title: Product placement

text: In the United Kingdom, placement by commercial broadcasters was forbidden prior to 2011. On February 28, 2011, telecommunications regulator Ofcom legalised placements in certain types of programming. A placement must be "editorially justified" and not place "undue prominence" on the product. Product placements are not allowed for products that cannot legally be advertised on television, including alcohol, baby milk, gambling products, medication or junk food. Placements are not allowed during children's, news, public affairs and religious programs. Additionally, broadcasters must disclose placements on-air by displaying a "PP" icon on-screen during the program for at least three seconds at the beginning, after every commercial break, and at the end. The first legal product placement on British television came during an episode of "This Morning", for a Nestlé-produced coffee maker. As with all other advertising, the BBC is barred from using placements on its publicly funded services.


title: Product placement

text: "Back to the Future Part II" included production placement for futuristic versions of Nike footwear, Pepsi-Cola and "USA Today".


title: Product placement

text: "Blade Runner" included prominent placement for many brands. The logos of Atari, Bell, Coca-Cola, Cuisinart and Pan Am, all market leaders at the time, were prominently displayed, and all experienced setbacks after the film's release. Coca-Cola and Cuisinart recovered, and Tsingtao beer was also featured in the film and was more successful after the film than before.


title: Product placement

text: "I, Robot" offers placements for Converse, Ovaltine, Audi, FedEx, Dos Equis and JVC among others, all of them introduced within the film's first ten minutes. One moment includes a straightforward advertisement where Will Smith's character responds to a compliment about his shoes, to which he replies "Converse All-Stars, vintage 2004" (the year of the film's release). Audi created a special car for the film, the Audi RSQ. Surveys conducted in the US showed that the placements boosted the brand's image. The Audi RSQ appears for nine minutes, and other Audis also appear in the film. "I, Robot" was ranked "the worst film for product placement" on a British site.


title: Product placement

text: "The Island" features at least 35 individual products or brands, including cars, bottled water, shoes, credit cards, beer, ice cream, and a web search engine. In the movie's DVD Commentary track, director Michael Bay claims he added the advertisements for greater realism.


title: Product placement

text: "Josie and the Pussycats" contains placements in most of the shots. This appears to be done ironically, as the plot of the film revolves around subliminal messages in advertising. The film's general message can also be construed as an anti-consumerist one. The film neither sought nor received compensation for the placements.


title: Product placement

text: The 2009 "Star Trek", in a scene where young James Kirk drives and crashes a Chevrolet Corvette, he operates a Nokia touch-screen smartphone. Before running the car off the cliff while being chased by a hovering motorcycle cop, the distinct Nokia trademark ring tone can be heard. The Finnish phone maker offered "Star Trek" apps for its phones. The use of contemporary products was ridiculed, as the scene is set in the year 2255.


title: Product placement

text: "The Package", a 2012 episode of "Hawaii Five-0", was heavily criticised and mocked for a 50-second sequence in which a character praised Subway sandwiches and promoted the Subway diet.


title: Product placement

text: The 2013 Filipino film "My Little Bossings" attracted criticism for its extensive use of product placement. Reviewers panned the film for being "one long commercial", where advertisements for brands endorsed by the characters' actors are frequently interspersed into the film. Zig Marasigan of "Rappler" described the film's use of product endorsements as "some of the most distasteful examples of local product placement while no effort is made to weave them into the narrative."


title: Product placement

text: In a similar vein to early radio and television programs, sponsored programs in the Philippines are not uncommon, where children's programs like "Tropang Potchi" and "Jollitown" were produced on behalf of companies, prominently featuring products and related properties in the shows in question.


title: Product placement

text: In April 2009, fans of the television series "Chuck" responded to a placement by Subway restaurants with a grassroots effort to save the show from cancellation. The movement gained support from cast and crew, with series star Zachary Levi leading hundreds of fans to a Subway restaurant in Birmingham, United Kingdom.


title: Product placement

text: Placement continues to grow, despite consumer groups such as Commercial Alert that object to the practise as "an affront to basic honesty". The group requested disclosure of all product-placement arrangements and notification before and during embedded advertisements. It justifies this to allow parents to protect easily influenced children.


title: Product placement

text: In 2005, the Writers Guild of America, a trade union representing authors of television scripts, objected that its members were forced to produce disguised ad copy.


title: Product placement

text: Some scholars argue that product placement may inherently affect the creativity and originality of movies as film producers may re-write scripts in order to incorporate products. Most typically, product placement and merchandise are most successful amongst specific genres of movies which may eventually limit the diversity of films.


title: Product placement

text: As with most marketing tactics, product placement leads to explicit as well as implicit advertising effects. Explicit effects can be observed directly and are usually visible by higher recall scores. They are highly connected to the conscious mind. Implicit effects can be observed by a change in behavior – like a higher purchase intention. They are fully based on the subconscious mind. Implicit effects are more relevant for purchase decisions and therefore more valuable than explicit reactions.


title: Product placement

text: According to a 2009 study of product placement in movies from 2002, product placement in movies are effective financially. The study observed the relationship of a company having a product placed in a movie and that company's stock price. After accounting for other variables, the study found that companies on average have their stock price increase by 0.89% due to product placement during the movie's opening.


title: Product placement

text: Recall describes whether people can name a product after seeing it within the content. Research showed that there is a significant relationship between product placement and recall.


title: Product placement

text: Product placement affects the audience on a conscious, but also subconscious level. Science showed that there does not even need to be an explicit, conscious effect to activate subconscious effects. For example, product placement can lead to an exclusion of competing brands from the consideration set of the audience – subconsciously. It is also hoped to bypass advertising defense reactions of consumers by focusing on the subconscious character of product placement.


title: Product placement

text: Under specific circumstances, product placement can lead to no or even negative effects. This usually happens if the product placement is too obvious, while the audience also feels it is being manipulated.


title: Product placement

text: The better the product placement fits the surrounding content, the better the implicit effectiveness (like attitude or purchase-intention) will be.


title: Product placement

text: After viewing a "Seinfeld" episode with visual, auditory and audiovisual product placements, a recall task indicated that audiovisual product placements were recalled the best, visual product placements somewhat less and audio placements least. In a recognition test audiovisual was still remembered the best but audio placements were remembered second best and visual placements were remembered third best. As indicated, the type of placement that is most effective seems to vary depending on task, but audiovisual placements seem to be often the most effective. However, audiovisual product placements are not remembered best when there is more than one audiovisual placement at once, making it hard to remember each one. In case the placement is only on the audio level, advertisers must make sure it is very prominent to have any effect at all.


title: Product placement

text: People tended to like brand names that were paired with attractive faces more than those paired with unattractive faces. The more times a brand was paired with an attractive face, the more people liked it.


title: Product placement

text: Product placement perceived to disrupt a movie, especially when repeated, were found in one study to be counterproductive. Moderate repetition of subtle product placements did not increase people's feelings of distraction.


title: Product placement

text: Products that are integrated within the plot of a movie are better recall, although not if more than one product is shown at a time. In one study placements connected to the story were recognized most often, products used by the main character were remembered less often and products in the background were remembered least often.


title: Product placement

text: Placements were found more effective on a larger screen compared to on a smaller one. Also, products placed in the first half of a movie tend to be remembered better than products in the second half of a movie, which demonstrates the primacy effect.


title: Product placement

text: High involvement with the program makes it easier for people to recognize the product placement. This can lead to positive effects, but might also lead to negative reactions. The same applies for high product category involvement.


title: Product placement

text: Older research cited a difference between different cultural areas. For example, Australians, Austrians and Germans tended to evaluate product placement more critically and show less positive reactions than Americans or people from certain Asian countries such as India.


title: Product placement

text: Children are usually more easily influenced than adults. In a 2013 study on children's (age 6-14) ability to recognize product placement in film; the following results were found. Children between ages 6 and 9 did not understand that a company had to pay for the product to be in the film or had confusion on why a company would pay to have a product appear in a film. After age 10 most children were able to identify that an external company paid for the product to appear. Children between age 6 and 9 could not identify themselves as the target audience for the product placement. After age 10 most children understood that the product placement was targeted towards them. Children between age 6 and 9 could not identify the intention of product placement. Children between age 10 and 12 still had confusion over the intention of a company placing their product in a film. Children over the age of 12 had full understanding of the marketing intentions of a company placing its product in a film.


title: Product placement

text: If the product is endorsed by a person, there are stronger priming effects if the audience is the same sex. Women tend to be influenced a little more easily, but show more negative reactions when the product can be described as ethically questionable (e.g. alcohol).


title: Product placement

text: It is very difficult to measure the effect of a product placement on viewers : access to exposed audience, recruitment, interviews, database for results comparison, independence from agencies...


title: Product placement

text: To measure the success of product placement, one first tracks the parameters of the placement itself, like the ease of identification, screen time, number of exposure(s), or association with a main character. That information is also often used to determine the price of a specific placement. Secondly, the effectiveness is measured using direct (for explicit memory effects) as well as indirect (for implicit memory effects) measurements.


title: Product placement

text: Explicit effects are measured by recall or recognition tests. Subjects are asked to name the products that he or she noticed (free recall). This survey can be also aided by giving additional information like a specific product category. At recognition tests, a selection of products is shown to the interviewed person, who then needs to select the ones that he has seen before.


title: Product placement

text: Implicit effects are measured in an indirect way by observing a change in behavior. This can be done by tracking the consideration set and buying behavior of people, measuring brain activities or using abstract indirect test settings like the word fragment or word stem completion test. The implicit association test (IAT) is also an applicable measurement tool.


title: Product placement

text: Many argue that product placement is ethically questionable, because it manipulates people against their will. A contrary view is, even if product placement is only perceived unconsciously, it is still evaluated by our mind. It cannot make people act against their beliefs. Most people also appreciate the fact that movies look more realistic with real brands and do not feel disturbed by the placements. Additionally, further research argues that product placement is not any different from other marketing tactics when it comes to ethics.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Bernabé Williams Figueroa Jr. (born September 13, 1968) is a Puerto Rican former professional baseball player and a musician. He played his entire 16-year career in Major League Baseball (MLB) with the New York Yankees from 1991 through 2006.


