title: Dashiki

text: The dashiki found a market in America during the Civil Rights and Black Power movements. The term "dashiki" began appearing in print at least as early as 1967. Reporting on the 1967 Newark riots in the "Amsterdam News" on July 22, 1967, George Barner refers to a new African garment called a ""dan"shiki". An article by Faith Berry in "The New York Times Magazine" includes it on July 7, 1968. "Dashiki" formally appeared in the "Webster's New World Dictionary", 1st College Edition of 1970/72. It cites J. Benning with the first written usage of the word in 1967. J. Benning, M. Clarke, H. Davis and W. Smith were founders of New Breed of Harlem in Manhattan, New York City, the first manufacturer of the garment in the United States.


title: Dashiki

text: The dashiki was featured in the movies "Uptight" (1968), "Putney Swope" (1969), and the weekly television series "Soul Train" (1971). The "Sanford and Son" episode "Lamont Goes African" features Sanford's son Lamont wearing a dashiki as part of his attempt to return to his African roots. Jim Brown, Wilt Chamberlain, Sammy Davis Jr., and Bill Russell were among the well-known African-American athletes and entertainers who wore the dashiki on talk shows. Hippies also adopted dashikis into their wardrobe as a means to express counterculture values. Former District of Columbia mayor and council member Marion Barry was known for wearing a dashiki leading up to elections. Dashikis have been seen on many musicians, rappers and singers, mostly African Americans, including Beyoncé, Rihanna, Chris Brown, Wiz Khalifa, ScHoolboy Q, Q-Tip, and many others.


title: Dashiki

text: Fred Hampton of the Black Panther Party made note of black business owners wearing dashikis in his 1969 speech "Power Anywhere Where There's People": "[A]nybody who comes into the community to make profit off the people by exploiting them can be defined as a capitalist. And we don't care how many programs they have, how long a dashiki they have. Because political power does not flow from the sleeve of a dashiki; political power flows from the barrel of a gun."


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The Federal Cabinet or Federal Government ( or ) is the chief executive body of the Federal Republic of Germany. It consists of the Federal Chancellor and cabinet ministers. The fundamentals of the cabinet's organisation as well as the method of its election and appointment as well as the procedure for its dismissal are set down in articles 62 through 69 of the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany ("Grundgesetz").


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: In contrast to the system under the Weimar Republic, the Bundestag may only dismiss the Chancellor with a constructive vote of no confidence (electing a new Chancellor at the same time) and can thereby only choose to dismiss the Chancellor with their entire cabinet and not simply individual ministers. These procedures and mechanisms were put in place by the authors of the Basic Law to both prevent another dictatorship and to ensure that there will not be a political vacuum left by the removal of Chancellor through a vote of confidence and the failure to elect a new one in their place, as had happened during the Weimar period with the Reichstag removing Chancellors but failing to agree on the election of a new one.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: If the Chancellor loses a simple confidence motion (without the election of a new Chancellor by the Bundestag), this does not force them out of office, but allows the Chancellor, if they wish to do so, to ask the President of Germany for the dissolution of the Bundestag, triggering a snap election within 60 days (this happened in 1972, 1983 and 2005), or to ask the President to declare a legislative state of emergency, which allows the cabinet to use a simplified legislative procedure, in which bills proposed by the cabinet only need the consent of the Bundesrat (as yet, this has never been applied). The President is, however, not bound to follow the Chancellor's request in both cases.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The Chancellor and the other members of the cabinet are allowed to be also members of the Bundestag (though they are not required to be).


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The Chancellor is elected by the federal parliament ("Bundestag") on proposal of the President of Germany with a majority of all members of the Bundestag ("Chancellor-majority"). However, the Bundestag is free to disregard the President's proposal (which has, as of 2021, never happened), in which case the parliament may within 14 days hold further ballots and try to elect another individual, which the parties in the Bundestag can now propose themselves, to the post with the same so called Chancellor-majority, whom the President is then obliged to appoint. If the Bundestag fails to do so, a last ballot will be held on the 15th day (again the parties in the Bundestag may field candidates): If an individual is elected with the Chancellor-majority, the President must appoint them as Chancellor. If not, the President is free to either appoint the individual, who received a plurality of votes on this last ballot, as Chancellor or to dissolve the Bundestag and call a snap election within 60 days.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: Following their election in the Bundestag, the Chancellor-elect will visit Bellevue Palace, the residence of the President, to receive a certificate of appointment. This is the moment, the elected individual actually enters office. After this short appointment-ceremony, nig President will officially appoint the new cabinet members, again handing over certificates of appointment. After the ministers are appointed, they return to the Bundestag and take their oaths of office, completing the appointment-process.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The Chancellor is the chief executive leader. Therefore, the whole cabinet's tenure is linked to the Chancellor's tenure: The Chancellor's (and the cabinet's) term automatically ends, if a newly elected Bundestag sits for the first time, if they are replaced by a "constructive vote of no confidence", or if the Chancellor resigns or dies. Nevertheless, apart from the case of a "constructive vote of no confidence", which by nature instantly invests a new Chancellor (and a new cabinet), the Chancellor and their ministers stay in office as an acting cabinet on the President's request, until the Bundestag has elected a new Chancellor. An acting cabinet and its members have (theoretically) the same powers as an ordinary cabinet, but the Chancellor may not ask the Bundestag for a motion of confidence or ask the President for the appointment of new ministers. If an acting minister leaves the cabinet, another member of government has to take over their department.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The Chancellor is responsible for guiding the cabinet and deciding its political direction ('). According to the principle of departmentalization ('), the cabinet ministers are free to carry out their duties independently within the boundaries set by the Chancellor's political directives. The Chancellor may at any time ask the President to dismiss a minister or to appoint a new minister; the President's appointment is only a formality, he may not refuse a Chancellors request for dismissal or appointment of a minister. The Chancellor also decides the scope of each minister's duties and can at his own discretion nominate ministers heading a department and so called ministers for special affairs without an own department. He can also lead a department himself, if he decides so.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The Chancellor's freedom to shape his cabinet is only limited by some constitutional provisions: The Chancellor has to appoint a Minister of Defence, a Minister of Economic Affairs and a Minister of Justice and is implicitly forbidden to head one of these departments himself, as the constitution invests these ministers with some special powers. For example, the Minister of Defence is commander-in-chief during peacetime (only in wartime does the Chancellor becomes supreme commander), the Minister of Economic Affairs may veto decisions by the Federal Cartel Office and the Minister of Justice appoints and dismisses the Public Prosecutor General. If two ministers disagree on a particular point, the cabinet resolves the conflict by a majority vote (" or principle of deference) or the Chancellor decides the case themselves. This often depends on the Chancellor's governing style.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The Chancellor has to appoint one of the cabinet ministers as Vice Chancellor, who may deputise for the Chancellor in their absence. In coalition governments the Vice Chancellor is usually the highest ranking minister of the second biggest coalition party. If the Chancellor dies or is unwilling or unable to act as Chancellor after the end of their term, until a new Chancellor has been elected, the Vice Chancellor becomes Acting Chancellor until the election of a new Chancellor by the Bundestag, who then has to form a new government. (To date, this has happened once: On 7 May 1974 Chancellor Willy Brandt resigned and declared his refusal to act as Chancellor until his successor's election. Vice Chancellor Walter Scheel was appointed as Acting Chancellor and served until the election of Helmut Schmidt on 16 May.)


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The Chancellor is in charge of the government's administrative affairs, which are usually delegated to the Head of staff of the Chancellery, who is usually also appointed as minister for special affairs. Details are laid down in the government's rules for internal procedures ("). These state, for example, that the cabinet is quorate only if at least half of the ministers including the chair (the Chancellor or in their absence the Vice Chancellor) are present. The cabinet regularly convenes on Wednesday mornings in the Chancellery.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: According to established practice, decisions on important armaments exports are made by the (""), a cabinet committee chaired by the Chancellor. Pursuant to its (classified) rules of procedure, its sessions are confidential. According to practice, the Federal Government presents an annual report on arms exports, which contains statistical information on export permits issued and gives figures for the types of arms concerned as well as their destination. As a general rule, the Federal Government, if asked, is required to inform the Bundestag that the Federal Security Council has approved a given armaments export transaction or not.


