title: Lebanon national football team

text: The 2000 edition was Lebanon's first participation in the finals, when the country hosted the event. Following a 4–0 defeat to Iran in the competition's opening match, Lebanon came from behind to draw 2–2 against Iraq; Abbas Chahrour became Lebanon's first goalscorer in the competition. Lebanon drew once again, 1–1 against Thailand, and were eliminated, finishing last in the group.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: After finishing the 2019 third round of qualification unbeaten, Lebanon qualified to the Asian Cup for the first time in their history. In the finals, Lebanon lost the first group stage match 2–0 to eventual champions Qatar, before losing once again by the same score to Saudi Arabia. In the final match of the group, Lebanon needed a win by four goals or more against North Korea to qualify to the knock-out stage. Despite conceding an early free-kick goal, Lebanon went on to win the match 4–1 thanks to a brace by Hilal El-Helwe. However, they lost out to Vietnam in the third-place ranking due to having received more yellow cards, and were knocked out of the competition.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: Lebanon's senior team have never qualified to the Summer Olympics final tournament; their first qualification campaign was for Rome 1960. After losing the first two group stage games against Iraq, Lebanon withdrew and the two remaining matches were awarded to their opponent Turkey. Lebanon participated in two more qualifications, in 1968 and 1972, failing to qualify to the final tournament on both occasions.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: Lebanon have taken part in all iterations of the Arab Cup, except the 1985 and 1992 editions. They hosted the inaugural edition in 1963, in a group containing Tunisia, Syria, Kuwait, and Jordan. After beating Kuwait 6–0 through a hat-trick by Mardik Tchaparian, Lebanon lost 3–2 to Syria, before winning 5–0 against Jordan. In a decisive match against Tunisia, Muhieddine Itani scored an own goal, and Lebanon lost 1–0, finishing third.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: Lebanon finished in fourth place in the subsequent two editions (1964 and 1966); ever since, they have failed to pass the group stage.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: Bar the 2008 and 2010 editions, Lebanon have participated in every WAFF Championship; however, they have failed to qualify past the group stage on all occasions. Their first participation in the WAFF Championship was in 2000, at the inaugural edition. Drawn with Iraq, hosts Jordan, and Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon finished third in their group with one win, one draw, and one loss.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: After participating in the inaugural edition of the Pan Arab Games, at Alexandria 1953, Lebanon hosted the 1957 edition. Topping a group containing Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan, Lebanon reached the semi-finals where they lost 4–2 to Tunisia. Due to Morocco withdrawing from the third-place match, Lebanon finished the tournament in third place. Lebanon also came third in 1997, once again as hosts. With two draws and a win, Lebanon came second in their group and qualified to the semi-finals, which they lost after extra time to Syria. Lebanon finished in third place after beating Kuwait 3–1.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: The Lebanon national senior team only participated once at the Asian Games, at Bangkok 1998. Thanks to a 5–1 win against Cambodia, Lebanon qualified past the preliminary round and were drawn with Qatar, Thailand, and Kazakhstan in the second round. Following two 1–0 defeats, respectively to Qatar and Thailand, Lebanon won 3–0 against Kazakhstan in their final encounter of the group stage. However, the three points weren't enough to qualify Lebanon to the knockout round.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: Lebanon's first participation at the Mediterranean Games was in 1959, when they hosted the event. They lost both legs against Italy B and Turkey B, finishing last with no points. Lebanon's senior team participated two more times, in 1963 and 1987, failing to qualify past the group stage on both occasions.


title: Lebanon national football team

text: Lebanon won their first tournament—albeit unofficial—at the 1964 Tripoli Fair Tournament; with three wins and one draw, Lebanon finished first in a group containing Libya, Morocco, Sudan, and Malta. In 1998, Lebanon participated at the Friendship Tournament in the United Arab Emirates where, with two draws and a defeat, they finished in third place out of four. Lebanon also finished in third place at the 2009 King's Cup in Thailand; after losing to the hosts in the semi-finals, they won against North Korea in the third-place match.


title: Stephen Bishop (actor)

text: Bishop attended the University of California, Riverside, where he played baseball for the Highlanders from 1991–1992. After college he signed a free agent contract with the Atlanta Braves and played in 20 games for Atlanta's affiliate in the Pioneer League in 1993. In 1994, he played for the Sioux Falls Canaries and the St. Paul Saints of the Northern League, and in 1995 he played for the High Desert Mavericks, the advanced A ball affiliate for the Baltimore Orioles.


title: Stephen Bishop (actor)

text: He played Patrick on the television show "Imposters", which aired on Bravo. He plays David Paulk in the television show "Being Mary Jane". He also appeared on the television series "Lost", "Girlfriends", and "The Game", and in the independent film "Americanese". He appeared in the movie "The Rundown" with The Rock. Bishop also played David Justice in "Moneyball", which was released on September 23, 2011.


title: Stephen Bishop (actor)

text: He was in the 2015 movie "With This Ring" where he played 'Nate Adamson' and starred alongside Regina Hall, Jill Scott and Eve (rapper). He appeared in Grey's Anatomy Season 4 Episode 16 Freedom part 1. In 2017, he played the role of Michael Roland in the psychological thriller "'Til Death Do Us Part" alongside Taye Diggs.


title: Stephen Bishop (actor)

text: On October 19, 2018, it was announced that Bishop had been cast in a recurring role on "Criminal Minds" as Supervisory Special agent Andrew Mendoza, who will be a love interest for Emily Prentiss.


title: Stephen Bishop (actor)

text: On November 29, 2017, he and his partner, model Jesiree Dizon, welcomed their first child Charli Kekuʻulani.


title: Acala

text: ' or Achala (, "The Immovable", ), also known as ' (, "Immovable Lord") or (, "Noble Immovable Lord"), is a wrathful deity and "dharmapala" (protector of the Dharma) prominent in Vajrayana Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism.


title: Acala

text: Originally a minor deity described as a messenger or acolyte of the buddha Vairocana, Acala later rose to prominence as an object of veneration in his own right as a remover of obstacles and destroyer of evil, eventually becoming seen as the wrathful manifestation of either Vairocana, the buddha Akṣobhya, or the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī. In later texts, he is also called ' (, "Violent Wrathful One", ) or ' (, "Violent One of Great Wrath", ), the names by which he is more commonly known in countries like Nepal and Tibet.


title: Acala

text: In East Asian esoteric Buddhism, Acala is classed among the Wisdom Kings () and is preeminent among the five Wisdom Kings of the Womb Realm. Accordingly, he occupies an important hierarchical position in the Mandala of the Two Realms. In China, he is known as Bùdòng Míngwáng (不動明王, "Immovable Wisdom King", the Chinese translation of Sanskrit "Acala(nātha) Vidyārāja"), while in Japan, he is called Fudō Myōō, the "on'yomi" reading of his Chinese name. Acala (as Fudō) is one of the especially important and well-known divinities in Japanese Buddhism, being especially venerated in the Shingon, Tendai, Zen, and Nichiren sects, as well as in Shugendō.


title: Acala

text: Acala has been worshiped throughout the Middle Ages and into modern times in Nepal, Tibet, China and Japan, where sculptural and pictorial representations of him are most often found.


title: Acala

text: Acala first appears in the (不空羂索神変真言經, pinyin: "Bùkōng juànsuǒ shénbiàn zhēnyán jīng", translated by Bodhiruci circa 707-709 CE), where he is described as a servant or messenger of the buddha Vairocana:The first from the west in the northern quadrant is the acolyte Acala (不動使者). In his left hand he grasps a noose and in his right hand he holds a sword. He is seated in the half-lotus position.


title: Acala

text: More well-known, however, is the following passage from the "Mahāvairocana Tantra" (also known as the "Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhi Tantra" or the "Vairocana Sūtra") which refers to Acala as one of the deities of the Womb Realm Mandala:


title: Acala

text: The deity was apparently popular in India during the 8th-9th centuries as evident by the fact that six of the Sanskrit texts translated by the esoteric master Amoghavajra into Chinese are devoted entirely to him. Indeed, Acala's rise to a more prominent position in the Esoteric pantheon in East Asian Buddhism may be credited in part to the writings of Amoghavajra and his teacher Vajrabodhi.


title: Acala

text: While some scholars have put forward the theory that Acala originated from the Hindu god Shiva, particularly his attributes of destruction and reincarnation, Bernard Faure suggested the wrathful esoteric deity Trailokyavijaya (whose name is an epithet of Shiva), the Vedic fire god Agni, and the guardian deity Vajrapani to be other, more likely prototypes for Acala. He notes: "one could theoretically locate Acala's origins in a generic , but only in the sense that all Tantric deities can in one way or another be traced back to ." Faure compares Acala to Vajrapani in that both were originally minor deities who eventually came to occupy important places in the Buddhist pantheon.


title: Acala

text: Acala is said to be a powerful deity who protects the faithful by burning away all impediments () and defilements (), thus aiding them towards enlightenment. In a commentary on the "Mahāvairocana Tantra" by Yi Xing, he is said to have manifested in the world following Vairocana's vow to save all beings, and that his primary function is to remove obstacles to enlightenment. Indeed, the tantra instructs the ritual practitioner to recite Acala's mantras or to visualize himself as Acala in order to remove obstacles.


title: Acala

text: From a humble acolyte, Acala evolved into a powerful demon-subduing deity. In later texts such as the "Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa Tantra", Acala - under the name ("Violent Wrathful One") or ("Violent One of Great Wrath") - is portrayed as the "frightener of gods, titans, and men, the destroyer of the strength of demons" who slays ghosts and evil spirits with his fierce anger. In the "Sādhanamālā", the gods Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and Kandarpa - described as "wicked" beings who subject humanity to endless rebirth - are said to be terrified of Acala because he carries a rope to bind them.


title: Acala

text: In Tibetan Buddhism, Acala or Miyowa (མི་གཡོ་བ་, Wylie: "mi g.yo ba") is considered as belonging to the "" ("vajra family", Tibetan: དོ་རྗེའི་རིགས་, "dorjé rik"; Wylie: "rdo rje'i rigs"), one of the Five Buddha Families presided over by the buddha Akṣobhya and may even be regarded, along with the other deities of the "kula", as an aspect or emanation of the latter. He is thus sometimes depicted in South Asian art wearing a crown with an effigy of Akṣobhya. In Nepal, Acala may also be identified as a manifestation of the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī. He has a consort named Viśvavajrī in both the Nepalese and Tibetan traditions, with whom he is at times depicted in yab-yum union.