title: Bernie Williams

text: A center fielder, Williams was a member of four World Series championship teams with the Yankees. He ended his career with a .297 batting average, 287 home runs, 1,257 runs batted in (RBI), 1,366 runs scored, 449 doubles, and a .990 fielding percentage. He was a five-time All-Star and won four Gold Glove Awards, a Silver Slugger Award, the American League (AL) batting title in 1998, and the 1996 AL Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award. Known for his consistency and postseason heroics, Williams is one of the most beloved Yankees. The team honored him by retiring his uniform number 51 and dedicating a plaque to him in Monument Park in May 2015. Williams is widely regarded as one of the greatest switch-hitting center fielders in history.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams is also a classically trained guitarist. Following his retirement from baseball, he has released two jazz albums. He was nominated for a Latin Grammy in 2009.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Bernabé Williams Figueroa Jr. was born to Bernabé Williams Sr., a merchant marine and dispatcher, and Rufina Figueroa, a retired principal and college professor. The Williams family lived in the Bronx until Bernie was one year old, when they moved to Puerto Rico.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Growing up, Williams played classical guitar as well as baseball. He was also active in track and field, winning medals at an international meet at the age of 15. At the 1984 Central American and Caribbean Junior Championships in Athletics in San Juan, Puerto Rico, Williams won gold in the 200 metres (m), 400 m, 4 × 100 m relay, and 4 × 400 m relay events for competitors under the age of 17, and the silver medal for the 4 × 100 m relay among competitors younger than 20.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In 1985, Roberto Rivera, a scout for the New York Yankees of Major League Baseball (MLB), discovered Williams and Williams' friend, Juan González. Though Rivera was not interested in González, who he perceived as not taking the game seriously, he wanted to sign Williams. However, Williams was a few months shy of his 17th birthday, when he would become eligible to sign with an MLB team. The Yankees put Williams in a training camp in Connecticut near the home of scouting director Doug Melvin who later had Juan Gonzalez on his Texas Rangers teams. After playing a few games in the Greater Hartford Twilight Baseball League on the Katz Sports Shop team, the Yankees officially signed Williams on his 17th birthday.


title: Bernie Williams

text: While playing in Minor League Baseball, Williams took a course on biology at the University of Puerto Rico, and considered undertaking a pre-medical track as an undergraduate student. Deciding that he could not excel at baseball and medicine at the same time, Williams decided to focus on baseball. Playing for Double-A Albany-Colonie Yankees, he continued to develop his athletic skills – particularly as a switch hitter. Although viewed as a great prospect by Yankee management, his rise to the majors was delayed by the solid outfield — Roberto Kelly, Danny Tartabull, and Jesse Barfield — that the team had developed in the early 1990s.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams managed to break into the majors in 1991 to replace the injured Roberto Kelly for the second half of that season. He batted .238 in 320 at bats. He was demoted to the minors until Danny Tartabull was injured, and Williams earned his stay at center by putting up solid numbers.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams had become the regular Yankees center fielder by 1993. However, Williams got off to a slow start that season, and Yankees' owner George Steinbrenner, impatient with Williams, insisted that Gene Michael, the team's general manager, trade him. Michael discussed trading Williams for Larry Walker with the Montreal Expos, but did not make the trade. In his first full season with the Yankees, Williams had a .268 batting average.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Throughout the early 1990s, Williams hit in the middle of the order as management tried to figure out where his best fit was.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Manager Buck Showalter helped keep Williams with the Yankees through 1995, when Steinbrenner became frustrated by the team's difficulty in placing Williams in any of the traditional baseball player molds. He had good speed, but rarely stole bases. In center, he was highly capable at tracking down fly balls and line drives, but had a weak throwing arm. He was a consistent hitter but only had mild home run power.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In 1995, Steinbrenner again considered trading Williams, this time to the San Francisco Giants for Darren Lewis. The Yankees kept Williams, who went on to have a breakout season. He hit 18 home runs and led the team in runs, hits, total bases and stolen bases. Williams continued his hot hitting into the postseason, leading the Yankees with a .429 batting average in the 1995 American League Division Series (ALDS) against the Seattle Mariners.


title: Bernie Williams

text: After continuing to improve in 1996, Williams again showcased his skills to the baseball world in the postseason. He batted .467 in the ALDS against Texas and played a sparkling center field. He picked up where he left off in the ALCS against Baltimore, belting an 11th-inning walk-off homer in Game 1. Ending with a .474 ALCS average and two homers, he was named the ALCS MVP. Williams collected just four hits in the 1996 World Series but his clutch homer in the eighth inning of Game 3 helped spark the team’s comeback from a 2-0 series deficit to capture the team's first championship since 1978.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Despite his success, following the 1997 season, Williams again was the subject of trade rumors, this time involving the Detroit Tigers. According to "The New York Times" sportswriter Murray Chass, Williams was nearly dealt to the Tigers for a package of young pitchers including Roberto Durán and first round draft pick Mike Drumright. Tigers general manager Randy Smith believed a deal had been reached and an official announcement was close, but Yankees general manager Bob Watson denied that was the case, and Williams remained a Yankee. Watson also discussed Williams with the Chicago Cubs in a potential trade involving Lance Johnson.


title: Bernie Williams

text: During the 1998 season, in which the Yankees went 114–48 to set a then-American League regular-season record, Williams finished with a .339 average, becoming the first player to win a batting title, Gold Glove award, and World Series ring in the same year.


title: Bernie Williams

text: After the 1998 season, Williams signed a seven-year, $87.5-million contract with the Yankees, one of the largest in baseball at the time. The Boston Red Sox and Arizona Diamondbacks also bid for Williams on the free agent market. For the length of the contract, the Yankees made the playoffs every single year, and as a result Williams continued to add to his postseason statistics. He currently places in the top 5 of career postseason categories such as hits, runs scored, doubles, home runs, walks, and runs batted in, where he ranks first.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In 1999, Williams recorded 200+ hits for the first time in his career and won his third straight Gold Glove Award. He also finished third in the American League in batting average (.342), third in hits (202), fourth in on-base percentage (.435), fifth in bases on balls (100), and seventh in runs scored (116). The following year, he once again won a Gold Glove Award and set career highs with 30 home runs and 121 runs batted in.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In 2002, Williams won the only Silver Slugger Award of his career, as he hit .333 and recorded a career-high 204 base hits.


title: Bernie Williams

text: The last year covered by Williams’ contract, 2005, proved to be a difficult one. He started 99 games in center field and 22 games as designated hitter, but his already weak arm was highlighted as his fielding and batting abilities considerably weakened. He had a career-worst .321 OBP and batting average on balls in play (.274). As expected, the Yankees announced on August 2, 2005, that they would not pick up the $15 million option on Williams' contract for the 2006 season, opting to pay a $3.5 million buyout instead. In December Williams was offered arbitration by team general manager Brian Cashman to allow an additional month for negotiation. On December 22, the Yankees re-signed Williams to a 1-year, $1.5 million contract.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In 2006, Williams saw a good amount of playing time in the corner outfield spots with both Hideki Matsui and Gary Sheffield out with wrist injuries, and did spot duty in center field on days when starting center fielder Johnny Damon was given time off to rest, playing more than was expected when he signed his one-year extension with the Yankees in 2006.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams played for Puerto Rico in the 2006 MLB World Baseball Classic, joining Carlos Delgado, Carlos Beltrán, Mike Lowell, Javier Vázquez, and José Vidro amongst others representing the island possession in a team managed by St. Louis Cardinals third base coach Jose Oquendo. Williams hit two home runs in the 2006 WBC.


title: Bernie Williams

text: On July 26, 2006, Williams got his 2,300th career hit, becoming the 11th active player in the Majors with 2,300 or more career hits. Williams continued to climb the Yankees record books by hitting his 443rd career double on August 16, 2006, surpassing then-bench coach Don Mattingly for second-most as a Yankee. For the year, he walked only 7.3% of the time, a career-worst.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams' contract expired at the end of the 2006 season. He had hoped to return to the Yankees in 2007 and was willing to accept a role as a back-up outfielder and pinch hitter. The Yankees offered Williams an invitation to spring training as a non-roster invitee, giving him a chance to compete for a job. Williams, however, wanted a guaranteed roster spot and declined the invitation.


title: Bernie Williams

text: On September 21, 2008, Williams made his first return to Yankee Stadium since 2006 for the ceremonies preceding the final game at the stadium. He was the last former player to be introduced and received a standing ovation that lasted a minute and 42 seconds.


title: Bernie Williams

text: After two years of inactivity, Williams returned to action in 2008, playing for the Gigantes de Carolina in the Puerto Rico Baseball League. He was interested in gauging his condition prior to possibly participating in the 2009 World Baseball Classic. MLB.com reported on December 30, 2008, that Williams had injured his quad while playing for Carolina and may not be able to play in the World Baseball Classic for Puerto Rico.


title: Bernie Williams

text: On February 19, 2009, Williams worked out with the Yankees at the team's spring training complex. Williams hinted that if he performed well in the World Baseball Classic he might consider returning to the Yankees.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In March 2009 he played for Puerto Rico in the World Baseball Classic, going 0-for-5 with two walks; after the series concluded, he expressed interest in playing in the Major Leagues again.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Though he did not appear in a Major League Baseball game after 2006, Williams did not officially retire until 2015. At the February 2011 retirement press conference for Andy Pettitte, Williams acknowledged that his career was over and stated that he would officially announce his retirement soon thereafter. Williams officially retired on April 24, 2015, with the Yankees.


title: Bernie Williams

text: As of 2021, he holds the career postseason record for runs batted in (80). He is also third all-time in postseason home runs (22) and games played (121) while being second in doubles (29), total hits (128), walks (71), total bases (223), and runs scored (83).


