title: Puebloans

text: Maize reached the present-day Southwest via an unknown route from Mesoamerica (i.e., present-day Mexico) and was rapidly adopted by peoples in the region. One theory states that maize cultivation was carried northward from central Mexico by migrating farmers, most likely speakers of a Uto-Aztecan language. Another theory, more accepted among scholars, is that between 4300 BCE and 2100 BCE maize was diffused northward from group to group between rather than migrants. There is evidence that maize was initially cultivated in the Southwest during a climatic period when precipitation was relatively high.


title: Puebloans

text: The various Pueblo communities have different traditions regarding the making and decoration of pottery artifacts. Present-day archaeologists date the use of pottery by Puebloans dating back the early centuries of the Common Era.


title: Puebloans

text: In Native communities of the Southwest's belief system, the archetypal deities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of religious stories explore the relationships among people and nature, including plants and animals. Spider Grandmother and kachina spirits figure prominently in some myths.


title: Puebloans

text: Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maizewhite cornmeal. A man might bless his son, or some land, or the town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. After the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering one town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance.


title: Puebloans

text: The Pueblo peoples used ritual 'prayer sticks', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers. These prayer sticks (or 'talking sticks') were similar to those used by other Native American nations. By the 13th century, Puebloans used turkey feather blankets for warmth.


title: Puebloans

text: Religious ceremonies usually feature traditional dances that are held outdoors in the large common areas and courtyards, which are accompanied by singing and drumming. Unlike kiva ceremonies, traditional dances may be open to non-Puebloans. Traditional dances are considered a form of prayer, and strict rules of conduct apply to those who wish to attend one (e.g. no clapping or walking across the dance area or between the dancers, singers, or drummers).


title: Puebloans

text: " Since time immemorial, Pueblo communities have celebrated seasonal cycles through prayer, song, and dance. These dances connect us to our ancestors, community, and traditions while honoring gifts from our Creator. They ensure that life continues and that connections to the past and future are reinforced."Traditionally, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal afterward in a Pueblo home. Because of the numerous outside tourists who have attended these dances in the pueblos since the late 20th century, such meals are now open to outsiders by personal invitation only. Private sacred ceremonies are conducted inside the kivas and only tribal members may participate according to specific rules pertaining to each Pueblo's religion.


title: Puebloans

text: One of the primary goals of Spanish colonists in the 17th Century was the desire to bring Christianity to Natives in New Spain. Franciscan priests had prepared for a long process of conversion, building churches and missions all around Pueblo country. Pueblos' feast days are a product of that process. Feast days are held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint, assigned by Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with one of the people's existing traditional ceremonies. About the imposition of Christianity, Alfonso Ortiz, an Ohkay Owingeh anthropologist and Pueblo specialist states:"The Spanish government demanded labor and tribute from the Pueblos and vigorously attempted to suppress native religion. (...) In that year" [1692] "Diego de Vargas re-entered Pueblo territory, though it was not until 1696 that he gained control over the entire Rio Grande Pueblo area. The Spaniards had learned from the Pueblo Revolt and were gentler in their demands in the next century and a half. However, the Pueblos had learned as well and maintained their ceremonial life out of the view of the Spaniards, while adopting a veneer of Roman Catholicism."


title: Puebloans

text: The public observances may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions on the Pueblo's feast day. Some Pueblos also hold sacred ceremonies around Christmas and at other Christian holidays.


title: Puebloans

text: Although most present-day pueblos are known by their Spanish or anglicized Spanish name, each Pueblo has a unique name in each of the different languages spoken in the area. The names used by each Pueblo to refer to their village ("endonyms") usually differ from those given to them by outsiders (their "exonyms"), including by speakers of other Puebloan languages. Centuries of trade and intermarriages between the groups are reflected in the names given to the same Pueblo in each of the languages. The table below contains the names of the New Mexican pueblos and Hopi using the official or practical orthographies of the languages. Despite not being a Puebloan language, Navajo names are also included due to prolonged contact between them and the several Pueblos.


title: Puebloans

text: With the exception of Zuni, all Puebloan languages, as well as Navajo, are tonal. However, the tone is not usually shown in the spelling of these languages save for Navajo, Towa, and Tewa. In the table above, a low tone is left unmarked in the orthography. Vowel nasalisation is shown by an ogonek diacritic below the vowel; ejective consonants are transcribed with an apostrophe following the consonant. Vowel length is shown either by doubling of the character or, in Zuni, by adding a colon.


title: Confluence (software)

text: Confluence is a web-based corporate wiki developed by Australian software company Atlassian. Atlassian wrote Confluence in the Java programming language and first published it in 2004. Confluence Standalone comes with a built-in Tomcat web server and hsql database, and also supports other databases.


title: Confluence (software)

text: The company markets Confluence as enterprise software, licensed as either on-premises software or software as a service running on AWS.


title: Confluence (software)

text: Atlassian released Confluence 1.0 on March 25, 2004, saying its purpose was to build "an application that was built to the requirements of an enterprise knowledge management system, without losing the essential, powerful simplicity of the wiki in the process."


title: Confluence (software)

text: In recent versions, Confluence has evolved into part of an integrated collaboration platform and has been adapted to work in conjunction with Jira and other Atlassian software products, including Bamboo, Clover, Crowd, Crucible, and Fisheye.


title: Confluence (software)

text: In 2014, Atlassian released Confluence Data Center to add high availability with load balancing across nodes in a clustered setup.


title: Confluence (software)

text: The book "Social Media Marketing for Dummies" in 2007 considered Confluence an "emergent enterprise social software" that was "becoming an established player." "Wikis for Dummies" described it as "one of the most popular wikis in corporate environments," "easy to set up and use," and "an exception to the rule" that wiki software search capabilities don't work well.


title: Confluence (software)

text: eWeek cited in 2011 such new features in version 4 as the auto-formatting and auto-complete, unified wiki and WYSIWYG, social network notifications and drag and drop integration of multimedia files. Use cases include basic enterprise communication, collaboration workspaces for knowledge exchange, social networking, Personal Information Management and project management. German newspaper "Computerwoche" from IDG Business Media compares it to Microsoft SharePoint and finds it "a good starting point" as a platform for social business collaboration, while SharePoint is better suited to companies with more structured processes.


title: Confluence (software)

text: Confluence includes set up CSS templates for styles and formatting for all pages, including those imported from Word documents. Built in search allows queries by date, the page's author, and content type such as graphics.


title: Confluence (software)

text: The tool has add-ons for integration with standard formats, with a flexible programmable API allowing expansion. The software is relevant as an outline tool for requirements that can be linked to tasks in the Jira issue tracker by the same company.


title: Confluence (software)

text: As of version 4.0, in 2011, Confluence ended support for wiki markup language. This led to a sometimes-heated discussion by some previous versions' users who objected to the change. In response, Atlassian provided a source code editor as a plugin, which allows advanced users the ability to edit the underlying XHTML-based document source. However, although the new source markup is XHTML-based, it is not XHTML compliant.


title: Confluence (software)

text: Additionally, wiki markup can be typed into the editor and Confluence's autocomplete and auto-format function converts the wiki markup to the new format. After the real-time conversion, content can not be edited as wiki markup again.


title: Confluence (software)

text: Confluence Cloud data is encrypted in transit and at rest. In June 2022, Atlassian disclosed a zero-day vulnerability in Confluence Server allowing remote code execution, which had been present for over a decade.


title: Confluence (software)

text: There is no standard way of adding captions to images in the server version, but captions can be added to images in the cloud version.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONCACAF–OFC play-off)

text: The 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification CONCACAF–OFC play-off was a single-leg match between the fourth-placed team of the CONCACAF third round, Costa Rica, and the winners from the OFC, New Zealand. Before their identity was known, the winners of the play-off had already been allocated to Group E at the World Cup.


text: The match was played on 14 June 2022 at the Ahmad bin Ali Stadium in Al Rayyan, Qatar. Costa Rica won the match 1–0 to qualify for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar.


text: Both teams had met once, a friendly won 4–0 by Costa Rica at the Ricardo Saprissa stadium on 24 March 2007. Current Costa Rican captain Bryan Ruiz, then 21 years old, scored a goal and gave an assist in that match. He is also the only player from that match to remain active with his national team. Current New Zealand's coach Danny Hay also played that match.


text: The match was the second inter-confederation play-off for Costa Rica, having previously lost 1–2 on aggregate to Uruguay in 2009. Since the OFC had no direct qualification spots, New Zealand reached the intercontinental play-offs for the fourth consecutive time, winning the first (against Bahrain in 2009) and losing the remaining two (against Mexico in 2013 and against Peru in 2017).


text: Costa Rica had a complicated start of the qualifying process. During the first half of the CONCACAF third round, Costa Rica stood fifth at only six points out of twenty-one, five points behind Panama, then the fourth-placed team. The second half of the round began on 16 November 2021; that night, as Costa Rica was drawing a home match against Honduras, their gap against the Panamanians almost increased to seven points; however, a late goal by Gerson Torres gave a crucial victory for the "Ticos", who from then onwards enrolled in an unprecedented comeback, with six victories and one draw that saw them overtaking Panama, ending Canada's undefeated streak, and finishing fourth of the table, with only the goal difference preventing them to overtake the United States for the third place.


text: Marked by several delays due to effects of the COVID-19 pandemic such as travel restrictions that national teams couldn't be able to travel in those countries, the OFC qualification round announced the tournament scheduled to be held in Qatar in March 2022. New Zealand won the tournament and qualified to the play-off match against the CONCACAF fourth-placed team, who was unknown at the time.


