressed in 1921 for obscenity, because of a scene that involved masturbation, first published in "The Little Review". "Ulysses" was then the subject of a court challenge in 1933, "United States v. One Book Called Ulysses". Judge John M. Woolsey's ruling that the book was not obscene marked a change in how the courts viewed obscenities in novels.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Henry Miller's novel "Tropic of Cancer" has been described as "notorious for its candid sexuality" and as responsible for the "free speech that we now take for granted in literature". It was first published in 1934 by the Obelisk Press in Paris, France, but this edition was banned in the United States. Its publication in 1961 in the U.S. by Grove Press led to obscenity trials that tested American laws on pornography in the early 1960s. In 1964, the Supreme Court declared the book non-obscene. It is regarded as an important work of 20th-century literature.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The children's book "And Tango Makes Three" has been one of the most challenged books in the 21st century due to the plot, which focuses on two homosexual penguins in the Central Park Zoo. Tango is one of several books that have been censored because of homosexual themes. In 2003, the children's book "The Family Book" was removed from the curriculum of the Erie, Illinois school system due to the book's representation of same-sex families.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: "Flowers for Algernon", a science fiction short story and subsequent novel written by Daniel Keyes, is on the American Library Association's list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990–1999 at number 43. The reasons for the challenges vary, but usually center on those parts of the novel in which Charlie struggles to understand and express his sexual desires. Many of the challenges have proved unsuccessful, but the book has occasionally been removed from school libraries, including some in Pennsylvania and Texas.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: It won the Hugo Award for Best Short Story in 1960. The novel was published in 1966 and was joint winner of that year's Nebula Award for Best Novel (with "Babel-17").


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In the United States, books have also been challenged for attacking or disagreeing with religious beliefs. "On the Origin of Species" by Charles Darwin has been challenged and suppressed since its publication in 1859 due to its theories on evolution, though not until 1925 in the US, when the Butler Act was enacted in Tennessee, banning the teaching of evolutionary theories statewide. Works, such as the Harry Potter series, have also been challenged because they are perceived by some to promote witchcraft and the occult.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: "Operation Dark Heart", a 2010 memoir by U.S. Army intelligence officer Lt. Col Anthony Shaffer, was the subject of attempts by the Defense Department to censor information that the book revealed, even after it had already been distributed free of changes. Both censored and original copies of the book are in the public domain.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: As an author, John Green said: "Text is meaningless without context. What usually happens with "Looking for Alaska" is that a parent chooses one page of the novel to send to an administrator and then the book gets banned without anyone who objects to it having read more than that one particular page."


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, "Brave New World" (1931), was challenged in some school districts. In 2003, in the South Texas Independent School District, Mercedes, Texas it "was challenged but retained". Parents had "objected to the adult themes—sexuality, drugs, suicide—that appeared in the novel. Huxley's book was part of the summer Science Academy curriculum. The board voted to give parents more control over their children's choices by requiring principals to automatically offer an alternative to a challenged book."


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: John Steinbeck's "Of Mice and Men", first published in 1937, is considered an American classic and listed as the 12th best novel of the 20th century by the Radcliffe Publishing Course. It has remained a frequent choice for teaching in English curriculums because of its simplistic nature, but profound message. Nevertheless, the novel appeared on the ALA's top ten most frequently challenged books in 2001, 2003 and 2004. Herbert N. Foerstel, the author of "Banned in the U.S.A.", a novel documenting the cases of censorship in the United States, states that "the censors claim to be protecting the young and impressionable from this tragic tale of crude heroes speaking vulgar language within a setting that implies criticism of our social system." The main reasons for censorship, as observed by the Office of Intellectual Freedom, are "offensive language, racism, unsuited to age group, violence".