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams appeared on the Hall of Fame ballot for the first time in 2012. He received 55 votes for 9.6%. The next year, Williams received 19 votes (3.3%). Since he received votes on fewer than 5% of ballots, Williams was not eligible to appear on future ballots.


title: Bernie Williams

text: The Yankees announced in May 2014 that they would honor Williams with a plaque in Monument Park during the 2015 season. On February 16, 2015, the Yankees also announced that they would be retiring Williams' number 51. On May 24, the Yankees unveiled Williams's plaque and retired his number in a ceremony at Yankee Stadium.


title: Bernie Williams

text: A classically trained guitarist, Williams plays and composes music with influences that include jazz, classical, pop, Brazilian, and Latin sounds.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams signed with Paul McCartney's publishing company, MPL Communications, and his major label debut, "The Journey Within", was released on June 22, 2003.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In addition to playing lead and rhythm guitar, Williams composed seven songs for the album. Tracks like "La Salsa En Mi" and "Desvelado" mix his love of jazz with Latin rhythms. The first single was a remix of his "Just Because," featuring David Benoit. Other highlights include Williams' heartfelt tribute to his father, "Para Don Berna;" a reworking of the Baden Powell song, "Samba Novo;" and "La Salsa En Mi," featuring background vocals from 2003 Grammy Award winner Rubén Blades and salsa legend Gilberto Santa Rosa. Also joining Williams was an all-star ensemble of musicians including multiple Grammy-winning banjo player Béla Fleck, keyboardist David Sancious, percussionist Luis Conte, bassist Leland Sklar, guitarist Tim Pierce, and drummers Kenny Aronoff and Shawn Pelton, among others.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Following his career with the New York Yankees, Williams studied guitar and composition for a year at the State University of New York at Purchase in preparation for his album, "Moving Forward", which was released on April 14, 2009, under the Reform Records label. The album features fourteen tracks and includes some collaborative tracks with other artists such as Bruce Springsteen, Patti Scialfa, Jon Secada, and Dave Koz. Williams was nominated for a Latin Grammy Award for "Moving Forward".


title: Bernie Williams

text: In 2010, Williams participated in the World Rhythms Tour with Basia. On July 18, 2010, he performed at the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games opening ceremony.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In July 2011, the book "Rhythms of the Game: The Link Between Musical and Athletic Performance", co-authored by Williams, Dave Gluck, and Bob Thompson, with a foreword by Paul Simon, was published by Hal Leonard Publishing.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams was featured on the November/December 2011 cover of "Making Music" to discuss his life and career in music.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams' love of music shines through in his philanthropy efforts with Little Kids Rock, a national nonprofit organization that works to restore and revitalize music education in disadvantaged U.S. public schools. Little Kids Rock honored the Yankees icon with the 2010 "Big Man of the Year" award at the annual Right to Rock celebration. Williams performed onstage with students and signed some guitars to be auctioned. With the money he helped raise, Williams delivered instruments to a school in the Bronx and gave the students a lesson in music and life.


title: Bernie Williams

text: In August 2015 Williams and sports marketer Brandon Steiner made a surprise visit to Camp Adventure, where they helped revive the music program of KiDS NEED MORE, a charitable organization dedicated to creating camping experiences for children, families, and young adults coping with cancer and life-threatening illnesses. The surprise visit aired on September 15, 2015, on the YES Network on "The Hook-Up: Camp Adventure".


title: Bernie Williams

text: In July 2018, Williams went to Puerto Rico to take part in a special episode of "Bar Rescue" on the Paramount Network to help people affected by Hurricane Maria, rebuilding a bar and baseball field.


title: Bernie Williams

text: Williams married Waleska on February 23, 1990. They lived in Armonk, New York, and had three children: Bernie Jr., Beatriz, and Bianca. A song on Williams' 2009 release, "Moving Forward", is named after Beatriz: "Lullaby for Beatriz." This song is performed by Williams with his brother, Hiram Williams, playing the cello. This song was recorded in Puerto Rico at the Alpha Recording Studios.


title: Bernie Williams

text: On June 14, 2018, Williams stated he was divorced during an interview on ESPN's "Highly Questionable".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: The Heartbreak Kid is a 1972 American romantic black comedy film directed by Elaine May and written by Neil Simon, starring Charles Grodin, Cybill Shepherd, Jeannie Berlin, Audra Lindley, Eddie Albert, and Doris Roberts. It is based on the short story "A Change of Plan", written by Bruce Jay Friedman and first published in "Esquire" magazine in 1966.


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: At the 45th Academy Awards, Jeannie Berlin was nominated for Best Supporting Actress, and Eddie Albert for Best Supporting Actor. It was ranked #91 on AFI's "100 Years... 100 Laughs", a list of the funniest American films ever made, and was remade in 2007.


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: In New York City, after a very short courtship, emotionally shallow, self-absorbed Lenny Cantrow (Charles Grodin), a sporting goods salesman, is married to Lila (Jeannie Berlin, daughter of director Elaine May), an earnest young woman who expects long-term emotional commitment of Lenny.


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: During their honeymoon in Miami Beach, Lenny meets and pursues the beautiful but shallow Kelly Corcoran (Cybill Shepherd), a Midwestern college student on holiday with her wealthy parents. When Lila is severely sunburned, Lenny quarantines her to their hotel room as he engages in a series of rendezvous with Kelly, lying to Lila about his whereabouts. Lenny impulsively ends his marriage to pursue an indifferent Kelly, explaining that she is the woman he has been waiting for all of his life and just "timed it wrong".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: After leaving Lila after only five days of marriage, he follows Kelly to Minnesota, where her resentful and protective father (Eddie Albert) stands in his way. Following an awkward dinner where Lenny inanely praises Midwestern produce as having "no deceit", Mr. Corcoran offers Lenny a $25,000 bribe to leave. Lenny angrily refuses and soon marries Kelly.


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: At the reception, his attempt to mingle with the attendees via mindless conversation fails and he is ignored by the guests, his bride, and new in-laws. He is soon reduced to quoting cliches to two uncomprehending children and is soon left alone, humming to himself while the party continues around him.


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: The film is a black comedy, examining love and hypocrisy through a lens of pointed, subtle humor. Though it contains broad jokes, occasionally going for "laughs without shame", Elaine May is credited with emotionally grounding the film and providing "a real understanding of character" through eliciting the kind of "caustic, almost powerful humor that comes from moments of wincing recognition when human foibles are accurately captured and revealed". As another reviewer wrote in "Sight & Sound", May's strength lies in her "obsessive and affectionate observations of character".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: May shared with her late comedy partner Mike Nichols (1931–2014) a sparse, dialogue-oriented style and a quizzical perspective. She places an emphasis on character comedy; "The Hollywood Reporter" commented on her stylistic decisions to derive humor "from situations rather than obvious one-line jokes" and make comedic choices which "flow effortlessly from rhythmic dialogue, explosions of laughter". "The New Yorker"'s Pauline Kael wrote: "Elaine May has the rarest kind of comic gift: the ability to create a world seen comically".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: May's focus on comedic honesty, backlit by pain and misfortune, stylistically influenced a new generation of films. She pushed comedy into a "golden age as the result of the rise of the semi-surreal comedy of mishap, pain, insult, and desperation".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: "The Heartbreak Kid" is a particularly Jewish story; as Thomas Meehan wrote in "The Saturday Review", the film is a "triumph of New York Jewish humor", and "The Village Voice" called it "the culminating work of Hollywood's Jewish new wave". All the filmmakers are Jewish—Friedman, Simon, May, the producer Edgar J. Scherick, and the composers Burt Bacharach and Hal David. The story follows Lenny Cantrow, the embodiment of the Jewish archetype of the "schlemiel"


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: (bungler), as he dumps Lila (Jeannie Berlin), a "kvetchy Jew" and "sloppy, incipient yenta", for the girl of his dreams, an all-American WASP. The film is a deadpan fever dream of shiksa-chasing, taking place in what Bruce Jay Friedman dubs in the original short story as the land of "strange blonde people".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: The character of Lila in particular has been labelled extremely stereotypical; "Film Quarterly" likened her to a female Portnoy, publishing a review stating "Philip Roth's friendly anti-Semitism is strikingly similar to Friedman's". Some critics have expressed concerns that the movie forwards a stilted vision of the modern female Jew and implicitly asks the question: "Why be married to a cloying, unsophisticated, slightly overweight Jewish girl who speaks with a discernible sing-song Jewish intonation ("Yiddish influence") when you can perhaps conquer a very Waspy-looking, knockout blonde shiksa type?" This is despite the intentions of Jeannie Berlin, who told The New York Times that she did her best to honor the character and give Lila depth: "You see, I didn't want to make that girl stupid. It would have been so easy to do Lila stupid. I don't think Lila was stupid. I think every single thing she did was justified to her... And she really was terrifically in love". For the role of Lila, Simon wanted Diane Keaton, but May thought the intended contrast between Jewish and gentile wouldn't be strong enough.


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: Lenny's behavior as a classic nebbish Jew is thoughtless, as he leaves Lila high and dry on their honeymoon. Charles Grodin said afterwards that although he played the character with full sincerity, he had "pretty much indelibly stamped [himself] into the moviegoing public's consciousness as a jerk". Still, he said, many viewers misread the film as an illustration of precisely Jewish annoyances and not as critique: "The number of men who tell me how much they loved the movie and how much they identified with the character, while flattering, is also somewhat frightening".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: The final moments of the film depict Lenny failing to communicate with Kelly's gentile family. It highlights how he gave up his personal cultural traditions, and how he misses them. Having walked down the aisle to Kelly as a large crucifix hung overhead, Lenny sits on the couch by himself, swimming in a sea of Christianity, listless and alienated as ever.


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: The film has received almost universal praise from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 92% based on reviews from 59 critics, with an average rating of 7.6/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" declared it to be "a first-class American comedy, as startling in its way as was "The Graduate"". Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film 3.5 stars out of 4 in a review that concludes: "It's a comedy, but there's more in it than that; it's a movie about the ways we pursue, possess, and consume each other as sad commodities". Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" awarded the same 3.5/4 grade and wrote that "the heavy-handed comedy undermines the serious aspect of the movie—we really can't believe that Lenny would marry her in the first place. The overall high quality of the acting, however, does sustain the film". Whitney Williams in "Variety" called it a "bright, amusing saga" until the "audience is jolted by a sudden shut-off ending with no climax whatsoever". Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that Grodin and Berlin "bring off hugely difficult comedy assignment with great style. Amidst increasing farcical events, they both somehow manage to preserve a sense of credible, foolish but sympathetic individuals lurking beneath the follies". Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" thought that the film "has its faults, but it's also one of the most entertaining and original American film comedies of the last few years". "The Independent Film Journal" called it an "unquestionably brilliant comedy".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: "Variety" noted in their review that the sudden ending of the film might have been indicative of another ending that had been planned and later noted that Fox handed out a synopsis at later screenings mentioning an ending where "as they sail for Europe on their honeymoon, Lenny makes some startling discoveries about Kelly - and 'The Heartbreak Kid' comes to its bitingly funny end".


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: Although released on DVD in 1998 and in 2002, the film currently as of 2022 out of print. In 2022 it was announced the Brooklyn Academy of Music would offer a rare screening the film.


title: The Heartbreak Kid (1972 film)

text: A remake of the film was released in 2007 that stars Ben Stiller, Michelle Monaghan, Malin Åkerman, Jerry Stiller, Rob Corddry, Carlos Mencia, Scott Wilson, and Danny McBride.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: This article explains the genetic makeup and population history of East Asian peoples and closely related populations (i.e. Southeast Asians, Siberians, Polynesians, and Native Americans, as well as Oceanians, and, partly, Central Asians and South Asians), which are collectively referred to as "East-Eurasians" in population genomics.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Population genomic studies have studied the origin and formation of modern East Asians. Ancestors of East Asians split from other human populations between 50,000 and 70,000 years ago. Possible routes into East Asia by the ancestors of East Asian-related populations include a northern route model from Central Asia, and a southern route model from Southeast Asia. A third route into Northern Siberia was used by a distinct population, represented by the Ancient North Eurasians, which however did not contribute ancestry to modern East Asians, but were deeply related to European hunter-gatherers. These Ancient North Eurasians however received geneflow of an early East Asian-related population (ancestral to East and Southeast Asians), contributing between 14% to 31% ancestry towards analyzed ANE-associated samples, such as the Mal'ta–Buret' 1 sample. The southern route model for East Asians has been corroborated in multiple recent studies.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Sato et al. 2021 concluded that ""the southern migration wave seems to have diversified into the local populations in East Asia (defined in this paper as a region including China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan and Southeast Asia), and the northern wave, which probably runs through the Siberian and Eurasian steppe regions and mixed with the southern wave, probably in Siberia.""