title: Cabinet of Germany

text: The current and 24th federal cabinet of Germany ("Scholz") has been in office since 8 December 2021. It currently consists of the following ministers:


title: Baseball (ball)

text: A baseball is a ball used in the sport of the same name. The ball consists of a rubber or cork center wrapped in yarn and covered with white natural horsehide or cowhide, or a synthetic composite leather. A regulation baseball is 9 to 9¼ inches (229 to 235mm) in circumference ie 2.86 to 2.94 inches (72.9 to 74.8 mm) in diameter, with a weight of 5to 5¼oz. (142 to 149g). A baseball is bound together by 108 hand-woven stitches through the cowhide leather.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: The leather cover is commonly formed from two saddle-shaped pieces stitched together, typically with red-dyed thread. That stitching plays a significant role in the trajectory of a thrown baseball due to the drag caused by the interaction between the stitching and the air. Controlling the orientation of the stitches and the speed of the ball's rotation allows a pitcher to affect the behavior of the pitched ball in specific ways. Commonly employed pitches include the curveball, the slider, the two-seam fastball, the four-seam fastball, the sinker, the cutter and the changeup.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In the early, mid-1800s days of baseball, there was a great variety in the size, shape, weight, and manufacturing of baseballs. Early baseballs were made from a rubber core from old, melted shoes, wrapped in yarn and leather. Fish eyes were also used as cores in some places. Pitchers usually made their own balls, which were used throughout the game, softening and coming unraveled as the game went on. One of the more popular earlier ball designs was the "lemon peel ball," named after its distinct four lines of stitching design. Lemon peel balls were darker, smaller, and weighed less than other baseballs, prompting them to travel further and bounce higher, causing very high-scoring games.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In the mid-1850s, teams in and around New York met in an attempt to standardize the baseball. They decided to regulate the weight of baseballs at 5–6 oz, and with a circumference of 8–11 inches. There were still many variations of baseballs since they were completely handmade. Balls with more rubber and a tighter winding went further and faster (known as "live balls"), and balls with less rubber and a looser winding (known as "dead balls") did not travel as far or fast. This is generally true for all baseballs. Teams often used this knowledge to their advantage, as players from the team usually manufactured their own baseballs to use in games.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: There is no agreement on who invented the commonplace figure-8 stitching on baseballs. Some historians say it was invented by Ellis Drake, a shoemaker's son, to make the cover stronger and more durable. Others say it was invented by Colonel William A. Cutler and sold to William Harwood in 1858. Harwood built the nation's first baseball factory in Natick, Massachusetts, and was the first to popularize and mass-produce baseballs with the figure-8 design.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In 1876, the National League (NL) was created, and standard rules and regulations were put in place. A.G. Spalding, a well-known baseball pitcher who made his own balls, convinced the NL to adopt his ball as the official baseball for the NL. It remained that way for a century.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In 1910, the cork-core ball was introduced. They outlasted rubber core baseballs; and for the first few years they were used, balls were hit farther and faster than rubber core balls. It eventually went back to normal. Pitchers adapted with the use of the spitball, which is now illegal, and an emphasis on changing the ball.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In 1920, a couple of important changes were made to baseballs. They began to be made using machine winders and a higher grade of yarn from Australia. Although there was no evidence that these balls impacted the game, offensive statistics rose throughout the 1920s, and players and fans alike believed the new balls helped batters hit the ball farther.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In 1925, Milton Reach patented his "cushion cork" center. It was a cork core surrounded by black rubber, then another layer of red rubber.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In 1934, The National League and American League came to a compromise and standardized the baseball. They agreed on a cushion cork center; two wrappings of yarn; a special rubber cement coating; two more wrappings of yarn; and, finally, a horsehide cover.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: Baseballs have gone through only a few small changes since the compromise. During World War II, the United States banned the use of rubber for non war-related goods, including for baseballs. So in , instead of using rubber, baseballs were made with rubber-like shells of "balata" (also used in golf balls), which is obtained from a particular type of tropical tree. Hitting declined significantly that year.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: The introduction of synthetic rubber in resulted in baseballs' returning to normal. Offense would return to normal after the change back to the regular ball and return of players from active duty.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In , due to a shortage of the material, horsehide was replaced by the more abundant cowhide as the cover material.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In , MLB ended its relationship with Spalding for manufacturing their baseballs and switched to Rawlings, which still provides the balls to MLB today.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: A significant increase in the number of home runs since the start of the 2016 baseball season caused MLB officials to establish a committee that would examine the manufacturing process. In December 2019, MLB officials said that a lower stitching seam profile had most likely led to the increase in home runs, but also pledged to consider studying the issue. On February 5, 2021 MLB issued a memo that said that Rawlings had altered their manufacturing process to reduce the bounce in the balls and that after extensive testing, "... we are comfortable that these baseballs meet all of our performance specifications." The same memo also noted that more teams had applied for permission to use humidors to store their baseballs. As of 2020 only the Arizona Diamondbacks, Boston Red Sox, Colorado Rockies, and Seattle Mariners, were using the devices.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: Cushioned wood cores were patented in the late 19th century by sports equipment manufacturer Spalding, the company founded by former baseball star A.G. Spalding. In recent years, various synthetic materials have been used to create baseballs; however, they are generally considered lower quality, stitched with two red thick thread, and are not used in the major leagues. Using different types of materials affects the performance of the baseball. Generally a tighter-wound baseball will leave the bat faster, and fly farther. Since the baseballs used today are wound tighter than in previous years, notably the dead-ball era that prevailed through 1920, people often say the ball is ""juiced"". The height of the seams also affects how well a pitcher can pitch.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: Baseballs used in MLB and the top minor leagues (AAA) are made to the same specifications, but labelled separately. Balls used in the lower minor leagues (up to AA) use slightly different specifications intended to make those balls somewhat more durable, although MLB pitchers on rehab assignments in the minors are usually supplied with major league-grade balls. Generally, in Little League through college leagues, the seams are markedly higher than balls used in professional leagues.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: Baseballs cost three dollars each in 1900, a unit price which would be equal to $ today. Due to their high relative cost, club owners in the early 20th century were reluctant to spend much money on new balls if not necessary. It was not unusual for a single baseball to last an entire game, nor for a baseball to be reused for the next game especially if it was still in relatively good condition as would likely be the case for a ball introduced late in the game. Balls hit into the stands were retrieved by team employees in order to be put back in play, as is still done today in some other sports. Over the course of a game, a typical ball would become discolored due to dirt, and often tobacco juice and other materials applied by players; damage would also occur, causing slight rips and seam bursts. This would lower the offense during the games giving pitchers an advantage. However, after the 1920 death of batter Ray Chapman after being hit in the head by a pitch, perhaps due to his difficulty in seeing the ball during twilight, an effort was made to replace dirty or worn baseballs. However, some rules intended solely to reduce the frequency (and associated expense) with which balls need to be replaced during a game remain in force - the Pine Tar Incident in the 1980s was one famous occurrence directly resulting from the enforcement of such a rule.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: Today, MLB teams are required to have a minimum of 156 baseballs ready for use in each game. When combined with baseballs needed for practice, etc. each MLB team uses tens of thousands of balls every season. However, modern professional-grade baseballs purchased in bulk as is the case with professional teams only cost about seven dollars each as of and thus make up a negligible portion of a modern MLB team's operating budget. Recreational-grade baseballs can be purchased by the public for an even lower unit price.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: Once discarded by the umpire, game-used baseballs not hit into the stands are collected by batboys. Many baseballs involved in historical plays are displayed at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown, New York. Other baseballs associated with noteworthy in-game events are often authenticated and sold as memorabilia. Most such sales today are conducted on MLB's official website. The total proceeds from such sales represent a significant portion of the total purchase cost of baseballs since even balls used for relatively minor accomplishments can each fetch hundreds or thousands of dollars.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: In 1909, sports magnate and former player Alfred J. Reach patented the ivory centered ""ivory nut"" in Panama and suggested it might be even better in a baseball than cork. However, Philadelphia Athletics president Benjamin F. Shibe, who had invented and patented the cork centered ball, commented, ""I look for the leagues to adopt an 'ivory nut' baseball just as soon as they adopt a ferro-concrete bat and a base studded with steel spikes."" Both leagues adopted Shibe's cork-centered ball in 1910.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: The official major league ball is made by Rawlings, which produces the stitched balls in Costa Rica. Attempts to automate the manufacturing process were never entirely successful, leading to the continued use of hand-made balls. The raw materials are imported from the United States, assembled into baseballs and shipped back.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: Throughout the 20th Century, Major League Baseball used two technically identical but differently marked balls. The American League had ""Official American League"" and the American League's president's signature in blue ink, while National League baseballs had ""Official National League"" and the National League president's signature in black ink. Bob Feller stated that when he was a rookie in the 1930s, National League baseball laces were black, intertwined with red; American League baseball laces were blue and red. In 2000, Major League Baseball reorganized its structure to eliminate the position of league presidents, and switched to one ball specification for both leagues. Under the current rules, a major league baseball weighs between , and is in circumference ( in diameter). There are 108 double stitches on a baseball, or 216 individual stitches.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: While the decision whether to discard a baseball is formally at the discretion of the home plate umpire, today baseballs are expected to be immediately replaced after even minor scratches, discoloration and undesirable texture that can occur during the game. Balls used for pre-game warm-ups are often given to fans. Because baseballs are almost always replaced after each half-inning it is increasingly customary for players to give balls used to end half-innings to fans in the front rows, either by handing the ball to a fan (especially a child) in the front row or by gently tossing it into the stands, especially if the player holding it is a home team player close to the stands as for example is often the case for an outfielder catching a fly ball. MLB has long recognized any ball that comes into the possession of a spectator by any lawful means after entering the stands as immediately becoming the property of that spectator, although balls hit out of the park for momentous occasions (record setting, or for personal reasons) are often requested to be returned by the fan who catches or otherwise retrieves it, or donated freely by the fan. Usually, the player will give the fan an autographed bat and/or other autographed items in exchange for the special ball.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: Without proper preparation, an official professional-grade baseball is very dangerous to throw because it is so slick and hard. By rule, balls used in the professional game must be rubbed with a mud known as "rubbing mud", which is typically applied either by the umpires or someone working under their supervision before each game, and is intended to help the pitcher's grip. Because the mud discolors the ball, many fans prefer to purchase non-game-used balls for purposes such as collecting autographs, etc. In contrast, recreational-grade baseballs are designed so as not to require any special preparation before being used.


title: Baseball (ball)

text: There are several historic instances of people catching, or attempting to catch, baseballs tied to MLB milestones:


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML, pronounced "SAM-el", ) is an open standard for exchanging authentication and authorization data between parties, in particular, between an identity provider and a service provider. SAML is an XML-based markup language for security assertions (statements that service providers use to make access-control decisions). SAML is also:


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: An important use case that SAML addresses is web-browser single sign-on (SSO). Single sign-on is relatively easy to accomplish within a security domain (using cookies, for example) but extending SSO across security domains is more difficult and resulted in the proliferation of non-interoperable proprietary technologies. The SAML Web Browser SSO profile was specified and standardized to promote interoperability.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: The SAML specification defines three roles: the principal (typically a human user), the identity provider (IdP) and the service provider (SP). In the primary use case addressed by SAML, the principal requests a service from the service provider. The service provider requests and obtains an authentication assertion from the identity provider. On the basis of this assertion, the service provider can make an access control decision, that is, it can decide whether to perform the service for the connected principal.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: At the heart of the SAML assertion is a subject (a principal within the context of a particular security domain) about which something is being asserted. The subject is usually (but not necessarily) a human. As in the SAML 2.0 Technical Overview, the terms subject and principal are used interchangeably in this document.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Before delivering the subject-based assertion from IdP to the SP, the IdP may request some information from the principal—such as a user name and password—in order to authenticate the principal. SAML specifies the content of the assertion that is passed from the IdP to the SP. In SAML, one identity provider may provide SAML assertions to many service providers. Similarly, one SP may rely on and trust assertions from many independent IdPs.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: SAML does not specify the method of authentication at the identity provider. The IdP may use a username and password, or some other form of authentication, including multi-factor authentication. A directory service such as RADIUS, LDAP or Active Directory that allows users to log in with a user name and password is a typical source of authentication tokens at an identity provider. The popular Internet social networking services also provide identity services that in theory could be used to support SAML exchanges.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: The Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information Standards (OASIS) Security Services Technical Committee (SSTC), which met for the first time in January 2001, was chartered "to define an XML framework for exchanging authentication and authorization information." To this end, the following intellectual property was contributed to the SSTC during the first two months of that year:


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Building on these initial contributions, in November 2002 OASIS announced the Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) 1.0 specification as an OASIS Standard.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Meanwhile, the Liberty Alliance, a large consortium of companies, non-profit and government organizations, proposed an extension to the SAML standard called the Liberty Identity Federation Framework (ID-FF). Like its SAML predecessor, Liberty ID-FF proposed a standardized, cross-domain, web-based, single sign-on framework. In addition, Liberty described a "circle of trust" where each participating domain is trusted to accurately document the processes used to identify a user, the type of authentication system used, and any policies associated with the resulting authentication credentials. Other members of the circle of trust could then examine these policies to determine whether to trust such information.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: While Liberty was developing ID-FF, the SSTC began work on a minor upgrade to the SAML standard. The resulting SAML 1.1 specification was ratified by the SSTC in September 2003. Then, in November of that same year, Liberty contributed ID-FF 1.2 to OASIS, thereby sowing the seeds for the next major version of SAML. In March 2005, SAML 2.0 was announced as an OASIS Standard. SAML 2.0 represents the convergence of Liberty ID-FF and proprietary extensions contributed by the Shibboleth project, as well as early versions of SAML itself. Most SAML implementations support v2.0 while many still support v1.1 for backward compatibility. By January 2008, deployments of SAML 2.0 became common in government, higher education, and commercial enterprises worldwide.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: The Liberty Alliance contributed its Identity Federation Framework (ID-FF) to the OASIS SSTC in September 2003:


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Versions 1.0 and 1.1 of SAML are similar even though small differences exist., however, the differences between SAML 2.0 and SAML 1.1 are substantial. Although the two standards address the same use case, SAML 2.0 is incompatible with its predecessor.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Although ID-FF 1.2 was contributed to OASIS as the basis of SAML 2.0, there are some important differences between SAML 2.0 and ID-FF 1.2. In particular, the two specifications, despite their common roots, are incompatible.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: SAML defines XML-based assertions and protocols, bindings, and profiles. The term "SAML Core" refers to the general syntax and semantics of SAML assertions as well as the protocol used to request and transmit those assertions from one system entity to another. "SAML protocol" refers to what is transmitted, not how (the latter is determined by the choice of binding). So SAML Core defines "bare" SAML assertions along with SAML request and response elements.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: A "SAML binding" determines how SAML requests and responses map onto standard messaging or communications protocols. An important (synchronous) binding is the SAML SOAP binding.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: A "SAML profile" is a concrete manifestation of a defined use case using a particular combination of assertions, protocols and bindings.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Assertion "A" was issued at time "t" by issuer "R" regarding subject "S" provided conditions "C" are valid.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: SAML assertions are usually transferred from identity providers to service providers. Assertions contain "statements" that service providers use to make access-control decisions. Three types of statements are provided by SAML:


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: "Authentication statements" assert to the service provider that the principal did indeed authenticate with the identity provider at a particular time using a particular method of authentication. Other information about the authenticated principal (called the "authentication context") may be disclosed in an authentication statement.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: An "attribute statement" asserts that a principal is associated with certain attributes. An "attribute" is simply a name–value pair. Relying parties use attributes to make access-control decisions.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: An "authorization decision statement" asserts that a principal is permitted to perform action "A" on resource "R" given evidence "E". The expressiveness of authorization decision statements in SAML is intentionally limited. More-advanced use cases are encouraged to use XACML instead.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: A SAML "protocol" describes how certain SAML elements (including assertions) are packaged within SAML request and response elements, and gives the processing rules that SAML entities must follow when producing or consuming these elements. For the most part, a SAML protocol is a simple request-response protocol.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: The most important type of SAML protocol request is called a "query". A service provider makes a query directly to an identity provider over a secure back channel. Thus query messages are typically bound to SOAP.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: The result of an attribute query is a SAML response containing an assertion, which itself contains an attribute statement. See the SAML 2.0 topic for an example of attribute query/response.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: SAML 2.0 expands the notion of "protocol" considerably. The following protocols are described in detail in SAML 2.0 Core:


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: A SAML "binding" is a mapping of a SAML protocol message onto standard messaging formats and/or communications protocols. For example, the SAML SOAP binding specifies how a SAML message is encapsulated in a SOAP envelope, which itself is bound to an HTTP message.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: SAML 1.1 specifies just one binding, the SAML SOAP Binding. In addition to SOAP, implicit in SAML 1.1 Web Browser SSO are the precursors of the HTTP POST Binding, the HTTP Redirect Binding, and the HTTP Artifact Binding. These are not defined explicitly, however, and are only used in conjunction with SAML 1.1 Web Browser SSO. The notion of binding is not fully developed until SAML 2.0.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: SAML 2.0 completely separates the binding concept from the underlying profile. In fact, there is a brand new binding specification in SAML 2.0 that defines the following standalone bindings:


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: This reorganization provides tremendous flexibility: taking just Web Browser SSO alone as an example, a service provider can choose from four bindings (HTTP Redirect, HTTP POST and two flavors of HTTP Artifact), while the identity provider has three binding options (HTTP POST plus two forms of HTTP Artifact), for a total of twelve possible deployments of the SAML 2.0 Web Browser SSO Profile.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: A SAML "profile" describes in detail how SAML assertions, protocols, and bindings combine to support a defined use case. The most important SAML profile is the Web Browser SSO Profile.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: SAML 1.1 specifies two forms of Web Browser SSO, the Browser/Artifact Profile and the Browser/POST Profile. The latter passes assertions "by value" whereas Browser/Artifact passes assertions "by reference". As a consequence, Browser/Artifact requires a back-channel SAML exchange over SOAP. In SAML 1.1, all flows begin with a request at the identity provider for simplicity. Proprietary extensions to the basic IdP-initiated flow have been proposed (by Shibboleth, for example).


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: The Web Browser SSO Profile was completely refactored for SAML 2.0. Conceptually, SAML 1.1 Browser/Artifact and Browser/POST are special cases of SAML 2.0 Web Browser SSO. The latter is considerably more flexible than its SAML 1.1 counterpart due to the new "plug-and-play" binding design of SAML 2.0. Unlike previous versions, SAML 2.0 browser flows begin with a request at the service provider. This provides greater flexibility, but SP-initiated flows naturally give rise to the so-called "Identity Provider Discovery" problem, the focus of much research today. In addition to Web Browser SSO, SAML 2.0 introduces numerous new profiles:


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Requirements are often phrased in terms of (mutual) authentication, integrity, and confidentiality, leaving the choice of security mechanism to implementers and deployers.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: The primary SAML use case is called "Web Browser Single Sign-On (SSO)". A user utilizes a "user agent" (usually a web browser) to request a web resource protected by a SAML "service provider". The service provider, wishing to know the identity of the requesting user, issues an authentication request to a SAML "identity provider" through the user agent. The resulting protocol flow is depicted in the following diagram.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: In SAML 1.1, the flow begins with a request to the identity provider's inter-site transfer service at step 3.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: In the example flow above, all depicted exchanges are "front-channel exchanges", that is, an HTTP user agent (browser) communicates with a SAML entity at each step. In particular, there are no "back-channel exchanges" or direct communications between the service provider and the identity provider. Front-channel exchanges lead to simple protocol flows where all messages are passed "by value" using a simple HTTP binding (GET or POST). Indeed, the flow outlined in the previous section is sometimes called the "Lightweight Web Browser SSO Profile".