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: A case against the novella began in Normal, Illinois in 2004 when a group of parents and community members in the school district proposed a set of books that could be read instead of Steinbeck's novel that addressed the same themes as "Of Mice and Men", but did not have the racial slurs that the group objected to. The group also suggested that the book should be removed from the permanent, required reading list for a sophomore English curriculum, however, they did not ask that the book be banned. The group appreciated that the novel addressed injustices of the past, but believed the alternative books that they proposed "address multicultural and socially sensitive issues in a meaningful, respectful manner", whereas Steinbeck's novel does not.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: "To Kill a Mockingbird" (1960), by Harper Lee, won the Pulitzer Prize and has since been considered an American classic. The novel confronts issues of rape and racial inequality, but is highly regarded for its universal themes that can appeal to many readers. The novel has been censored since its 1960 publication and appeared on the ALA's top ten most frequently challenged books in 2009 and 2011. The novel was considered objectionable because it deals with racial injustice, class systems, gender roles, loss of innocence while discussing violence, rape, incest and authority, while using strong language. In July 1996, the Superintendent of the Moss Point School District in Mississippi announced "To Kill a Mockingbird" would be reviewed by a group of parents, community members and teachers after a complaint came from Reverend Greg Foster about the novel's racial descriptions and discussion of sexual activity. The novel was ultimately banned from being accessed in the school district. Another case began with a resident in Cherry Hill, New Jersey, in 2008, who objected to having "To Kill a Mockingbird" as part of a high school English curriculum. The challenger had problems with how African Americans were treated in the novel and feared that the descriptions may upset black students who were reading the novel. Instead of banning the book, the school board voted unanimously to keep the book in the curriculum and instead responded to fears of upsetting black students with racial sensitivity training for teachers who used the novel in their classrooms.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In 1960, "The China Lobby in American Politics", by scholar Ross Y. Koen, was suppressed by the State Department, the Central Intelligence Agency and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics at the behest of the ruling Chinese Nationalist Party of Taiwan. The book largely concerned the influence of the China lobby in the US congress and the executive branch of the government. It also discussed the heroin trafficking by the Chinese Nationalist Party – then the ruling party of the military dictatorship in Taiwan. Koen detailed considerable evidence of this, and it was later corroborated by other scholars. The Chinese Nationalist Party instigated the suppression through their embassy in Washington, after they had initially threatened a libel suit against the publisher, MacMillan. After 4000 copies of the book had been printed, at the intervention of the State Department the publisher recalled the book and discontinued publication. Some copies of the book nevertheless found their way into rare book repositories at some universities. According to Richard C. Kagan, right-wing groups stole many remaining copies of the book from libraries. The book was reprinted in 1974 after other scholars had shown Koen's findings to be accurate.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: "The Catcher in the Rye", by J.D. Salinger, was first published in 1951 and has since been both frequently challenged and taught. In the 1980s, it "had the unusual distinction of being the nation's most frequently censored book, and, at the same time, the second most frequently taught novel in the public schools." The American Library Association deemed it the most censored book from 1966 to 1975 and the tenth most challenged book from 1990 to 1999. The novel also appears as the second best and most classic novel of the 20th century based on a list developed by the Radcliffe Publishing Course.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The majority of the objections have been over the novel's language, but the book also has mentions of prostitution, sexuality and underage drinking, as cited by the book review published by the organization Focus on the Family, an American, conservative group. The ALA cites the reasons for censorship as "offensive language, sexually explicit, unsuited to age group". The first case of censorship the book ever witnessed was in 1960 when it was banned in a Tulsa, Oklahoma school district and the eleventh grade teacher who had assigned the book was fired because of the questionable content of the book. A case in Paris, Maine in 1996 allowed for "The Catcher in the Rye" to continue being taught at the district high school, but mandated practices that would tell parents what books their children read, ultimately leaving it in the hands of parents to decide what their children should read, rather than the school.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: The seven-novel series featuring "Harry Potter" by J.K. Rowling has been on best-seller lists since the first book was published in 1997. The series was most frequently challenged in 2001 and 2002, before falling to second-most challenged book in 2003. The ALA cites the reasons for censorship as "anti-family, occult/Satanism, religious viewpoint, violence", but the American Civil Liberties Union of Texas's "Free People Read Freely" report also cited concerns over sexual content.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In one case in Lawrenceville, Georgia in 2007, a parent asked that the "Harry Potter" books be kept out of classrooms, suggesting that the novels promote the practice of witchcraft and contain violent content that is not suitable for her 15-year-old daughter to read as she was becoming inspired to try witchcraft in the manner of the series' characters. School board attorney, Victoria Sweeney, presented evidence for why the novels should be kept in the classroom, noting that they encourage children's fascination with reading and explore themes such as good triumphing over evil. The board ultimately unanimously decided to keep the books in the classroom since they had the potential to spark creativity and imagination, as well as a love for learning and reading.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In October 2006, a resident of Marshall, Missouri attempted to have the graphic novel "Fun Home" by Alison Bechdel removed from the Marshall Public Library. The book addresses themes of sexual orientation, gender roles, suicide, emotional abuse, dysfunctional family life, and the role of literature in understanding oneself and one's family. These challenges are significant because the fact that they are filled with illustrations make them more likely to be accessible to younger children, and therefore, more susceptible to challenges when the content is considered mature for the audience.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: In 2018, 2019, and 2020, Alex Gino's book, "George", was reported as the most challenged book in public education according to the American Library Association's annual top ten challenged books. The book was challenged for its "LGBTQIA+ content," yet censorers provided other stated reasons for challenging the novel, for instance "for conflicting with a religious viewpoint and “traditional family structure” and potentially "creating confusion."


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Angie Thomas's "The Hate U Give" tells the story of a black teen who witnesses her childhood friend get shot by the police. In 2017, the book was ranked number 8 on the American Library Association’s top ten challenge and banned books list. The book was also banned by school officials in Katy, Texas. It was challenged for its “pervasive vulgarity and racially-insensitive language. The book was also challenged for depicting drug use, profanity, and offensive language.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Suzanne Collins's "The Hunger Games" is a young adult Dystopian Novel that tells the story from the perspective of Katniss Everdeen, a 16 year-old living under a strict dictatorship in a post-apocalyptic world. The series emphasizes rebellion and uprising, government control, corrupt political power, and the breakdown of different districts represents the not-so-equal distribution of wealth. The book also includes themes of violence, poverty and love which can also be challenged. In 2014, the book was banned for the insertion of religious perspective. The series ended up being banned and/or challenged throughout the years for reasons that include, but are not limited to: insensitivity, offensive language, violence, anti-family, anti-ethic, and occult/satanic. One parent in New Hampshire, stated that the series had given her 11-year old nightmares. She also stated that it could numb children to violence.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Established in 1876, the American Library Association is the oldest and largest library association in the world "to provide leadership for the development, promotion and improvement of library and information services and the profession of librarianship in order to enhance learning and ensure access to information for all." The American Library Association's website has observed that the top three reasons for book censorship in the United States are that: the material was considered to be "sexually explicit", the content contained "offensive language", or the book was "unsuited to any age group." The Freedom to Read Foundation focuses more on the legal issues regarding book censorship. One of their main objectives is "to supply legal counsel, which counsel may or may not be directly employed by the Foundation, and otherwise to provide support to such libraries and librarians as are suffering legal injustices." Founded on November 20, 1969, the association made its first U.S. Supreme Court appeal in "Kaplan v. California". The case involved an "adult" bookstore owner who was convicted of "violating a California obscenity statute by selling a plain-covered unillustrated book containing repetitively descriptive material of an explicitly sexual nature." The Freedom to Read Foundation brought the case before the Supreme Court and filed "a motion asking the Court to consider an amicus brief addressing constitutional questions posed by the new three-prong test for obscenity in "Miller v. California"." The motion was ultimately denied as the Court ruled that First Amendment rights only applied to "serious literature or political works".