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A review paper by Melinda A. Yang (in 2022) summarized and concluded that a distinctive "Basal-East Asian population" referred to as "'East- and Southeast Asian lineage"' (ESEA); which is ancestral to modern East Asians, Southeast Asians, Polynesians, and Siberians, originated in Mainland Southeast Asia at ~50,000BC, and expanded through multiple migration waves southwards and northwards respectively. This ESEA lineage is also ancestral to the Hoabinhian hunter-gatherers of Southeast Asia and the ~40,000 year old Tianyuan lineage found in Northern China, but distinct from European-related and Australasian-related lineages of prehistoric Eurasia. There are currently eight detected, closely related, sub-ancestries in the ESEA lineage:


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Modern Northeast Asians consist mostly of the "Amur ancestry" which expanded massively with millet cultivation. Modern Southeast Asians (specifically Austronesians) consist mainly of the "Fujian ancestry" component, which is associated with the spread of rice cultivation. Contemporary East Asians (most notably Sino-Tibetan speakers) consist mostly of Yellow River ancestry, associated with both millet and rice cultivation. "East Asian Highlanders" (Tibetans) consist of both the Ancient Tibetan ancestry and Yellow River ancestry. Japanese people were found to have a tripartite origin; consisting of Jōmon ancestry, Amur ancestry, and Yellow River ancestry. Indigenous peoples of the Americas formed from another early East Asian branch (referred to as "Ancestral Native Americans"), which gave rise to both "Paleosiberians" and contemporary Native Americans. Isolated hunter-gatherer in Southeast Asia, specifically Malaysia and Thailand, such as the Semang, derive most of their ancestry from the Hoabinhian lineage.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Genetic studies have revealed that East/Southeast Asian people are also relatively closely related to the indigenous South Asian hunter-gatherers, often termed "Ancient Ancestral South Indians" (AASI), and also show higher affinity to Australasian populations (AA), such as Melanesians. Phylogenetic data suggests that an early initial Eastern Eurasian (eastern non-African ENA) lineage trifurcated somewhere in South Asia, and gave rise to Australasians (Oceanians), the AASI, as well as East/Southeast Asians, although Oceanians (Papuans and Aboriginal Australians) may have also received some geneflow from an earlier group (xOoA), around 2%, next to additional archaic admixture in the Sahul region.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The Xiongnu, possibly a Turkic, Mongolic, Yenisseian or multi-ethnic people, were a confederation of nomadic peoples who, according to ancient Chinese sources, inhabited the eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. Chinese sources report that Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209 BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A majority (89%) of the Xiongnu sequences can be classified as belonging to East Asian haplogroups, and nearly 11% belong to European haplogroups. Xiongnu samples in eastern Central Asia were found to have between 75% to 95% East Asian ancestry.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Over the past decade, Chinese archaeologists have published several reviews regarding the results of excavations in Xinjiang. They imply the genetic composition of Xiongnu's supreme ruling class. Particularly interesting are the tombs in the cemetery at Heigouliang, Xinjiang (the Black Gouliang cemetery, also known as the summer palace of the Xiongnu king), east of the Barkol basin, near the city of Hami.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: By typing results of DNA samples during the excavation of one of the tombs, it was determined that of the 12 men: 6 Q1a* (not Q1a1-M120, not Q1a1b-M25, not Q1a2-M3), 4 Q1b-M378, 2 Q* (not Q1a, not Q1b: unable to determine subclades):


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: In a paper (Lihongjie 2012), the author analyzed the Y-DNAs of the ancient male samples from the 2nd or 1st century BCE cemetery at Heigouliang in Xinjiang – which is also believed to be the site of a summer palace for Xiongnu kings – which is east of the Barkol basin and near the city of Hami. The Y-DNA of 12 men excavated from the site belonged to Q-MEH2 (Q1a) or Q-M378 (Q1b). The Q-M378 men among them were regarded as hosts of the tombs; half of the Q-MEH2 men appeared to be hosts and the other half as sacrificial victims.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Five female Xiongnu samples belonged to the maternal haplogroups D4b2b4, N9a2a, G3a3, D4a6 and D4b2b2b.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The origins of the Xianbei are unclear. Chinese anthropologists Zhu Hong and Zhang Quanchao studied Xianbei crania from several sites in Inner Mongolia and noticed that anthropological features of studied Xianbei crania show that the racial type is closely related to the modern East-Asian Mongoloids, and some physical characteristics of those skulls are closer to modern Mongols, Manchu, Korean and Northern Han Chinese.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A genetic study published in the "American Journal of Physical Anthropology" in August 2018 noted that the paternal haplogroup C2b1a1b has been detected among the Xianbei and the Rouran, and was probably an important lineage among the Donghu people.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Genetic studies published in 2006 and 2015 revealed that the mitochondrial haplogroups of Xianbei remains were of East Asian origin. According to Zhou (2006) the maternal haplogroup frequencies of the Tuoba Xianbei were 43.75% haplogroup D, 31.25% haplogroup C, 12.5% haplogroup B, 6.25% haplogroup A and 6.25% "other." And the inner Mongolia of Tuoba Xianbei According to Hong Zhu (2007) The maternal haplogroup frequencies of the Tuoba Xianbei in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region were 40.10% Haplogroup O (Y-haplo), 30.16% Haplogroup C (Y-haplo) and 27.94% "other"


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Zhou (2014) obtained mitochondrial DNA analysis from 17 Tuoba Xianbei, which indicated that these specimens were, similarly, completely East Asian in their maternal origins, belonging to haplogroups D, C, B, A, O and haplogroup G.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The research also found a relation between Xianbei individuals with modern Oroqen, Ewenki and Outer Mongolian people. Especially Tungusic Oroqen show close relation to Xianbei.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Haplogroup C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483) has been identified as a possible marker of the Aisin Gioro and is found in ten different ethnic minorities in northern China, but completely absent from Han Chinese.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Genetic testing also showed that the haplogroup C3b1a3a2-F8951 of the Aisin Gioro family came to southeastern Manchuria after migrating from their place of origin in the Amur river's middle reaches, originating from ancestors related to Daurs in the Transbaikal area. The Tungusic speaking peoples mostly have C3c-M48 as their subclade of C3 which drastically differs from the C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro which originates from Mongolic speaking populations like the Daur. Jurchen (Manchus) are a Tungusic people. The Mongol Genghis Khan's haplogroup C3b1a3a1-F3796 (C3*-Star Cluster) is a fraternal "brother" branch of C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A genetic test was conducted on seven men who claimed Aisin Gioro descent with three of them showing documented genealogical information of all their ancestors up to Nurhaci. Three of them turned out to share the C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483) haplogroup, out of them, two of them were the ones who provided their documented family trees. The other four tested were unrelated. The Daur Ao clan carries the unique haplogroup subclade C2b1a3a2-F8951, the same haplogroup as Aisin Gioro and both Ao and Aisin Gioro only diverged merely a couple of centuries ago from a shared common ancestor. Other members of the Ao clan carry haplogroups like N1c-M178, C2a1b-F845, C2b1a3a1-F3796 and C2b1a2-M48. People from northeast China, the Daur Ao clan and Aisin Gioro clan are the main carriers of haplogroup C2b1a3a2-F8951. The Mongolic C2*-Star Cluster (C2b1a3a1-F3796) haplogroup is a fraternal branch to Aisin Gioro's C2b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: However, the modern Manchu people show relatively high amounts of Haplogroup O2, which is common among the Han Chinese. A study on the Manchu population of Liaoning reported that they have a close genetic relationship and significant admixture signal with northern Han Chinese. The Liaoning Manchu were formed from a major ancestral component related to Yellow River farmers and a minor ancestral component linked to ancient populations from Amur River Basin, or others. The Manchu were therefore an exception to the coherent genetic structure of Tungusic-speaking populations, likely due to the large-scale population migrations and genetic admixtures in the past few hundred years.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Jōmon people is the generic name of people who lived in the Japanese archipelago during the Jōmon period. Today most Japanese historians believe that the Jomon people were not one homogeneous people but were at least two or three distinct groups.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Recent full genome analyses in 2020 by Boer et al. 2020 and Yang et al. 2020, reveal some further information regarding the origin of the Jōmon peoples. They were found to have largely formed from a Paleolithic Siberian population and an East Asian related population.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: These indigenous people had their own unique lifestyle and culture within Japan for thousands of years. The analyses found that the Jomon maintained a small effective population size of around 1,000 over several millennia, the Jōmon lineage split from modern East Asians between 15,000BC and 20,000BC, but after the divergence of Ancestral Native Americans about ~25,000BC, and became largely isolated from outside populations, but received gene flow from a population related to the Upper-Paleolithic Yana RHS sample from Northern Siberia, a deeply European-related population, also known as Ancient North Eurasians, and widespread in North Eurasia before the Last Glacial Maximum along a North to South cline. Niall Cooke, one of the researchers explained that these results strongly suggest a prolonged period of isolation from the rest of the continent until the introduction of new immigrants associated with wet-rice farming during the Yayoi period of Japanese history.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The Yayoi people were migrants to the Japanese archipelago from Asia (Korea or China) during the Yayoi period (1000 BCE–300 CE) and Kofun period (250–538 CE). They are seen as direct ancestors of the modern Yamato people, the majority of Japanese and of the Ryukyuan people. It is estimated that modern Japanese share in average about 90% of their genome with the Yayoi.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: This group is thought to have marked the arrival of paddy field rice cultivation which led to an agricultural revolution in the archipelago until the following period.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A study published in the journal Science Advances conducted by a team of Japanese and Irish researchers at Trinity College Dublin found that the people of Japan bore genetic signatures from three ancient populations rather than just two as previously thought, with ancestry stemming from a third migration that occurred during the Kofun period. The study found that up to 71% of the ancient Kofun people shared a common genetic strand with the Han Chinese while the rest shared with the Yayoi people and the Jōmon people.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: In addition, The Nikkei published an article that showed the Kofun strand in modern day Japanese was concentrated in specific regions such as Kinki, Hokuriku and Shikoku.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A recent study conducted in 2022 by the University of Vienna discovered that Ancient Japanese people were also present in the Korean Peninsula, specifically in the Gaya region (present day South Gyeongsang Province). According to the study, genome samples of eight different individuals from the ancient Gaya kingdom were examined where six of them were closest to Modern Koreans, Modern Japanese, Kofun Japanese (the Kofun genomes are contemporaneous with individuals from the study) and Neolithic Koreans. The remaining two bore closer resemblance to the Ancient Jōmon people, suggesting that the Ancient Japanese existed outside of the Japanese islands than previously assumed.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A new study in 2022 conducted by the University of Xiamen shed light on the lack of Jōmon genomes found in present-day Koreans and Japanese. Researchers discovered that despite finding evidence of the Jōmon people on the Korean peninsula and the Japanese archipelago, there were little to no traces left of their genetic impact in their respective people's gene pools. According to the study, Ancient Koreans were composed of "northern East Asian-related ancestry and indigenous Jōmon-related ancestry" where the "northern East Asian ancestry was suggested to be related to the Neolithic West Liao River farmers in northeast China". The finding indicated that the "West Liao River-related farmers might have spread the proto-Korean language as their ancestry was found to be predominant in extant Koreans" and these "Proto-Korean groups, in turn, introduced West Liao River-like ancestry into the gene pool of present-day Japan". These people are thought to have caused the displacement of the indigenous Jōmon people causing a significant diminishment of Jōmon genomes in the regions. It was deduced that this event (and the populations remaining genetically homogeneous since then) was what caused modern Koreans and Japanese to share the majority of their genetic makeup as the latter group "can be represented as a mixture of Koreans (91%) with a limited genetic heritage from a basal East Asian lineage related to Jōmon (9%)".