title: Acala

text: By contrast, the "sanrinjin" (三輪身, "bodies of the three wheels") theory, based on Amoghavajra's writings and prevalent in Japanese esoteric Buddhism ("Mikkyō"), interprets Acala as an incarnation of Vairocana. In this system, the five chief "vidyārājas" or Wisdom Kings (明王, "Myōō"), of which Acala is one, are interpreted as the wrathful manifestations (教令輪身, "kyōryōrin-shin", lit. ""embodiments of the wheel of injunction") of the Five Great Buddhas, who appear both as gentle bodhisattvas to teach the Dharma and also as fierce wrathful deities to subdue and convert hardened nonbelievers. Under this conceptualization, "vidyārājas" are ranked superior to , a different class of guardian deities. However, this interpretation, while common in Japan, is not necessarily universal: in Nichiren-shū, for instance, Acala and Rāgarāja (Aizen Myōō), the two "vidyārājas" who commonly feature in the mandalas inscribed by Nichiren, are seen as protective deities (外護神, "gegoshin") who respectively embody the two tenets of "hongaku" ("original enlightenment") doctrine: "life and death ("saṃsāra") are precisely "nirvana"" (生死即涅槃, "shōji soku nehan") and "worldly passions ("kleśa") are precisely enlightenment ("bodhi")" (煩悩即菩提, "bonnō soku bodai").


title: Acala

text: The "Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa Tantra" description of Acala is a good summary of the deity's depiction in South Asian Buddhist art.


title: Acala

text: In Nepalese and Tibetan art, Acala is usually shown either kneeling on his left knee or standing astride, bearing a noose or lasso ("pāśa") and an upraised sword. Some depictions portray him trampling on the elephant-headed Vighnarāja (lit. "Ruler of Hindrances", a Buddhist equivalent to the Hindu god Ganesha, albeit interpreted negatively as one who causes obstacles), signifying his role as the destroyer of impediments to enlightenment. He may also be shown wearing a tiger skin, with snakes coiled around his arms and body.


title: Acala

text: By contrast, portrayals of Acala (Fudō) in Japan generally tend to conform to the description given in the "Amoghapāśakalparāja Sūtra" and the "Mahāvairocana Tantra": holding a lasso and a sword while sitting or standing on a rock (盤石座, "banjakuza") or a pile of hewn stones (瑟瑟座, "shitsushitsuza"), with his braided hair hanging from the left of his head. He may also be depicted with a lotus flower - a symbol of enlightenment - on his head (頂蓮, "chōren"). Unlike the South Asian Acala, whose striding posture conveys movement and dynamism, the Japanese Fudō sits or stands erect, suggesting motionlessness and rigidity. The sword he wields may or may not be flaming and is sometimes described generically as a or , which is descriptive of the fact that the sword's pommel is in the shape of the talon-like vajra (金剛杵, "kongō-sho"). It may also be referred to as a . In some cases, he is seen holding the "Kurikara sword" (倶利伽羅剣, "Kurikara-ken"), a sword with the dragon ("nāga") king Kurikara (倶利伽羅; Sanskrit: "Kulikāla-rāja" or "Kṛkāla-rāja") coiled around it. The flaming nimbus or halo behind Acala is commonly known in Japanese as the "Garuda flame" (迦楼羅炎, "karura-en") after the mythical fire-breathing bird from Indian mythology.


title: Acala

text: There are two main variations in the iconography of Acala / Fudō in Japan. The first type (observable in the earliest extant Japanese images of the deity) shows him with wide open, glaring eyes, straight hair braided in rows and two fangs pointed in the same direction; a lotus flower rests above his head. The second type (which first appeared in the late 9th century and became increasingly common during the late Heian and Kamakura periods), by contrast, portrays Acala with curly hair, one eye wide open and/or looking upwards, with the other narrowed and/or looking downwards, an iconographic trait known as the "tenchigan" (天地眼), "heaven-and-earth eyes". Similarly, one of his fangs is now shown as pointing up, with the other pointing down. In place of the lotus flower, images of this type may sport seven topknots.


title: Acala

text: Although the squinting left eye and inverted fangs of the second type ultimately derives from the description of Acala given in the "Mahāvairocana Tantra" and Yi Xing's commentary on the text ("with his lower [right] tooth he bites the upper-right side of his lip, and with his left [-upper tooth he bites] his lower lip which sticks out"), these attributes were mostly absent in Chinese and earlier Japanese icons.


title: Acala

text: Acala's mismatched eyes and fangs were allegorically interpreted to signify both the duality and nonduality of his nature (and of all reality): the upward fang for instance was interpreted as symbolizing the process of elevation towards enlightenment, with the downward fang symbolizing the descent of enlightened beings into the world to teach sentient beings. The two fangs also symbolize the realms of buddhas and sentient beings, yin and yang, and male and female, with the nonduality of these two polar opposites being expressed by Acala's tightly closed lips.


title: Acala

text: Acala is commonly shown as having either black or blue skin (the "Sādhanamālā" describes his color as being "like that of the "atasī" (flax) flower," which may be either yellow or blue), though he may be at times portrayed in other colors. In Tibet, for instance, a variant of the kneeling Acala depiction shows him as being white in hue "like sunrise on a snow mountain reflecting many rays of light". In Japan, some images may depict Acala sporting a red (赤不動, "Aka-Fudō") or yellow (黄不動, "Ki-Fudō") complexion. The most famous example of the "Aka-Fudō" portrayal is a painting kept at on Mount Kōya (Wakayama Prefecture) traditionally attributed to the Heian period Tendai monk Enchin. Legend claims that Enchin, inspired by a vision of Acala, painted the image using his own blood (thus explaining its red color), though recent analysis suggests that the image may have been actually created much later, during the Kamakura period. The most well-known image of the "Ki-Fudō" type, meanwhile, is enshrined in Mii-dera (Onjō-ji) at the foot of Mount Hiei in Shiga Prefecture and is said to have been based on another vision that Enchin saw while practicing austerities in 838. The original Mii-dera "Ki-Fudō" is traditionally only shown to esoteric masters ("ācārya"; 阿闍梨, "ajari") during initiation rites and is otherwise not shown to the public, though copies of it have been made. One such copy, made in the 12th century, is kept at Manshu-in in Kyoto.


title: Acala

text: The deity is usually depicted with one head and two arms, though a few portrayals show him with multiple heads, arms or legs. In Japan, a depiction of Acala with four arms is employed in subjugation rituals and earth-placating rituals (安鎮法, "anchin-hō"); this four-armed form is identified in one text as "the lord of the various categories [of gods]." An iconographic depiction known as the "Two-Headed Rāgarāja" (両頭愛染, "Ryōzu Aizen" or "Ryōtō Aizen") shows Acala combined with the wisdom king Rāgarāja (Aizen).


title: Acala

text: Acala is sometimes described as having a retinue of acolytes, the number of which vary between sources, usually two or eight but sometimes thirty-six or even forty-eight. These represent the elemental, untamed forces of nature that the ritual practitioner seeks to harness.


title: Acala

text: The two boy servants or "dōji" (童子) most commonly depicted in Japanese iconographic portrayals are and , who also appear as the last two of the list of Acala's eight great "dōji". Kiṃkara is depicted as white in color, with his hands joined in respect, while Ceṭaka is red-skinned and holds a vajra in his left hand and a vajra staff in his right hand. The two are said to symbolize both Dharma-essence and ignorance, respectively, and is held to be in charge of good and evil.


title: Acala

text: Kiṃkara and Ceṭaka are also sometimes interpreted as transformations or emanations of Acala himself. In a sense, they reflect Acala's original characterization as an attendant of Vairocana; indeed, their servile nature is reflected in their names ("Ceṭaka" for instance means "slave") and their topknots, the mark of banished people and slaves. In other texts, they are also described as manifestations of Avalokiteśvara (Kannon) and Vajrapāṇi or as transformations of the dragon Kurikara, who is himself sometimes seen as one of Acala's various incarnations.


title: Acala

text: Two other notable "dōji" are Matijvala (恵光童子, "Ekō-dōji") and Matisādhu (恵喜童子, "Eki-dōji"), the first two of Acala's eight great acolytes. Matijvala is depicted as white in color and holds a three-pronged vajra in his right hand and a lotus topped with a moon disk on his left, while Matisādhu is red and holds a trident in his right hand and a wish-fulfilling jewel ("cintāmaṇi") on his left. The eight acolytes as a whole symbolize the eight directions, with Matijvala and Matisādhu representing east and south, respectively.


title: Acala

text: As noted above, Acala appears in the "Amoghapāśakalparāja Sūtra" and the "Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra". As Caṇḍaroṣaṇa or Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa, he is the primary deity of the "Caṇḍamahāroṣaṇa Tantra" and is described in the "Sādhanamālā".


title: Acala

text: The Japanese esoteric Buddhist tradition and Shugendō also make use of the following apocryphal sutras on Acala:


title: Acala

text: The "bīja" or seed syllables used to represent Acala in Japanese Buddhism are ' (हां / हाँ) and hāmmāṃ (हाम्मां / हाम्माँ), the latter being a combination of the two final "bīja" in his mantra: hāṃ māṃ" (हां मां"'). "Hāṃ" is sometimes confounded with the similar-looking (हूं), prompting some writers to mistakenly identify Acala with other deities. The syllables are written using the Siddham script and is conventionally read as "kān" (カーン) and "kānmān" (カーンマーン).


title: Acala

text: Three mantras of Acala are considered to be the standard in Japan. The most widely known one, derived from the "Mahāvairocana Tantra" and popularly known as the "Mantra of Compassionate Help" (慈救呪, "jikushu" or "jikuju"), goes as follows:


title: Acala

text: The "Short Mantra" (小呪, "shōshu") of Acala - also found in the "Mahāvairocana Tantra" - is as follows:


title: Acala

text: The longest of the three is the "Great Mantra" of Acala, also known as the "Fire Realm Mantra" (火界呪, "kakaishu" / "kakaiju"):


title: Acala

text: Another mantra associated with the deity is "Oṃ caṇḍa-mahāroṣaṇa hūṃ phaṭ", found in the "Siddhaikavīra Tantra". The text describes it as the "king of mantras" that dispels all evil and grants "whatever the follower of Mantrayāna desires".