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: On ALA's website there is a section of "Banned & Challenged Books" and they release most banned and challenged books every year; however, they also organize Banned Books Week, "an annual event celebrating the freedom to read." usually taking place during the last week of September. Banned Books Week is the product of a national alliance between organizations who strive to bring awareness to banned books. Founded by first amendment and library activist Judy Krug and the Association of American Publishers in 1982 with the goal of bringing banned books "to the attention of the American public". By the year 2000, the intention of this event expanded to "bring[ing] together the entire book community; librarians, booksellers, publishers, journalists, teachers, and readers of all types, in shared support of the freedom to seek and to express ideas, even those some consider unorthodox or unpopular." The coalition that now sponsors the week each year consists of American Library Association (ALA), the American Booksellers Association, American Booksellers foundation for Free Expression (ABFFE), Association of American Publishers, American Society of Journalists and Authors, and has support from the Center for the Book in the Library of Congress. Now the goal of Banned Book Week is not only to invite students and other readers to look at censored or challenged books, but also advocates for literary freedom in schools, libraries, and all places involving books. Its most current goal is "to teach the importance of our first Amendment rights and the power of literature, and to draw attention to the danger that exists when restraints are imposed availability of information in a free society". Banned book week has expanded from just books to addressing the filtering any academic material by schools. This includes software that removes services such as YouTube, social media, and games. The American Association of School Librarians stance on all filtering is that it is important for students to go past "the requirements set for by the Federal Communications Commission in its Child Internet Protection Act".


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: However, while the week receives a positive reception, that does not mean it is without criticism. Tom Minnery, vice president of Focus on the Family, claims that "the ALA has irresponsibly perpetrated the 'banned' books lie for too long" and that "nothing is 'banned'" and Ruth Graham from "Slate" magazine agrees. She thinks that celebrating book banning week conflates issues of book censorship in a public library versus a school library, where actual cases of censorship are rather minimal. Groups who generally challenge numerous books, such as Focus on the Family, often stand opposed to Banned Book Week, but that doesn’t mean everyone is. Maddie Crum, a writer for the "Huffington Post", argues in defense of the week, stating that the week helps to keep people aware of the fact that Americans’ right of free expression is often limited and in many cases not easily won.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: American author John Green's novel "Looking for Alaska" has been challenged due to "offensive language" and "sexually explicit descriptions". Defending his work, Green says that the novel "is arguing really in a rather pointed way that emotionally intimate kissing can be a whole lot more fulfilling than emotionally empty oral sex." The ALA protects him, stating that "challenges do not simply involve a person expressing a point of view; rather, they are an attempt to remove material from the curriculum or library, thereby restricting the access of others. As such, they are a threat to freedom of speech and choice."


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: David Guterson's first novel "Snow Falling on Cedars" was listed as one of the most banned books, having been compared to pornography and described as sexually inappropriate. When he was writing his second novel, Guterson said it was "always hard to write another book" and that he was "deathly afraid" of having his books banned.


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: Jason Reynolds cowrote two of the young adult novels—"All American Boys" and "Stamped: Racism, Antiracism, and You"—included on the 2020 and 2019 ALA's top ten challenged books annual list. He responded to these censors in an NPR interview, saying "It's painful to me because what I know is that when these books are banned, there are going to be thousands and thousands of young people who will not get these books."


title: Book censorship in the United States

text: has maintained a list of books, since 1990, that have been banned or censored in the United States. This is an incomplete list of books, both fiction and non-fiction, that have been challenged or censored in the United States. (See List of Banned & challenged books at the American Library Association and/or the List of most commonly challenged books in the United States Wikipedia page)


title: Hempstead, New York

text: The Town of Hempstead (also known historically as South Hempstead) is the largest of the three towns in Nassau County (alongside North Hempstead and Oyster Bay) in the U.S. state of New York. It occupies the southwestern part of the county, on the western half of Long Island. Twenty-two incorporated villages (one of which is named Hempstead) are completely or partially within the town. The town's combined population was 759,757 at the 2010 census, which is the majority of the population of the county and by far the largest of any town in New York. In 2019, its combined population increased to an estimated 759,793 according to the American Community Survey.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: If Hempstead were to be incorporated as a city, it would be the second-largest city in New York, behind New York City; it is about three times the size of Buffalo, which has long been the state's second-largest city. It would be the 18th-largest city in the country, behind San Francisco, California, and ahead of Seattle, Washington. Hempstead is thus the most populous municipality in the New York metropolitan area outside New York City.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: The town was first settled around 1644 following the establishment of a treaty between English colonists, John Carman and Robert Fordham, and the Lenape Indians in 1643. Although the settlers were from the English colony of Connecticut, a patent was issued by the government of New Netherland after the settlers had purchased land from the local natives. This transaction is depicted in a mural in the Hempstead Village Hall, reproduced from a poster commemorating the 300th anniversary of Hempstead Village.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: In local Dutch-language documents of the 1640s and later, the town was invariably called "Heemstede," and several of Hempstead's original 50 patentees were Dutch, suggesting that Hempstead was named after the Dutch town and/or castle Heemstede, which are near the cities of Haarlem and Amsterdam. However, the authorities possibly had Dutchified a name given by co-founder John Carman, who was born in 1606 in Hemel Hempstead, Hertfordshire, England, on land owned by his ancestors since the 13th century.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: In 1664, the settlement under the new Province of New York adopted the Duke's Laws, austere statutes that became the basis upon which the laws of many colonies were to be founded. For a time, Hempstead became known as "Old Blue", as a result of the "Blue Laws".