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The main paternal haplogroups of modern Yamato Japanese are Haplogroup D-M55 (today ~33%, with the frequency in various samples ranging from 18/70 = 25.7% in a sample from Tokushima Prefecture to 24/59 = 40.7% in a sample of Japanese male volunteers and 11/27 = 40.7% in a sample from Aomori Prefecture), Haplogroup O-M176 (O1b2) (today ~32%, range 37/142 = 26.1% in a sample of Japanese to 35/97 = 36.1% in a sample from Western Japan), Haplogroup O-M122 (O2, formerly O3) (today ~20%, ranging from 4/59 = 6.8% in a sample of Japanese volunteers and 11/102 = 10.8% in a sample of adults from Fukuoka to 25/104 = 24.0% in a sample from Kyushu and 38/157 = 24.2% in a pooled sample of Japanese from Tokushima, Yamaguchi, and Ibaraki), Haplogroup C-M217 (C2, today ~6%, ranging from 0/26 = 0.0% in a sample from Aomori, 1/61 = 1.6% in a sample from Shizuoka, 1/47 = 2.1% in a sample from Kagawa, and 3/137 = 2.2% in a sample from the Kantō region to 15/206 = 7.3% in a sample from Sapporo, 18/241 = 7.5% in a sample from Osaka, 8/104 = 7.7% in a sample from Kyushu, and 8/102 = 7.8% in a sample from Fukuoka), and Haplogroup C-M8 (C1a1, today ~6%, ranging from 3/129 = 2.3% in a sample of male students of Saga Prefectural Chienkan High School to 7/70 = 10.0% in a sample from Tokushima). Haplogroups N-M231, O-M119, O-K18, and Q-M242 also have been observed with low frequency among present-day Japanese.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A comprehensive study of worldwide Y-DNA diversity (Underhill "et al." 2000) included a sample of 23 males from Japan, of whom eight (35%) belonged to haplogroup D-M174, six (26%) belonged to O-M175, five (22%) belonged to O-M122, three (13%) belonged to C-M8 and C-M130, and one (4.3%) belonged to N-M128.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Among 259 males from Japan (70 from Tokushima, 61 from Shizuoka, 53 from Kyūshū, 45 from Okinawa, 26 from Aomori, and 4 Ainus) whose Y-DNA has been examined in a 2005 study by Michael F. Hammer, ninety (34.7%) belong to haplogroup D-M55, eighty-two (31.7%) belong to haplogroup O-P31 (including 22% O-47z, 7.7% O-M176(x47z), and 1.9% O-M95(xM111)), fifty-two (20.1%) belong to haplogroup O-M122, fourteen (5.4%) belong to haplogroup C-M8, ten (3.9%) belong to haplogroup NO-M214(xO-M175) (including 2.3% NO-M214(xO-M175, N-LLY22g), 1.2% haplogroup N-LLY22g(xM128, P43, M178), and 0.4% haplogroup N-M178), and eight (3.1%) belong to haplogroup C-M217 (including 1.9% haplogroup C-M217(xM86) and 1.2% haplogroup C-M86).


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The patrilines belonging to D-P37.1 were found in all the Japanese samples, but were more frequently found in Okinawa (55.6%) samples and less frequently found in the Tokushima (25.7%) and Kyūshū samples (26.4%). Haplogroups O-M175 and C-M8 were not found in the small Ainu sample of four individuals, and C-M217 was not found in the Okinawa sample of 45 individuals. Haplogroup N was detected in samples of Japanese from Aomori (2/26 N-LLY22g(xM128, P43, M178)), Shizuoka (1/61 N-LLY22g(xM128, P43, M178)), and Tokushima (1/70 N-M178), but was not found in the Kyūshū, Okinawa, or Ainu samples. This study, and others, report that Y-chromosome patrilines crossed from the Asian mainland into the Japanese archipelago, and continue to make up a large proportion of the Japanese male lineage. If focusing haplogroup O-P31 in those researches, the patrilines derived from its subclade O-SRY465 are frequently found in both Japanese (mean 32%, with frequency in various samples ranging from 26% to 36%) and Koreans (mean 30%, with frequency in various samples ranging from 19% to 40%). According to the research, these patrilines have undergone extensive genetic admixture with the Jōmon period populations previously established in Japan.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A 2007 study by Nonaka "et al." reported that among a total of 263 healthy unrelated Japanese male individuals born in 40 of the 47 prefectures of Japan, but especially Tokyo ("n"=51), Chiba ("n"=45), Kanagawa ("n"=14), Saitama ("n"=13), Shizuoka ("n"=12), and Nagano ("n"=11), the frequencies of the D2, O2b, and O3 lineages were 38.8%, 33.5%, and 16.7%, respectively, which constituted approximately 90% of the Japanese population. Haplogroup diversity for the binary polymorphisms was calculated to be 86.3%.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Poznik "et al." (2016) have reported that the males in the JPT (Japanese in Tokyo, Japan) sample of the 1000 Genomes Project are 20/56 = 36% D2-M179, 18/56 = 32% O2b-M176, 10/56 = 18% O3-M122, 4/56 = 7.1% C1a1-M8, 2/56 = 3.6% O2a-K18, and 2/56 = 3.6% C2-M217.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: In a project approved by the Ethics Committee of Tokai University School of Medicine, Ochiai "et al." (2016) have reported finding D-M174 (rs2032602 T>C) in 24/59 (40.7%), O-M268 (rs13447443 A>G) in 21/59 (35.6%), C-M130 (rs35284970 C>T) in 8/59 (13.6%), O-P198 (rs17269816 T>C) in 4/59 (6.8%), N-M231 (rs9341278 G>A) in 1/59 (1.7%), and O-P186(xM268, P198) (rs16981290 C>A, rs13447443 A, rs17269816 T) in 1/59 (1.7%) of a sample obtained through buccal swabs from Japanese male volunteers ("n" = 59) who had given informed consent to participate in the study.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: According to an analysis of the 1000 Genomes Project's sample of Japanese collected in the Tokyo metropolitan area, the mtDNA haplogroups found among modern Japanese include D (42/118 = 35.6%, including 39/118 = 33.1% D4 and 3/118 = 2.5% D5), B (16/118 = 13.6%, including 11/118 = 9.3% B4 and 5/118 = 4.2% B5), M7 (12/118 = 10.2%), G (12/118 = 10.2%), N9 (10/118 = 8.5%), F (9/118 = 7.6%), A (8/118 = 6.8%), Z (4/118 = 3.4%), M9 (3/118 = 2.5%), and M8 (2/118 = 1.7%).


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A 2011 SNP consortium study done by the Chinese Academy of Sciences and Max Planck Society consisting of 1719 DNA samples determined that Koreans and Japanese clustered near to each other, confirming the findings of an earlier study that Koreans and Japanese are related.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A 2008 study about genome-wide SNPs of East Asians by Chao Tian "et al." reported that Japanese along with other East Asians such as Joseon Koreans and Han Chinese are genetically distinguishable from Southeast Asians Another study (2017) shows a relative strong relation between all East and Southeast Asians.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Hideo Matsumoto, professor emeritus at Osaka Medical College tested Gm types, genetic markers of immunoglobulin G, of Japanese populations for a 2009 study. According to this study, the Gm ab3st gene is found at notably high frequencies across eastern Siberia, northern China, Korea, Mongolia, Japan, and Tibet. The mean frequency of Gm ab3st for the mainstream Japanese population was found to be 26.0%, with a peak in the Yaeyama Islands (36.4% Yonaguni, 32.1% Ishigaki) among all populations in Japan and peaks in Akita (29.5%) and Shizunai (28.3%) among mainstream Japanese. On mainland Asia, peak frequencies of Gm ab3st were found among Oroqen (44.0%) and Tungus (30.0%) in northeast China and among the north Baikal Buryats (30.7%); however, this gene is also frequent among Eskimos (25.4% Alaska, 24.7% Greenland, 20.5% Chaplin, Russia), Luoravetlans (Koryak 20.0%, Chukchi 15.3%), and Athabaskans (New Mexico Apache 19.7%, Alaska Athabascan 14.3%), and it is not uncommon even as far west as the south shore of the Caspian Sea (8.8% Gilani, 8.5% Mazanderani). Minimum frequencies of Gm ab3st were found in Yakushima (22.0%) among all populations in Japan and in Tsu (23.3%) and Ōita (23.6%) among mainstream Japanese. The data from small, isolated island populations, such as those of Yonaguni, Ishigaki, and Yakushima, were not used when calculating the mean for the mainstream Japanese population. The study also considered Ainu and Korean populations and found Gm ab3st with a frequency of 25.2% among Ainu in Hidaka, Hokkaido and a mean frequency of 14.5% (range 13.1% Pusan, South Korea to 18.6% Yanji, China) among Koreans.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Gm afb1b3, on the other hand, is a southern marker gene possibly originating in southern China on the background of the fb1b3 gene (the modal Gm type among Caucasoids) and found at very high frequencies across southern China, Southeast Asia, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Assam, and the Pacific Islands. Professor Matsumoto has remarked that the center of dispersal of the Gm afb1b3 gene may be in the Yunnan and Guangxi area of southern China; extremely high frequencies of this gene have been observed in samples of mostly Daic peoples from this region (95.2% Shui in Sandu, Guizhou, 94.2% Zhuang in Guangxi, 91.4% Bouyei in Duyun, Guizhou, 87.5% Miao in Guizhou, 84.0% Dai in Luxi, Yunnan) and from neighboring Laos (97.0% Laotian) and Thailand (89.9% Thai). However, Gm afb1b3 is almost equally common among people in Malaysia (97.3% Kadazan on Borneo, 85.0% Malay), Indonesia (76.6% Sulawesi, 75.2% Java), the Philippines (83.6% Luzon Filipinos, 76.4% Luzon Negritos, 67.2% Mindanao Negritos), Karen people in Thailand (82.3%), Kacharis in Assam (80.9%), Cambodians (76.7%), Taiwanese aborigines (76.2%), Micronesians (88.7%), Melanesians (74.6%), and Polynesians (74.7% Cook Islands, 69.4% Hawaii). The study found that the mean frequency of Gm afb1b3 was 10.6% (range 7.8% Shizunai to 13.0% Osaka) for the general Japanese population. Minimum frequencies (4.0% to 4.4%) of Gm afb1b3 were found among the native people in the Yaeyama and Miyako islands in the extreme south of Japan and among the Ainu (4.3%) in the extreme north of Japan. The author suggested that the somewhat elevated frequency of the Gm afb1b3 gene among the mainstream Japanese compared to the Sakishima islanders and the Ainu may have resulted from some admixture of the mainstream Japanese population at rates as low as 7–8% with southern Asian (from southern China or Southeast Asia as far west as Bangladesh and Nepal) populations having the Gm afb1b3 gene in high frequency.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The other Gm types observed among Japanese are ag (45.8%) and axg (17.6%), which are not so useful for discerning human migrations and genetic relationships because they appear to be retained from a common ancestor of most modern humans and are found in similar proportions (with the frequency of ag being significantly greater than the frequency of axg) in many populations all over the world (aboriginal Australians and Americans, South Asians, Caucasoids, "etc.").