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: Alternatively, for increased security or privacy, messages may be passed "by reference". For example, an identity provider may supply a reference to a SAML assertion (called an "artifact") instead of transmitting the assertion directly through the user agent. Subsequently, the service provider requests the actual assertion via a back channel. Such a back-channel exchange is specified as a SOAP message exchange (SAML over SOAP over HTTP). In general, any SAML exchange over a secure back channel is conducted as a SOAP message exchange.


title: Security Assertion Markup Language

text: On the back channel, SAML specifies the use of SOAP 1.1. The use of SOAP as a binding mechanism is optional, however. Any given SAML deployment will choose whatever bindings are appropriate.


title: Paula Kelly (actress)

text: Paula Alma Kelly (October 21, 1942 – February 8, 2020) was an American actress, singer, dancer and choreographer in films, television and theatre. Kelly's career began during the mid–1960s in theatre, making her Broadway debut as Mrs. Veloz in the 1964 musical "Something More!", alongside Barbara Cook. Kelly's other Broadway credits include "The Dozens" (1969), "Paul Sills' Story Theatre" (1971), "Ovid's Metamorphoses" (1971), and "Sophisticated Ladies" (1981), based on the music of Duke Ellington, appearing with Gregory Hines and Phyllis Hyman.


title: Paula Kelly (actress)

text: Born in Jacksonville, Florida, Kelly was one of three daughters born to Ruth and Lehman Kelly, a jazz musician. By age six, Kelly's family had relocated to Harlem neighborhood of New York City. For high school, Kelly attended the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art, majoring in music. Kelly continued her studies at the Juilliard School of Music, where she majored in dance under Martha Hill. Graduating in 1964 with an M.S. degree, Kelly performed as a soloist with major modern dance companies such as Martha Graham, Donald McKayle, and Alvin Ailey.


title: Paula Kelly (actress)

text: Kelly performed as guest artist and sometimes assistant choreographer for numerous television musical specials, including "Sammy and Friends" (starring Sammy Davis, Jr.); co-choreographer of the BBC production of "Peter Pan", in which she also performed the role of Tiger-Lily; Quincy Jones' TV tribute to Duke Ellington, "We Love You Madly"; "The Richard Pryor Show"; and Gene Kelly's "New York, New York", in which the two Kellys performed a duet.


title: Paula Kelly (actress)

text: Kelly performed a dance solo at the 41st Academy Awards for the nominated title song from "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" (1968). She appeared on the London stage in "Sweet Charity" with dancer and actress Juliet Prowse, for which Kelly won the London Variety Award for Best Supporting Actress. She starred in the record-breaking west coast premiere of "Don't Bother Me, I Can't Cope" at the Mark Taper Forum, for which she was awarded the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award, Variety, and the first of three NAACP Image Awards.


title: Paula Kelly (actress)

text: Kelly's film credits include the Bob Fosse-directed film "Sweet Charity"; "Soylent Green"; "The Spook Who Sat by the Door"; "The Andromeda Strain"; "Uptown Saturday Night"; "Lost in the Stars", "Jo Jo Dancer, Your Life Is Calling"; "Drop Squad"; and "Once Upon a Time...When We Were Colored".


title: Paula Kelly (actress)

text: Kelly had a regular role as Liz Williams on the first season of the sitcom "Night Court", for which she received an Emmy Award nomination. Kelly also guest-starred in a variety of television movies and sitcoms, including "Sanford and Son", "Kojak", "Police Woman", "Golden Girls", "Good Times", "Any Day Now" and in the Oprah Winfrey-produced TV mini-series "The Women of Brewster Place" (based on the 1982 novel of the same name by Gloria Naylor), in which she portrayed one half of a lesbian couple (with Lonette McKee) struggling against homophobia in an inner-city ghetto. Kelly was nominated for a second Emmy for her role in "The Women of Brewster Place".


title: Paula Kelly (actress)

text: On September 15, 1985, Kelly married British film director Don Chaffey. They had one child together, a daughter. Kelly remained married to Chaffey until his death in November 1990. Kelly died of heart failure on February 8, 2020, at age 77. Upon her death, she was cremated and her ashes returned to her daughter.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Football Bowl Subdivision independent schools are four-year institutions whose football programs are not part of an NCAA-affiliated conference. This means that FBS independents are not required to schedule each other for competition like conference schools do.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: There are fewer independent schools than in years past; many independent schools join, or attempt to join, established conferences. The main reasons to join a conference are to gain a share of television revenue and access to bowl games that agree to take teams from certain conferences, and to help deal with otherwise potentially difficult challenges in scheduling opponents to play throughout the season.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: All Division I FBS independents are eligible for the College Football Playoff (CFP), or for the so-called "access bowls" (the New Year's Six bowls that issue at-large bids: Cotton, Peach, and Fiesta), if they are chosen by the CFP selection committee. Army and BYU have an agreement with the Independence Bowl. Notre Dame has a potential tie-in with the Orange Bowl, along with other bowls via its affiliation with the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC). Historically, Notre Dame had similar agreements with its previous conference, the Big East, and BYU had an agreement with the Armed Forces Bowl for 2011.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: The ranks of football independents increased by one starting with the 2011 season with the announcement that BYU would leave the Mountain West Conference (MW) to become a football independent starting with that season. The ranks increased by two in 2013 when the Western Athletic Conference (WAC) dropped football and New Mexico State and Idaho did not have a conference for football. The ranks of football independents decreased by two in 2014 with the return of Idaho and New Mexico State as football-only members of the Sun Belt Conference (SBC) and decreased by one more in 2015 with Navy joining the American Athletic Conference (AAC) as a football-only member. UMass became an FBS independent in 2016. Two further teams joined the ranks of FBS independents for the 2018 season: New Mexico State, whose membership in the Sun Belt Conference was not extended beyond the 2017 season, and Liberty, which transitioned from the Big South Conference of the Football Championship Subdivision in 2018. The UConn Huskies became an FBS independent team.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: The next confirmed change to the independent ranks will come in 2023 when BYU joins the Big 12 Conference, and Liberty and New Mexico State join Conference USA.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: In recent years, most independent FBS schools have joined a conference for two primary reasons: a guaranteed share of television and bowl revenues, and ease of scheduling. Two of the seven remaining independent FBS schools in particular (Army and BYU) have unique circumstances that allow for freedom from conference affiliation.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: One of the remaining independent programs is the service academy Army. Whereas television and bowl appearances are important sources of revenue and advertising for most other universities and their football games, the United States federal government fully funds essential scholastic operations of the service academies (athletics are funded by non-profit associations), effectively rendering such income superfluous.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: Army has annual games guaranteed with Navy and with Air Force. It also has a historic rivalry with Notre Dame; the rivalry game is semi-regular, though no new editions to this rivalry are currently scheduled. Television rights for the longstanding Army–Navy Game, which is traditionally the final regular season game in the NCAA, serve as a significant revenue source for the program. The academy also uses its football program to recruit future cadets, regardless of whether they ever play a varsity sport; without a conference schedule, the service academy is able to more easily schedule games around the country.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: Navy was formerly an independent program, but joined the American Athletic Conference (AAC) for college football in 2015, citing that it wanted to maintain competitiveness, had concerns about scheduling and wanted to take advantage of the opportunity to make more money. Navy's arrival in The American also brought the league's football membership to 12 schools, allowing it to play a conference championship game under the rules in effect at the time. Army and Navy are members of the Patriot League for the bulk of their other sports, most notably men's and women's basketball.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: During the conference realignment that saw the university choose football independence in August 2010, some saw BYU as a potential future "Notre Dame of the West". Both are prominent faith-based schools; Notre Dame is arguably the best-known Catholic university in the U.S., while BYU is the flagship university of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. The 1984 team's national championship is the most recent by a university playing in a "non-power conference", which has become harder to do with the current College Football Playoff coalition.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: BYU was earning less than $2 million a year through its contract with The MTN, the now-defunct TV network of the Mountain West Conference. BYU has its own network, but had a very restrictive contract which did not allow BYU to broadcast their own football games. The new contract with ESPN will pay BYU an estimated $800,000 to $1.2 million per home game, and allow for greater freedom with its own channel. The Cougars are members of the non-football West Coast Conference for other sports. BYU is scheduled to join and start playing in the Big 12 Conference during the 2023-2024 season.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: Liberty University founder Jerry Falwell long sought to turn the University into an evangelical equivalent to Notre Dame, dating back to the school's founding in 1971. Included in that was a Division I athletic program and an FBS football team. After a long tenure in the Big South Conference of the FCS, the university sought football affiliation with either Conference USA or the Sun Belt Conference. When both conferences decided against further expansion and elected not to invite Liberty, the Lynchburg, Virginia-based school sought an NCAA waiver to move up to FBS as an independent. That waiver was approved in 2017 with the Flames eventually moving to NCAA Division I FBS as an independent in 2018. The Flames unusually played two regular-season games (a home-and-home series) against fellow independent New Mexico State in their inaugural FBS season, and did so again in 2019. Liberty has accepted an invitation to join Conference USA and will be a full member for the 2023-2024 season.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: The Western Athletic Conference (WAC) dropped football after the 2012 season, so New Mexico State and