title: Hempstead, New York

text: During the American Revolution, the Loyalists in the south and the American sympathizers in the north caused a split in 1784 into "North Hempstead" and "South Hempstead". With the 1898 incorporation of the Borough of Queens as part of the city of New York, and the 1899 split of Queens County to create Nassau County, some southwestern portions of the Town of Hempstead seceded from the town and became part of the Borough of Queens.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: Richard Hewlett, who was born in Hempstead, served as a Lieutenant Colonel with the British Army under General Oliver De Lancey in the American Revolution. Afterward, Hewlett departed the United States with other Loyalists and settled in the newly created Province of New Brunswick in what later became Canada. A settlement there was named Hampstead, in Queen's County next to Long Island in the Saint John River.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 191.3 square miles (495.5 km), of which 120.0 square miles (310.7 km) is land and 71.4 square miles (184.8 km) (37.30%) is water.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: The western town line is the border of Queens County in New York City. Its northern border, with the town of North Hempstead and the town of Oyster Bay, is along the main line of the Long Island Rail Road and along Old Country Road in Garden City heading east towards the Wantagh Parkway. Its eastern border, also with the town of Oyster Bay, runs parallel to (and several hundred feet west of) Route 107. To the south is the Atlantic Ocean, off of Atlantic Beach, Lido Beach, Point Lookout, and Jones Beach, as well as the city of Long Beach.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: The most popular beach on the east coast of the United States, Jones Beach State Park, is located in Hempstead. The beach is a popular destination for Long Islanders and residents of New York. The beach itself receives approximately six million visitors per year.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: In addition, there are a few areas that are not part of any incorporated village or census-designated place:


title: Hempstead, New York

text: The 2019 American Community Survey determined the population of the town of Hempstead was 759,793. The racial and ethnic makeup of the town was 54.0% non-Hispanic white, 17.4% Black or African American, 0.3% American Indian or Alaska Native, 6.2% Asian, 3.7% multiracial, and 20.9% Hispanic or Latin American of any race.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: Of the population, there were 244,203 households and there was an owner-occupied housing rate of 80.8%. The average household size was 3.10 and the population was made of 22.7% foreign-born residents. In 2019, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated the median value of an owner-occupied housing unit was $455,700 and the median gross rent of rented units at $1,678. Residents of the town had a combined median household income of $111,072 and per capita of $44,958. Of the population in 2019, 6.0% lived at or below the poverty line.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 759,757 people, 246,828 households, and 193,513 families residing in the town. The population density was 6,301.3 inhabitants per square mile (2,433.0/km). There were 252,286 housing units at an average density of 2,103.0 per square mile (812.0/km). The racial makeup of the town was 59.9% White, 16.5% Black, 0.3% Native American, 5.2% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 4.5% from other races, and 2.2% from two or more races. Hispanic and Latin Americans of any race were 17.4% of the population.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: There were 246,828 households, out of which 36.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 62.2% were married couples living together, 12.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.6% were non-families. 18.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.02 and the average family size was 3.41.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.4% under the age of 18, 7.8% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 23.4% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.2 males.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the town was $84,362, and the median income for a family was $96,080. Males had a median income of $50,818 versus $36,334 for females. The per capita income for the town was $28,153. About 4.0% of families and 5.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.6% of those under age 18 and 5.7% of those age 65 or over.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: Lufthansa United States had its headquarters in East Meadow, beginning in the 1970s, after it moved from Park Avenue in Manhattan, in order to save money. In 2019, the office had 206 employees; that year the headquarters moved to Uniondale.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: At one time Swiss International Air Lines operated its United States office at 776 RexCorp Plaza in the EAB Plaza in Uniondale. The airline moved from 41 Pinelawn Road in Melville, Suffolk County around 2002.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: Snapple was previously headquartered in East Meadow, prior to moving their corporate office. The office space is now currently occupied by the Epilepsy Foundation of Long Island.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: The town is headed by Donald X. Clavin, Jr. (R) of Garden City. The responsibilities of the office include presiding over meetings of the Town Council and directing the legislative and administrative function of that body. The position also entails creating and implementing the town's budget. One famous former supervisor was Republican Alfonse D'Amato, who later represented New York in the United States Senate from 1981 to 1999.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: Prior to 1994, the town also had a Presiding Supervisor, who along with the Supervisor, sat on what was then Nassau County's main governmental body, the Board of Supervisors, along with the Supervisors of the towns of North Hempstead and Oyster Bay and the independent cities of Long Beach—formerly a part of Hempstead Town until its incorporation as a separate municipality in 1922—and Glen Cove, which had been carved out of Oyster Bay Town in 1917. Typically, the Presiding Supervisor, besides chairing the weekly county Board of Supervisors meetings, acted as the senior official in the town government with the Supervisor in a more junior, subordinate role; a number of Supervisors moved up to Presiding Supervisor whenever that office became vacant, including, in succession during the 1970s, Ralph G. Caso and Francis T. Purcell, both of whom later went on to become the county executive, and then Al D'Amato, before he moved up to the Senate. Having the Presiding Supervisor on the county board along with the Supervisor gave Hempstead—by far the most populous of the county's three towns and two cities—the most clout on that body. However, in 1993–94, a federal judge ruled that the board's makeup violated the one-person, one-vote constitutional principle and also gave no representation to the country's growing minority population. As a result of that ruling, the Board of Supervisors was replaced by a 19-member county legislature. Gregory P. Peterson served as the last Presiding Supervisor, as the position was abolished with the demise of the county board.


title: Hempstead, New York

text: The Town Council comprises six voting members, elected from a councilmanic district. Their primary function is to adopt the annual budget, adopting and amending the town code and the building zone ordinances, adopting all traffic regulations, and hearing applications for changes of zone and special exceptions to zoning codes.


title: Herbarium

text: A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant specimens and associated data used for scientific study.