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A 2017 study conducted by Fumihiko Takeuchi, Tomohiro Katsuya, Ryosuke Kimura, and Norihiro Kato compared three genetically distinct Japanese groups, Hondu (Honshu), Ryukyu and Ainu to 26 other Asian populations to analyze the shared ancestry and genetic differentiation between the Japanese people and other Asians. The study revealed for the Japanese as a whole, some genetic components from all of the Central, East, Southeast and South Asian populations are prevalent in the Japanese population with the major components of ancestry profile coming from the Korean and Han Chinese clusters. The major components of the Japanese Hondo cluster are similar to the Korean (87–94%), followed by Han Chinese 1 (0–8%) clusters. The genetic components from the Southeast Asian (Thais, Vietnamese and Malays) and South Asian (Sinhalese and Tamils) clusters were larger for the Ryukyu cluster – Southeast Asian (4–6%) and South Asian (4–6%) – in comparison to the results found in the Hondo cluster – Southeast Asian (0–1%) and South Asian (1–2%).


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: An independent research conducted by director Kenichi Shinoda and his team at National Museum of Nature and Science in 2018 was broadcast on NHK Science ZERO and it also verified that genetically, the modern day Japanese are extremely close to the modern day Koreans.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Genetic distance measurements from a large scale genetic study from 2021 titled 'Genomic insights into the formation of human populations in East Asia', Japanese are genetically closest to Koreans with 91% of their genetic makeup being derived from the group and the remaining from the Jōmon people.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Recent research suggests that the historical Ainu culture originated from a merger of the Okhotsk culture with the Satsumon culture, cultures thought to have derived from the diverse Jōmon-period cultures of the Japanese archipelago. According to Lee and Hasegawa of the Waseda University, the direct ancestors of the later Ainu people formed during the late Jōmon period from the combination of the local but diverse population of Hokkaido, long before the arrival of contemporary Japanese people. Lee and Hasegawa suggest that the Ainu language expanded from northern Hokkaido and may have originated from a relative more recent Northeast Asian/Okhotsk population, which established themselves in northern Hokkaido and had significant impact on the formation of Hokkaido's Jōmon culture.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Recently in 2021, it was confirmed that the Hokkaido Jōmon people formed from "Jōmon tribes of Honshu" and from "Terminal Upper-Paleolithic people" (TUP people) indigenous to Hokkaido and Paleolithic Northern Eurasia. The Honshu Jōmon groups arrived about 15,000 BC and merged with the indigenous "TUP people" to form the Hokkaido Jōmon. The Ainu in turn formed from the Hokkaido Jōmon and from the Okhotsk people.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Studies of polymorphisms in the human Y-chromosome have so far produced evidence to suggest that the Korean people have a long history as a distinct, mostly endogamous ethnic group, with successive waves of people moving to the peninsula and three major Y-chromosome haplogroups. The reference population for Koreans used in Geno 2.0 Next Generation is 94% Eastern Asia and 5% Southeast Asia & Oceania.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Koreans are generally considered a Northeast Asian group. Koreans are overall more similar to northeast Asians than to southeast Asians. This conclusion would be expected from the general correlation between genetic variation and geography observed for human populations, and is supported here by an examination of individual mtDNA haplogroups, genetic distances between populations derived from mtDNA or Y-chromosomal data, and the apportionment of genetic diversity between different groups of populations.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Studies of classical genetic markers showed that Koreans tend to have a close genetic affinity with Mongolians among East Asians. Ancient genome comparisons revealed that the genetic makeup of Koreans can be best described as an admixture of an Northern hunter-gatherer component as well as that of a influx of rice-farming agriculturalists from the Yangtze river valley, which in turn are often linked to O2-M122 and is largely male-biased. Another study concludes however that O2b*-SRY465 and O2b1-47z had an "in situ" origin among Northeast Asians, particularly among the prehistoric Koreans, rather than in southern China or Southeast Asia as previously envisaged. The combination of the O2b initial settlement (which became an indigenous proto-Korean component) in part with the relatively recent O3 and C3 lineages (which include a Chinese component) explains some of the main events formulating the current Y chromosome composition of the Korean population. This is supported by archeological, historical and linguistic evidence, which suggest that the direct ancestors of Koreans were proto-Koreans who inhabited the northeastern region of China and the Korean Peninsula during the Neolithic (8,000-1,000 BC) and Bronze (1,500-400 BC) Ages. The results from the findings in the Devil's Gate showed that the ancient populations of the area were already admixed from various sources.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Linguistically, Korean shows similarities to Ainu, Nivkh and most "Altaic" languages, while those with Japanese are explained through a more recent convergence starting from the Yayoi period. Those groups correlate closely to modern-day Koreans and Japanese, who form a cluster in regional comparisons, along with various Tungusic groups, such as the Ulchi, Hezhen and Oroqen. Using modern Japanese as a indicator, who show a clear signal towards modern-day populations from Taiwan, southern China, and Vietnam, the southern component of Koreans could be established. A high level of genetic continuity in the region over at least the last 7700 years can be observed. Modern populations still rely on a number of hunter-gatherer-fisher practices and the cold climatic conditions likely provide an explanation for the apparent continuity and lack of major genetic turnover by exogenous farming populations, as has been documented in the case of southeast and central Europe.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: One plausibility is that local hunter-gatherers progressively added food-producing practices to their original lifestyle. East Asians, including Northern groups and Southern ones are closer related to another than other population groups and can trace themselves to a common ancestry from several tens of thousands of years ago.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Jin Han-jun et al. (2003) said that the distribution of Y-chromosomal haplogroups shows that Koreans have a complex origin that results from genetic contributions from range expansions, most of which are from a southern-to-northern region in the continent, and genetic contributions from the northern Asian settlement.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The most common Y-DNA haplogroup among present-day Koreans is Haplogroup O-M122 (O2, formerly O3), which is a very ancient (formed 34,042


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: [95% CI 32,387 <-> 35,708] years before present, TMRCA 24,824 [95% CI 23,125 <-> 26,538] years before present according to Karmin "et al." 2015) and frequently observed Y-DNA haplogroup among East and Southeast Asians in general. Haplogroup O2-M122 has been found in approximately 41% of sampled Korean males, including 23/79 = 29.1% Korean Chinese, 29/85 = 34.1% Korean (collected in Seoul by the Catholic University of Korea), 16/45 = 35.6% Korean, 109/300 = 36.3% unrelated Korean males obtained from the National Biobank of Korea, 31/84 = 36.9% Gyeongsang, 24/63 = 38.1% Gangwon, 17/43 = 39.5% Korean (Korea), 10/25 = 40.0% Korean (China), 30/75 = 40.0% Korea, 55/133 = 41.4% Daejeon, 23/55 = 41.8% Korean from the KoVariome database, 65/154 = 42.2% Korean, 242/573 = 42.2% Seoul, 39/90 = 43.3% Jeolla, 38/87 = 43.7% Jeju, 102/216 = 47.2% Seoul & Daejeon, 36/72 = 50.0% Chungcheong, 56/110 = 50.9% Seoul-Gyeonggi.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The second most common Y-DNA haplogroup among present-day Koreans is Haplogroup O-M176 (O1b2, formerly O2b), a clade that probably has spread mainly from somewhere in the Korean Peninsula or its vicinity. Haplogroup O1b2-M176 has been found in approximately 31% of sampled Korean males (including 31/154 = 20.1% Korean, 58/216 = 26.9% Seoul & Daejeon, 12/43 = 27.9% Koreans in Korea, 7/25 = 28.0% Koreans in China, 31/110 = 28.2% Seoul-Gyeonggi, 25/84 = 29.8% Gyeongsang, 22/72 = 30.6% Chungcheong, 28/90 = 31.1% Jeolla, 14/45 = 31.1% O-M175(xO1a-M119, O2a1-M95, O3-M122) Korean, 181/573 = 31.6% Seoul, 28/87 = 32.2% Jeju, 28/85 = 32.9% Korean (collected in Seoul by the Catholic University of Korea), 45/133 = 33.8% Daejeon, 28/75 = 37.3% Korea, 113/300 = 37.7% unrelated Korean males obtained from the National Biobank of Korea, 25/63 = 39.7% Gangwon, 38/79 = 48.1% Korean Chinese).