title: Acala

text: Fudō Myōō (Acala), was never popular in Indian, Tibetan or even Chinese Buddhism , but in Japan it became the object of a flourishing cult with esoteric overtones.


title: Acala

text: The cult of Acala was first brought to Japan by the esoteric master Kūkai, the founder of the Shingon school, and his successors, where it developed as part of the growing popularity of rituals for the protection of the state. While Acala was at first simply regarded as the "primus inter pares" among the five wisdom kings, he gradually became a focus of worship in his own right, subsuming characteristics of the other four "vidyarāja"s (who came to be perceived as emanating from him), and became installed as the main deity ("honzon") at many temples and outdoor shrines.


title: Acala

text: Acala, as a powerful vanquisher of evil, was regarded both as a protector of the imperial court and the nation as a whole (in which capacity he was invoked during state-sponsored rituals) and the personal guardian of ritual practitioners. Many eminent Buddhist priests like Kūkai, Kakuban, Ennin, Enchin, and worshiped Acala as their patron deity, and stories of how he miraculously rescued his devotees in times of danger were widely circulated.


title: Acala

text: At temples dedicated to Acala, priests perform the , or ritual service to enlist the deity's power of purification to benefit the faithful. This rite routinely involves the use of the as a purification tool.


title: Acala

text: Lay persons or monks in "yamabushi" gear who go into rigorous training outdoors in the mountains often pray to small Acala statues or portable talismans that serve as his "honzon". This element of yamabushi training, known as Shugendō, predates the introduction of Acala to Japan. At this time, figures such as , who appeared before the sect's founder, En no Gyōja, or Vairocana, were commonly worshiped. Once Acala was added to list of deities typically enshrined by the yamabushi monks, his images were either portable, or installed in "hokora" (outdoor shrines). These statues would often be placed near waterfalls (a common training ground), deep in the mountains and in caves.


title: Acala

text: The daimyo Takeda Shingen is known to have taken Fudō Myōō as his patron (particularly when he transitioned to being a lay monk in his later years), and has commissioned a statue of Fudō that is supposedly modelled after his face.


title: Acala

text: Acala also tops the list of Thirteen Buddhas. Thus Shingon Buddhist mourners assign Fudō to the first seven days of service. The first week is an important observance, but perhaps not as much as the observance of "seven times seven days" (i.e. 49 days) signifying the end of the "intermediate state" (bardo).


title: Acala

text: Literature on Shingon Buddhist ritual will explain that Sanskrit "seed syllables", mantras and mudras are attendant to each of the Buddhas for each observance period. But the scholarly consensus seems to be that invocation of the "Thirteen Buddhas" had evolved later, around the 14th century and became widespread by the following century, so it is doubtful that this practice was part of Kūkai's original teachings.


title: Acala

text: Bùdòng Míngwáng (Acala) worship in China was first introduced into China during the Tang dynasty after the translation of esoteric tantras associated with him by monks such as Amoghavajra and Vajrabodhi. Iconography of Acala has been depicted infrequently in some temples and grottoes from the Tang through to contemporaneous times, usually as part of a set depicting the Eight Wisdom Kings or Ten Wisdom Kings, In modern times, he is revered as one of the eight Buddhist guardians of the Chinese zodiac and specifically considered to be the protector of those born in the year of the Rooster. He is also frequently invoked during Chinese Buddhist repentance ceremonies, such as the Liberation Rite of Water and Land, along with the other Wisdom Kings where they are given offerings and intreated to expel evil from the ritual platform.


title: Kenyan shilling

text: The shilling (; abbreviation: KSh; ISO code: KES) is the currency of Kenya. It is divided into 100 cents.


title: Kenyan shilling

text: Prices in the Kenyan shilling are written in the form of , where x is the amount in shillings, while y is the amount in cents. An equals sign or hyphen represents zero amount. For example, 50 cents is written as "" and 100 shillings as "" or "100/-". Sometimes the abbreviation "KSh" is prefixed for distinction. If the amount is written using words as well as numerals, only the prefix is used (e.g. KSh 10 million).


title: Kenyan shilling

text: This pattern was modelled on sterling's pre-decimal notation, in which amounts were written in some combination of pounds (£), shillings (s), and pence (d, for denarius). In that notation, amounts under a pound were notated only in shillings and pence.


title: Kenyan shilling

text: The first coins were issued in 1966 in denominations of , , and , and 1/= and 2/=; coins were not minted after 1969 (except in the 1973 set); 2/= coins were last minted in 1971 (except in the 1973 set). In 1973 and 1985, 5/= coins were introduced, followed by 10/= in 1994 and 20/= in 1998.


title: Kenyan shilling

text: Between 1967 and 1978, the portrait of Jomo Kenyatta, the first president of Kenya, originally appeared on the obverse of all of independent Kenya's coins. In 1980, a portrait of Daniel arap Moi replaced Kenyatta until 2005, when the central bank introduced a new coin series that restored the portrait of Kenyatta. The coins are and 1/= in stainless steel and bi-metallic coins of 5/=, 10/= and 20/=. A bi-metallic 40/= coin with the portrait of then-President Mwai Kibaki was issued in 2003 to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of Kenyan independence (1963).


title: Kenyan shilling

text: New coins with the image of Kenyatta were issued in 2005. In 2010, Section 231(4) of the 2010 Constitution of Kenya stated "Notes and coins issued by the Central Bank of Kenya may bear images that depict or symbolise Kenya or an aspect of Kenya but may not bear the portrait of any individual." New banknotes and coins were scheduled to be released by 2018 to meet up with this new law. A new series of coins was issued on 11 December 2018, in denominations of , , and . All of the coins depict the national Coat of arms of Kenya on the obverse and images of Africa's recognisable animals on the reverse. The new series of coins is designed to be more recognisable for visually impaired people.


title: Kenyan shilling

text: On 14 September 1966, the Kenyan shilling replaced the East African shilling at par, although the latter was not demonetised until 1969. The Central Bank of Kenya issued notes in denominations of 5/=, 10/=, 20/=, 50/= and 100/=. All of the notes feature a portrait of Kenya's first prime minister and president, Jomo Kenyatta, on the front and diverse economic activities on the back.


title: Kenyan shilling

text: 5/= notes were replaced by coins in 1985, with the same happening to 10/= and 20/= in 1994 and 1998. In 1986, 200/= notes were introduced, followed by 500/= in 1988 and 1,000/= in 1994.


title: Kenyan shilling

text: As with the coins, Kenyatta appeared on the banknotes issued until 1978, with Daniel arap Moi's portrait replacing him in 1980. In 2003, after Mwai Kibaki replaced Moi as president, 5/=, 10/=, and 20/= notes from the 1978 series with Kenyatta's picture that had been in storage were issued, and circulated for a time. A new series of notes was then introduced on which Kenyatta reappeared in denominations of 50/=, 100/=, 200/=, 500/= and 1,000/=. The issue of the 200/= banknote dated 12 December 2003 commemorates the "40 years of Independence 1963–2003". The banknotes are printed in Nairobi by security printer De La Rue.


title: Kenyan shilling

text: On 31 May 2019, the Central Bank of Kenya issued a new family of banknotes without the portraits of known Kenyan individuals, as mandated by the Constitution of Kenya of 2010. At the same time, the Central Bank of Kenya has withdrawn all previous versions of the 1,000/= banknote. These remained legal tender until 1 October 2019. All of the banknotes for this series share a common design of the Kenyatta International Convention Centre on the front side of the notes, and the back side of the notes feature images showcasing the richness of the people and nature of Kenya: "Green Energy" (50/=), "Agriculture" (100/=), "Social Services" (200/=), "Tourism" (500/=) and "Governance" (1,000/=). All five denominations also embody each of the big five animals of Africa: the buffalo (50/=), the leopard (100/=), rhinoceros (200/=), the lion (500/=) and the elephant (1,000/=).


title: 1995 NFL Draft

text: The 1995 NFL draft was the procedure by which National Football League teams selected amateur college football players. It is officially known as the NFL Annual Player Selection Meeting. The draft was held April 22–23, 1995 at the Paramount Theatre at Madison Square Garden in New York City, New York. The league also held a supplemental draft after the regular draft and before the regular season.


title: 1995 NFL Draft

text: The draft was the first with the expansion Carolina Panthers and Jacksonville Jaguars franchises, who each received two extra picks between the first and second rounds. The Panthers, having selected second in the 1995 NFL Expansion Draft, were awarded the first overall pick in the main draft and the Jaguars, who held the first pick in the expansion draft, selected second. However, the Panthers traded their number one pick to the Cincinnati Bengals for the Bengals' fifth overall pick and their fourth pick in the second round. The Bengals used the selection on Ki-Jana Carter, who is the most recent running back taken first overall. The Panthers were also stripped of two supplemental picks for improperly recruiting Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator Dom Capers as their head coach.


title: 1995 NFL Draft

text: In the first round, the Tampa Bay Buccaneers selected future Hall of Fame players Warren Sapp and Derrick Brooks. This was the second of three times two Hall of Fame inductees were selected by the same team in the first round, along with the Chicago Bears in 1965 and the Baltimore Ravens in the following year's draft. Although Sapp was projected to be a top 10 pick, he slid to the 12th selection due to allegations of failed drug tests. He and Brooks would go on to lead the Tampa 2 defense that brought the Buccaneers to their first Super Bowl title in Super Bowl XXXVII.


title: 1995 NFL Draft

text: The draft was also the last to feature a team based in Los Angeles until 2016 due to the Los Angeles Raiders returning to Oakland later in the year.


title: 1995 NFL Draft

text: In the explanations below, (D) denotes trades that took place during the 1994 Draft, while (PD) indicates trades completed pre-draft.


title: Floorball

text: Floorball is a type of floor hockey with five players and a goalkeeper in each team. Men and women play indoors with sticks and a plastic ball with holes. Matches are played in three twenty-minute periods. The sport of bandy also played a role in the game's development.


title: Floorball

text: The game was invented in Sweden in the late 1960s. The basic rules were established in 1979 when the first floorball club in the world, Sala IBK, from Sala, was founded in Sweden. Official rules for matches were first written down in 1981.