text: The group stage draw took place on 1 April 2022, leaving the CONCACAF–OFC play-off winners allocated in Group E, alongside Spain, Japan, and Germany. Later, in May, FIFA revealed the stadium that would host both the AFC vs CONMEBOL and CONCACAF vs OFC play-off matches: the Ahmad bin Ali Stadium. The winners of the CONCACAF vs OFC play-off match are set to return to the stadium at the World Cup to face Japan on 27 November.


text: Three minutes into the match, Joel Campbell received a cross from Jewison Bennette to score the lone goal. At the 39th minute, Chris Wood scored a goal after a poor clearance by Yeltsin Tejeda. However, his goal was nullified as the video assistant referee (VAR) showed that Matthew Garbett had fouled Óscar Duarte instants before the goal. The VAR was also used at the 69th minute, after Kosta Barbarouses, who had been subbed in just nine minutes prior, tackled Francisco Calvo's ankle. Referee Mohammed Abdulla Hassan Mohamed originally showed Barbarouses a yellow card, but after checking the VAR, Hassan changed it to a red card, leaving New Zealand down to ten men for the rest of the match.


text: The refereeing caused frustration in the New Zealand team. Coach Danny Hay said that "FIFA has let us down" because of the relative inexperience of the referees compared to the European officials for the Australia vs Peru match. Former Costa Rican referee Ramón Luis Méndez considered both the goal disallowance and the red card as valid decisions, but questioned why the VAR did not check a foul by Kendall Waston on Chris Wood that should have been a penalty.


title: Bhoomi (2021 film)

text: Bhoomi () is a 2021 Indian Tamil-language action drama film, written and directed by Lakshman. This film is produced by Jayam Ravi's mother-in-law Sujatha Vijayakumar under the production banner Home Movie Makers. The film stars Jayam Ravi and Nidhhi Agerwal, with Ronit Roy and Sathish in supporting roles. The film is set on the backdrop based on agriculture. The soundtrack and background score was composed by D. Imman. This marks the 25th film for Ravi. The film began streaming on Disney+ Hotstar on 14 January 2021 coinciding with Pongal. The film received extremely negative reviews from critics and audiences alike, with criticism for its performances, predictability, script, screenplay and romantic scenes.


title: Bhoomi (2021 film)

text: Bhoominathan is a NASA scientist who discovers that plant life can exist on Mars by adjusting certain anaerobic conditions needed for survival. He is highly praised by his peers for his discovery. While on a one-month vacation in Tamil Nadu, he discovers that his village is affected by drought and the underwater reservoir of his land has been drained away for futile purposes by certain corporations. He's also dismayed to find out that his uncle, who is an agriculturalists, is burdened with farm debts due to the scarcity of water supply in his village. His uncle had tried to sort out this issue rigorously with the local MLA, the district collector and the governing body but in vain, and eventually, he succumbs to the pressure by burning himself. Unable to withstand the grief over the death of his uncle, Bhoominathan vows to avenge Richard Child, the chief of the leading corporate (who is the main villain in this story), by summoning him to the court of law. Still, his attempts go unrecognised before the villain's money and might. However, Bhoominathan decides to fight it out in an intelligent way by gaining the trust of his village people and by starting his own trusted corporate 'Thamizhan' by the village people and the corporate company's former employees, despite facing many obstacles. Finally, he succeeds in his attempts and reclaims and replenishes his land using the knowledge of his hybrid plant technology that he had learnt in the past and saves his land and his people from drought.


title: Bhoomi (2021 film)

text: The film project marks the third collaboration between Jayam Ravi and director Lakshman after "Romeo Juliet" (2015) and "Bogan" (2017). The film also marks the Kollywood debut for Ronit Roy.


title: Bhoomi (2021 film)

text: The film received negative reviews from critics and audiences alike. The film was supposed to have its theatrical release on 1 May 2020 but was indefinitely postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in India. It was later revealed that the theatrical release of the film was called off due to the COVID-19 pandemic and was set to have its direct release in OTT platform. The filmmakers later confirmed that the film would be released via Disney+ Hotstar as a Pongal release on 14 January 2021.


title: Bhoomi (2021 film)

text: Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion South wrote "There’s a great idea, with echoes of the Swadeshi movement, that says farmers should be self-dependent. But if intentions were enough, every movie would be a masterpiece."


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: Vanja Milinković-Savić (, ; born 20 February 1997) is a Serbian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Italian club Torino. Born in Spain, he represents the Serbia national team. His elder brother Sergej Milinković-Savić plays for Lazio.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: After failing to be awarded a UK work permit with English club Manchester United, he was released by the club in November 2015 and signed a contract with Lechia Gdańsk. In 2017 he was signed by Torino.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: On 2 April 2014, Milinković-Savić signed his first professional contract with Vojvodina, penning a three-year deal. On 17 May 2014, it was announced by Manchester United that the club reached an agreement with Vojvodina for the transfer of Milinković-Savić. Both clubs agreed that the player would stay with Vojvodina for one more season. The deal was completed on 5 August 2014, for a transfer fee of €1.75 million.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: Milinković-Savić made his competitive debut for Vojvodina on 10 August 2014, keeping a clean sheet in a 3–0 home league victory over OFK Beograd. He played the full 90 minutes in all 15 league games in the first part of the 2014–15 season. After the winter break, Milinković-Savić lost his place as first-choice goalkeeper to experienced Srđan Žakula, making only two more league appearances.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: After failing to earn a work permit to play in England, Milinković-Savić was released by Manchester United in November 2015 and he signed a four-and-a-half-year contract with Polish club Lechia Gdańsk on 26 November; the contract commenced on 1 January 2016.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: On 30 January 2017, Italian club Torino announced they had purchased him and he would join the club on 1 July. He was the first-choice goalkeeper for the national cup, while being the second choice, behind Salvatore Sirigu, for the Serie A. During the Coppa Italia match against Carpi, he hit the crossbar with a free-kick in injury time.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: Milinković-Savić was selected to represent the Serbia U19 national team at the 2014 UEFA Under-19 Championship. He served as a backup to Predrag Rajković, failing to make an appearance at the tournament, as the team was eliminated by Portugal on penalties in the semi-finals of the competition.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: Milinković-Savić again served as a backup to Rajković at the 2015 FIFA U-20 World Cup, where the Serbian team won the gold medal.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: In November 2022, he was selected in Serbia's squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar. He played in all three group stage matches, against Brazil, Cameroon, and Switzerland. Serbia finished fourth in the group.


title: Vanja Milinković-Savić

text: Milinković-Savić was born in Orense, Spain, to parents Nikola Milinković, who was playing professional football for CD Ourense, and Milana Savić, a professional basketball player. He is the younger brother of midfielder Sergej Milinković-Savić.


title: Elizabeth Dennehy

text: Elizabeth Hannah Dennehy is an American television and film actress, who has appeared in such television series as "Guiding Light", "Seinfeld", "Charmed", and "Without a Trace", and films such as "Clear and Present Danger", "Gattaca", "Soldier", and "Red Dragon".


title: Elizabeth Dennehy

text: Apart from her, Elizabeth has two siblings and sisters named Kathleen Dennehy and Deirdre Dennehy. In addition, she has two more half-sibling brothers and sisters through her father's second marriage to Jennifer Arnott, an Australian in origin. Cormack Dennehy (son) and Sarah Dennehy (daughter).


title: Elizabeth Dennehy

text: Dennehy is the daughter of actor Brian Dennehy. She obtained her acting courses from the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art.


title: Elizabeth Dennehy

text: Dennehy's career began in 1988 when she appeared as Christina "Blake" Lindsey in the TV series drama "Guiding Light". She appeared in the series "" in the two-part episode "The Best of Both Worlds" as Lt. Commander Shelby. In 2017, Den of Geek ranked Dennehy's role as Lt. Commander Shelby as one of the top ten guest star roles on "Star Trek: The Next Generation".


title: Elizabeth Dennehy

text: She has also appeared on the stage, such as playing Stella Kowalski in the 1994 production of "A Streetcar Named Desire" and playing Donna Marsala in, as well as co-creating, the environmental and immersive theater production "Tony n' Tina's Wedding".


title: Negative number

text: In mathematics, a negative number represents an opposite. In the real number system, a negative number is a number that is less than zero. Negative numbers are often used to represent the magnitude of a loss or deficiency. A debt that is owed may be thought of as a negative asset. If a quantity, such as the charge on an electron, may have either of two opposite senses, then one may choose to distinguish between those senses—perhaps arbitrarily—as "positive" and "negative". Negative numbers are used to describe values on a scale that goes below zero, such as the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales for temperature. The laws of arithmetic for negative numbers ensure that the common-sense idea of an opposite is reflected in arithmetic. For example, −(−3) = 3 because the opposite of an opposite is the original value.


title: Negative number

text: Negative numbers are usually written with a minus sign in front. For example, −3 represents a negative quantity with a magnitude of three, and is pronounced "minus three" or "negative three". To help tell the difference between a subtraction operation and a negative number, occasionally the negative sign is placed slightly higher than the minus sign (as a superscript). Conversely, a number that is greater than zero is called "positive"; zero is usually (but not always) thought of as neither positive nor negative. The positivity of a number may be emphasized by placing a plus sign before it, e.g. +3. In general, the negativity or positivity of a number is referred to as its sign.


title: Negative number

text: Every real number other than zero is either positive or negative. The non-negative whole numbers are referred to as natural numbers (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3...), while the positive and negative whole numbers (together with zero) are referred to as integers. (Some definitions of the natural numbers exclude zero.)