title: Herbarium

text: The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sheet of paper (called "exsiccatum", plur. "exsiccata") but, depending upon the material, may also be stored in boxes or kept in alcohol or other preservative. The specimens in a herbarium are often used as reference material in describing plant taxa; some specimens may be types.


title: Herbarium

text: The same term is often used in mycology to describe an equivalent collection of preserved fungi, otherwise known as a fungarium. A xylarium is a herbarium specialising in specimens of wood. The term hortorium (as in the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium) has occasionally been applied to a herbarium specialising in preserving material of horticultural origin.


title: Herbarium

text: The making of herbaria is an ancient phenomenon, at least six centuries old, although the techniques have changed little, and has been an important step in the transformation of the study of plants from a branch of medicine to an independent discipline, and to make available plant material from far away places and over a long period of time.


title: Herbarium

text: The oldest traditions of making herbarium collections have been traced to Italy. The "Bologna" physician and botanist, Luca Ghini (1490–1556) reintroduced the study of actual plants as opposed to relying on classical texts, such as Dioscorides, which lacked sufficient accuracy for identification. At first, he needed to make available plant material, even in winter, hence his "Hortus hiemalis" (winter garden) or "Hortus siccus" (dry garden). He and his students placed freshly gathered plants between two sheets of paper and applied pressure to flatten them and absorb moisture. The dried specimen was then glued onto a page in a book and annotated. This practice was supplemented by the parallel development of the "Hortus simplicium" or "Orto botanico" (botanical garden) to supply material, which he established at the University of Pisa in 1544.


title: Herbarium

text: Although Ghini's herbarium has not survived, the oldest extant herbarium is that of Gherardo Cibo from around 1532. While most of the early herbaria were prepared with sheets bound into books, Carl Linnaeus came up with the idea of maintaining them on free sheets that allowed their easy re-ordering within cabinets.


title: Herbarium

text: Commensurate with the need to identify the specimen, it is essential to include in a herbarium sheet as much of the plant as possible (e.g., roots, flowers, stems, leaves, seed, and fruit), or at least representative parts of them in the case of large specimens. To preserve their form and colour, plants collected in the field are carefully arranged and spread flat between thin sheets, known as "flimsies" (equivalent to sheets of newsprint), and dried, usually in a plant press, between blotters or absorbent paper.


title: Herbarium

text: During the drying process the specimens are retained within their flimsies at all times to minimise damage, and only the thicker, absorbent drying sheets are replaced. For some plants it may prove helpful to allow the fresh specimen to wilt slightly before being arranged for the press. An opportunity to check, rearrange and further lay out the specimen to best reveal the required features of the plant occurs when the damp absorbent sheets are changed during the drying/pressing process.


title: Herbarium

text: The specimens, which are then mounted on sheets of stiff white paper, are labelled with all essential data, such as date and place found, description of the plant, altitude, and special habitat conditions. The sheet is then placed in a protective case. As a precaution against insect attack, the pressed plant is frozen or poisoned, and the case disinfected.


title: Herbarium

text: Certain groups of plants are soft, bulky, or otherwise not amenable to drying and mounting on sheets. For these plants, other methods of preparation and storage may be used. For example, conifer cones and palm fronds may be stored in labelled boxes. Representative flowers or fruits may be pickled in formaldehyde to preserve their three-dimensional structure. Small specimens, such as mosses and lichens, are often air-dried and packaged in small paper envelopes.


title: Herbarium

text: No matter the method of preservation, detailed information on where and when the plant was collected, habitat, color (since it may fade over time), and the name of the collector is usually included.


title: Herbarium

text: The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the possession of "types", that is, the original specimens on which the study of a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum, which is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in botany. It is also rich in types of Australian plants from the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains in addition many valuable modern collections.


title: Herbarium

text: Most herbaria utilize a standard system of organizing their specimens into herbarium cases. Specimen sheets are stacked in groups by the species to which they belong and placed into a large lightweight folder that is labelled on the bottom edge. Groups of species folders are then placed together into larger, heavier folders by genus. The genus folders are then sorted by taxonomic family according to the standard system selected for use by the herbarium and placed into pigeonholes in herbarium cabinets.


title: Herbarium

text: Locating a specimen filed in the herbarium requires knowing the nomenclature and classification used by the herbarium. It also requires familiarity with possible name changes that have occurred since the specimen was collected, since the specimen may be filed under an older name.


title: Herbarium

text: Modern herbaria often maintain electronic databases of their collections. Many herbaria have initiatives to digitize specimens to produce a virtual herbarium. These records and images are made publicly accessible via the Internet when possible.


title: Herbarium

text: Herbaria have long been essential for the study of plant taxonomy, the study of geographic distributions, and the stabilizing of nomenclature. Linnaeus's herbarium, which contains over 4,000 types, now belongs to the Linnean Society in England. Modern scientists continue to develop novel, non-traditional uses for herbarium specimens that extend beyond what the original collectors could have anticipated.


title: Herbarium

text: Specimens housed in herbaria may be used to catalogue or identify the flora of an area. A large collection from a single area is used in writing a field guide or manual to aid in the identification of plants that grow there. With more specimens available, the author or the guide will better understand the variability of form in the plants and the natural distribution over which the plants grow.


title: Herbarium

text: Herbaria also preserve a historical record of change in vegetation over time. In some cases, plants become extinct in one area or may become extinct altogether. In such cases, specimens preserved in a herbarium can represent the only record of the plant's original distribution. Environmental scientists make use of such data to track changes in climate and human impact.


title: Herbarium

text: Herbaria have also proven very useful as source of plant DNA for use in taxonomy and molecular systematics. Even ancient fungaria represent a source for DNA-barcoding of ancient samples.