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: Idaho played as FBS independents in 2013. Both schools joined the Sun Belt Conference for football from 2014 to 2017. In the spring of 2016, the Sun Belt Conference decided to live up to its name by including only schools from the "sun belt" in its lineup beginning in 2018. Idaho opted to drop to the FCS level, joining the Big Sky Conference, and New Mexico State decided to become an FBS independent again. In their last year as a Sun Belt member, New Mexico State became bowl eligible for the first time in 57 years since their victory in the 1960 Sun Bowl, winning the 2017 Arizona Bowl in dramatic fashion with an overtime touchdown run by Larry Rose III.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: As noted above, New Mexico State unusually scheduled two regular-season games during a single season against fellow FBS independent Liberty in both 2018 and 2019 and will do so again in 2021 against Hawaii.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: New Mexico State has accepted an invitation to join Conference USA and will be a full member for the 2023-2024 season.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: Notre Dame unsuccessfully attempted on three occasions to join an athletic conference in the early 20th century, including the Big Ten in 1926, but was turned down, reportedly due to anti-Catholicism. Notre Dame is now one of the most prominent programs in the country. Because of its national popularity built over several decades, Notre Dame was the only independent program to be part of the Bowl Championship Series coalition and its guaranteed payout. These factors help make Notre Dame one of the most financially valuable football programs in the country, thus negating the need for Notre Dame to secure revenue by joining a conference.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: Previously, Notre Dame had filled its annual schedule without needing conference games to do so. It had longstanding rivalries with many different programs around the country, many under long-term contracts, including annual rivalry games with USC, Navy, Michigan, Stanford, Michigan State, Boston College, Purdue, and Pitt. All Notre Dame home games and most away games are on national television, so other teams have a large financial incentive to schedule the university. Nonetheless, Notre Dame joined the ACC in 2013 for all sports except football and men's ice hockey (the only other ACC member with a men's or women's ice hockey varsity team is Boston College, which played alongside Notre Dame in Hockey East until 2017, when Notre Dame switched to the Big Ten). As part of this agreement, Notre Dame plays five of its football games each season against ACC members. This arrangement required Notre Dame to eliminate or reduce the frequency of several rivalries: the Michigan, Michigan State, and Purdue series were canceled, while Boston College and Pitt, ACC members themselves, now play Notre Dame every three or four years. On the other hand, the move has allowed Notre Dame to resume old rivalries with ACC members Georgia Tech and Miami, while still scheduling Big Ten opponents from time to time.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: In 2020, after several non-ACC games were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Notre Dame opted to play a full ACC football schedule for just the 2020 season. The Irish were eligible for the conference championship game (which they lost to Clemson) and the conference's automatic bowl bids. Notre Dame's football program returned to independence in 2021, with its schedule including the usual five games against ACC schools.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: The University of Connecticut was a founding member of the original Big East Conference in 1979, but that conference split along football lines in 2013. As noted previously, Notre Dame remained an FBS independent but placed its other sports in the ACC, and Pittsburgh and Syracuse followed Notre Dame into the ACC, also joining ACC football. The seven members without FBS football teams left to form a new non-football Big East Conference, while the remaining FBS schools (among them UConn) joined with several new members to reorganize the Big East corporate entity as the American Athletic Conference (which would lose Louisville to the ACC and Rutgers to the Big Ten a year later).


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: In the years after the split, UConn's flagship men's and women's basketball programs faced significant issues. Jim Calhoun, the coach who had largely built the UConn men into a national powerhouse, had retired after the 2011–12 season. While his successor Kevin Ollie had led the Huskies to a national title in the first season after the split, the team faded noticeably in later seasons, and Ollie was fired after the 2017–18 season amid an NCAA investigation. Ollie's final season saw UConn men's attendance reach its lowest level in 30 years. The women had a somewhat different issue, namely a severe lack of competition in The American. In their seven seasons in that league, the Huskies went unbeaten in conference play, both in the regular season and the conference tournament, with all but two of their 139 conference wins being by double-digit margins.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: The Huskies received and accepted an invitation to join the reconfigured Big East in 2019, with a July 2020 entry date. Due to the Big East not sponsoring football, UConn was willing to stay in The American as a football-only member. After leaving the conference in all other sports, the American Athletic Conference was unwilling to allow UConn to remain as a football-only member, leading to UConn's independence in football beginning in 2020. Ironically, the football program's poor record in recent seasons may make it easier to find FBS opponents to fill out the schedule.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: UConn opted not to field a team in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting disruption to college football schedules. Specifically, as many other programs moved to conference-only schedules due to the pandemic, several of UConn's scheduled matches were canceled, and the program's status as an independent made it very difficult to schedule replacement games.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: The University of Massachusetts Amherst football program played in the Football Championship Subdivision of NCAA Division I before 2011, including a national championship season in 1998. The Minutemen began a two-year Football Bowl Subdivision transition period in 2011, with the support of the Mid-American Conference playing in their conference as a football-only member. In March 2014, the MAC and UMass announced an agreement for the Minutemen to leave the conference after the 2015 season due to declining an offer to become a full member of the conference. In the agreement between the MAC and the university, there was a contractual clause that had UMass playing in the MAC as a football-only member for two more seasons if UMass declined a full membership offer. Massachusetts announced that it would look for a "more suitable conference" for the team. In September 2014, Massachusetts announced that they will be leaving the MAC and would compete as an independent beginning with the 2016 season.


title: NCAA Division I FBS independent schools

text: The following is a complete list of teams which have been Division I-A (FBS) Independents since the formation of Division I-A in 1978. School names reflect those in current use by their athletic programs, which may not reflect names used when those schools were independents.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: Ankit Tiwari is an Indian playback singer, live perfomer ,music director, composer. His career began upon meeting Pradeep Sarkar where he got a chance to work on jingles and started composing background music for television programmes. Subsequently, he was offered to compose music for "Do Dooni Chaar" (2010) and "Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster" (2011), where he started his singing career with the song he composed for the later.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: In 2014, he collaborated with Mohit Suri for "Ek Villain", where he composed and sang the song "Galliyan" for which he received two nominations in Filmfare Awards, winning Best Male Playback Singer, which is the only Filmfare Award won by someone other than Arijit Singh from 2014 to 2020. He also recorded the song "O Yara" for the Pakistani film, "Bin Roye".


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: Tiwari was born in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. His parents own a music troupe in Kanpur called "Raju Suman and Party" which performs at religious convocations. His mother is a devotional singer. Though his parents wanted him to complete his studies first, his inclination towards music led them to decide on training him professionally. He trained in classical music from Vinod Kumar Dwivedi before training in piano, Dhrupad and Western vocals. He instituted at and won several local music competitions during the time. He used to work as a production head at a radio station in Gwalior, before he moved to Mumbai in December 2007 along with his brother Ankur Tiwari.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: In Mumbai, Tiwari met Pradeep Sarkar who was working on a film at that time. Though the film got shelved, Sarkar gave him, along with other musicians, a chance to work on jingles. It was then he composed a couple of background scores for the television programmes. Tiwari met Habib Faisal, who offered him to compose the music for his directorial debut film "Do Dooni Chaar" which was then released in 2010. Later for producer Tigmanshu Dhulia he composed the theme song of "Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster" (2011). With this film, Ankit Tiwari made his singing debut where he rendered the song "Saheb Bada Hathila" along with Vipin Aneja.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: In 2012, Ankit Tiwari narrated the song "Sunn Raha Hai" to Mahesh Bhatt and Mohit Suri, the director of the film "Aashiqui 2". The song was also recorded in his voice and the female-version was rendered by Shreya Ghoshal. Apart from receiving critical acclaim, the song fetched Tiwari with multiple awards and nominations. He shared his first Filmfare Award as the Best Music Director along with Mithoon and Jeet Gannguli. The team received the Best Music Director Award from other ceremonies including IIFA Awards and Zee Cine Awards. Apart from music direction, Tiwari received his second nomination in Filmfare Awards as the Best Male Playback Singer. As his second release of the year, Tiwari collaborated with Sachin Gupta—marking his first song to the tunes of another composer—for the song "Aag Ka Dariya" from "Issaq".


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: 2014 began with the film "Dee Saturday Night", where two of his songs, "Falsafa Mera Falsafa" and "Jhatak Ke Nacho" went mostly unnoticed with the music listeners. He then performed the track "Kaisa Hai Dard Mera" which was composed by Ismail Darbar for Subhash Ghai's "". Ankit Tiwari composed two tracks for the film "Samrat & Co.", titled "Sawaalon Mein" and a party song "Tequila Wakila" where both are rendered by Shreya Ghoshal. During the year, he performed three tracks for two of Himesh Reshammiya's films, "The Xposé" and "Action Jackson". His rendition for the song "Sheeshe Ka Samundar" from the former received critical acclaim, while "Punjabi Mast" and "Dhoom Dhaam" from the latter received negative response from critics. In July 2014, a duet with Tulsi Kumar titled "Kuch Toh Hua Hai" was released included in the film "Singham Returns". The year ended with "Dil Darbadar" from "PK". Apart from all the songs released during the year, the most successful track was "Galliyan" from "Ek Villain". The song was a critical and commercial success; Mohar Basu from "Koimoi" described the song as "the most attractive song of the album" stating "Tiwari's music and voice adds the required finesse in this song and what he has made darn great!". The song fetched him several awards for the Best Male Playback Singer including from Filmfare, Star Guild and Stardust Awards. Subsequently, he received his fourth nomination in Filmfare as the Best Music Director Award at 60th Britannia Filmfare Awards. In the year, Ankit Tiwari made his debut in a Kannada film with the song "Nillu Nillu" from "Dil Rangeela" composed by Arjun Janya.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: Tiwari composed and sung the song "Katra Katra" along with Prakriti Kakar for the film "Alone" (2015). They again collaborated for the song "Bheegh Loon" from "Khamoshiyan". He then composed three tracks for the film "Roy", "Tu Hai Ki Nahi", "Yaara Re" which is rendered by KK and "Boond Boond" performed by Tiwari himself. The unplugged version of "Tu Hai Ki Nahi" was performed by Tulsi Kumar, along with the original received mixed reactions from critics though infusion of the whistle's tune was appreciated.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: Tiwari stated that he wants to explore different genres given the right opportunity, though it shouldn't be vulgar and should hold meaning. Satyajit from "Glamsham" called his second composed song "Saheb Bada Hatila" from Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster a "rock-musical" arrangement. In his next composition "Sunn Raha Hai", the male version features electronic distortion guitar, zitar and drums while the female version is supported by instruments like ghatam, flute, santoor and acoustic guitar. The variance in composition was particularly applauded by critics.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: In 2014, Tiwari composed "Tequila Wakila" which lies in Spanish style musical background settings of bass, drums, saxophone, trumpets and guitar while "Sawalon Mein" from the same film has a mysterious type semi-philosophical composition which is decorated with haunting piano notes and bell sounds in the background. Rajiv Vijayakar from "Bollywood Hungama" mentioned that Tiwari seems to be "evolving into a composer with a decent range". In the composition of the song "Galliyan" it transforms from "being slow-paced, to quickly accelerating into heavy rock music and then settling into soothing traditional Indian-themed sounds", while the unplugged version dominantly uses the acoustic guitar alongside piano. However, for his next song "Kuch Toh Hua Hai", Surabhi Redkar for "Koimoi" commented; "Experimentation wise, the song shows no novelty as the musical arrangements are not peculiarly impressive". According to reviewers, his last song released in 2014, "Dil Darbadar" has a huge "Galliyan" hangover and "doesn't actually fit into the scheme of things". In September 2014, Tiwari said; "People usually call me for love songs or songs of separation, which I love composing. But I don't want to restrict myself to a particular genre".