title: Negative number

text: In bookkeeping, amounts owed are often represented by red numbers, or a number in parentheses, as an alternative notation to represent negative numbers.


title: Negative number

text: Negative numbers appeared for the first time in history in the "Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art", which in its present form dates from the period of the Chinese Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220), but may well contain much older material. Liu Hui (c. 3rd century) established rules for adding and subtracting negative numbers. By the 7th century, Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta were describing the use of negative numbers. Islamic mathematicians further developed the rules of subtracting and multiplying negative numbers and solved problems with negative coefficients. Prior to the concept of negative numbers, mathematicians such as Diophantus considered negative solutions to problems "false" and equations requiring negative solutions were described as absurd. Western mathematicians like Leibniz (1646–1716) held that negative numbers were invalid, but still used them in calculations.


title: Negative number

text: The relationship between negative numbers, positive numbers, and zero is often expressed in the form of a number line:


title: Negative number

text: Numbers appearing farther to the right on this line are greater, while numbers appearing farther to the left are less. Thus zero appears in the middle, with the positive numbers to the right and the negative numbers to the left.


title: Negative number

text: Note that a negative number with greater magnitude is considered less. For example, even though (positive) is greater than (positive) , written


title: Negative number

text: (Because, for example, if you have £−8, a debt of £8, you would have less after adding, say £10, to it than if you have £−5.)


title: Negative number

text: In the context of negative numbers, a number that is greater than zero is referred to as positive. Thus every real number other than zero is either positive or negative, while zero itself is not considered to have a sign. Positive numbers are sometimes written with a plus sign in front, e.g. denotes a positive three.


title: Negative number

text: Because zero is neither positive nor negative, the term nonnegative is sometimes used to refer to a number that is either positive or zero, while nonpositive is used to refer to a number that is either negative or zero. Zero is a neutral number.


title: Negative number

text: Negative numbers can be thought of as resulting from the subtraction of a larger number from a smaller. For example, negative three is the result of subtracting three from zero:


title: Negative number

text: In general, the subtraction of a larger number from a smaller yields a negative result, with the magnitude of the result being the difference between the two numbers. For example,


title: Negative number

text: The minus sign "−" signifies the operator for both the binary (two-operand) operation of subtraction (as in ) and the unary (one-operand) operation of negation (as in , or twice in ). A special case of unary negation occurs when it operates on a positive number, in which case the result is a negative number (as in ).


title: Negative number

text: The ambiguity of the "−" symbol does not generally lead to ambiguity in arithmetical expressions, because the order of operations makes only one interpretation or the other possible for each "−". However, it can lead to confusion and be difficult for a person to understand an expression when operator symbols appear adjacent to one another. A solution can be to parenthesize the unary "−" along with its operand.


title: Negative number

text: For example, the expression may be clearer if written (even though they mean exactly the same thing formally). The subtraction expression is a different expression that doesn't represent the same operations, but it evaluates to the same result.


title: Negative number

text: Sometimes in elementary schools a number may be prefixed by a superscript minus sign or plus sign to explicitly distinguish negative and positive numbers as in


title: Negative number

text: When adding together a mixture of positive and negative numbers, one can think of the negative numbers as positive quantities being subtracted. For example:


title: Negative number

text: In the first example, a credit of is combined with a debt of , which yields a total credit of . If the negative number has greater magnitude, then the result is negative:


title: Negative number

text: As discussed above, it is possible for the subtraction of two non-negative numbers to yield a negative answer:


title: Negative number

text: In general, subtraction of a positive number yields the same result as the addition of a negative number of equal magnitude. Thus


title: Negative number

text: On the other hand, subtracting a negative number yields the same result as the addition a positive number of equal magnitude. (The idea is that "losing" a debt is the same thing as "gaining" a credit.) Thus


title: Negative number

text: When multiplying numbers, the magnitude of the product is always just the product of the two magnitudes. The sign of the product is determined by the following rules:


title: Negative number

text: The reasoning behind the second example is more complicated. The idea again is that losing a debt is the same thing as gaining a credit. In this case, losing two debts of three each is the same as gaining a credit of six:


title: Negative number

text: The convention that a product of two negative numbers is positive is also necessary for multiplication to follow the distributive law. In this case, we know that


title: Negative number

text: These rules lead to another (equivalent) rule—the sign of any product "a" × "b" depends on the sign of "a" as follows:


title: Negative number

text: The justification for why the product of two negative numbers is a positive number can be observed in the analysis of complex numbers.


title: Negative number

text: If dividend and divisor have the same sign, the result is positive, if they have different signs the result is negative.


title: Negative number

text: The negative version of a positive number is referred to as its negation. For example, is the negation of the positive number . The sum of a number and its negation is equal to zero:


title: Negative number

text: This identity holds for any positive number . It can be made to hold for all real numbers by extending the definition of negation to include zero and negative numbers. Specifically:


title: Negative number

text: The absolute value of a number is the non-negative number with the same magnitude. For example, the absolute value of and the absolute value of are both equal to , and the absolute value of is .


title: Negative number

text: In a similar manner to rational numbers, we can extend the natural numbers N to the integers Z by defining integers as an ordered pair of natural numbers ("a", "b"). We can extend addition and multiplication to these pairs with the following rules:


title: Negative number

text: This equivalence relation is compatible with the addition and multiplication defined above, and we may define Z to be the quotient set N²/~, i.e. we identify two pairs ("a", "b") and ("c", "d") if they are equivalent in the above sense. Note that Z, equipped with these operations of addition and multiplication, is a ring, and is in fact, the prototypical example of a ring.


title: Negative number

text: This will lead to an "additive zero" of the form ("a", "a"), an "additive inverse" of ("a", "b") of the form ("b", "a"), a multiplicative unit of the form ("a" + 1, "a"), and a definition of subtraction


title: Negative number

text: The additive inverse of a number is unique, as is shown by the following proof. As mentioned above, an additive inverse of a number is defined as a value which when added to the number yields zero.


title: Negative number

text: Let "x" be a number and let "y" be its additive inverse. Suppose "y′" is another additive inverse of "x". By definition,


title: Negative number

text: And so, "x" + "y′" = "x" + "y". Using the law of cancellation for addition, it is seen that "y′" = "y". Thus "y" is equal to any other additive inverse of "x". That is, "y" is the unique additive inverse of "x".


title: Negative number

text: For a long time, understanding of negative numbers was delayed by the impossibility of having a negative-number amount of a physical object, for example "minus-three apples", and negative solutions to problems were considered "false".


title: Negative number

text: In Hellenistic Egypt, the Greek mathematician Diophantus in the 3rd century AD referred to an equation that was equivalent to formula_2 (which has a negative solution) in "Arithmetica", saying that the equation was absurd. For this reason Greek geometers were able to solve geometrically all forms of the quadratic equation which give positive roots; while they could take no account of others.


title: Negative number

text: Negative numbers appear for the first time in history in the "Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" (九章算術, "Jiǔ zhāng suàn-shù"), which in its present form dates from the period of the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), but may well contain much older material. The mathematician Liu Hui (c. 3rd century) established rules for the addition and subtraction of negative numbers. The historian Jean-Claude Martzloff theorized that the importance of duality in Chinese natural philosophy made it easier for the Chinese to accept the idea of negative numbers. The Chinese were able to solve simultaneous equations involving negative numbers. The "Nine Chapters" used red counting rods to denote positive coefficients and black rods for negative. This system is the exact opposite of contemporary printing of positive and negative numbers in the fields of banking, accounting, and commerce, wherein red numbers denote negative values and black numbers signify positive values. Liu Hui writes:


title: Negative number

text: The ancient Indian "Bakhshali Manuscript" carried out calculations with negative numbers, using "+" as a negative sign. The date of the manuscript is uncertain. LV Gurjar dates it no later than the 4th century, Hoernle dates it between the third and fourth centuries, Ayyangar and Pingree dates it to the 8th or 9th centuries, and George Gheverghese Joseph dates it to about AD 400 and no later than the early 7th century,


title: Negative number

text: During the 7th century AD, negative numbers were used in India to represent debts. The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta, in "Brahma-Sphuta-Siddhanta" (written c. AD 630), discussed the use of negative numbers to produce the general form quadratic formula that remains in use today. He also found negative solutions of quadratic equations and gave rules regarding operations involving negative numbers and zero, such as "A debt cut off from nothingness becomes a credit; a credit cut off from nothingness becomes a debt." He called positive numbers "fortunes", zero "a cipher", and negative numbers "debts".


title: Negative number

text: In the 9th century, Islamic mathematicians were familiar with negative numbers from the works of Indian mathematicians, but the recognition and use of negative numbers during this period remained timid. Al-Khwarizmi in his "Al-jabr wa'l-muqabala" (from which the word "algebra" derives) did not use negative numbers or negative coefficients. But within fifty years, Abu Kamil illustrated the rules of signs for expanding the multiplication formula_3, and al-Karaji wrote in his "al-Fakhrī" that "negative quantities must be counted as terms". In the 10th century, Abū al-Wafā' al-Būzjānī considered debts as negative numbers in "A Book on What Is Necessary from the Science of Arithmetic for Scribes and Businessmen".


title: Negative number

text: By the 12th century, al-Karaji's successors were to state the general rules of signs and use them to solve polynomial divisions. As al-Samaw'al writes:


title: Negative number

text: the product of a negative number—"al-nāqiṣ" (loss)—by a positive number—"al-zāʾid" (gain)—is negative, and by a negative number is positive. If we subtract a negative number from a higher negative number, the remainder is their negative difference. The difference remains positive if we subtract a negative number from a lower negative number. If we subtract a negative number from a positive number, the remainder is their positive sum. If we subtract a positive number from an empty power ("martaba khāliyya"), the remainder is the same negative, and if we subtract a negative number from an empty power, the remainder is the same positive number.