title: Herbarium

text: Many kinds of scientists and naturalists use herbaria to preserve voucher specimens; representative samples of plants used in a particular study to demonstrate precisely the source of their data, or to enable confirmation of identification at a future date.


title: Herbarium

text: Many universities, museums, and botanical gardens maintain herbaria. The largest herbaria in the world, in approximate order of decreasing size, are:


title: Charles Fleischer

text: Charles Fleischer (born August 27, 1950) is an American actor, stand-up comedian, musician, and writer, best known for appearing in films such as "Who Framed Roger Rabbit", "A Nightmare on Elm Street", "The Polar Express", "Rango", "", and "We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story". He made a cameo in "Back to the Future Part II" and also reprised the role of Roger Rabbit in the "Roger Rabbit" theatrical shorts. After beginning his career on the comedy club circuit, Charles Fleischer's first big break in comedy television came when he made an appearance on "Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In".


title: Charles Fleischer

text: Fleischer was born in Washington, D.C., on August 27, 1950. He studied medicine at Southampton College, then part of Long Island University, before transferring to study acting at Goodman School of Drama at the Art Institute of Chicago (now at DePaul University).


title: Charles Fleischer

text: Fleischer is best known as the voices of Roger Rabbit, Benny the Cab, Greasy, and Psycho in "Who Framed Roger Rabbit". After the film's success, he continued to perform the voice of Roger in several Disney television and theme park appearances at several of the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, and in three follow-up shorts. Other voice roles for Fleischer include "The Polar Express" and "We're Back! A Dinosaur's Story". Notable on-screen roles include "Back to the Future Part II" and "Gridlock'd".


title: Charles Fleischer

text: Fleischer had a recurring role on the 1970s TV series "Welcome Back, Kotter" as Carvelli, as Chuck on the ABC series "Laverne & Shirley", and on the Disney cartoon series "House of Mouse" as the voice of Benny the Cab. Fleischer appeared for the first time on "Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In" on January 15, 1973, where he played his homemade musical instruments made from lead pipe and shower wands. He then landed a spot on "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson" on May 15, 1974. He was also a regular on "Keep on Truckin'". He guest-starred in "The Weird Al Show" as a guy in a band. He also appeared on the short-lived Saturday morning show, "Wacko".


title: Charles Fleischer

text: Fleischer is the originator of the quote "If you remember the '60s, you really weren't there" which has been widely mis-attributed to various other celebrities.


title: Charles Fleischer

text: He performed the role of a televangelist on "What God Wants, Part II", on Roger Waters' 1992 album "Amused to Death".


title: Charles Fleischer

text: He is also a musician and songwriter. He performed as a guest on harmonica with the group Blues Traveler at the Wiltern Theater in Los Angeles on November 22, 1995 and from December 10 to 15, 2002 at the Improvisational theatre of Connecticut Avenue.


title: Charles Fleischer

text: From December 2010 to September 2011, he hosted his own weekly web show "Fleischer's Universe" on Ustream.tv, produced by Brad Wyman.


title: Charles Fleischer

text: Charles Fleischer was inside Tropicana Las Vegas, giving an improvised comedy along with Bob Golub and Nick Aragon at the Laugh Factory from January 17 to 20 of 2019.


title: Charles Fleischer

text: Fleischer married Sheryl Strassman in 1977. Together they have two daughters, Rachel (b. 1980) and Jessica (b. 1982).


title: The Big Day (album)

text: The Big Day is the debut studio album by American rapper Chance the Rapper, released on July 26, 2019. The album follows several mixtapes by the rapper including the reissue of his collaborative "Merry Christmas Lil' Mama" in 2017, and was his first solo project since "Coloring Book" in 2016. The album was influenced by Chance's marriage in March 2019. The album was lauded by most critics, but certain aspects of the work found limited commercial success. The album received backlash from fans on social media and other Internet communities citing inconsistencies of quality throughout the work. The album debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200, Chance's highest-charting entry to date.


title: The Big Day (album)

text: For the album, Chance worked with several songwriters including Darius Scott, Dwayne Verner, Jr., Greg Landfair, Nate Fox and Peter Wilkins.


title: The Big Day (album)

text: In a November 2016 interview, Chance the Rapper stated: "I think what I'm working on now is an album." In May and June 2018, American rapper and producer Kanye West released a set of 7-track albums as part of the Wyoming Sessions, producing five albums in collaboration with Pusha T, Kid Cudi, Nas, and Teyana Taylor. In July 2018, Chance announced that West was coming to Chicago to produce his debut album. West arrived in Chicago in mid-August 2018 and began recording. The duo later announced that their collaboration would be titled "Good Ass Job". At the same time, West began working on his ninth studio album "Yandhi" and shifted his focus to that project instead; West has no production credits on the released version of "The Big Day".


title: The Big Day (album)

text: "The Big Day" has been described by music journalists as a pop-rap and gospel rap record. "NOW Magazine"s Richard Trapunski says it "presents a bigger and slicker version of [Chance the Rapper's] nostalgic gospel-rap sound", while Stephen Porzio from "Hot Press" says it not only features hip hop but also R&B and soul music.


title: The Big Day (album)

text: Lyrically, the album follows Chance on his wedding day, inspired by his real-life marriage to Kirsten Corley in March 2019. Its predominant theme of family is explored with most songs about Kirsten and Chance's family and children. The album features contributions from his brother Taylor Bennett, who raps on "Roo", and his father Ken Bennett, who helped co-write "Eternal". In the skits "Photo Ops" and "4 Quarters in the Black", comedians John Witherspoon and Keith David play wise uncle characters to highlight the multigenerational aspect of weddings.


title: The Big Day (album)

text: The artwork for the album cover features a jewel encrusted clear disc, reminiscent of a wedding ring, referencing the album's wedding theme, and was created by artist Sara Shakeel. Chance the Rapper reached out to Shakeel via Instagram to commission a physical object in her unique Swarovski crystal-clad style to be photographed and used for the cover art. Shakeel also created artworks for the rapper's installation "The Big Store".