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: "Katra Katra" from 2015 had a similar faith with "Dil Darbadar" as the musical arrangements of both the song are similar to his earlier ventures. Redkar noted; "If only Tiwari could come up with something new [...] the only problem is that it all sounds the same". His next was a passionate and intense composition, "Bheegh Loon" which fits with the erotic thriller mood of the film. In "Tu Hai Ki Nahin" from "Roy" Tiwari used minimal musical arrangements mainly focusing on vocals and incorporate a whistle—first time he has used whistle as an instrument—which according to music listeners "sounds brilliant and has high recall value", while the next two tracks "Boond Boond" and "Yaara Re" were called "experimental" in terms of arrangement.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: Tiwari named the singers like KK, Puerto Rican and Ricky Martin as his idols. He picked Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan as one of his inspiration and dedicated a song to him from one of his composition at "MTV Unplugged 4 – Episode 06". Among the actors, Tiwari expressed his desire to dub for Shah Rukh Khan and Ranbir Kapoor.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: Popular singer Rahat Fateh Ali Khan mentioned that he likes Tiwari's singing along with Arijit Singh's.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: Tiwari's early two releases "Sunn Raha Hai" and "Aag Ka Dariya" represent his "young energetic and strong vocals" which was well received by the critics. "Kaisa Hai Dard Mera", despite with the similar pattern has a semi classical touch in his rendition. His one of the most successful venture "Galliyan" provided Tiwari with a high vocal range which was particularly appraised in the song though "Bollywood Hungama" wrote that he sings the track in a "gimmicky tenor that sounds fake". His voice and rendition was criticised in "Dil Darbadar" where "IBNLive" wrote; "Tiwari's choice to distort vocals using the Auto-tune software takes away the charm and rawness of a plaintive melody like "Dil Darbadar".


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: On 9 May 2014, Tiwari was arrested for allegedly raping his girlfriend, while his brother was arrested for making threats to her life. However, the complainant failed to support the prosecution version during the trial due to lack of evidence against him and his brother. In April 2017, both Tiwari and his brother were acquitted from all charges by the Mumbai Sessions Court.


title: Ankit Tiwari

text: Tiwari married Pallavi Shukla as per Hindu rituals in Kanpur on 23 February 2018. Tiwari and Pallavi had an arranged marriage as both first met on the recommendation of Ankit's grandmother. They had a baby girl on 28 December 2018.


title: Orenburg

text: Orenburg (, ), formerly known as Chkalov (1938–1957), is the administrative center of Orenburg Oblast, Russia. It lies on the Ural River, southeast of Moscow. Orenburg is also very close to the border with Kazakhstan. Population:


title: Orenburg

text: Several historians have tried to explain the origins of the city's name. It was traditionally accepted that the word "orenburg" means a fortress on the River Or. In all probability, the word combination "orenburg" was proposed by , the founder of the city. In 1734, in accordance with his project, a package of governmental documents was worked out. This was the starting point for Orenburg as a fortress city near the meeting of the Or and Ural rivers.


title: Orenburg

text: On 7 June 1734, "A Privilege for Orenburg" (tsar's edict) was ordered by Empress Anna Ioannovna. While the construction site of the main fortress changed many times (down the River Ural), the name "Orenburg" has not changed since its founding in 1743. Between 1938 and 1957, the city was referred to as Chkalov, named after the famous Soviet pilot Valery Chkalov, although he was not born in and never lived in Orenburg, and never visited Orenburg. In 1954, Chkalov's five-meter bronze sculpture was erected on the occasion of his 50th birth anniversary; this was installed on a seven-meter pedestal on the Boulevard (the riverside promenade of the city, commonly named "Belovka").


title: Orenburg

text: In 1734, the Russian Empire began expanding its control and influence in Asia starting from the construction of the fortress city called "Orenburg" on its eastern border (in Southern Ural). For this purpose, a settlement was founded here in 1735—at the place where the Or and the Ural rivers join. The initial site was chosen for settlement during the expedition of I.K. Kirilov, who initiated developmental activities in the region. He argued that the city was necessary "...for opening up transit routes to Bukhara, Badakhshan, Bulk, and to India", making it possible to receive "wealth from there—gold, lapis lazuli, and garnet." After his death, a new administrator of the Orenburg expedition, Vasily Tatishchev, was appointed. He did not consider this place to be convenient for construction of the city, because it was constantly flooded by the spring high waters. This encouraged to launch in 1739 preparations for building a new town with the old name downstream the river Ural (Yaik) on the mountain Krasnaya (Red). The old settlement was named the Orsk fortress (now the city of Orsk).


title: Orenburg

text: On 6 August 1741, the new town was founded. However, its construction did not start. The location on the Krasnaya mountain—treeless, rocky and remote from the river—was also inappropriate for building the town. A new administrator of the Orenburg expedition, Ivan Neplyuyev, was appointed. On 19 (30) April 1743, Orenburg was founded for a third time, on the compound that was once the Berda fortress, from the Krasnogorsk mountain area. In the summer of 1742, Neplyuev personally chose a new place surrounded by forests and crop fields, where the Yaik and the Sakmara rivers meet. Now it is the historical centre of the city. The city built upon the mountain Krasnaya was named Krasnogorsk. Orenburg, therefore, was successfully established by Ivan Neplyuyev at its present location approximately west down the Ural from Orsk, in 1743. This third Orenburg functioned as an important military outpost on the border with the nomadic Kazakhs. It became the centre of the Orenburg Cossacks.


title: Orenburg

text: Orenburg played a major role in Pugachev's Rebellion (1773–1774), the largest peasant revolt in Russian history. At the time, it was the capital of a vast district and the seat of the governor. Yemelyan Pugachev besieged the city and its fortress from nearby Berda from October 1773 to March 26, 1774. The defense was organized by Governor of Orenburg lieutenant-general .


title: Orenburg

text: General defeated Pugachev at Berda, and later again at (north of Orenburg). Most of the city was left in ruins, and thousands of inhabitants had died in the siege. Government forces crushed revolt towards the end of 1774 by General Michelsohn at Tsaritsyn. Further reprisals against rebel areas were carried out by General Peter Panin.


title: Orenburg

text: Alexander Pushkin visited Orenburg in 1833 during a research trip for his books "The History of Pugachev" and his famous novel "The Captain's Daughter". He met his friend Vladimir Dal here, who would later write the first serious dictionary of the Russian language.


title: Orenburg

text: Orenburg was the base for General Perovsky's expeditions against the Khanate of Khiva in the 1830s through 1850s. After the incorporation of Central Asia into the Russian Empire, Orenburg became a trading station and, since the completion of the Trans-Aral Railway, a prominent railway junction en route to the new Central Asian possessions and to Siberia.


title: Orenburg

text: Orenburg functioned as the capital of the Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (in present-day Kazakhstan) within Russia from 1920–1925. When that republic was renamed Kazak Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1925, Orenburg joined Russia and Kyzylorda became the new capital. Almaty became the capital in 1929 after the construction of the Turkestan–Siberia Railway. Kazak Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was promoted to union republic status as the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic Kazakh SSR in 1936. Orenburg remained in Russia. From 1938 to 1957, the city bore the name Chkalov () (after the prominent test pilot Valery Chkalov). The city's distance from the German invasion during World War II led many Soviet enterprises to flee there, helping to spur the city's economic growth.


title: Orenburg

text: Orenburg is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative centre of Orenburgsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is, together with ten rural localities, incorporated separately as the City of Orenburg—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Orenburg is incorporated as Orenburg Urban Okrug.


title: Orenburg

text: The city is in the basin of the middle branch of the River Ural, near its confluence with the River Sakmara. The highest point of the city is .


title: Orenburg

text: Orenburg is home to several large companies or their subsidiaries: "Orenburggazprom", the subsidiary of Gazprom; "Orenburgneft", the subsidiary of TNK-BP oil company; "Orenburgenergy", one of the biggest energy generating companies in Russia.


title: Orenburg

text: Orenburg has been a major railway centre ever since the Samara-Zlatoust and Orenburg-Tashkent railroads were completed, respectively in 1876 and 1905. Orenburg's main airport is the Orenburg Tsentralny Airport, located about east of the city, on the Orsk destination, and used to be the headquarters of now defunct Orenair. City public transport includes bus, trolleybus and also "marshrutkas" (fixed-route cabs).


title: Orenburg

text: Orenburg has a relatively dry humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfa") with quite long and hot summers and long and cold winters. April and October are transition months, with the rest of the months being either summer or winter.