title: Floorball

text: The sport is organized internationally by the International Floorball Federation (IFF). As of 2019, there were about 377,000 registered floorball players worldwide, up from around 300,000 in 2014. Events include an annual Champions Cup, EuroFloorball Cup and EuroFloorball Challenge for club teams and the biennial World Floorball Championships with separate divisions for men and women. Professional club leagues include Finland's F-liiga, Sweden's Svenska Superligan, Switzerland's National League A and the Czech Republic's Superliga florbalu.


title: Floorball

text: While the IFF contains 75 members, floorball is most popular where it has been developed the longest, such as the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland. It is gaining popularity in Australia, New Zealand, India, Canada, Germany, Ireland, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, the United States, and the United Kingdom.


title: Floorball

text: Floorball was included in the World Games for the first time in 2017 in Wrocław, Poland, where Sweden became the first team to win a gold medal.


title: Floorball

text: The game of floorball is also known by many other names, such as salihoki (In Estonia), salibandy (in Finland), innebandy (in Sweden and Norway), unihockey (in Switzerland and Ireland) and grindų riedulys (in Lithuania). The names "salibandy" and "innebandy" are derived from bandy; they translate to "hall bandy" and "indoor bandy" respectively. Unihockey is derived from "universal hockey" since it is meant to be a special and simplified hockey form.


title: Floorball

text: In Sweden, voices have been raised to get rid of the word "innebandy" as name of the sport, to avoid confusions with bandy.


title: Floorball

text: In various forms the game of floor hockey has been played since the early 20th Century in Canada as a recreational sport, especially in high school gymnasiums, as a playful variant of hockey. The basic design of floorball sticks is believed to have come from the ice skating team sport of bandy.


title: Floorball

text: By the 1950s and 1960s many public school systems within Michigan in the United States incorporated floorball into their primary and secondary school gym classes. Americans have since claimed to have invented floorball. American held interstate tournaments in the 1960s.


title: Floorball

text: Floorball was formally organized as an international and more organized sport in the late 1970s in Gothenburg, Sweden. The sport began as something that was played for fun as a pastime in schools. After a decade or so, floorball began showing up in Nordic countries where the former schoolyard pastime was becoming a developed sport. Formal rules were soon developed, and clubs began to form. After some time, several countries developed national associations, and the IFF was founded in 1986.


title: Floorball

text: When the IFF was founded in 1986, the sport was played mostly in the Nordic countries, several parts of the rest of Europe and Japan. By 1990, floorball was recognized in 7 countries, and by the time of the first European Floorball Championships in 1994, that number had risen to 14. That number included the United States, who was the first country outside Europe and Asia to recognize floorball. By the time of the first men's world championships in 1996, 20 nations played floorball, with 12 of them participating at the tournament.


title: Floorball

text: As of 2009, the sport of floorball has been played in almost 80 countries. Of those, 58 have national floorball associations that are recognized by the IFF. With the addition of Sierra Leone, Africa's first floorball nation, the IFF has at least one national association on each continent of the world, with the exception of Antarctica.


title: Floorball

text: 10 years after the IFF was founded, the first world championships were played, with a sold out final of 15,106 people at the Globen in Stockholm, Sweden. In addition to that, the world's two largest floorball leagues, Finland's Salibandyliiga and Sweden's Svenska Superligan were formed, in 1986 and 1995 respectively.


title: Floorball

text: In December 2008, the IFF and the sport of floorball received recognition from the International Olympic Committee (IOC). In July 2011, the IOC officially welcomed the IFF into its family of Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF). This will pave the way for floorball to enter the official sport programme. The IFF hoped that this recognition would help allow floorball to become a part of the 2020 Summer Olympics.


title: Floorball

text: In addition to recognition by the IOC and Special Olympics, the IFF is also a member of the Global Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF, formerly SportAccord), and co-operates with the International University Sports Federation (FISU). Floorball is now also member of IWGA, which runs the World Games, and floorball was on the programme for the first time in Wrocław 2017.


title: Floorball

text: The world floorball championships are an annual event where teams from across the world gather to play in a tournament in order to win the world championship. As of 2011, eight Men's, eight Women's, six Men's Under-19, and four Women's Under-19 World Floorball Championships have taken place. The Czech Republic, Finland, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland remain the only five countries to have ever captured a medal at a World Championship event.


title: Floorball

text: From 1996 to 2009, the IFF used a World Floorball Championship format where the last team in the A-Division was relegated to the B-Division, while the top team in the B-Division was promoted to the A-Division. This format caused much hardship for countries such as Australia, Canada, Slovakia, and Spain, who have all been trying to get to the B-Division from the C-Division since 2004. In 2010, the IFF adopted a FIFA-like continental qualification system, where teams must qualify to play at the world championships. Depending on the number of countries registered per continent or region, the IFF gives spots for the world championships. For example, Argentina, Brazil, Canada and the United States would need to play for one spot at the world championships in a continental qualification tournament for the Americas.


title: Floorball

text: Floorball is played indoors on a rink whose size can officially vary from wide to long, and which is surrounded by high enclosed boards with rounded corners. The goals are wide and high. Their depth is and they are from the end of the nearest boards. Face-off dots are marked on the center line. Dots are also marked from both sides of the rink on the goal lines imaginary extensions. The dots do not exceed in diameter. They do not have to be dots, they can also be crosses.


title: Floorball

text: Typical equipment for a floorball player consists of a stick, a pair of shorts, a shirt, socks, and indoor sport shoes. Players may wear shin guards, eye protectors and protective padding for vital areas although most do not. Protective eyewear is, in some countries, compulsory for junior players.


title: Floorball

text: A floorball stick is short compared with one for ice hockey; the maximum size for a stick is 114 cm. As a stick cannot weigh any more than 350 grams, floorball sticks are often made of carbon and composite materials. The blade of the stick can either be "right" or "left" which indicates which way stick is supposed to be held from the players point of view. A player who is right-handed will often use a "left" blade since this he/she will be holding the stick to left and the other way around for left-handed people.


title: Floorball

text: Goalkeepers wear limited protection provided by padded pants, a padded chest protector, knee pads and a helmet. Some goalkeepers like to wear gloves and/or wristbands The goalkeeper may also wear other protective equipment such as elbow pads and jock straps but bulky padding is not permitted. Goalkeepers do not use sticks and may use their hands to play the ball when they are within the goalkeeper's box. There, they are allowed to throw the ball out to their teammates provided that the ball touches the ground before the half court mark. When they are completely outside the box, goalkeepers are considered field players and are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands.


title: Floorball

text: A floor ball weighs and its diameter is . It has 26 holes in it, each of which are in diameter. Many of these balls now are made with aerodynamic technology, where the ball has over a thousand small dimples in it that reduce air resistance. There have been several times where a ball has been recorded to have traveled at a speed of approximately .


title: Floorball

text: Each team can field six players at a time on the court, one player being a goalkeeper. But the coach can take the goalkeeper off and substitute them for a field player whenever they like, although it usually only happens in the end to increase the chances of scoring with one more outfield player. This can bring an advantage for the attacking side of the team but also disadvantages when it comes to their own defense. Both teams are also allowed to change players any time in the game; usually, a change comprises the whole team. Individual substitution happens sometimes, but usually only when a player is exhausted or hurt.


title: Floorball

text: A floorball game is officially played over three periods lasting 20 minutes each (15 minutes for juniors). The clock is stopped in the case of penalties, goals, time-outs and any situation where the ball is not considered to be in play. The signal of a timeout is a triple honking sound. An intermission of 10 minutes (or maximum 15 minutes in some competitions) takes place between each period, where teams change ends and substitution areas. Each team is allowed one timeout of 30 seconds, which is often used late in matches. There are two referees to oversee the game, each with equal authority. If a game ends in a tie, teams play ten minutes extra, and the team that scores first wins. If the game is still drawn after extra-time, a penalty shootout similar to ice-hockey decides the winner.


title: Floorball

text: Checking is prohibited in floorball. Controlled shoulder-to-shoulder contact is allowed but ice hockey-like checking is forbidden. Pushing players without the ball or competing for a loose ball is also disallowed, and many of these infractions lead to two-minute penalties. The best comparison in terms of legal physical contact is Association football (soccer), where checking is used to improve one's positioning in relation to the ball rather than to remove an opposing player from the play. In addition to checking, players cannot lift an opponent's stick or perform any stick infractions in order to get to the ball. Moreover, players may not raise their stick or play the ball above knee level, and a stick may not be placed in between a player's legs. Passing the ball by foot is allowed, but only once. After that, the ball has to be moved with the stick. After stopping the ball by foot the ball has to be touched with the stick before it can be passed to a teammate by foot (Rule change 2014). Passing by hand or head deliberately may result in a two minutes penalty for the offending player. A field player may not enter the marked goal area and playing without stick is prohibited.


title: Floorball

text: When a player commits a foul or when the ball is deemed unplayable, play is resumed from a free hit or a face-off. A free hit means that a player from one of the teams restarts the play from the place where the ball was last deemed unplayable. A comparable situation to this is a free kick in association football. For many fouls, such as stick infractions, a free hit is the only disciplinary action prescribed. However, at their own discretion the referee may additionally award a two or five minute penalty to the offending player. In that case, the player who committed the foul has to leave the field and sit out his punishment in a dedicated penalty area, leaving his team shorthanded for the time of the penalty. If an 'extreme' foul is committed, such as physical contact or unsportsmanlike conduct, a player may receive a 10-minute personal penalty.


title: Floorball

text: Two-minute penalties can arise from a number of infractions and result in the offending player being sat on a penalty seat next to the scorers/timekeepers and away from the team benches. Each penalty has a specific code that is recorded on the official match record along with the time of the foul. The team of the offending player will play short-handed for the full length of the penalty. The codes are as follows;


title: Floorball

text: Freebandy is a sport that developed in the 2000s from floorball fanatics who specialize in a technique called "zorro", which involves lifting the ball onto a stick and allowing air resistance and fast movements to keep the ball "stuck" to the stick. This technique is also referred to as "airhooking" or "skyhooking". In freebandy, the rules are very much the same of those of floorball, with the exception of high nets and no infractions for high sticking. As well, the sticks are slightly tweaked from those of a floorball variety to include a "pocket" where the ball can be placed.