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Korean males also exhibit a moderate frequency (approximately 15%) of Haplogroup C-M217. About 2% of Korean males belong to Haplogroup D-M174 (0/216 = 0.0% DE-YAP, 3/300 = 1.0% DE-M145, 1/68 = 1.5% DE-YAP(xE-SRY4064), 8/506 = 1.6% D1b-M55, 3/154 = 1.9% DE, 18/706 = 2.55% D-M174, 5/164 = 3.0% D-M174, 1/75 D1b*-P37.1(xD1b1-M116.1) + 2/75 D1b1a-M125(xD1b1a1-P42) = 3/75 = 4.0% D1b-P37.1, 3/45 = 6.7% D-M174). The D1b-M55 subclade has been found with maximal frequency in a small sample (n=16) of the Ainu people of Japan, and is generally frequent throughout the Japanese Archipelago. Other haplogroups that have been found less commonly in samples of Korean males are Y-DNA haplogroup N-M231 (approx. 4%), haplogroup O-M119 (approx. 3%), haplogroup O-M268(xM176) (approx. 2%), haplogroup Q-M242 and Haplogroup R1 (approx. 2% total), J, Y*(xA, C, DE, J, K), L, C-RPS4Y(xM105, M38, M217), and C-M105.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Korea Foundation Associate Professor of History, Eugene Y. Park, said that there is no correlation between a Korean person's Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup and their surname or ancestral seat.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: He Miao et al. (2009) created an artificial combination of equal parts of the Y-chromsomes of the HapMap samples of Han Chinese in Beijing and Japanese in Tokyo. The study said that this artificial combination resembled five populations which included Koreans in South Korea and Koreans in China.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Studies of Korean mitochondrial DNA lineages have shown that there is a high frequency of Haplogroup D4, ranging from approximately 23% (11/48) among ethnic Koreans in Arun Banner, Inner Mongolia to approximately 32% (33/103) among Koreans from South Korea. Haplogroup D4 is the modal mtDNA haplogroup among northern East Asians (Japanese, Ryukyuans, Koreans, Manchus, Tuoba Xianbei, Oroqens, Manchurian Evenks, Daurs, Mongols, northern Han Chinese, Tibetans) in general, with a peak frequency among Japanese and Ryukyuans in Japan. Haplogroup B, which occurs very frequently in many populations of Southeast Asia, Polynesia, and the Americas, is found in approximately 10% (5/48 ethnic Koreans from Arun Banner, Inner Mongolia) to 20% (21/103 Koreans from South Korea) of Koreans. Haplogroup A has been detected in approximately 7% (7/103 Koreans from South Korea) to 15% (7/48 ethnic Koreans from Arun Banner, Inner Mongolia) of Koreans. Haplogroup A is the most common mtDNA haplogroup among the Chukchi, Eskimo, Na-Dene, and many Amerind ethnic groups of North and Central America.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The other half of the Korean mtDNA pool consists of an assortment of various haplogroups, each found with relatively low frequency, such as G, N9, Y, F, D5, M7, M8, M9, M10, M11, R11, C, and Z.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Hwan Young Lee "et al." (2006) studied a sample of 694 Koreans and found the following mtDNA distribution: 32.56% (226/694) D (including 188/694 = 27.09% D4, 37/694 = 5.33% D5, and 1/694 = 0.14% D6a), 14.84% (103/694) B (including 23/694 = 3.31% B4a, 22/694 = 3.17% B4b, 20/694 = 2.88% B5b, 12/694 = 1.73% B4c, 12/694 = 1.73% B4*, 10/694 = 1.44% B5a, 2/694 = 0.29% B4d, and 2/694 = 0.29% B4f), 9.65% (67/694) G (including 27/694 = 3.89% G2a, 18/694 = 2.59% G1a, 11/694 = 1.59% G3, 9/694 = 1.30% G*, 1/694 = 0.14% G2c, and 1/694 = 0.14% G4), 8.79% (61/694) A (including 23/694 = 3.31% A5a, 3/694 = 0.43% A5b, 3/694 = 0.43% A5c, 25/694 = 3.60% A4, and 7/694 = 1.01% A(xA4, A5)), 8.36% (58/694) F, 8.21% (57/694) N9 (including 18/694 = 2.59% N9a2a, 11/694 = 1.59% N9a2*, 11/694 = 1.59% N9a1, 9/694 = 1.30% Y1b, 4/694 = 0.58% N9a*, 2/694 = 0.29% N9b, and 2/694 = 0.29% Y2), 7.78% (54/694) M7 (including 25/694 = 3.60% M7b, 20/694 = 2.88% M7c, and 9/694 = 1.30% M7a), 4.76% (33/694) M8'CZ (including 17/694 = 2.45% C, 7/694 = 1.01% M8a, 7/694 = 1.01% Z, and 2/694 = 0.29% pre-Z), 1.87% (13/694) M9, 1.73% (12/694) M10, 0.72% (5/694) M11, 0.29% (2/694) R11, 0.14% (1/694) R9b, 0.14% (1/694) M12, and 0.14% (1/694) M*.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Derenko "et al." (2007) examined a sample of 103 Koreans from South Korea and found that they belonged to the following mtDNA haplogroups: 39.8% D (including 32.0% D4 and 7.8% D5), 20.4% B (including 12.6% B4 and 7.8% B5), 9.7% M7, 6.8% A (including 3.9% A5 and 2.9% A4(xA2, A8)), 6.8% G (including 2.9% G2a, 1.9% G1, and 1.9% G3), 4.9% F1, 4.9% M8a2, 2.9% N9a, 1.9% M9a, 1.0% C(xC1, C4, C5), and 1.0% Y.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A study of the mtDNA of 708 Koreans sampled from six regions of South Korea (134 from Seoul-Gyeonggi, 118 from Jeolla, 117 from Chungcheong, 114 from Gangwon, 113 from Jeju, and 112 from Gyeongsang) found that they belonged to haplogroup D (35.5%, including 14.7% D4(xD4a, D4b), 7.8% D4a, 6.5% D5, 6.4% D4b, and 0.14% D(xD4, D5)), haplogroup B (14.8%, including 11.0% B4 and 3.8% B5), haplogroup A (8.3%), haplogroup M7 (7.6%), haplogroup F (7.1%), haplogroup M8'CZ (6.5%), haplogroup G (6.1%), haplogroup N9a (5.2%), haplogroup Y (3.8%), haplogroup M9 (2.7%), haplogroup M10 (1.6%), haplogroup M11 (0.42%), haplogroup N(xN9, Y, A, F, B4, B5) (0.28%), and haplogroup N9(xN9a) (0.14%).