title: The Big Day (album)

text: In March 2017, Chance stated that he would sell his debut album, as opposed to the free release of his previous mixtapes. On February 12, 2019, Chance tweeted "July" and shared a video on his Instagram revealing that he had "been making music" that fans could expect to arrive the same month. On June 27, Chance released a promotional video titled "The Next Chapter Begins", where a pre-order for the album was launched. His first two mixtapes, "10 Day" and "Acid Rap", were also put up on music streaming services, and sold on vinyl alongside his third mixtape "Coloring Book". On July 16, Chance the Rapper announced the album's title, release date and revealed its cover during his interview on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon".


title: The Big Day (album)

text: On August 4, 2019, "The Big Day" debuted at number two on the US "Billboard" 200 with 108,000 album-equivalent units, of which 27,000 were pure album sales in its first week. It was Chance's highest-charting entry and his third release to hit the top 10 of the chart.


title: The Big Day (album)

text: "The Big Day" was met with generally positive reviews, according to the aggregate website "Metacritic". At the website, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional critics, the album received an average score of 71, based on 21 reviews. Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 6.8 out of 10, based on their assessment of the critical consensus. The reception was described by journalists Shaad D'Souza (of "The Fader") and Ben Yakas (of "Gothamist") as "lukewarm".


title: The Big Day (album)

text: Reviewing in July 2019, Al Horner of "The Guardian" described "The Big Day" as "a candid, cutesy concept album based around his wedding", believing it "combines something old and something new, subtly expanding Chance’s sound without ever straying too far from the sentimental gospel-pop heart of his last release, "Coloring Book""." Fred Thomas of "AllMusic" wrote that "Bright, flawless production supports Chance's optimistic lyrics and cultivates an atmosphere overflowing with joy, wonder, and summery nostalgia". Christopher Weingarten of "Entertainment Weekly" concluded, "A master lyricist, a musical omnivore, Chance and his family of producers and instrumentalists channel all the big emotions of the big day in a swirl of bliss, marital and otherwise." In a less enthusiastic review, Danny Schwartz of "Rolling Stone" concluded that, "Despite its length, "The Big Day" is self-contained, at least by Chance’s standards", considering it "narrower in emotional scope" than the 2016 mixtape "Coloring Book". Dhruva Balram of "NME" said it is "a buoyant, cheerful project that looks back on his young, successful career through rose-tinted lenses but, ultimately, doesn't possess enough depth amidst a mishmash of production and features that make it too long-winded".


title: The Big Day (album)

text: The album and Chance received overwhelming criticism from fans on social media, spawning many Internet memes primarily about the album's focus on Chance's marriage. Having expected music similar to his previous mixtapes, many fans believed that the album was a regression for the rapper, finding his raps banal and his style childishly upbeat. The music critic Anthony Fantano rated it a zero on a scale of 10, finding the production "flat" and the raps having some of Chance's "worst bars to date". The rapper responded on Twitter to the criticism, saying he believes that people wanted him to "kill himself".


title: The Big Day (album)

text: The veteran music critic Robert Christgau believed "The Big Day" had become a "backlash victim", instead ranking it on his year-end list as 2019's third best album. In his "Consumer Guide" column on Substack, he explained that, "Since the rhyming may seem slack when you follow every word, why bother? ... [T]he opener's choral 'we-back' intro and self-sufficient lyric lighten up the room every time they come round, and that mood never dulls." While applauding the guest performances, Christgau added that the best raps belong to Chance on "Found a Good One" and "Zanies and Fools". "Both celebrate his wedding day with a cred the cameos only flesh out, a cred that will endure as art even if the marriage itself fails—this is showbiz, after all. Best wishes to the happy couple and all their progeny."


title: Lafayette College

text: Lafayette College is a private liberal arts college in Easton, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1826 by James Madison Porter and other citizens in Easton, the college first held classes in 1832. The founders voted to name the college after General Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution.


title: Lafayette College

text: Located on College Hill in Easton, the campus is in the Lehigh Valley, about west of New York City and north of Philadelphia. Lafayette College guarantees campus housing to all enrolled students. The college requires students to live in campus housing unless approved for residing in private off-campus housing or at home as a commuter.


title: Lafayette College

text: The student body, consisting entirely of undergraduates, comes from 46 U.S. states and territories and nearly 60 countries. Students at Lafayette have access to more than 250 clubs and organizations, including athletics, fraternities and sororities, special interest groups, community service clubs, and honor societies.


title: Lafayette College

text: A group of Easton, Pennsylvania residents, led by James Madison Porter (son of General Andrew Porter of Norristown, Pennsylvania), met on December 27, 1824, at White's Tavern to discuss founding a college in town. The recent visit of General Lafayette to New York during his grand tour of the US in 1824 and 1825 prompted the founders to name the college after the renowned French military officer, a hero of the American Revolutionary War, as "a testimony of respect for [his] talents, virtues, and signal services... in the great cause of freedom".


title: Lafayette College

text: The group established a 35-member board of trustees, a system of governance that continues at the college to the present. They selected Porter, lawyer Jacob Wagener, and Yale-educated lawyer Joel Jones to come up with an education plan. The charter gained state approval from the legislature and, on March 9, 1826, Pennsylvania Governor John Andrew Shulze. Along with establishing Lafayette as a liberal arts college, the charter provided for religious equality among professors, students, and staff.


title: Lafayette College

text: The board of trustees met on May 15, 1826, for the election of officers: Thomas McKeen as Treasurer, Joel Jones as Secretary, and James Madison Porter as the first president of the college. Over the next few years, the board met several times to discuss property and funding for the college's start-up. Six years after the first meeting, Lafayette began to enroll students.