title: Floorball

text: Floorball at the Special Olympics is slightly modified from the "regular" form of floorball. Matches are played 3-on-3 with a goaltender, on a smaller court that measures long by wide. This form of floorball was developed for the intellectually disabled, and has yet to be played at the Special Olympics. Floorball was played as a demonstration sport at the 2013 Special Olympics World Winter Games, and was played as an official sport at the games in 2017.


title: Floorball

text: A simplified less formal version of floorball, played with smaller team numbers and shorter periods, and typically outdoors on various surfaces, including AstroTurf. In its most basic form, it is an informal pick up game amongst friends. However, a more formal version is played in Sweden, with the following structure:


title: Floorball

text: Swiss floorball called unihockey is a revised version of a floorball match. The match is played on a slightly smaller court and often involves only three field players playing on each side, in 3-on-3 floorball. This form of floorball is also slightly shorter, with only two periods of 15 to 20 minutes each played. In Switzerland this form of playing is called "smallcourt" (Kleinfeld), opposed to the usual style of playing on a bigger court, which is called "bigcourt" (Grossfeld).


title: Floorball

text: Originally developed for players with disabilities, wheelchair floorball is played with exactly the same rules as "regular" floorball. Players use the same stick and ball, and goaltenders are also allowed to play.


title: Floorball

text: The first ever IFF-sanctioned wheelchair floorball matches were played between the men's teams of the Czech Republic and Sweden during the 2008 Men's World Floorball Championships in Prague.


title: Floorball

text: In addition to the Floorball World Championships, there are other IFF Events for club teams such as the Champions Cup which is for the national competition winners from the Top-4 ranked nations, and the EuroFloorball Cup for the national competition winners from the 5th and lower ranked nations. There are also many international floorball club competitions.


title: Floorball

text: The Asia Pacific Floorball Championships are played every single year in New Zealand, Australia, Singapore, or Japan. The event was created by the Singapore Floorball Association together with the cooperation of the Asia Oceania Floorball Confederation (AOFC). Members of the AOFC get together during this tournament to play for the Asia Pacific Floorball Championship every year.


title: Floorball

text: As of 2010, the Asia Pacific Floorball Championship is also the qualifying tournament for the World Floorball Championships.


title: Floorball

text: The Canada Cup is an international club tournament that is held every year in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is the largest floorball club tournament outside of Europe, and attracts 55+ clubs from worldwide, every year.


title: Floorball

text: The world's largest club team tournament, the Czech Open is a traditional summer tournament held in Prague, Czech Republic. It is famous not only for its on-court activities, but also for those off-court. The tournament attracts 200+ clubs every year from 20 countries.


title: Floorball

text: The Champions Cup was played for the first time in 2011. It is now the premier IFF event for Men's and Women's Club teams. The national championship winners from the Top-4 ranked nations compete in the event.


title: Floorball

text: The EuroFloorball Cup (formerly European Cup) is an IFF-organised club event for both men's and women's teams. It has taken place every single year since 1993, and in 2000 it changed its format to a 2-year event (i.e. 2000–01). In 2008, the tournament switched back to its one-year format. In 2011 it underwent another change when the Champions Cup was introduced for the first time.


title: Floorball

text: The EuroFloorball Cup (EFC) is now for the national competition winners from the 5th and lower ranked nations. Qualification can be made via a number of processes. Firstly, the teams from the 5th, 6th & 7th ranked nations receive automatic qualification. A team nominated by the local event organiser also gets automatic qualification, and then the last two spots are determined by qualification tournaments.


title: Floorball

text: The North American Floorball League is the first and only semi professional floorball league outside of Europe. It is not affiliated with any federation, so it has players from around the world. The inaugural set of teams are entirely based in the United States, though there is potential for expansion into Canada.


title: Bananas Foster

text: Bananas Foster is a dessert made from bananas and vanilla ice cream, with a sauce made from butter, brown sugar, cinnamon, dark rum, and banana liqueur. The butter, sugar and bananas are cooked, and then alcohol is added and ignited. The bananas and sauce are then served over the ice cream. Popular toppings also include whipped cream and different types of nuts (pecans, walnuts, etc.). The dish is often prepared tableside as a flambé.


title: Bananas Foster

text: Bananas Foster is an American dessert that originated in New Orleans made with cooked bananas served in a butter, brown sugar and rum sauce. The caramelized liquor-based sauce is often prepared via flambé. This dessert can be served with vanilla ice cream or as a crêpe filling, but it may also be eaten on its own. Cinnamon and nutmeg may be added as seasoning.


title: Bananas Foster

text: Though many think the dish was created at the restaurant Brennan's in New Orleans, Louisiana, it actually got its start a few years earlier in Owen Brennan's Vieux Carré restaurant. In 1951, Ella Brennan and the restaurant's chef Paul Blangé worked together to modify a dish made by Ella's mother in the Brennan family home. At this time New Orleans was a major hub for the import of bananas from South America. It was named for Richard Foster, the chairman of the New Orleans Crime Commission and a friend of restaurant owner Owen Brennan.


title: Atropos

text: Atropos (; "without turn") or Aisa, in Greek mythology, was one of the three Moirai, goddesses of fate and destiny. Her Roman equivalent was Morta.


title: Atropos

text: Atropos was the oldest of the Three Fates, and was known as "the Inflexible One." It was Atropos who chose the manner of death and ended the life of mortals by cutting their threads. She worked along with her two sisters, Clotho, who spun the thread, and Lachesis, who measured the length. Atropos has been featured in several stories such as Atalanta and Achilles.


title: Atropos

text: Her origin, along with the other two fates, is uncertain, although some called them the daughters of the night. It is clear, however, that at a certain period they ceased to be only concerned with death and also became those powers who decided what may happen to individuals. Although Zeus was the chief Greek god and their father, he was still subject to the decisions of the Fates, and thus the executor of destiny, rather than its source. According to Hesiod's "Theogony," Atropos and her sisters (Clotho and Lachesis) were the daughters of Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night) and sisters to Thanatos and Hypnos, though later in the same work (ll. 901-906) they are said to have been of Zeus and Themis.


title: Atropos

text: In the ancient Greek poem, "The Shield of Heracles", Atropos is referred to as the oldest and smallest of the three fates. This description is uncommon among references to Atropos. It is uncommon in ancient mentions of her in more ways than one as it turns out, including this fate's moniker. It's possible that Plato is behind the creation of Atropos as many of the early descriptions of the fates have Aisa as the name of this third fate, although there is still no clear consensus. The inconsistent nature of these accounts make it difficult to know for sure whether or not Aisa or Atropos is the best name to use when talking about the third fate, but evidence seems to point to Aisa being the more commonly used name earlier on, with Atropos gaining popularity later.


title: Atropos

text: The African Death's-head hawkmoth, Acherontia atropos, also has a species name which references Atropos.


title: Alloy steel

text: Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down into two groups: low alloy steels and high alloy steels. The difference between the two is disputed. Smith and Hashemi define the difference at 4.0%, while Degarmo, "et al.", define it at 8.0%. Most commonly, the phrase "alloy steel" refers to low-alloy steels.


title: Alloy steel

text: Strictly speaking, every steel is an alloy, but not all steels are called "alloy steels". The simplest steels are iron (Fe) alloyed with carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type) and nothing else (excepting negligible traces via slight impurities); these are called carbon steels. However, the term "alloy steel" is the standard term referring to steels with "other" alloying elements added deliberately "in addition to" the carbon. Common alloyants include manganese (the most common one), nickel, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon, and boron. Less common alloyants include aluminium, cobalt, copper, cerium, niobium, titanium, tungsten, tin, zinc, lead, and zirconium.


title: Alloy steel

text: The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels (as compared to carbon steels): strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, hardenability, and hot hardness. To achieve some of these improved properties the metal may require heat treating.


title: Alloy steel

text: Although alloy steels have been made for centuries, their metallurgy was not well understood until the advancing chemical science of the nineteenth century revealed their compositions. Alloy steels from earlier times were expensive luxuries made on the model of "secret recipes" and forged into such tools as knives and swords. Modern alloy steels of the machine age were developed as improved tool steels and as newly available stainless steels. Today alloy steels find uses in a wide array of applications, from everyday hand tools and flatware to highly demanding applications such as in the turbine blades of jet engines and in nuclear reactors.


title: Alloy steel

text: Because of the ferromagnetic properties of iron, some steel alloys find important applications where their responses to magnetism are very important, including in electric motors and in transformers.


title: Alloy steel

text: Alloying elements are added to achieve certain properties in the material. The alloying elements can change and personalize properties—their flexibility, strength, formability, and hardenability. As a guideline, alloying elements are added in lower percentages (less than 5%) to increase strength or hardenability, or in larger percentages (over 5%) to achieve special properties, such as corrosion resistance or extreme temperature stability. Manganese, silicon, or aluminium are added during the steelmaking process to remove dissolved oxygen, sulfur and phosphorus from the melt. Manganese, silicon, nickel, and copper are added to increase strength by forming solid solutions in ferrite. Chromium, vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten increase strength by forming second-phase carbides. Nickel and copper improve corrosion resistance in small quantities. Molybdenum helps to resist embrittlement. Zirconium, cerium, and calcium increase toughness by controlling the shape of inclusions. Sulfur (in the form of manganese sulfide), lead, bismuth, selenium, and tellurium increase machinability. The alloying elements tend to form either solid solutions or compounds or carbides. Nickel is very soluble in ferrite; therefore, it forms compounds, usually NiAl. Aluminium dissolves in the ferrite and forms the compounds AlO and AlN. Silicon is also very soluble and usually forms the compound SiO•MO. Manganese mostly dissolves in ferrite forming the compounds MnS, MnO•SiO, but will also form carbides in the form of (Fe,Mn)C. Chromium forms partitions between the ferrite and carbide phases in steel, forming (Fe,Cr)C, CrC, and CrC. The type of carbide that chromium forms depends on the amount of carbon and other types of alloying elements present. Tungsten and molybdenum form carbides if there is enough carbon and an absence of stronger carbide forming elements (i.e., titanium & niobium), they form the carbides WC and MoC, respectively. Vanadium, titanium, and niobium are strong carbide forming elements, forming vanadium carbide, titanium carbide, and niobium carbide, respectively. Alloying elements also have an effect on the eutectoid temperature of the steel. Manganese and nickel lower the eutectoid temperature and are known as "austenite stabilizing elements". With enough of these elements the austenitic structure may be obtained at room temperature. Carbide-forming elements raise the eutectoid temperature; these elements are known as "ferrite stabilizing elements".