title: Negative number

text: In the 12th century in India, Bhāskara II gave negative roots for quadratic equations but rejected them because they were inappropriate in the context of the problem. He stated that a negative value is "in this case not to be taken, for it is inadequate; people do not approve of negative roots."


title: Negative number

text: Fibonacci allowed negative solutions in financial problems where they could be interpreted as debits (chapter 13 of "Liber Abaci", 1202 AD) and later as losses (in "Fibonacci's work "Flos"").


title: Negative number

text: In the 15th century, Nicolas Chuquet, a Frenchman, used negative numbers as exponents but referred to them as "absurd numbers".


title: Negative number

text: Michael Stifel dealt with negative numbers in his 1544 AD "Arithmetica Integra", where he also called them "numeri absurdi" (absurd numbers).


title: Negative number

text: In 1545, Gerolamo Cardano, in his "Ars Magna", provided the first satisfactory treatment of negative numbers in Europe. He did not allow negative numbers in his consideration of cubic equations, so he had to treat, for example, formula_4 separately from formula_5 (with formula_6 in both cases). In all, Cardano was driven to the study of thirteen types of cubic equations, each with all negative terms moved to the other side of the = sign to make them positive. (Cardano also dealt with complex numbers, but understandably liked them even less.)


title: Negative number

text: In 1748 Leonhard Euler, by formally manipulating complex power series while using the square root of formula_7 obtained Euler's formula of complex analysis:


title: Negative number

text: In 1797 AD, Carl Friedrich Gauss published a proof of the fundamental theorem of algebra but expressed his doubts at the time about "the true metaphysics of the square root of −1".


title: Negative number

text: However, European mathematicians, for the most part, resisted the concept of negative numbers until the middle of the 19th century. In the 18th century it was common practice to ignore any negative results derived from equations, on the assumption that they were meaningless. In 1759 AD, the English mathematician Francis Maseres wrote that negative numbers "darken the very whole doctrines of the equations and make dark of the things which are in their nature excessively obvious and simple". He came to the conclusion that negative numbers were nonsensical.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Akkad (; or Agade, Akkadian: , also URI in Sumerian during the Ur III period) was the name of a Mesopotamian city. Akkad was the capital of the Akkadian Empire, which was the dominant political force in Mesopotamia during a period of about 150 years in the last third of the 3rd millennium BC.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Its location is unknown, although there are a number of candidate sites, mostly situated east of the Tigris, roughly between the modern cities of Samarra and Baghdad.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Before the decipherment of cuneiform in the 19th century, the city was known only from a single reference in where it is written ("ʾĂkăḏ"), rendered in the KJV as "Accad". The name appears in a list of the cities of Nimrod in Sumer (Shinar).


title: Akkad (city)

text: Walther Sallaberger and Westenholz (1999) cite 160 known mentions of the city in the extant cuneiform corpus, in sources ranging in date from the Old Akkadian period itself down to the Neo-Babylonian period. The name is spelled logographically as URI, or phonetically as "a-ga-dè", variously transcribed into English as "Akkad", "Akkade" or "Agade". In 544 BC the "governor of the city of Akkad and a scribe delivered 100 sheep to the Ebabbara Temple in Sippar".


title: Akkad (city)

text: The etymology of the name is unclear, but it is not of Akkadian (Semitic) origin. Various suggestions have proposed Sumerian, Hurrian or Lullubian etymologies. The non-Akkadian origin of the city's name suggests that the site may have already been occupied in pre-Sargonic times. It was suggested, in 1935, that a mention of Agade in one pre-Sargonic year-name "may prove to


title: Akkad (city)

text: The inscription on the Bassetki Statue records that the inhabitants of Akkad built a temple for Naram-Sin after he had crushed a revolt against his rule.


title: Akkad (city)

text: The main goddess of Akkad was Ishtar (Inanna), who was called "‘Aštar-annunîtum" or "Warlike Ishtar". It has also been suggested that a different aspect, Istar-Ulmašītum, was the patron goddess of the city of Akkad. Her husband Ilaba was also revered in Akkad. Ishtar and Ilaba were later worshipped at Sippar in the Old Babylonian period, possibly because Akkad itself had been destroyed by that time. The city was certainly in ruins by the mid-first millennium BC.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Sargon (2334–2279 BC), the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire referred to ships, from Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun, docked at the quay of Agade in a text.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Harris (1977) reports that list of slaves from the Old Babylonian city of Sippar mention "The city of Akkad is the birthplace of either the slave-owner or of the slave-girls who are named Taram-Agade and Taram-Akkadi". The former is the name of a daughter of Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin several centuries beforehand.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Lewy (1959) outlined that the Amorite king Shamshi-Adad (1808–1776 BC) went to the cities of "Rapiqum and Akkad" as part of one of his military campaigns, in this case against Eshnunna.


title: Akkad (city)

text: The prologue of the Laws of Hammurabi (circa 1750 BC) includes the phrase "‘the one who installs Ištar in the temple Eulmaš inside Akkade ribıtu".


title: Akkad (city)

text: The Elamite ruler Shutruk-Nakhunte (1184 to 1155 BC) conquered part of Mesopotamia, noting that he defeated Sippar. As part of the spoils some millennium old royal Akkadian statues were taken back to Susa including the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin and a statue of the Akkadian ruler Manishtushu. It is unknown if the statues were taken from Akkad or had been moved to Sippar.


title: Akkad (city)

text: A year name of En-šakušuana, king of Uruk (c. 2350 BC) was "Year in which En-šakušuana defeated Akkad". This would have been shortly before the rise of the Akkadian Empire and part of his northern campaign that also defeated Kish and Akshak.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Many older proposals put Akkad on the Euphrates, but more recent discussions conclude that a location on the Tigris is more likely.


title: Akkad (city)

text: The identification of Akkad with "Sippar ša Annunîtum" (modern Tell ed-Der), along a canal opposite "Sippar ša Šamaš" (Sippar, modern Tell Abu Habba) was rejected by Unger (1928) based on a Neo-Babylonian text (6th century BC) that lists "Sippar ša Annunîtum" and Akkad as separate places.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Harvey Weiss (1975) proposed Ishan Mizyad (Tell Mizyad), a large (1000 meters by 600 meters) low site northwest from Kish and northeast of Babylon. Excavations have shown that the remains at Ishan Mizyad date to the Akkadian period (about 200 Old Akkadian administrative texts found, mainly lists of workers), Ur III period, Isin-Larsa period, and Neo-Babylonian period. Until Neo-Babylonian times a canal ran from Kish to Mizyad.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Discussion since the 1990s has focused on sites along or east of the Tigris. Wall-Romana (1990) suggested a location near the confluence of the Diyala River with the Tigris, and more specifically Tell Muhammad (Tell Mohammad, possibly Diniktum) in the south-eastern suburbs of Baghdad as the likeliest candidate for Akkad, although admitting that no remains datable to the Akkadian period had been found at the site. Excavations found remains dating to the Isin-Larsa, Old Babylonian, and Kassite periods.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Sallaberger and Westenholz (1999) suggested a location close to the confluence of the ʿAdhaim river east of Samarra (at or near Dhuluiya). Similarly, Reade (2002) suggested a site in this vicinity, by Qādisiyyah, based on a fragment of an Old Akkadian statue (now in the British Museum) found there. This had been suggested much earlier by Lane.


title: Akkad (city)

text: The area of the Little Zab river, which originates in Iran and joins the Tigris just south of Al Zab in the Kurdistan region of Iraq, has also been suggested.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Based on an Old Babylonian period itinerary from Mari, Akkad would be on the Tigris just downstream of the current city of Baghdad. Mari documents also indicate that Akkad is sited at a river crossing.


title: Akkad (city)

text: An Old Babylonian prisoner record from the time of Rīm-Anum of Uruk in the 18th century BC implies that Akkad is in the area of Eshnunna, in the Diyala Valley north-west of Sumer proper. It has also been suggested that Akkad was under the control of Eshnunna in that period. It is also known that the rulers of Eshnunna continued cult activities in the city of Akkad.


title: Akkad (city)

text: Khalid al-Admi proposed, based on a kudurru dating to the time of Kassite ruler Marduk-nadin-ahhe (1095–1078 BC), with an earlier one dated to the reign of Nebuchadnezzar I (1121–1100 BC), that Akkad had been renamed sometime in the 2nd millennium. The suggestion from the kuduru is that the name would be Dur-Sharru-Kin, which is not to be confused with the one built by the Neo-Assyrians in the 8th century BC. The location would be "on the bank of the river Nish-Gatti in the district of Milikku". The most likely site would be Dur-Rimush (Tell el-Mjelaat).


title: Akkad (city)

text: On the Kassite Land grant to Marduk-apla-iddina I by Meli-Shipak II (1186–1172 BC) the recipient is given land in communal land of the city of Agade located around the settlement of Tamakku adjacent to the Nar Sarri (Canal of the King) in Bīt-Piri’-Amurru, north of the "land of Istar-Agade" and east of KIbati canal.


title: B+ tree

text: A B+ tree is an m-ary tree with a variable but often large number of children per node. A B+ tree consists of a root, internal nodes and leaves. The root may be either a leaf or a node with two or more children.


title: B+ tree

text: A B+ tree can be viewed as a B-tree in which each node contains only keys (not key–value pairs), and to which an additional level is added at the bottom with linked leaves.