title: Lafayette College

text: The college opened on May 1, 1829, with four students under the guidance of Rev. John Monteith. At the start of the next year, the Rev. George Junkin, a Presbyterian minister, was elected first official president of the college. He moved the all-male Manual Labor Academy of Pennsylvania from Germantown (near Philadelphia) to Easton. Its first two professors were Charles F. McCay and James I. Coon. Classes began on May 9, 1832, with instruction of 43 students in a rented farmhouse on the south bank of the Lehigh River. Junkin supported colonization of Liberia by ex-slaves from the United States. He proposed Lafayette for educating free African Americans for missionary work in the new American colony established by the American Colonization Society. Between 1832 and 1844, ten black students were enrolled at Lafayette, four of whom later served as missionaries in Liberia. Most African Americans, however, wanted to gain their legal rights in the United States, for many their homeland for generations.


title: Lafayette College

text: During the college's first years, students were required to work in the fields and workshops in order for the college to earn money to support its programs. This manual labor was retained as part of the curriculum until 1839, as the college was focused on preparing students for Military and Civil Engineering. Later that year, Lafayette purchased property on what is now known as "College Hill" – nine acres of elevated land across Bushkill Creek. The college's first building was constructed two years later on the current site of South College.


title: Lafayette College

text: A dispute between Porter and Rev. Junkin led to the latter man's resignation from the presidency in 1841. The trustees considered the possibility of religious affiliation to achieve financial stability for the college.


title: Lafayette College

text: In 1854, Lafayette College became affiliated with the Presbyterian Church. By relinquishing their control, the college was able to collect $1000 a year from the Presbyterian Church Board of Education as regularly as the latter could pay it. In the time from 1855 to 1856, Lafayette had a peak enrollment of 112 students in total. The class of 1857, a close-knit group of 27 men, worked in secrecy to establish charters in national fraternities, thus founding the first Greek fraternities at Lafayette College. These fraternities remained secret until 1915, as they were discouraged by the authorities as divisive of group unity.


title: Lafayette College

text: In preparation for United States entry into the Great War, which had involved European nations from 1914, Lafayette announced that current students would be awarded their degrees "in absentia" if they enlisted or went to work for farms to support the war effort. Professor Beverly Kunkel organized The Lafayette Ambulance United, Section 61, United States Army Ambulance Corps. During the summer of 1917, Dr. MacCracken arranged to adapt the campus as a war camp for the War Department. Men trained to serve in mechanical trades. Lafayette remained a war camp until January 2, 1919, when the regular course of study was re-established there.


title: Lafayette College

text: Between 1930 and 1934, during the Great Depression, the number of students declined dramatically. The college created new scholarships and scholarship loans to enable more students to attend. It also founded an Engineering Guidance Conference for boys. The conference was two weeks long and introduced twenty-one high school students to the concepts of engineering. This program continued until the outbreak of World War II in 1941. Though the college faced its own deficits during the depression, it aided the larger community by offering a series of classes free to unemployed men beginning in 1932. They also made athletic facilities available for free to unemployed members of the community. Enrollment began to rise again for the 1935–1936 academic year.


title: Lafayette College

text: As the college moved out of the great depression, the college's new president, William Mather Lewis, began what was called the Decade of Progress capital campaign, in order to fund delayed improvements. It started as a celebration of the 70th anniversary of Lafayette's engineering program. President Lewis regarded this 70-year span as a period which "covers the great development in American engineering which has now seemed to reach its peak." The goal of this campaign was to raise $500,000 for payments on Gates hall, renovation of Van Wickle Memorial Library, and equipment upgrades in other departments. By the time the campaign closed in 1944, the college had received a total amount of $280,853.34.


title: Lafayette College

text: Initially, most of the faculty and students at Lafayette wanted the U.S. to stay out of the conflict in Europe. When President Franklin D. Roosevelt addressed the Pan-American Congress, saying that the US had a duty to protect Americans' science, culture, freedom and civilization, thirty-seven Lafayette faculty members wired the president objecting to his speech. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and declaration of war by the US, the Northampton County Council of Defense organized a College Council of Defense at Lafayette. The college took official action as well. It bolstered its ROTC program and improved facilities to prepare for air raid tests. The college continued its academic programs until the US lowered the draft age from 20 to 18 in November 1942. While more students enlisted, Lafayette College was one of 36 academic institutions selected by the War Department to train engineering and aviation cadets. After the war, the Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944 (known as the GI Bill) resulted in a new wave of enrollment at Lafayette by veterans: in 1949 the college had approximately 2000 students.


title: Lafayette College

text: In 1967, in consideration of cultural changes that included women seeking more participation in society, faculty requested that a special committee be formed to discuss making Lafayette a co-educational institution. That committee issued a formal recommendation the following year. In September 1970 Lafayette College welcomed its first official coeducational class with 146 women (123 freshmen, and 23 transfers).


title: Lafayette College

text: In 2004, a report on religious life at Lafayette College was compiled, recommending a review of the college's formal relationship with the Presbyterian church. The college has retained its affiliation, although it is not a member of the Association of Presbyterian Colleges and Universities.


title: Lafayette College

text: In 2007, the college commemorated the 250th birthday of General Lafayette through a series of lectures and campus dedications. Major festivities were held on September 6, 2007, Lafayette's birthday. They were started the night before with a lecture by renowned historian David McCullough. On March 9, Lafayette commemorated approval of the college charter by the Pennsylvania Legislature with a campus-wide and alumni toast around the world.


title: Lafayette College

text: On January 16, 2013, Dr. Alison R. Byerly was announced as Lafayette's 17th and first female president. She took office on July 1, 2013, replacing outgoing president Daniel Weiss. She formerly was a professor at Middlebury College.