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: A study of 1094 individuals in the Korean Genome Project found that they belonged to haplogroup D (34.19%), haplogroup B (13.89%), haplogroup M(xC, D, G, Z) (13.8%), haplogroup A (8.32%), haplogroup G (8.23%), haplogroup F (7.86%), haplogroup N(xA, B, F, R, Y) (5.76%), haplogroup C (3.02%), haplogroup R(xB, F) (2.01%), haplogroup Y (1.74%), and haplogroup Z (1.19%). The individuals sampled for the Korean Genome Project are mostly from the Ulsan metropolitan region.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Jin Han-jun et al. (1999) said that based on genetic studies of classic genetic markers of protein and nuclear DNA, Koreans tend to be closely genetically related to Mongols among East Asians, which is supported by the following studies: Goedde et al. (1987); Saha & Tay (1992); Hong et al. (1993); and Nei & Roychoudhury (1993). The study said that the mtDNA 9‐bp deletion frequency in the intergenic "COII/tRNA" region of Mongols (5.1%) is lower than that of Chinese (14.2%), Japanese (14.3%) and Koreans (15.5%). The study said that these 9‐bp deletion frequencies suggest that Koreans are closely related to Japanese and Chinese and that Koreans are not so closely related to Mongols. The study said that the homogeneity in the 9-bp deletion frequencies among Chinese (14.2%), Japanese (14.3%), and Koreans (15.5%), only spanning from a low of 14.2% for Chinese to a high of 15.5% for Koreans, indicates that very few mtDNA are differentiated in these three populations. The study said that the 9‐bp deletion frequencies for Vietnamese (23.2%) and Indonesians (25.0%), which are the two populations constituting Mongoloid Southeast Asians in the study, are relatively high frequencies when compared to the 9-bp deletion frequencies for Mongols(5.1%), Chinese (14.2%), Japanese (14.3%) and Koreans (15.5%), which are the four populations constituting Northeast Asians in the study. The study said that these 9-bp deletion frequencies are consistent with earlier surveys which showed that 9-bp deletion frequencies increase going from Japan to mainland Asia to the Malay Peninsula, which is supported by the following studies: Horai et al. (1987); Hertzberg et al. (1989); Stoneking & Wilson (1989); Horai (1991); Ballinger et al. (1992); Hanihara et al. (1992); and Chen et al. (1995). The study said that Cavalli-Sforza's chord genetic distance (4D), from Cavalli-Sforza & Bodmer (1971), which is based on the allele frequencies of the intergenic "COII/tRNA" region, showed that Koreans are more genetically related to Japanese than Koreans are genetically related to the other East Asian populations which were surveyed. The Cavalli-Sforza's chord genetic distance (4D) between Koreans and other East Asian populations in the study, from least to greatest, are as follows: Korean to Japanese (0.0019), Korean to Chinese (0.0141), Korean to Vietnamese (0.0265), Korean to Indonesian (0.0316) and Korean to Mongols (0.0403). The study said that the close genetic affinity between present-day Koreans and Japanese is expected due to the Yayoi migration from China and the Korean Peninsula to Japan which began about 2,300 years ago, a migration that is supported by the following studies: Chard (1974); Hanihara (1991); Hammer & Horai (1995); Horai et al. (1996); Omoto & Saitou (1997). The study said that Horai et al. (1996) detected mtDNA D-loop variation which supports the idea that a large amount of maternal lineages came into Japan from immigrants from the Korean Peninsula after the Yayoi period.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Wook et al. (2000) said that Chu et al. (1998) found that phylogeny which was based on 30 microsatellites indicated that Korean people were closely related to Chinese people from Manchuria and Yunnan, but Kim Wook et al. (2000) found that the high incidence of the DXYS156Y-null variant in northeast Chinese implied that it is possible to exclude these northeastern Chinese populations from being sources which are significant in Korean people. The phylogenetic analysis done by Wook et al. (2000) indicated that Japanese people are genetically closer to Korean people than Japanese people are genetically related to any of the following peoples: Mongolians, Chinese, Vietnamese, Indonesians, Filipinos, and Thais. The study said that mainland Japanese having Koreans as their closest genetic population is consistent with the following previous studies: Hammer and Horai (1995); Horai et al. (1996); and Kim et al. (1998). The study found that Koreans are more genetically homogenous than the Japanese, and the study said that this might be due to different sizes of the founding populations and range expansions. The study said that the moderate mean Y-chromosome haplotype diversity value for Koreans might be the result of migrations from East Asia that had a homogenizing influence.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Kim Jong-jin et al. (2005) did a study about the genetic relationships among East Asians based on allele frequencies, particularly focusing on how close Chinese, Japanese and Koreans are genetically related to each other. Most Koreans were hard to distinguish from Japanese, and the study was not able to clearly distinguish Koreans and Japanese. Koreans and Japanese clustered together in the principal component analysis and the best least-squares tree. The study said that ""[c]ommon ancestry and/or extensive gene flow"" historically between Koreans and Japanese appears to be ""likely"" and results in a lot of difficulty finding population-specific alleles that could assist in differentiating Koreans and Japanese.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Jung Jongsun et al. (2010) used the following Korean samples for a study: Southeast Korean (sample regions: Gyeongju, Goryeong and Ulsan), Middle West Korean (sample regions: Jecheon, Yeoncheon, Cheonan and Pyeongchang) and Southwest Korean (sample regions: Gimje, Naju and Jeju). Due to political reasons, the study said that it did not use North Korean samples, but the study said that the ""historical migration event of Baekje from Goguryeo Empire (BC 37–AD 668) in Northern Korea imply that Northern lineages remain in South Korea."" The study said that the ""Northern people of the Goguryeo Empire"" are closely related to Mongolians, and the study said that this group of people ruled most of Southwest Korea. The study said that ""some of the royal families and their subjects in the Goguryeo Empire moved to this region and formed the Baekje Empire in BC 18–22."" Southwest Koreans are closer to Mongolians in the study's genome map than the other two Korean regions in the study are close to Mongolians. Southwest Koreans also display genetic connections with the HapMap sample of Japanese in Tokyo, and, in the neighbor joining tree, the nodes for Southwest Korea is close to Japan. In the study's Korea-China-Japan genome map, some Southwest Korean samples overlap with samples from Japan. The study said that the fairly close relationship, in both the study's genetic structure analysis and genome map, of the Jeju Southwest Korean sample and the HapMap sample of Japanese in Tokyo, Japan, has made the evolutionary relationship of Chinese, Japanese and Koreans become clearer. Southeast Koreans display some genetic similarities with people of Kobe, Japan, which indicates that there might have been links between these regions. The study said that it is possible that outliers in the Gyeongju sample, one of the sampled Southeast Korean regions, and outliers in the Kobe, Japan, sample both have Siberian lineage due to Southeast Koreans having connections with Siberian lineages with respect to grave patterns and culture. The overall result for the study's Korea-Japan-China genome map indicates that some signals for Siberia remain in Southeast Korea. In contrast to the Gyeongju sample, the Goryeong and Ulsan samples, which are both Southeast Korean samples, displayed average signals for the Korean Peninsula. The study said that Middle West Korea was a melting pot in the Korean Peninsula with people traveling from North to South, South to North, and people traveling from East China, including from the Shandong Peninsula. Western Chinese, which included those in the Shandong Peninsula, travelled across the Yellow Sea, and these Western Chinese lived and traded in both China and Korea. In the study's genome map, Middle West Koreans are close to the HapMap sample of Han Chinese in Beijing and, in the neighbor joining tree, the nodes for Middle West Korea is close to China. The overall result for the study's Korea-Japan-China genome map indicates that Middle West Korea displays an average signal for South Korea. Chinese people are located between Korean and Vietnamese people in the study's genome map.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Kim Young-jin and Jin Han-jun (2013) said that principal component analysis had Korean HapMap samples clustering with neighboring East Asian populations which were geographically nearby them such as the Chinese and Japanese. The study said that Koreans are genetically closely related to Japanese in comparison to Koreans' genetic relatedness to other East Asians which included the following East and Southeast Asian peoples: Tujia, Miao, Daur, She, Mongols, Naxi, Cambodians, Oroqen, Yakuts, Yi, Southern Han Chinese, Northern Han Chinese, Hezhen, Xibo, Lahu, Dai and Tu. The study said that the close genetic relatedness of Koreans to Japanese has been reported in the following previous studies: Kivisild et al. (2002); Jin et al. (2003); Jin et al. (2009); and Underhill and Kivisild (2007). The study said that Jung et al. (2010) said that there is a genetic substructure in Koreans, but the study said that it found Korean HapMap individuals to be highly genetically similar. The study said that Jin et al. (2009) found that Koreans from different populations are not different in a significant way which indicates that Koreans are genetically homogenous. The study said that the affinity of Koreans is predominately Southeast Asian with an estimated admixture of 79% Southeast Asian and 21% Northeast Asian Koreans, but the study said that this does not mean that Koreans are heterogenous, because all of the Koreans which were analyzed uniformly displayed a dual pattern of Northeast Asian and Southeast Asian origins. The study said that Koreans and Japanese displayed no observable difference between each other in their proportion of Southeast Asian and Northeast Asian admixture. The study said the 79% Southeast Asian and 21% Northeast Asian admixture estimate for Koreans is consistent with the interpretation of Jin et al. (2009) that Koreans descend from a Northeast Asian population which was subsequently followed by a male-centric migration from the southern region of Asia which changed both the autosomal composition and Y-chromosomes in the Korean population.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Veronika Siska et al. (2017) said that the Ulchi people are genetically closest in the study's panel to the human remains from the Devil's Gate Cave which are dated to about 7,700 years ago. Modern Korean and Japanese, the Oroqen people and the Hezhen people display a high affinity to the human remains from Devil's Gate Cave. Considering the geographic distance of Amerindians from Devil's Gate Cave, Amerindians are unusually genetically close to the human remains from Devil's Gate Cave. Korean genomes display similar traits to Japanese genomes on genome-wide SNP data. In an admixture analysis, when the genes of Devil's Gate are made into a unique genetic component, this new Devil's Gate genetic component is highest in peoples of the Amur Basin, including Ulchi, and makes up more than 50% of Koreans and Japanese. It also has a sporadic distribution among other East Asians, Central Asians and Southeast Asians.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Hideo Matsumoto, professor emeritus at Osaka Medical College, tested Gm types, genetic markers of immunoglobulin G, of Korean populations for a 2009 study. The Korean populations were populations in Jeju Island, Busan, Gwangju, Kongsan, Jeonju, Wonju, the Kannung of South Korea and a Korean population in Yanji. Matsumoto said that the Gm ab3st gene is a marker for northern Mongoloid possibly originating in Siberia and found at high frequencies across northeast Asia and Tibet. Matsumoto said that the average frequency of Gm ab3st for Koreans was 14.5% which was intermediate between an average frequency of 26% for general Japanese and a frequency of 11.7% which was for a Han Chinese population in Beijing. Matsumoto said that Gm afb1b3 is a southern marker gene possibly originating in southern China and found at high frequencies across Southeast Asia, southern China, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Assam, and parts of the Pacific. However, given the result that the Okinawans being genetically most northern among the Japanese with the highest frequency of the Gm ab3st gene which is assigned to be "northern", the term "northern" and "southern" used in his study is controversial. Matsumoto said that the average frequency of Gm afb1b3 for Koreans was 14.7% which was intermediate between a frequency of 10.6% for general Japanese and a frequency of 24.1% for Beijing Han Chinese. Matsumoto said that Koreans displayed the northern Mongoloid pattern, but Matsumoto said that Koreans displayed a higher frequency of the southern marker gene, Gm afb1b3, than the Japanese. Matsumoto said that ""Japanese and Korean populations were originally identical or extremely close to each other"", and Matsumoto said, ""It seemed to be during the formation of the contemporary Korean population that such a Gm pattern intermediate between Japanese and the northern Han in China emerged."" Matsumoto said that the different Gm patterns between Japanese and Koreans most likely came about from frequent inflows of Chinese and/or northern populations into the Korean Peninsula.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The Mongols are an ethnic group in northern China, Mongolia, parts of Siberia and Western Asia. They are believed to be the descendants of the Xianbei and the proto-Mongols. The former term includes the Mongols proper (also known as the Khalkha Mongols), Oirats, the Kalmyk people and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols, Abaganar, Aohans, Baarins, Gorlos Mongols, Jalaids, Jaruud, Khishigten, Khuuchid, Muumyangan and Onnigud. The Daur people are descendants of the para-Mongolic Khitan people. Mongolians are also related to the Manchurians.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The majority of Mongolians belong to the y-DNA Haplogroup C-M217. Haplogroup C-M217 among the Mongols is characterized by a diversity that dates back to the very origin of haplogroup C-M217 (TMRCA 33,900 [95% CI 31,300 <-> 36,500] ybp) and very shallow diversity in each of the frequently observed subclades: C-M504 (TMRCA 2,900 [95% CI 2,200 <-> 3,700] ybp), C-M86 (TMRCA 3,700 [95% CI 3,000 <-> 4,500] ybp), C-M407 (TMRCA 4,400 [95% CI 3,500 <-> 5,200] ybp), and C-F1756 (TMRCA 5,000 [95% CI 4,200 <-> 5,800] ybp). Of these four subclades, C-M407 is phylogenetically extremely divergent from the others, and is more closely related to subclades of C-M217 that are found among present-day Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, and other East and Southeast Asians; however, among Mongols, C-M407 is found most frequently toward the north (among Barghuts and Buryats as well as the neighboring Khamnigans and Soyots) and toward the west (among Dorbet Kalmyks).


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: Haplogroup O-M175 and Haplogroup N-M231 are found at medium rates among present-day Mongols. The subclades of Haplogroup O-M175 that have been observed among Mongols tend to be similar to those found among Han Chinese, whereas the subclades of Haplogroup N-M231 that have been observed among Mongols tend to be similar to those found among Nenets, Nganasans, Khakasses, and Tuvans (N-B478) on the one hand or those found among Chukchi, Koryaks, and Asian Eskimos on the other (N-B197). However, N-M2118, a subclade which is most often noted for its extremely high frequency among present-day populations of Yakutia, has been observed in 21.4% (6/28) of a sample of Kalmyk Khoshut, and N-B525 is also widely observed among Mongols with low frequency. In addition, some members of a wide variety of other Y-DNA haplogroups have been found among present-day Mongols, including Haplogroup Q-M242, Haplogroup R-M207 (Haplogroup R1b-M478, Haplogroup R1b-M269, Haplogroup R1a-M17, Haplogroup R2a-M124), Haplogroup D-M174, Haplogroup J2a-M410, Haplogroup J1-Page8, Haplogroup G1-M285, and Haplogroup I2a2-M436.


title: Genetic history of East Asians

text: The maternal haplogroups are diverse but similar to other northern Asian populations, including Haplogroup D, Haplogroup C, Haplogroup B, and Haplogroup A, which are shared among indigenous American and Asian populations.