title: B+ tree

text: The primary value of a B+ tree is in storing data for efficient retrieval in a block-oriented storage context — in particular, filesystems. This is primarily because unlike binary search trees, B+ trees have very high fanout (number of pointers to child nodes in a node, typically on the order of 100 or more), which reduces the number of I/O operations required to find an element in the tree.


title: B+ tree

text: There is no single paper introducing the B+ tree concept. Instead, the notion of maintaining all data in leaf nodes is repeatedly brought up as an interesting variant. Douglas Comer notes in an early survey of B-trees (which also covers B+ trees) that the B+ tree was used in IBM's VSAM data access software, and refers to an IBM published article from 1973.


title: B+ tree

text: As with other trees, B+ trees can be represented as a collection of three types of nodes: "root", "internal", and "leaf". These node types have the following properties:


title: B+ tree

text: By definition, each value contained within the B+ tree is a key contained in exactly one leaf node. Each key is required to be directly comparable with every other key, which forms a total order. This enables each leaf node to keep all of its keys sorted at all times, which then enables each internal node to construct an ordered collection of intervals representing the contiguous extent of values contained in a given leaf. Internal nodes higher in the tree can then construct their own intervals, which recursively aggregate the intervals contained in their own child internal nodes. Eventually, the root of a B+ Tree represents the whole range of values in the tree, where every internal node represents a subinterval.


title: B+ tree

text: For this recursive interval information to be retained, internal nodes must additionally contain formula_10 copies of keys formula_11 for formula_3 representing the least element within the interval covered by the child with index (which may itself be an internal node, or a leaf).


title: B+ tree

text: We are looking for a value in the B+ Tree. This means that starting from the root, we are looking for the leaf which may contain the value . At each node, we figure out which internal node we should follow. An internal B+ Tree node has at most formula_22 children, where every one of them represents a different sub-interval. We select the corresponding child via a linear search of the entries, then when we finally get to a leaf, we do a linear search of its elements for the desired key. Because we only traverse one branch of all the children at each rung of the tree, we achieve formula_23 runtime, where is the total number of keys stored in the leaves of the B+ tree.


title: B+ tree

text: Given a collection of data records, we want to create a B+ tree index on some key field. One approach is to insert each record into an empty tree. However, it is quite expensive, because each entry requires us to start from the root and go down to the appropriate leaf page. An efficient alternative is to use bulk-loading.


title: B+ tree

text: The purpose of the delete algorithm is to remove the desired entry node from the tree structure. We recursively call the delete algorithm on the appropriate node until no node is found. For each function call, we traverse along, using the index to navigate until we find the node, remove it, and then work back up to the root.


title: B+ tree

text: - If L has only d-1 entries, try to re-distribute, borrowing from sibling (adjacent node with same parent as L).


title: B+ tree

text: After the re-distribution of two sibling nodes happens, the parent node must be updated to reflect this change. The index key that points to the second sibling must take the smallest value of that node to be the index key.


title: B+ tree

text: - If re-distribute fails, merge L and sibling. After merging, the parent node is updated by deleting the index key that point to the deleted entry. In other words, if merge occurred, must delete entry (pointing to L or sibling) from parent of L.


title: B+ tree

text: The leaves (the bottom-most index blocks) of the B+ tree are often linked to one another in a linked list; this makes range queries or an (ordered) iteration through the blocks simpler and more efficient (though the aforementioned upper bound can be achieved even without this addition). This does not substantially increase space consumption or maintenance on the tree. This illustrates one of the significant advantages of a B+tree over a B-tree; in a B-tree, since not all keys are present in the leaves, such an ordered linked list cannot be constructed. A B+tree is thus particularly useful as a database system index, where the data typically resides on disk, as it allows the B+tree to actually provide an efficient structure for housing the data itself (this is described in as index structure "Alternative 1").


title: B+ tree

text: If a storage system has a block size of B bytes, and the keys to be stored have a size of k, arguably the most efficient B+ tree is one where formula_27. Although theoretically the one-off is unnecessary, in practice there is often a little extra space taken up by the index blocks (for example, the linked list references in the leaf blocks). Having an index block which is slightly larger than the storage system's actual block represents a significant performance decrease; therefore erring on the side of caution is preferable.


title: B+ tree

text: If nodes of the B+ tree are organized as arrays of elements, then it may take a considerable time to insert or delete an element as half of the array will need to be shifted on average. To overcome this problem, elements inside a node can be organized in a binary tree or a B+ tree instead of an array.


title: B+ tree

text: B+ trees can also be used for data stored in RAM. In this case a reasonable choice for block size would be the size of processor's cache line.


title: B+ tree

text: Space efficiency of B+ trees can be improved by using some compression techniques. One possibility is to use delta encoding to compress keys stored into each block. For internal blocks, space saving can be achieved by either compressing keys or pointers. For string keys, space can be saved by using the following technique: Normally the "i"-th entry of an internal block contains the first key of block . Instead of storing the full key, we could store the shortest prefix of the first key of block that is strictly greater (in lexicographic order) than last key of block "i". There is also a simple way to compress pointers: if we suppose that some consecutive blocks are stored contiguously, then it will suffice to store only a pointer to the first block and the count of consecutive blocks.


title: B+ tree

text: All the above compression techniques have some drawbacks. First, a full block must be decompressed to extract a single element. One technique to overcome this problem is to divide each block into sub-blocks and compress them separately. In this case searching or inserting an element will only need to decompress or compress a sub-block instead of a full block. Another drawback of compression techniques is that the number of stored elements may vary considerably from a block to another depending on how well the elements are compressed inside each block.


title: B+ tree

text: The ReiserFS, NSS, XFS, JFS, ReFS, and BFS filesystems all use this type of tree for metadata indexing; BFS also uses B+ trees for storing directories. NTFS uses B+ trees for directory and security-related metadata indexing. EXT4 uses extent trees (a modified B+ tree data structure) for file extent indexing. APFS uses B+ trees to store mappings from filesystem object IDs to their locations on disk, and to store filesystem records (including directories), though these trees' leaf nodes lack sibling pointers.


title: B+ tree

text: Relational database management systems such as IBM Db2, Informix, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle 8, Sybase ASE, and SQLite support this type of tree for table indices, though each such system implements the basic B+ tree structure with variations and extensions. Many NoSQL database management systems such as CouchDB and Tokyo Cabinet also support this type of tree for data access and storage.


title: B+ tree

text: Finding objects in a high-dimensional database that are comparable to a particular query object is one of the most often utilized and yet expensive procedures in such systems. In such situations, finding the closest neighbor using a B+ tree is productive.


title: B+ tree

text: B+ tree is efficiently used to construct an indexed search method called iDistance. iDistance searches for k nearest neighbors (kNN) in high-dimension metric spaces. The data in those high-dimension spaces is divided based on space or partition strategies, and each partition has an index value that is close with the respect to the partition. From here, those points can be efficiently implemented using B+ tree, thus, the queries are mapped to single dimensions ranged search. In other words, the iDistance technique can be viewed as a way of accelerating the sequential scan. Instead of scanning records from the beginning to the end of the data file, the iDistance starts the scan from spots where the nearest neighbors can be obtained early with a very high probability.


title: B+ tree

text: Nonvolatile random-access memory (NVRAM) has been using B+ tree structure as the main memory access technique for the Internet Of Things (IoT) system because of its non static power consumption and high solidity of cell memory.  B+ can regulate the trafficking of data to memory efficiently. Moreover, with advanced strategies on frequencies of some highly used leaf or reference point, the B+ tree shows significant results in increasing the endurance of database systems.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: The Boxer is a 1997 Irish sports-drama film written and directed by Jim Sheridan and co-written by Terry George. Starring Daniel Day-Lewis, Emily Watson, and Brian Cox, the film centers on the life of a boxer and former Provisional IRA volunteer Danny Flynn, played by Day-Lewis, who is trying to "go straight" after his release from prison. The film is the third collaboration between Sheridan and Day-Lewis, and portrays the increase of splinter groups within the IRA. In preparation for the role, Daniel Day-Lewis trained as a boxer in Ireland for a year.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: Former Irish pugilist and Provisional IRA member Danny Flynn (Daniel Day-Lewis) returns home to Belfast from a 14-year stint in prison at the age of 32. Weary of the unbroken cycle of violence in Northern Ireland, he attempts to settle down and live in peace. After meeting his drink-sodden old trainer Ike (Ken Stott), Danny starts up a non-sectarian boxing club for boys in an old gymnasium.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: While fixing up the old building, however, he runs across a cache of Semtex hidden underneath the stage. He throws the cache into the river.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: Danny's action infuriates Harry (Gerard McSorley), a bitter and ruthless IRA lieutenant. Danny reconnects with an old flame, Maggie (Emily Watson), now married to an imprisoned IRA man and required by IRA code to remain faithful to him. Their relationship dominates much of the film.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: Harry sees Danny and Maggie's relationship as a way to undermine the authority of her father, Joe Hamill (Brian Cox), the grim but war-weary local IRA commander who is working for peace. Harry feuds with Danny, assassinating the kindly police officer who donates equipment to the boxing club. The murder causes a riot at one of Danny's boxing matches. During the riot, the gymnasium is burnt down by Liam, the young son of Maggie, who thinks Danny and his mother are going to elope.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: Eventually, Harry and some other IRA men kidnap Danny and take him away to be executed. Then, in a last-minute twist, the IRA gunman shoots Harry instead of Danny, thus eliminating a rogue agent. With her son Liam in the car, Maggie picks up Danny and they all drive home together.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: The film opened in 3 theaters in the United States on 31 December 1997. It opened in Ireland on 6 February 1998.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: Reviews of the film were generally positive; the review aggregating website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 80% of the 70 reviews tallied were positive with the consensus: ""The Boxer" is a standard drama that packs a true emotional wallop thanks to the highly tuned central performances."