title: Orenburg

text: Mountain and river tourism are developed in the region. There are a number of fast mountain rivers and rocks in pleated spurs of the southern edge of the Urals range, popular with tourists.


title: Orenburg

text: The city is known for its location between Europe and Asia. The Ural River marks the border of Asia and Europe, and there is a bridge which connects the two sides.


title: Orenburg

text: The city is famous for its down Orenburg shawls. The thinnest lacy design, knitted by hand shawls and cobweb-like kerchiefs (pautinkas), is not only warm, but also is used for decorative purposes.


title: Orenburg

text: A famous boulevard on the embankment of the Ural River is one of the most notable places in Orenburg. Orenburg TV Tower is a guyed mast of unusual design. It is a tall mast equipped with six crossbars running from the mast structure to the guys.


title: Julian Richings

text: Julian Richings (born 30 August 1956) is a British-Canadian character actor. He has appeared in over 225 films and television series.


title: Julian Richings

text: After touring the United States with a British stage production, Richings moved to Toronto, Ontario, Canada in 1984. Within five years, he had become a regular on the second season of the "War of the Worlds" TV series. In the 1996 film "Hard Core Logo", he played the bitter, aging, punk rock legend Bucky Haight. He appeared in the iconic opening of the 1997 film "Cube". In 1999, he appeared in the science fiction film "Thrill Seekers".


title: Julian Richings

text: In 2000, he appeared as Bellanger in "The Claim", and earned a Genie Award nomination for best supporting actor. He was a member of the repertory cast of the A&E TV original series "A Nero Wolfe Mystery" (2001–02). He played the role of Death in The CW's show "Supernatural," beginning in its fifth season, and appearing again in sixth, seventh, ninth, and tenth seasons. He was also Death in the short film "Dave v. Death" (2011).


title: Julian Richings

text: Richings performed in heavy makeup as Three Finger in "Wrong Turn" (2003), and nearly-blind security guard Otto in Stephen King's 2004 miniseries "Kingdom Hospital". Dramatic roles include stagehand Mr. Turnbull in the 2004 film "Being Julia". He appeared as Orr, a cruel loan shark in the 2004 Canadian film "The Last Casino". In 2006, he appeared in a brief speaking role as the Mutant Theatre Organiser in "", and played a vampire killer alongside in the direct-to-DVD horror film "The Last Sect".


title: Julian Richings

text: In 2007, Richings played a driver in the film "Shoot 'Em Up", a dissipated and aging punk rocker in "The Third Eye", transvestite psychologist Dr. Heker in "The Tracey Fragments", and a number of small roles in other films, including "Skinwalkers" and "Saw IV". He appeared in the 2008 film "The Timekeeper". Richings continues to be active in short films and television series, mostly in Canada. He was presented with two Dora Awards in the late 1980s, and continues to perform professionally in the Toronto area with a number of theatre groups.


title: Julian Richings

text: In 2008, Richings was nominated for another Dora Award for his performance in "The Palace of the End". He said that he had a part in the 2013 Superman film "Man of Steel". When told about a campaign to see him become the next Doctor in "Doctor Who", one of his favorite childhood TV shows, he said he was flattered by the idea. In 2014, he starred in the science fiction film "Ejecta". In 2015, he appeared in the horror film "The Witch" and the drama film "Reign".


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The Battle of Goose Green was fought in May 28–29, 1982, by British and Argentine forces during the Falklands War. Located on East Falkland's central isthmus, the settlement of Goose Green was the site of an airfield. Argentine forces were in a well-defended position, within striking distance of San Carlos Water, where the British task force had made its amphibious landing.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The main body of the British assault force was composed of the 2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment (2 Para), commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Herbert Jones. BBC Radio broadcast news of the imminent attack on Goose Green. Knowing that this had likely forewarned the Argentinian defenders, the broadcast resulted in immediate criticism from Jones and other British personnel.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: After the attack began in the early hours of 28 May, the 2 Para advance was stalled by fixed trenches with interlocking fields of fire. Jones was killed during a solo charge on an enemy machine-gun post. The Argentinian garrison agreed to a ceasefire, and formally surrendered the following morning. As a result of their actions, both Jones and his successor as commanding officer of the battalion, Major Chris Keeble, were awarded medals: Jones received a posthumous Victoria Cross, and Keeble received the Distinguished Service Order.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: Goose Green and Darwin are on a narrow isthmus connecting Lafonia, to the south, with Wickham Heights in the north. The isthmus has two settlements: Darwin to the north, and Goose Green to the south. The terrain is rolling and treeless, and is covered with grassy outcrops, as well as areas of thick gorse and peat bogs, making camouflage and concealment extremely difficult. The islands have a cold, damp climate. From May to August (which is winter in the southern hemisphere), the ground is saturated and frequently covered with salty water, making walking slow and exhausting, particularly at night. Drizzly rains occur two out of every three days, with continuous winds, and with periods of rain, snow, fog, and sun changing rapidly. Sunshine is minimal, leaving few opportunities for troops to warm up and dry off.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The bulk of the Argentine forces on the islands were in positions around Port Stanley, to the east of the isthmus and San Carlos, the site of the main British landings. An Argentinian force had been deployed to Goose Green and Darwin and they were supported by artillery, mortars, 35 mm cannons, and machine guns. British intelligence incorrectly indicated that the Argentine force presented possessed limited offensive capabilities and did not pose a major threat to the landing area at San Carlos. Consequently, the Goose Green garrison seemed to have no strategic military value for the British in their campaign to recapture the islands and the initial plans for land operations had called for Goose Green to be isolated and bypassed.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: After the British landings at San Carlos on 21 May and while the bridgehead was being consolidated, British activities were limited to digging fortified positions, patrolling, and waiting; during this time Argentine air attacks caused significant damage to, and the loss of, British ships in the area around the landing grounds. These attacks and the lack of breakout by the landed forces out of the San Carlos area led to a feeling among senior commanders and politicians in the UK that the momentum of the campaign was waning. As a result, British Joint Headquarters in the UK came under increasing pressure from the British government for an early ground offensive for political and propaganda value. There was also UN pressure for a cease-fire and the UK government position was that the taking of the Darwin–Goose Green isthmus was imperative before any such cease-fire decision as it would allow British forces to control access to the entire Lafonia and thus a significant portion of East Falkland. On 25 May Brigadier Julian Thompson, ground forces commander, commanding 3 Commando Brigade, was ordered to mount an attack on Argentine positions around Goose Green and Darwin.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The defending Argentine forces, known as Task Force Mercedes, consisted of two companies of Lieutenant-Colonel Ítalo Piaggi's 12th Infantry Regiment (12IR); his third company (Company B) was still deployed on Mount Kent as "Combat Team Solari" and only re-joined 12IR after the fall of Goose Green airfield. The task force also contained a company of the Ranger-type 25th Infantry Regiment (25th "Special" Infantry Regiment or 25IR). Air defence was provided by a battery of six 20 mm Rheinmetall anti-aircraft guns, manned by air force personnel and two radar-guided Oerlikon 35 mm anti-aircraft guns from the 601st Anti-Aircraft Battalion. Both the 20mm and 35mm anti-aircraft cannon could also be used in a direct fire ground support role, and this was the case in the last stages of the fighting. There was also one battery of three OTO Melara Mod 56 105 mm pack howitzers from the 4th Airborne Artillery Regiment. Pucará aircraft, based at Stanley and armed with rockets and napalm could provide close air support. The total forces under Piaggi's command numbered 1,083 men.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: Piaggi's role was to provide a reserve battle group (Task Force Mercedes) in support of other forces deployed to the west of Stanley and secondly to occupy and defend the Darwin isthmus as well as the Military Air Base Condor at Goose Green. He deployed the two companies in an all-round defence with A Company, 12IR the key to his defence; they were deployed along a gorse hedge running across the Darwin isthmus from Darwin Hill to Boca House. He deployed his recce platoon (under Lieutenant Carlos Marcelo Morales) as an advance screen forward of 12IR's A Company, towards Coronation Ridge, while 12IR's C Company were deployed south of Goose Green to cover the approaches from Lafonia. To substitute for the absent B Company, he created a composite company from headquarters and other staff and deployed them in Goose Green hamlet. 25IR's C (Ranger) Company (under Paratroop-trained First Lieutenant Carlos Daniel Esteban) provided a mobile reserve, from the schoolhouse in Goose Green. Elements were also deployed to Darwin settlement, Salinas Beach, and Boca House and the air force security cadets, together with the anti-aircraft elements, were charged with protecting the airfield. Minefields had been laid in areas deemed tactically important, to provide further defence against attack.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: On paper Piaggi had a full regiment, but it consisted of units from three separate regiments from two different brigades, none of whom had ever worked together. 12IR consisted mostly of conscripts from the northern, sub-tropical province of Corrientes, while the 25IR Company was considered an elite formation and had received commando training. Some elements were well trained and displayed a high degree of morale and motivation (C Company 25IR and A Battery 4th Airborne Artillery Group); with Lieutenant Ignacio Gorriti of B Company 12IR remarking that "there was no need for speeches. From the beginning, we knew how important the Malvinas were. It was a kind of love; we were going to defend something that was ours." Other units were less well-motivated, with the 12th Regiment chaplain, Santiago Mora, writing:


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The conscripts of 25th Infantry wanted to fight and cover themselves in glory. The conscripts of the 12th Infantry Regiment fought because they were told to do so. This did not make them any less brave. On the whole, they remained admirably calm.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: Private Esteban Roberto Avalos fought in the Falklands as a sniper in 12IR's B Company. In all, some fifty hand-picked 12th Regiment conscripts and NCOs had received Ranger-type training from visiting "Halcón 8" (Falcon 8) army commandos in 1981, and then returned to their respective companies:


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: In my particular case, I ended up being a sharpshooter for which I had been preparing since the time we were out in the field, where I had the opportunity to shoot with a FAL. During the 45 days we spent there, we had to practice shooting three or four times a week, and those moments were taken advantage of to learn the shooting positions and familiarize ourselves with the weapon. The dealings with the superiors, in general, were excellent, although if somebody screwed up, we all paid the price. The most common punishments were taking us to the showers at night, forcing us to do push-ups or demand from us heaps of frog leaps and crawling. If someone took the wrong step, for example, it was reasonable to be pulled out of training, and they would make you 'dance' a little with push-ups on the thistles or the mud. Now, going back to the subject of instruction, I would say that it was generally satisfactory, at least as far as our group was concerned, since we had basic training in the use of explosives and we were even given some classes in self-defence."