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Corynebacterium diphtheriae is the pathogenic bacterium that causes diphtheria. It is also known as the Klebs–Löffler bacillus, because it was discovered in 1884 by German bacteriologists Edwin Klebs (1834–1912) and Friedrich Löffler (1852–1915). The bacteria are usually harmless unless they are infected by a bacteriophage that carries a gene that gives rise to a toxin. This toxin causes the disease. Diphtheria is caused by the adhesion and infiltration of the bacteria into the mucosal layers of the body, primarily affecting the respiratory tract and the subsequent release of an endotoxin. The toxin has a localized effect on skin lesions, as well as a metastatic, proteolytic effects on other organ systems in severe infections. Originally a major cause of childhood mortality, diphtheria has been almost entirely eradicated due to the vigorous administration of the diphtheria vaccination in the 1910s.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Diphtheria is no longer transmitted as frequently due to the development of the vaccine, DTaP. Although diphtheria outbreaks continue to occur, this often in developing countries where the majority of the population is not vaccinated.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Four subspecies are recognized: "C. d. mitis", "C. d. intermedius", "C. d. gravis", and "C. d. belfanti". The four subspecies differ slightly in their colonial morphology and biochemical properties, such as the ability to metabolize certain nutrients. All may be toxigenic (and therefore cause diphtheria) or not toxigenic.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Strain subtyping involves comparing species of bacteria and categorizing them into subspecies. Strain subtyping also helps with identifying the origin of a certain bacteria’s outbreak. However, when it comes to the subtyping of "C. diphtheriae", there is not a lot of useful or accurate classification due to the lack of publicly available resources to identify strains and therefore finding the origin of outbreaks.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: "C. diphtheriae" produces diphtheria toxin which alters protein function in the host by inactivating the elongation factor EF-2. This causes pharyngitis and 'pseudomembrane' in the throat. The strains which are toxigenic are ones which have been infected with a bacteriophage.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The diphtheria toxin gene is encoded by the bacteriophage found in toxigenic strains, integrated into the bacterial chromosome.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The diphtheria toxin repressor is mainly controlled by iron. It serves as the essential cofactor for the activation of target DNA binding. A


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: low concentration of iron is required in the medium for toxin production. At high iron concentrations, iron molecules bind to an aporepressor on the beta bacteriophage, which carries the "Tox" gene. When bound to iron, the aporepressor shuts down toxin production. Elek's test for toxigenicity is used to determine whether the organism is able to produce the diphtheria toxin.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: To identify "C. diphtheriae", a Gram stain is performed to show Gram-positive, highly pleomorphic organisms often looking like Chinese letters. Stains like Albert's stain and Ponder's stain are used to demonstrate the metachromatic granules formed in the polar regions. The granules are called polar granules, Babes Ernst granules or volutin granules. An enrichment medium, such as Löffler's medium, is used to preferentially grow "C. diphtheriae". After that, a differential plate known as tellurite agar, allows all "Corynebacteria" (including "C. diphtheriae") to reduce tellurite to metallic tellurium. The tellurite reduction is colorimetrically indicated by brown colonies for most "Cornyebacterium" species or by a black halo around the "C. diphtheriae" colonies. The organism produces catalase but not urease, which differentiates it from "Corynebacterium ulcerans". "C. diphtheriae" does not produce pyrazinamidase which differentiates from "Corynebacterium striatum" and "Corynebacterium jeikeium".


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: "Corynebacterium diphtheriae" is the bacterium that causes the disease called diphtheria. Bacteriophages introduce a gene into the bacterial cells that makes a strain toxigenic. The strains that are not infected with these viruses are harmless. "C. diphtheriae" is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive, nonspore-forming, and nonmotile bacterium. C. diphtheriae has shown to exclusively infect humans. It is believed that humans may be the reservoir for this pathogen. However, there has been extremely rare cases in which "C. diphtheriae" has been found in animals. These infections were only toxigenic in 2 dogs and 2 horses.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The disease occurs primarily in tropical regions and developing countries. Immunocompromised individuals, poorly immunized adults, and unvaccinated children are at the greatest risk for contracting diphtheria. Mode of transmission is person-to-person contact via respiratory droplets (i.e., coughing or sneezing). Less commonly, it could also be passed by touching open sores or contaminated surfaces. During the typical course of disease, the body region most commonly affected is the upper respiratory system. A thick, gray coating accumulates in the nasopharyngeal region, making breathing and swallowing more difficult. The disease remains contagious for at least two weeks following disappearance of symptoms, but has been known to last for up to a month.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The most common routes of entry for "C. diphtheriae" are the nose, tonsils, and throat. Individuals suffering from the disease may experience sore throat, weakness, fever, and swollen glands. This could cause even more dangerous symptoms such as shortness of breath. If left untreated, diphtheria toxin may enter the bloodstream, causing damage to the kidneys, nerves, and heart. Extremely rare complications include suffocation and partial paralysis. A vaccine, DTaP, effectively prevents the disease and is mandatory in the United States for participation in public education and some professions (exceptions apply).


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The first step of "C. diphtheriae" infection involves the toxigenic bacteria colonizing a mucosal layer. In young children, this typically occurs in the upper respiratory tract mucosa. In adults, the infection is limited mostly to the tonsillar region. Some unusual sites of infection include the heart, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and anterior areas of the mouth including the buccal mucosa, the lips, tongue, and the hard and soft palate. The bacteria have a number of virulence factors to help them localize on areas of the respiratory tract, many of which are yet to be fully understood as diphtheria does not affect many model hosts such as mice. One common virulence factor that has been studied "in vitro" is DIP0733, a multi-functional protein that has shown to have a role in bacterial adhesion to host cells and fibrogen-binding qualities. In experiments with mutant strains of the "C. diphtheriae", adhesion and epithelial infiltration decreased significantly. The ability to bind to extracellular matrices aids the bacteria in avoiding detection by the body's immune system.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The diphtheritic lesion is often covered by a pseudomembrane composed of fibrin, bacterial cells, and inflammatory cells. Diphtheria toxin can be proteolytically cleaved into two fragments - an N-terminal fragment A (catalytic domain), and fragment B (transmembrane and receptor binding domain). Fragment A catalyzes the NAD+ -dependent ADP-ribosylation of elongation factor 2, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. Fragment B binds to the cell surface receptor and facilitates the delivery of fragment A to the cytosol.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Once the bacteria have localized in one area, they start multiplying and create the inflammatory pseudomembrane. Individuals with faucial diphtheria typically have the pseudomembrane grow over the tonsil and accessory structures, uvula, soft palate, and possibly the nasopharyngeal area. In upper respiratory tract diphtheria, the pseudomembrane can grow on the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchi/bronchioles. The pseudomembrane starts off white in color and then later becomes dirty-gray and tough due to the necrotic epithelium.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Psuedomembrane formation on the trachea or bronchi will decrease efficiency of airflow. Over time, the diffusion rate in the alveoli decreases due to the lower airflow and decreases the partial pressure of oxygen in the systemic circulation, which can cause cyanosis and suffocation.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Mode of transmission is person-to-person contact via respiratory droplets (i.e., coughing or sneezing), and less commonly, by touching open sores or contaminated surfaces.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: A vaccine, DTaP, effectively prevents the disease and is mandatory in the United States for participation in public education and some professions (exceptions apply).


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The invention of the toxoid vaccine, which provides protection against "Corynebacterium diphtheriae", caused a dramatic shift on the bacterium’s rate of infection in the United States. Even though the vaccine was first made in the early 1800s, it did not become widely available until the early 1910s. According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), “80 percent of persons age 12 to 19 years were immune to diphtheria” due to the wide use of the vaccine in the United States.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Diagnosis of respiratory "C. diphtheriae" is made based on presentation clinically, whereas non-respiratory diphtheria may not be clinically suspected therefore laboratory testing is more reliant. Culturing is the most accurate kind of testing that will confirm or deny the prevalence of diphtheria toxins. The testing is done by swabbing the possibly infected area, as well as any lesions and sores.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: When a toxigenic strain of "Corynebacterium diphtheriae" infects the human body, it releases harmful toxins, especially to the throat. Antitoxins are used to prevent further harm. Antibiotics are also used to fight the infection. Typical antibiotics that are used against diphtheria involve penicillin or erythromycin. People infected with diphtheria must quarantine for at least 48 hours after being prescribed antibiotics. To confirm that the person is no longer contagious, tests are performed ensure that the bacteria have been cleared. People are then vaccinated prevent further transmission of the disease.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The wide-use of the diphtheria vaccine dramatically decreased the rate of infection and allows for primary prevention of the disease. Most people receive a 3-in-1 vaccine that consist of protection against diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis, which is commonly knowns as the DTaP or Tdap vaccine. DTaP vaccine is for children while the Tdap vaccine is known for adolescents and adults.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: In the United States, the DTaP vaccine to parents of infants which typically involves a series of five shots is recommended. These vaccines are injected through the arm or thigh and are administered when the infant is 2 months, 4 months, 6 months, 15–18 months and then 4–6 years old.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: Possible side events that are associated with the diphtheria vaccine include "mild fever, fussiness, drowsiness or tenderness at the injection site". Although it is rare, the DTaP vaccine may cause an allergic reaction that causes hives or a rash to breakout within minutes of administering the vaccine.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The genome of "C. diphtheriae" consists of a single circular chromosome of 2.5 Mbp, with no plasmids. Its genome shows an extreme compositional bias, being noticeably higher in G+C near the origin than at the terminus.