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: The film grossed US$5,896,037 in the United States and Canada. In the UK and Ireland, the film grossed £1.3 million ($2.2 million). Elsewhere, the film grossed $8 million, for a worldwide total of $16 million.


title: The Boxer (1997 film)

text: "The Boxer" was nominated for three Golden Globe Awards in the Picture, Actor (Daniel Day-Lewis) and Director (Jim Sheridan) categories. It also competed for the Golden Bear at 48th Berlin International Film Festival in 1998.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Justin Boyd Wilson (31 July 1978 – 24 August 2015) was a British professional open-wheel racing driver who competed in Formula One (F1) in , the Champ Car World Series (CCWS) from 2004 to 2007 and the IndyCar Series from 2008 to 2015. He won the first Formula Palmer Audi (FPA) in 1998, the International Formula 3000 Championship (IF3000) with Nordic Racing in 2001, and co-won the 2012 24 Hours of Daytona for Michael Shank Racing.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson began karting at the age of eight and achieved consistent results, before progressing to car racing in the Formula Vauxhall Championship. He won the FPA title and earned a fully funded seat in IF3000, becoming the first British driver to win the series championship in 2001. He moved to the 2002 World Series by Nissan for the Racing Engineering team and finished fourth. Through an investment scheme where the public could purchase shares in Wilson, he drove for the Minardi and Jaguar teams in the 2003 F1 season.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: He drove for the Conquest Racing and RuSPORT teams in the CCWS from 2004 to 2007, winning four races and finishing runner-up in the 2006 and 2007 drivers' championships. Wilson went to Newman/Haas/Lanigan Racing for the 2008 IndyCar Series, winning the Detroit Indy Grand Prix. A move to the low-budget Dale Coyne Racing (DCR) team for 2009 resulted in the team's first open-wheel victory at the Grand Prix at the Glen. Wilson moved to the Dreyer & Reinbold Racing squad from 2010 and 2011 but did not win a race. He returned to DCR for 2012 to 2014, winning the 2012 Firestone 550 and finishing sixth in the 2013 drivers' championship.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Late in the 2015 season, in the ABC Supply 500 at Pocono Raceway, Wilson died after debris from a crashed car struck his helmet. He was the first driver to die from injuries sustained in an IndyCar race since Dan Wheldon in 2011. His organs were donated to save the lives of five people. A hairpin corner at Snetterton Circuit was renamed after him and a memorial fund was established to support his children.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson was born in Moorgate, a suburb of Rotherham, South Yorkshire, on 31 July 1978 to Keith and Lynne Wilson. His father owns a solvents company, a petrol station, and raced Formula Ford cars from the 1960s until a major accident at Oulton Park in 1975 ended his career. Wilson's younger brother, Stefan, is also a racing driver. He grew up in Woodall, South Yorkshire. From 1989 to the completion of General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) examinations in July 1994, Wilson was educated at Sheffield's private Birkdale School.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: At age 11, he was tested for dyslexia, a learning disability that affects how a person reads and writes words; the test was negative. Wilson's mother took him to a clinic for a second test two years later and he was formally diagnosed with the condition at the age of 13. He struggled at school with the disability and received additional tutoring; Wilson's peers perceived him as inept and unintelligent. He married his partner Julia in 2006 and they have two children, Jane and Jessica. Wilson was the official ambassador for the International Dyslexia Association, and Teen Cancer America.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Aged 8 in 1987, Wilson sought a hobby and took up karting, refining his ability at the South Yorkshire Kart Club in Wombwell, Barnsley. His father was his chief mechanic, courier and mentor. In 1989, Wilson finished 7th in the Cadet National British Karting Championship, 12th in the 1991 RACMSA Junior British Championships, improving to 4th in 1992. His father contacted karting expert Terry Fullerton in 1993 and the two met at the Worksop motorway services. Fullerton told him Wilson should cease karting in his category because of his weight, and mentored him in 1994. Wilson finished fifth in the 1994 Formula A British Championship, the United Kingdom's highest-level of kart racing. He was third at Buckmore Park Kart Circuit's Renault GP race.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: He progressed to car racing at age 16, competing in the Formula Vauxhall Junior Winter Series with Team JLR, as preparation for the 1995 Formula Vaxuhall Junior Championship. Wilson won on his series debut at Pembrey Circuit in South Wales' first heat aged 16 years and 2 months, and became the first 16-year-old to win an official motor race in the United Kingdom. He remained with Team JLR in 1995. Wilson missed the season's first round after breaking both his legs when the brakes on his racing school car failed at Brands Hatch. A pre-season title favourite, he claimed four victories and tied on points in third position with driver Ben Collins. He won the Formula Vauxhall Junior Challenge Cup category limited to 16-year-olds. Wilson won the British Racing Drivers' Club (BRDC) Chris Bristow Trophy as "the most promising driver to race at Silverstone", and was a finalist for the Autosport BRDC Award.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: To better his driving ability, Paul Stewart Racing (PSR) manager Andy Pycock selected him to compete for the team in the 1996 championship. PSR were allowed to move his pedals back and alter its shape for better comfort to accommodate Wilson's frame. He won the season-opening round at Brands Hatch, finished in the top five in every race and took two pole positions to finish runner-up in the championship. The following year, Wilson fell to fourth overall with three victories and seven podium finishes. For the 1997 EFDA Nations Cup at Donington Park in October, he joined fellow driver Warren Carway at the Diamond Racing-run European Union Team, finishing fourth.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: His performances impressed the three-time world champion Jackie Stewart and his son Paul. Jackie Stewart concluded Wilson's height would hinder him in single-seaters and advised a move to either sports car or touring car racing. A lack of funding prevented a progression to Formula Three due to its high entry fee. His family wrote to the former driver and commentator Jonathan Palmer for advice. Palmer replied he had established a one-make racing series for drivers seeking a modest financial route to Formula One (F1). Wilson entered Formula Palmer Audi in 1998 and was employed as a driving instructor at Bedford Autodrome. With nine victories and four pole positions, he won the inaugural championship over Darren Turner, and was again shortlisted for the Autosport BRDC Award.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson's title victory earned him a fully funded seat in the International Formula 3000 Championship (IF3000)—F1's feeder series—with Team Astromega for the 1999 season, and Palmer became his manager. He worked to better his engineering skills and relationship with the media. During the season, in which Palmer obtained sponsorship for Wilson from Benetton Formula, he qualified for every race and was several times the highest-placed rookie. He took two points and was 20th in the drivers' standings.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: His driving ability attracted Nordic Racing's attention, and they signed him for the 2000 season. He established a rapport with team owners Chris and Derek Mower, and results improved from 1999, finishing fifth overall with two podiums and five points finishes. He returned to Nordic Racing for the 2001 season, after negotiations with Arden International in late 2000 fell through because of his tall height. Wilson won three times—at Autódromo José Carlos Pace, the A1-Ring and the Hungaroring— and achieving 10 podium finishes and scoring 71 points, to become the first British driver to claim the championship. Wilson won by a series-record 32 points over Mark Webber, and the BRDC Gold Medal, the ERA Club Trophy and the Graham Hill Trophy for winning the title.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: At first F1 teams were not interested in Wilson, but tested for the Jordan squad at Silverstone in September 2001, and had a seat fitting at McLaren. Jordan did not employ Wilson to race in the 2002 season due to financial issues, signing the 2001 British Formula Three champion Takuma Sato. Wilson considered going to Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART), and spoke to the Minardi team before it selected Webber; he did not return to IF3000. For 2002, he drove in the inaugural World Series by Nissan. The Racing Engineering team chose Wilson, and he accepted. He won races at Autódromo José Carlos Pace and the Circuit Ricardo Tormo and achieved six more podium finishes for fourth in the points standings.