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The Argentine positions were well selected, and officers well briefed. In the weeks before the British invasion, airstrikes, naval bombardment, their own poor logistic support and inclement conditions had contributed to the erosion of morale amongst conscripts. However, morale remained strong among the 4th Airborne Artillery Regiment gunners as well the officers, NCOs, and Ranger-trained conscripts of the 12th and 25th Regiments. On 19 May, an Argentine Air Force C-130 Hercules parachuted in eight tons of tinned provisions that significantly boosted the morale of Task Force Mercedes.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: At the start of the battle, the Argentinian forces had about the same number of effective combatants as the British paratroopers.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: Thompson ordered 2nd Battalion of the Parachute Regiment (2 Para) to conduct an attack on Goose Green, as they were the unit closest to the isthmus in the San Carlos defensive perimeter. He ordered Lieutenant-Colonel Herbert 'H' Jones, the commanding officer of 2 Para, to "carry out a raid on Goose Green isthmus and capture the settlements before withdrawing to be in reserve for the main thrust to the north." The "capture" component appealed more to Jones than the "raid" component, although Thompson later acknowledged that he had assigned insufficient forces to rapidly execute the "capture" part of the orders.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: 2 Para consisted of three rifle companies, one patrol company, one support company, and an HQ company. Thompson had assigned three 105 mm artillery pieces, with 960 shells from 29 Commando Regiment, Royal Artillery; one MILAN anti-tank missile platoon; and Scout helicopters as air support. Close air support was available from three Royal Air Force Harriers and naval gunfire support was to be provided by in the hours of darkness.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: An SAS survey had reported that the Darwin–Goose Green area was occupied by one Argentine company. Brigade intelligence reported that enemy forces consisted of three infantry companies (two from 12IR and one from 25IR), one platoon from 8IR, plus a possible amphibious platoon together with artillery and helicopter support. Jones was not too perturbed by the conflicting intelligence reports and, incorrectly, tended to believe the SAS reports on the assumption that they were actually "on the spot" and were able to provide more accurate information than the brigade intelligence staff. Based on this intelligence and the orders from Thompson, Jones planned the operation to be conducted in six phases, as a complicated night-day, silent-noisy attack (see Map 1):


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: As most of the helicopter airlift capability had been lost with the sinking of , 2 Para were required to march the from San Carlos to the forming-up place at Camilla Creek House. C Company and the Commando engineers moved out from the forming-up place at 22:00 on 27 May to clear the route to the start line for the other companies. A firebase (consisting of air and naval fire controllers, mortars, and snipers) was established by Support Company west of Camilla Creek, who were in position by 02:00 on the morning of 28 May. The three guns from 8 Battery, their crew, and ammunition had been flown into Camilla Creek House by 20 Sea King helicopter sorties after last light on the evening of 27 May. The attack was to be initiated by A Company and was scheduled to start at 03:00, but because of delays in registering the support fire from , the attack only commenced at 03:35.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: As part of the diversionary raids to cover the British landings in the San Carlos area on 21 May the British conducted a naval bombardment and launched air attacks on Goose Green. In addition 'D' Squadron of the SAS mounted a major raid to simulate a battalion-sized attack on A Company 12IR, who were dug in on Darwin Ridge. The SAS raid was launched from their assembly point on Mount Usborne,


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The following day, 22 May, four RAF Harriers armed with cluster bombs were launched from to attack the fuel dumps and Pucarás at Condor airfield at Goose Green. The Harriers met intense anti-aircraft fire during their attack.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: On the night of 26–27 May, two rifle platoons from Manresa's A Company mounted a retaliatory raid on the SAS positions on Mount Usborne, but on reaching the summit were surprised to find that the SAS had already vacated the feature. The next day Sub-Lieutenant Ernesto Orlando Peluffo on Darwin Ridge spotted British troops conducting reconnaissance patrols and with his 12IR platoon fired on the patrol with long-range machine-gun fire in the hours before the start of the attack.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: Throughout 27 May, Royal Air Force Harriers were active over Goose Green. One of them, responding to a call for help from Captain Paul Farrar's C (Patrols) Company, was lost to 35mm fire while attacking Darwin Ridge. The preliminary fire, probing patrols and SAS raid, the Harrier attacks, the sighting of the forward British paratroopers, and the BBC announcing that the 2nd Battalion of the Parachute Regiment was poised and ready to assault Darwin and Goose Green the day before the assault alerted the Argentine garrison to the impending attack.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: At 3:35am opened fire, firing a total of 22 star shells and 135 rounds of 4.5" high-explosive shells during a 90-minute bombardment, signalling the start of the attack. The attacking British companies also received support from the gunners of 8 (Alma) Battery, who fired about 1,000 rounds mostly in the night action.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: 2 Para A Company, under command of Maj Farrar-Hockley, were first to advance after the completion of the preparatory fire from HMS "Arrow" (which was off-target and ineffective). They were to take Burntside House as their first objective. They came under fire from Argentinian positions close to the house but managed to reach the objective without any casualties, finding that it was occupied by four Falklanders and that the house itself had never been held by the Argentinean forces. They were instructed to wait at Burntside House, instead of exploiting their favourable position and advancing further.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: B Company, under command of Major John Crossland, followed in the next phase of the attack and were to secure Burntside Hill and then to continue to Boca Hill. Where A Company had advanced down the left-side of the isthmus, B Company were to follow the coast on the right-side of the attack. After a significant delay, they advanced and initially encountered very little resistance. Approaching the hill, they exchanged fire with Argentine forces and on reaching the top of the hill, they found the positions empty. The Argentinian account states that the platoons of Sub-Lieutenants Marcelo Martin Bracco and Alejandro Garra from the 12th Regiment's A Company came under heavy probing fire and the platoons withdrew after the initial clashes. The 2nd Rifle Platoon (under Sub-Lieutenant Gustavo Adolfo Malacalza) from A Company fought a delaying action against the British paratroopers before taking withdrawing to new positions on Darwin Ridge. The Paras in No. 5 Platoon (under Lieutenant Geoffrey Weighell) from B Company were forced to use white phosphorus (WP) grenades after discovering their fragmentation grenades were largely ineffective in clearing trenches in the night action.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The Coronation Ridge position temporarily halted Major Philip Neame's D Company as they advanced between A and B companies. They encountered heavy fire from an Argentinean machine-gun which was attacked and silenced by two paratroopers, for which they would be awarded decorations for bravery. With this machine gun out of action, D Company were able to continue to clear the Argentine platoon position on Coronation Ridge (under 2nd Lieutenant Marcelo Bracco) but lost three men in taking the hill.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: At around 7:30 am the 1st Rifle Platoon from the 25IR C Company, under the command of 2nd Lieutenant Roberto Estévez, received orders to counterattack against 2 Para's B Company. The Argentine platoon was able to block the British advance by taking up positions on Darwin Hill, from which, although wounded, Estévez started calling down fire support from Argentine 105mm artillery and 120mm mortars. This indirect fire held up the advance of 2 Para's A Company, especially as they were in open ground on the forward slope of the hill as they prepared to take up their advance once again. A Company was forced to take cover in the nearby trenches. Estévez continued to direct the Argentinean artillery fire until he was killed by sniper fire. 2nd Lieutenant Roberto Estévez and his radio operator, Private Fabricio Edgar Carrascul were both posthumously decorated for their actions Private Guillermo Huircapán from Estévez's platoon describes the morning action:


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: Lieutenant Estévez went from one side to the other organizing the defence until all at once they got him in the shoulder. But with that and everything, badly wounded, he kept crawling along the trenches, giving orders, encouraging the soldiers, asking for everyone. A little later, they got him in the side, but just the same, from the trench, he continued directing the artillery fire by radio. There was a little pause, and then the English began the attack again, trying to advance, and again we beat them off.


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: The British A Company assault had been stopped by fire from a 12IR platoon (under Sub-Lieutenant Ernesto Peluffo) after their platoon sergeant had observed the British approach and yelled out a warning. Major Farrar-Hockley then spotted Argentine reinforcements on the hills before him and shouted, "Ambush! Take cover!" just as the 12IR platoon's machine-guns opened fire. The Royal Engineer officer attached to Farrar-Hockley's company, Lieutenant Clive Livingstone, wrote about the initial fight for Darwin Hill:


title: Battle of Goose Green

text: A massive volume of medium machine-gun fire was unleashed on us from a range of about 400 metres. The light now rapidly appearing enabled the enemy to identify targets and bring down very effective fire. Although this too would work for us, the weight of fire we could produce was not in proportion to the massive response it brought. We stopped firing — our main concern was to move away whenever pauses occurred in the attention being paid to us. The two platoons were not able to suppress the trenches, which were giving us so much trouble. We took about 45 minutes to extract ourselves through the use of smoke and pauses in the firing.