title: Corynebacterium diphtheriae

text: The Corynebacterium diphtheriae genome is a single circular chromosome that has no plasmids. These chromosomes have a high G+C content which is what contributes to their high genetic diversity. The high content of guanine and cytosine is not constant across the entire genome of the bacteria. There is a terminus of replication around the ~740kb region that causes a decrease in the G+C content. In other bacteria, it is often seen that the G+C content gets smaller near the terminus, but C. diphtheriae is a considerably strongly genome that has this occurrence. Chromosomal replication is one of the ways this happens within this genome.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: The War of the League of Cambrai, sometimes known as the War of the Holy League and several other names, was fought from February 1508 to December 1516 as part of the Italian Wars of 1494–1559. The main participants of the war, who fought for its entire duration, were France, the Papal States, and the Republic of Venice; they were joined at various times by nearly every significant power in Western Europe, including Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, the Duchy of Milan, the Republic of Florence, the Duchy of Ferrara, and the Swiss.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: The war started with the "Italienzug" of Maximilian I, King of the Romans, crossing into Venetian territory in February 1508 with his army on the way to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor by the Pope in Rome. Meanwhile, Pope Julius II, intending to curb Venetian influence in northern Italy, brought together the League of Cambrai — an anti-Venetian alliance consisting of him, Maximilian I, Louis XII of France, and Ferdinand II of Aragon — which was formally concluded in December 1508. Although the League was initially successful, friction between Julius and Louis caused it to collapse by 1510; Julius then allied himself with Venice against France.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: The Veneto–Papal alliance eventually expanded into the Holy League, which drove the French from Italy in 1512; disagreements about the division of the spoils, however, led Venice to abandon the coalition in favor of an alliance with France. Under the leadership of Francis I, who had succeeded Louis on the throne of France, the French and Venetians would regain the territory they had lost in a campaign culminating in the Battle of Marignano in 1515; the treaties of Noyon (August 1516) and Brussels (December 1516), which ended the war the next year, would essentially return the map of Italy to the "status quo" of 1508.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In the aftermath of the First Italian War (1494–1498), Pope Alexander VI had, with French assistance, moved to consolidate Papal control over central Italy by seizing the Romagna. Cesare Borgia, acting as Gonfalonier of the Papal armies, had expelled the Bentivoglio family from Bologna, which they had ruled as a fief, and was well on his way towards establishing a permanent Borgia state in the region when Alexander died on 18 August 1503. Although Cesare managed to seize the remnants of the Papal treasury for his own use, he was unable to secure Rome itself, as French and Spanish armies converged on the city in an attempt to influence the Papal conclave; the election of Pius III (who soon died, to be replaced by Julius II) stripped Cesare of his titles and relegated him to commanding a company of men-at-arms. Sensing Cesare's weakness, the dispossessed lords of the Romagna offered to submit to the Republic of Venice in exchange for aid in regaining their dominions; the Venetian Senate accepted and had taken possession of Rimini, Faenza, and a number of other cities by the end of 1503.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: Julius II, having secured his own control of the Papal armies by arresting and imprisoning Cesare, first in Bologna and later in Ravenna, quickly moved to re-establish Papal control over the Romagna by demanding that Venice return the cities she had seized. The Republic of Venice, although willing to acknowledge Papal sovereignty over these port cities along the Adriatic coast and willing to pay Julius II an annual tribute, refused to surrender the cities themselves. In response, Julius concluded an alliance with France and the Holy Roman Empire against Venice; the death of Isabella I of Castile (26 November 1504) and the resulting collapse of relations between the parties soon dissolved the alliance (the Treaty of Blois (1504), which had ended the Italian Wars of 1499–1504, became a 'dead letter'), but not before Venice had been induced to abandon several of the cities, except for the three key towns of Rimini, Faenza and Cervia. Julius, although unsatisfied with his gains, did not himself possess sufficient forces to fight the Republic; for the next two years he instead occupied himself with the reconquest of Bologna and Perugia, which, located between Papal and Venetian territory, had in the meantime assumed a status of quasi-independence.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In 1507, Julius returned to the question of the cities in Venetian hands; once again rebuffed by the Senate, he encouraged Emperor Maximilian I to attack the Republic. Maximilian, using his journey to Rome for the Imperial coronation as a pretext, entered Venetian territory with a large army in February 1508 and advanced on Vicenza, but was defeated by a Venetian army under Bartolomeo d'Alviano (Battle of Cadore, 2 March 1508). A second assault by a Tyrolean force several weeks later was an even greater failure; Alviano not only routed the Imperial army but also seized the entire County of Gorizia, Austrian Istria (county of Pazin), as well as Trieste, Fiume, and the westernmost portions of Carniola, forcing Maximilian to conclude a truce with Venice.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In the spring of 1508, the Republic provoked Julius by appointing her own candidate to the vacant bishopric of Vicenza; in response, the Pope called for all Christian nations to join him in an expedition to subdue Venice. On 10 December 1508, representatives of the Papacy, France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Ferdinand I of Spain concluded the League of Cambrai against the Republic. The agreement provided for the complete dismemberment of Venice's territory in Italy and for its partition among the signatories: Maximilian, in addition to regaining Gorizia, Trieste, Merania, and eastern Istria, would receive Verona, Vicenza, Padua, and the Friuli; France would annex Brescia, Crema, Bergamo, and Cremona to its Milanese possessions; Ferdinand would seize Otranto; and the remainder, including Rimini and Ravenna, would be added to the Papal States.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: On 9 May 1509, Louis crossed the Adda River at the head of a French army and moved rapidly into Venetian territory. To oppose him, Venice had hired a condottiere army under the command of the Orsini cousins—Bartolomeo d'Alviano and Niccolò di Pitigliano—but had failed to account for their disagreement on how best to stop the French advance. On 14 May, Alviano confronted the French at the Battle of Agnadello; outnumbered, he sent requests for reinforcements to his cousin, who replied with orders to break off the battle and continued on his way. Alviano, disregarding the new orders, continued the engagement; his army was eventually surrounded and destroyed. Pitigliano managed to avoid encountering Louis; but his mercenary troops, hearing of Alviano's defeat, had deserted in large numbers by the next morning, forcing him to retreat to Treviso with the remnants of the Venetian army.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: The Venetian collapse was complete. Louis proceeded to occupy Venetian territory as far east as Brescia without encountering any significant resistance; the Venetians lost all the territory that they had accumulated in northern Italy during the previous century. The major cities that had not been occupied by the French—Padua, Verona, and Vicenza—were left undefended by Pitigliano's withdrawal, and quickly surrendered to Maximilian when Imperial emissaries arrived in the Veneto. Julius, having in the meantime issued an interdict against Venice that excommunicated every citizen of the Republic, invaded the Romagna and captured Ravenna with the assistance of Alfonso d'Este, Duke of Ferrara. D'Este, having joined the League and been appointed Gonfalonier on 19 April, seized the Polesine for himself.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: The newly arrived Imperial governors, however, quickly proved to be unpopular. In mid-July, the citizens of Padua, aided by detachments of Venetian cavalry under the command of the proveditor Andrea Gritti, revolted. The landsknechts garrisoning the city were too few in number to mount effective resistance, and Padua was restored to Venetian control on 17 July. The success of the revolt finally pushed Maximilian into action. In early August, a massive Imperial army, accompanied by bodies of French and Spanish troops, set out from Trento into the Veneto. Because of a lack of horses, as well as general disorganization, Maximilian's forces were slow to begin the siege of Padua, giving Pitigliano the time to concentrate such troops as were still available to him in the city. Although French and Imperial artillery successfully breached Padua's walls, the defenders managed to hold the city until Maximilian, growing impatient, lifted the siege on 1 October and withdrew to Tyrol with the main part of his army.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In mid-November, Pitigliano returned to the offensive, recapturing Vicenza, Este, Feltre, and Belluno; an attack on Verona failed, but Pitigliano destroyed a Papal army under Francesco II of Gonzaga in the process. Angelo Trevisan organized a river attack on Ferrara by the Venetian galley fleet, but the resulting Battle of Polesella ended in another defeat for the Republic when the Venetian ships anchored in the Po River were sunk by Ferrarese artillery.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: Faced with a shortage of both funds and men, the Senate decided to send an embassy to Julius in order to negotiate a settlement. The terms insisted on by the Pope were harsh: the Republic lost her traditional power to appoint clergy in her territory, as well as all jurisdiction over Papal subjects in Venice, the Romagnan cities that had prompted the war were to be returned to Julius, and reparations were to be paid to cover his expenses in capturing them. The Senate argued over the terms for two months, but finally accepted them in February 1510; even before the Venetian ambassadors had presented themselves to Julius for absolution, however, the Council of Ten had privately resolved that the terms had been accepted under duress and were therefore invalid, and that Venice should violate them at the earliest opportunity.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: This apparent reconciliation between Venice and the Pope did not stop multiple French, Ferrarese, and Imperial armies from invading Venetian territory in May 1510. Gianpaolo Baglioni and Andrea Gritti, left in command of the Venetian forces by Pitigliano's death in January, withdrew to Padua; by 24 May, the League's armies had taken Vicenza and the Polesine, and were advancing on Legnago. Gritti fortified Padua for an expected attack by a combined Franco-Imperial army, but Louis, frustrated by Maximilian's failure to appear in person and distracted by the death of his advisor, the Cardinal d'Amboise, abandoned his plans for a siege.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: Julius, meanwhile, had become increasingly concerned by the growing French presence in Italy; more significantly, alienated from Alfonso d'Este by friction over a licence for a salt monopoly in the Papal States and Alfonso's continued forays against Venetian forces to secure his recently reacquired Polesine, he had formulated plans to seize the Duchy of Ferrara, a French ally, and to add its territory to the Papal States. His own forces being inadequate for the venture, the Pope hired an army of Swiss mercenaries, ordering them to attack the French in Milan; he also invited Venice to ally with him against Louis. The Republic, facing a renewed French onslaught, readily accepted the offer.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: The French army, however, had been left unopposed by the Swiss (who, having arrived in Lombardy, had been bribed into leaving by Louis) and was free to march south into the heart of Italy. In early October, Charles II d'Amboise advanced on Bologna, splitting the Papal forces; by 18 October, he was only a few miles from the city. Julius now realized that the Bolognese were openly hostile to the Papacy and would not offer any resistance to the French; left with only a detachment of Venetian cavalry, he resorted to excommunicating d'Amboise, who had in the meantime been convinced by the English ambassador to avoid attacking the person of the Pope and had thus withdrawn to Ferrara.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In December 1510, a newly assembled Papal army conquered Concordia and besieged the fortress of Mirandola; d'Amboise, marching to relieve the latter, fell ill and died, briefly leaving the French in disarray; the pope took personal command of the siege, and Mirandola fell in January 1511. Alfonso d'Este, meanwhile, confronted and destroyed the Venetian forces on the Po River, leaving Bologna isolated once more; Julius, afraid of being trapped by the French, departed the city for Ravenna. Cardinal Francesco Alidosi, whom he left behind to command the defense of the city, was no better liked by the Bolognese than Julius himself had been; and when, in May 1511, a French army commanded by Gian Giacomo Trivulzio approached, the citizens of Bologna revolted, expelled Alidosi, and opened their gates to the French. Julius blamed this defeat on the Duke of Urbino, who, finding this quite unfair, proceeded to murder Alidosi in full view of the Papal guard.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In October 1511, Julius proclaimed a Holy League against France. The new alliance included not only Spain and the Holy Roman Empire (which abandoned any pretense of adhering to the League of Cambrai in hopes of seizing Navarre from Queen Catherine and Lombardy from Louis), but also Henry VIII of England who, having decided to use the occasion as an excuse to expand his holdings in northern France, concluded the Treaty of Westminster—a pledge of mutual aid against the French—with Ferdinand on 17 November.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: Louis now appointed his nephew, Gaston de Foix, to command the French forces in Italy. Foix proved more energetic than d'Amboise and Trivulzio had been; having checked the advance of Ramón de Cardona's Spanish troops on Bologna, he returned to Lombardy to sack Brescia, which had rebelled against the French and garrisoned itself with Venetian troops. Aware that much of the French army would be diverted to deal with the impending English invasion, Foix and Alfonso d'Este besieged Ravenna, the last Papal stronghold in the Romagna, in hopes of forcing the Holy League into a decisive engagement. Cardona marched to relieve the city in early April 1512, and was decisively beaten in the resulting Battle of Ravenna, fought on Easter Sunday; the death of Foix during the fighting, however, left the French under the command of Jacques de la Palice, who, unwilling to continue the campaign without direct orders from Louis, contented himself with thoroughly sacking Ravenna.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: By May 1512, the French position had deteriorated considerably. Julius had hired another army of Swiss mercenaries; they descended on Milan, bringing with them Maximilian Sforza, who was determined to regain control of the Duchy for his family. The French garrisons abandoned the Romagna (where the Duke of Urbino quickly captured Bologna and Parma) and retreated to Lombardy, attempting to intercept the invasion. By August, the Swiss had combined with the Venetian army and forced Trivulzio out of Milan, allowing Sforza to be proclaimed Duke with their support; La Palice was then forced to withdraw across the Alps.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In 1512 Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset led an unsuccessful English military expedition to France to reconquer Aquitaine, which England had lost during the Hundred Years' War. Ferdinand of Aragon gave none of the support he had promised. While Ferdinand delayed and tried to persuade Dorset to help him to attack Navarre instead of Aquitaine, the English army's food, beer, and pay ran out, many took to wine and became ill, and the army mutinied. Back in England, Dorset had to face a trial.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In late August, the members of the League met at Mantua to discuss the situation in Italy and the partition of territory acquired from the French. They quickly came to an agreement regarding Florence, which had angered Julius by allowing Louis to convene the Council of Pisa in its territory; at the Pope's request, Ramon de Cardona marched into Tuscany, smashed Florentine resistance, overthrew the Florentine Republic, and installed Giuliano de' Medici as ruler of the city. On the subject of territory, however, fundamental disagreements quickly arose. Julius and the Venetians insisted that Maximilian Sforza be permitted to keep the Duchy of Milan, while Emperor Maximilian and Ferdinand maneuvered to have one of their relatives installed as duke. The Pope demanded the annexation of Ferrara to the Papal States; Ferdinand objected to this arrangement, desiring the existence of an independent Ferrara to counter growing Papal power. The Emperor refused to relinquish any Imperial territory, which in his eyes included most of the Veneto, and signed an agreement with the Pope to exclude Venice entirely from the final partition; when the Republic objected, Julius threatened to reform the League of Cambrai against her. In response, Venice turned to Louis; on 23 March 1513, a treaty pledging to divide all of northern Italy between France and the Republic was signed at Blois. Pope Julius II, meanwhile, had died in February, and Cardinal Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, second son of Lorenzo the Magnificent and elder brother of the new ruler of Florence, was elected Pope Leo X.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: In late May 1513, a French army commanded by Louis de la Trémoille crossed the Alps and advanced on Milan; at the same time, Bartolomeo d'Alviano and the Venetian army marched west from Padua. The unpopularity of Maximilian Sforza, who was seen by the Milanese as a puppet of his Swiss mercenaries, enabled the French to move through Lombardy with little resistance; Trémoille, having seized Milan, besieged the remaining Swiss in Novara. On 6 June, the French were attacked by a Swiss relief army at the Battle of Novara, and were routed despite having superior numbers. Detachments of the Swiss army pursued the fleeing French over the Alps and had reached Dijon before being bribed into withdrawing.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: The rout at Novara inaugurated a period of defeats for the French alliance. English troops under Henry VIII besieged Thérouanne, defeated La Palice at the Battle of the Spurs, and captured Tournai. In Navarre, resistance to Ferdinand's invasion collapsed; he rapidly consolidated his hold over the entire region and moved to support another English offensive in the Guyenne. James IV of Scotland invaded England at the behest of Louis; but he failed to draw Henry's attention from France, and his death—and the Scots' catastrophic defeat—at the Battle of Flodden on 9 September 1513, ended Scotland's brief involvement in the war.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: Meanwhile, Alviano, unexpectedly left without French support, retreated into the Veneto, pursued closely by the Spanish army under Cardona; while the Spanish were unable to capture Padua in the face of determined Venetian resistance, they penetrated deep into Venetian territory and by late September were in sight of Venice itself. Cardona attempted a bombardment of the city that proved largely ineffective; then, having no boats with which to cross the Venetian Lagoon, turned back for Lombardy. Alviano, having been reinforced by hundreds of volunteers from the Venetian nobility, pursued Cardona and confronted him outside Vicenza on 7 October; in the resulting Battle of La Motta, the Venetian army was decisively defeated, with many prominent noblemen cut down outside the city walls as they attempted to flee. Cardona and Alviano continued to skirmish in the Friuli for the remainder of 1513 and through 1514.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: The death of Louis XII on 1 January 1515 brought Francis I to the throne; having assumed the title of Duke of Milan at his coronation, Francis immediately moved to reclaim his holdings in Italy. By July, Francis had assembled an army in the Dauphiné; a combined Swiss and Papal force moved north from Milan to block the Alpine passes against him, but Francis, following the advice of Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, avoided the main passes and marched instead through the valley of the Stura. The French vanguard surprised the Milanese cavalry at Villafranca, capturing Prospero Colonna; meanwhile, Francis and the main body of the French confronted the Swiss at the Battle of Marignano on 13 September. The Swiss advance initially made headway; however, Francis's superiority in cavalry and artillery, together with the timely arrival of Alviano (who had successfully avoided Cardona's army at Verona) on the morning of 14 September, led to a decisive victory for Francis and the Venetians.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: After the victory at Marignano, Francis advanced on Milan, capturing the city on 4 October and removing Sforza from the throne. In December, he met with Leo at Bologna; the pope, who had in the meantime been deserted by the remainder of his Swiss mercenaries, surrendered Parma and Piacenza to Francis and Modena to the Duke of Ferrara. In return, Leo received guarantees of French noninterference in his proposed attack on the Duchy of Urbino. Finally, the Treaty of Noyon, signed by Francis and Charles V in August 1516, recognized French claims to Milan and Spanish claims to Naples, removing Spain from the war.