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: When Minardi driver Alex Yoong was rested for two races due to poor performance, Wilson was the team's preferred choice to replace him. However, during a seat fitting at Minardi's headquarters in Faenza, Italy, he was unable to fit inside the PS02 car because of his long legs and so Anthony Davidson drove the car instead. Wilson and his manager Jonathan Palmer were eager to arrange a test with the Newman/Haas Racing CART team in September 2002, and Wilson had a seat fitting in a Lola-Toyota car at their Chicago workshop, becoming acquainted with staff members. Wilson made his oval track test debut at Homestead–Miami Speedway on 8 October. He declined Newman/Haas' invitation for a second test at Sebring International Raceway in December.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson discussed driving for Minardi in with its owner Paul Stoddart, who was keen to have him replace the outgoing Mark Webber. He was told to gather £2 million in sponsorship funding to race for Minardi. The capital was raised through Palmer searching for financial partners, whilst Wilson's father mortgaged the family home. With the provision of him bringing the agreed financial settlement, Minardi designed the PS03 car to accommodate Wilson's large frame; the seat was lowered to keep his knees away from his chin and moved its pedals forward. He visited Faenza in late November and had no difficulty entering and exiting a mocked-up version of the car. Wilson signed a three-year driving contract with Minardi a month later.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: It emerged Wilson had not obtained the necessary sponsorship money to pay for his seat at Minardi and his father was close to selling his petrol station. Palmer spent most of January and February 2003 holding meetings with lawyers to develop a programme allowing investors to support Wilson's career by buying shares in him. This would allow them to raise £1.2 million required for Wilson to drive for Minardi in the season's first two rounds. The investment was floated on the London Stock Exchange from 5 March to 31 May, making Wilson the first racing driver to be listed on it. A total of 900 people invested a minimum of £500, with 10 per cent of Wilson's earnings paid to them until 31 December 2012.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: He equalled the pace of his more experienced teammate Jos Verstappen; Wilson generally qualified in a low grid slot and made brisk starts to gain track position before a pit stop. Before the , Jaguar selected him to replace the under-performing Antônio Pizzonia for the rest of the season. David Pitchforth, Jaguar's managing director, and team principal Tony Purnell were impressed with Wilson's performances and driving; they received feedback from Stoddart and Wilson's mechanics at Nordic Racing. Palmer told Wilson to visit Jaguar's headquarters in Milton Keynes for a seat fitting at midnight with a contract written up the day after the . Having been granted the final five races to convince Jaguar to keep him alongside Webber for , Wilson found the Jaguar different to handle than his Minardi and did not foresee the change in driving style required to use it. His teammate outperformed him by half a second on average in his first four races with the team due to his unfamiliarity with the car, but was consistently within three to four-tenths of a second per lap of Webber's pace by the end of the season. Wilson finished eighth at the and was 20th in the drivers' standings with one point.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: He was linked to three teams for the 2004 season. Jaguar granted Wilson a contract extension until post-season testing ended in December to convince the team to retain him. Jaguar dropped Wilson because its owner, Ford, was not prepared to pour unlimited funds into F1 and advised the team to sign a pay driver. Christian Klien, a Formula Three driver funded by the drink company Red Bull, replaced Wilson. A return to Jaguar as a test driver on race weekends became unfeasible after F1's governing body – the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) – retained a regulation for 2004 prohibiting drivers who had competed in six or more F1 events from participating in Friday test sessions.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: With the loss of employment in F1, Wilson was disenchanted with his career, and sought a drive in the U.S.-based Champ Car World Series (CCWS) over the rival Indy Racing League (IRL) due to its parity, noting: "Same cars, same engines, so working with the team with a half reasonable budget you can do a half decent job." Wilson signed with the small-budget Conquest Racing team for the 2004 season. The layout of his Lola car allowed him to lie almost flat on its floor and demonstrated a decent performance in pre-season testing. Wilson had a mixed season driving the 34 car; he took eight top-ten finishes, with a year-best of fourth at the season-ending Gran Premio Telmex/Tecate. He generally qualified higher than he finished, taking a season-high of second at the Champ Car Grand Prix of Portland. Wilson finished 11th in the drivers' standings with 188 points, and was second to A. J. Allmendinger in the rookie of the year standings.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: After the season, Wilson declared his wish to remain in the CCWS for the 2005 season and enquired several teams about employment. Car owner Carl Russo signed him to replace Michel Jourdain Jr. at the RuSPORT team in November 2004. Wilson worked with driver coach Barry Waddell, and cautioned his rivals he was ready to win races due to further car and driver development. In the No. 9 Lola-Ford car, Wilson took three fourth-place finishes in the first three rounds before earning his first series pole position at the Champ Car Grand Prix of Portland. He led the final ten laps of the Molson Indy Toronto to claim his first series victory. Wilson followed that victory with four more top-ten finishes, and ended the season with a second career win at the Gran Premio Telmex/Tecate from pole position. He amassed 265 points to finish third in the drivers' championship; his qualifying results improved with nine top fives.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson remained with RuSPORT for the 2006 season. Several pundits predicted he would challenge for the drivers' championship, and he said his objective was to be consistent and win two or three races. He took four-second-place finishes in the first five rounds. At the season's sixth race, the Molson Grand Prix of Toronto, Wilson won his only pole position that year. At the following West Edmonton Mall Grand Prix of Edmonton he qualified in third place and achieved his only victory of 2006. Wilson took a further three top-eight finishes. He fractured the scaphoid bone in his right wrist in an accident in practice for the Lexmark Indy 300, requiring him to withdraw from the race; he was deemed fit by the CCWS medical delegate Chris Pinderski to enter the season-ending Gran Premio Telmex. He qualified on pole position, and led until Sébastien Bourdais passed him on the final lap. Wilson finished runner-up in the championship with 298 points, and won that year's Greg Moore Legacy Award.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: The Newman/Haas, Forsythe and RuSPORT teams were interested in Wilson for the 2007 season. He signed a "multi-year" contract with RuSPORT in January 2007. Wilson was persuaded to remain there after his race engineer Todd Malloy left and limitations in the team's budget saw his assistant Mike Talbott promoted. Driving the No. 9 Panoz DP01-Cosworth XFE he achieved eight top-ten finishes and two pole positions at the Champ Car Grand Prix of Portland and the San Jose Grand Prix at Redback Raceway after ten rounds. Wilson led most of the Bavaria Champ Car Grand Prix for his solitary victory of the season. He ended his CCWS career with consecutive top-ten finishes in the final two rounds to be runner-up in the drivers' championship with 281 points. Wilson won the Greg Moore Legacy Award for the second successive year.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Late in the season RuSPORT announced it was closing and informed Wilson and his colleagues. He was put on Newman/Haas' shortlist to replace the outgoing Bourdais for the 2008 season, and was rumoured to be in contention to drive for Andretti Green Racing and did not want to move to the American Le Mans Series. Wilson and Palmer agreed terms to join Newman/Haas in the CCWS before it amalgamated with the IRL to form the IndyCar Series. Wilson said his objective for the season was to perform to the best of his ability and acknowledged Newman/Haas would be disadvantaged against the established IndyCar teams on oval tracks noting: "We can only judge the competition when we get there, but we have to be realistic. I don't want to overestimate and I don't want to underestimate."