title: War of the League of Cambrai

text: Maximilian held out, making another attempt to invade Lombardy; his army failed to reach Milan before turning back, and by December 1516, he had entered into negotiations with Francis. The resulting Treaty of Brussels not only accepted French occupation of Milan, but also confirmed Venetian claims to the remainder of the Imperial possessions in Lombardy (except for Cremona), effectively ending the war with a return to the status quo of 1508. The peace, however, would last only four years; the growing rivalry between the House of Valois and the House of Habsburg, and the election of Charles V as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, would soon lead to the Italian War of 1521–26.


title: Symbolic link

text: In computing, a symbolic link (also symlink or soft link) is a file whose purpose is to point to a file or directory (called the "target") by specifying a path thereto.


title: Symbolic link

text: Symbolic links are supported by POSIX and by most Unix-like operating systems, such as FreeBSD, Linux, and macOS. Limited support also exists in Windows 7 and Windows Vista, and to some degree in Windows 2000 and Windows XP in the form of shortcut files. CTSS on IBM 7090 had files linked by name in 1963. By 1978 minicomputer operating systems from DEC, and in Data General's RDOS included symbolic links.


title: Symbolic link

text: A symbolic link contains a text string that is automatically interpreted and followed by the operating system as a path to another file or directory. This other file or directory is called the "target". The symbolic link is a second file that exists independently of its target. If a symbolic link is deleted, its target remains unaffected. If a symbolic link points to a target, and sometime later that target is moved, renamed or deleted, the symbolic link is not automatically updated or deleted, but continues to exist and still points to the old target, now a non-existing location or file. Symbolic links pointing to moved or non-existing targets are sometimes called "broken", "orphaned", "dead", or "dangling".


title: Symbolic link

text: Symbolic links are different from hard links. Hard links do not link paths on different volumes or file systems, whereas symbolic links may point to any file or directory irrespective of the volumes on which the link and target reside.


title: Symbolic link

text: Hard links always refer to an existing file, whereas symbolic links may contain an arbitrary path that does not point to anything.


title: Symbolic link

text: Symbolic links operate transparently for many operations: programs that read or write to files named by a symbolic link will behave as if operating directly on the target file. However, they have the effect of changing an otherwise hierarchic filesystem from a tree into a directed graph, which can have consequences for such simple operations as determining the current directory of a process. Even the Unix standard for navigating to a directory's parent directory no longer works reliably in the face of symlinks. Some shells heuristically try to uphold the illusion of a tree-shaped hierarchy, but when they do, this causes them to produce different results from other programs that manipulate pathnames without such heuristic, relying on the operating system instead.


title: Symbolic link

text: Programs that need to handle symbolic links specially (e.g., shells and backup utilities) thus need to identify and manipulate them directly.


title: Symbolic link

text: Some Unix as well as Linux distributions use symbolic links extensively in an effort to reorder the file system hierarchy. This is accomplished with several mechanisms, such as variant, context-dependent symbolic links. This offers the opportunity to create a more intuitive or application-specific directory tree and to reorganize the system without having to redesign the core set of system functions and utilities.