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: While Wilson struggled during his rookie season driving the No. 2 Dallara-Honda car, he took pole position for the Toyota Grand Prix of Long Beach, and rapidly established himself as a road course expert. He qualified 16th for his first Indianapolis 500. Mid-race, Wilson had an accident due to a loss of control at the rear of his car, which left him 27th. He was third at the Indy Edmonton and achieved his first series victory at the Detroit Indy Grand Prix three races later. Wilson was 11th in the drivers' championship with 340 points, and was second in the rookie of the year standings, behind Hideki Mutoh but ahead of Will Power.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Before the 2009 season Newman/Haas co-owner and actor Paul Newman died and the Great Recession cost the team much of its funding. In January 2009 Wilson was released from the team after being informed they could not support two paid drivers without acquiring additional sponsorship. The funded Robert Doornbos replaced him. He contacted Dale Coyne, the co-owner of the privately underfunded Dale Coyne Racing (DCR) team, in February, after a journalist told him DCR had employed engineer Bill Pappas. Wilson visited their workshop for a seat fitting, and became acquainted with Pappas. He signed a contract to drive for DCR one month later. At the season-opening Grand Prix of St. Petersburg, Wilson began from second and finished third. He qualified 15th for the Indianapolis 500; late in the race, Wilson retired following a collision with a barrier after 160 laps, placing 23rd. Wilson started second at the Grand Prix at the Glen and led for 49 out of 60 laps in DCR's first open-wheel victory and his second in the series. With five more top-ten finishes over the rest of the year, he was ninth in the points standings with 354.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson drove Dreyer & Reinbold Racing's (DRR) No. 22 car in the 2010 season. A disagreement over the length of his contract with DCR, the departure of key team personnel and a desire for another experience led him to assess driving elsewhere. Wilson received a telephone call from Dreyer & Reinbold co-owners Robbie Buhl and Dennis Reinbold and visited their workshop in January 2010. He was impressed by what he observed and signed to the team soon after. Wilson mentored his teammate Mike Conway on oval track racing and advised DRR on road courses. In the first four races he finished second at the Grand Prix of St. Petersburg and the Grand Prix of Long Beach. After qualifying 11th for the Indianapolis 500, Wilson led eleven laps and took seventh. Four races later, he took his first IndyCar pole position for the Honda Indy Toronto. The rest of Wilson's season saw him achieve a best of sixth at the Indy Grand Prix of Sonoma. He was 11th in the drivers' standings with 361 points.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Although linked with the Andretti Autosport, KV Racing Technology and Panther Racing teams for the 2011 season, Wilson stayed at DRR. An important factor in his decision was the progress he believed the team had made in 2010. Wilson sustained a minor fracture in his left wrist in an accident with Alex Tagliani at the season-opening Grand Prix of St. Petersburg and wore a carbon fibre brace. He started the Indianapolis 500 from 19th position. Handling and balance difficulties left Wilson in 16th. His best finish of 2011 was fifth at Edmonton Indy. During practice for the Honda Indy 200 an accident left him with a stable burst fracture of the T5 vertebrae in his back. Wilson was ruled unfit for three months and wore a back brace. For the rest of the season, his substitutes were Simon Pagenaud at Mid-Ohio, Tomas Scheckter at New Hampshire Motor Speedway, Giorgio Pantano on the road and street courses and Townsend Bell in Kentucky and Las Vegas. Wilson was 24th in the points standings with 183.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: For the 2012 season, he returned to drive for DCR in its No. 18 Dallara DW12-Honda car. Wilson had two tenth-place finishes in the first four races. At the Indianapolis 500, he qualified in 21st and finished 7th. At the Firestone 550 Wilson overtook Graham Rahal, who crashed with two laps to go, for his third career series victory and his first on an oval track. The rest of his season saw him claim two more top-ten results in the final eight races for 15th in the drivers' championship with 278 points.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson remained at DCR for the 2013 season after signing a long-term contract; he changed his car number to 19. He began the year with three consecutive top-nine finishes. Wilson qualified for the Indianapolis 500 in 14th and finished a career-high fifth. His performance for the rest of 2013 included three podium finishes—two third places at the first Detroit Belle Isle Grand Prix and the Grand Prix of Houston, and a season-high second at the Indy Grand Prix of Sonoma. At the season-ending IndyCar World Championships at the Auto Club Speedway, Wilson was involved in a high speed lateral impact with driver Tristan Vautier, sustaining a minor pulmonary contusion and three non-operable breakages to his pelvis. He was told to avoid bearing weight on his right leg before commencing rehabilitation. Wilson finished the season a series-high sixth in the drivers' standings with 472 points.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: DCR owner Dale Coyne took up an option to retain Wilson for the 2014 season after recovering from injury and recommenced training. Michael Cannon became his race engineer after Bill Pappas moved to Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing. Coyne promised Wilson better resources for him to continue achieving top-ten finishes. His first top ten-finish of 2014 was a sixth at the Indy Grand Prix of Alabama. Wilson started 14th at the Indianapolis 500 finishing eight places lower and two laps down in 22nd after debris damaged his front wing late in the race. One race later, Wilson achieved a season-best fourth at the Detroit Belle Isle Grand Prix and four top-ten finishes in the final 12 rounds for 15th overall with 395 points.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: He left DCR after the season ended because of their limited budget for a full-time campaign, and sought employment with another team for the 2015 season, saying: "It's one of those things, where I could find out tomorrow, or it could be in another month or two months." Talks with Andretti Autosport owner Michael Andretti, who was interested in Wilson, about a full-time campaign ended in March 2015 over sponsorship issues. That same month, Wilson signed a two-race contract to drive Andretti Autosport's No. 25 car in May's Grand Prix of Indianapolis and the Indianapolis 500. He started his final Indianapolis 500 from sixth position. During the race a tyre vibration and a pit stop strategy error left him in 21st. Afterwards, Wilson obtained sponsorship to drive the season's final five races for Andretti, finishing a year-high second in the Honda Indy 200 at Mid-Ohio, in an aerodynamically inefficient car.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson made his sports car racing debut at the 2001 FIA GT Magny-Cours 500km, part of the FIA GT Championship. He shared the Coca-Cola Racing Team's No. 65 Porsche 911 GT3-RS with Tomáš Enge, finishing third in the N-GT category. He joined fellow British drivers Ben Collins and Christian Vann in a Team Ascari-entered Ascari KZR-1 car in the LMP900 class at the 2002 12 Hours of Sebring (part of the American Le Mans Series), finishing sixth. Two years later, he again entered the season-opening 12 Hours of Sebring, this time joined by Milka Duno and Phil Andrews. Driving a Taurus Racing-fielded Lola B2K/10 they finished 9th in class and 22nd overall. In June, Wilson competed at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, with Tom Coronel and Ralph Firman in the No. 16 Racing for Holland Dome S101-Judd car, retiring after 313 laps with ignition failure.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: At the 2006 24 Hours of Daytona (part of the Rolex Sports Car Series), Wilson drove for Michael Shank Racing (MSR) alongside A. J. Allmendinger, Oswaldo Negri Jr. and Mark Patterson in the No. 60 Riley Mk.X1-Lexus car in the Daytona Prototype (DP) category, completing 733 laps and finishing second. He entered the season-ending round of the 2007 Rolex Sports Car Series, the Sunchaser 1000, joining Negri and Patterson at MSR and finishing tenth. He returned to MSR for the 2008 24 Hours of Daytona with Negri, Patterson and Graham Rahal, driving the Riley Mk.XX-Ford DP vehicle and finishing sixth after starting from pole position.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: In 2010, he entered the 24 Hours of Daytona for the third time, this time for Chip Ganassi Racing with Felix Sabates in the DP class. The No. 01 Riley Mk.XX-BMW car he shared with Max Papis, Scott Pruett and Memo Rojas finished second after starting fifth. Wilson returned to MSR with Curb/Agajanian for the 2011 24 Hours of Daytona, partnering Allmendinger and Michael McDowell, starting eighth and finishing seventh in the No. 6 Dallara DP01-Ford car. He won the 2012 24 Hours of Daytona with Allmendinger, Negri and John Pew at MSR, completing 761 laps in the No. 60 Riley-Ford DP car. He joined Kelly Racing as Greg Murphy's international co-driver in its No. 51 Holden Commodore for the Gold Coast 600 double header round of the V8 Supercars Championship in October 2012. Wilson visited the team's workshop for a seat fitting as preparation for the round. He and Murphy finished outside of the top ten in both races.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson entered the 24 Hours of Daytona alongside Allmendinger, Marcos Ambrose, Negri and Pew at MSR in 2013, finishing third. He partnered Gustavo Yacamán in MSR's No. 6 Riley-Ford car at the Six Hours at the Glen when regular driver Antônio Pizzonia had sponsorship problems, finishing sixth. With no date conflicts between the IndyCar Series and the Rolex Sports Car Series, Wilson entered the 2013 Rolex Sports Car Series' final four rounds to partner and mentor Yacamán. The duo had a season-best second-place finish at Lime Rock. At the 2014 24 Hours of Daytona (now part of the IMSA SportsCar Championship), Wilson, Allmendinger, Negri and Pew were 12th in the prototype class and 47th overall due to a gearbox fault in the No. 60 Riley-Ford Ecoboost car. He rejoined Negri and Pew at MSR for the following 12 Hours of Sebring, finishing ninth.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: In 2015, Wilson replaced Matt McMurry as co-driver to Negri and Pew in MSR's No. 60 Ligier JS P2-Honda car at the 12 Hours of Sebring, where they came 42nd. As Wilson waited for a new IndyCar Series contract, he was entered into the all-electric Formula E round in Moscow by Andretti Autosport in June. He replaced Scott Speed, who had an X Games commitment. Wilson finished 10th and scored 1 championship point for a 25th drivers standing finish. A planned drive in a HPD ARX-04b at the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb in June was cancelled because turbocharger failures damaged the car's motors.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: On the 179th lap of the 2015 ABC Supply 500 at Pocono Raceway on 23 August, the race leader Sage Karam lost control of his car in the first turn after passing a bump in the tarmac surface. He crashed heavily with the front of his car against a wall to the right of the circuit. The car's nose cone was removed with enough force that it ricocheted along the racing surface as other drivers manoeuvred past it. James Jakes slowed faster than Wilson, who turned right to avoid contact with his car. At the same time, the nose cone from Karam's car struck Wilson's helmet as he drove through the accident scene. Wilson was knocked unconscious and his car almost immediately veered left out of control towards the inside wall. It left the track, hitting the left-hand side wall coupled with a SAFER barrier after the first turn and continued to slide before stopping.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Wilson was unresponsive when the track safety crew arrived at his vehicle and he had to be extricated from it. A medivac helicopter was called for and transported Wilson to Lehigh Valley Hospital–Cedar Crest in nearby Allentown, Pennsylvania. He was reported to be in a coma with a severe head injury and listed in a critical condition. Wilson was declared dead from his injuries the following day, at 17:37 local time on 24 August. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway president J. Douglas Boles and the CEO of Hulman & Company Mark Miles made the news public at 21:00 that same day. He was the first driver to die from injuries sustained in a racing accident in IndyCar since Dan Wheldon was killed during the 2011 IZOD IndyCar World Championships at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. An autopsy conducted by Andrew Kehm, the Chief Deputy Coroner of the Lehigh County Coroner's Office, on 26 August determined Wilson died of a blunt force trauma to his head. On 10 September, he was given a funeral service at St. James The Great Church in Paulerspury, Northamptonshire, England attended by about 500 mourners, which included members of the motor racing community. Wilson was subsequently cremated, and a wake was held for him at Silverstone Circuit.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: An inquest into his death was held at Northampton General Hospital on the morning of 9 March 2016. The coroner concluded his death was "accidental". A statement from Wilson's father was read, which described the crash as a "freak accident" and stated:"The car leading the race crashed and was driving at over . The driver was unhurt but debris from his car flew high into the air and a large, heavy piece hit Justin on the head as he approached the scene of the accident. Justin was unconscious, he was extracted from the car and rushed to hospital. He underwent surgery and was kept on a life support machine until the following day. The decision was then taken to switch off the machine and Justin was pronounced deceased."


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: David Tremayne of "The Independent" described Wilson as an "easy-going and humble" individual who was able to build a rapport with others. According to Alasdair Steven of "The Herald": "his cheerful, quietly modest manner, and genuine enthusiasm" made him popular with fans of motor racing. A leader of the IndyCar safety and promotional association alongside Dario Franchitti and Tony Kanaan, Wilson increased his lobbying for improved safety after the death of Dan Wheldon in 2011. He aspired to have retention walls altered to better deal with airborne crashes, and wrote an online article arguing for the shifting of trackside grandstands to inside racing circuits as a means of shielding spectators from debris.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Nicknamed "Bad Ass" by his driving instructor colleagues at PalmerSport in 1999, for being "as fearsome a competitor you could ever find", Wilson was friendly, shy, endearing, soft-spoken and highly analytical. His technical shrewdness provided teams with extensive performance alterations to improve a race car. According to "Racer"s Mark Glendenning this made Wilson a driver who "commanded universal respect" from fellow competitors. For DailySportsCar editor Graham Goodwin it created an image of Wilson as "a very rare breed indeed, a man in the modern age who had competed at the highest level in multiple motorsport disciplines", and a driver who "had the cutting edge". Wilson was fast-witted and used this in his humour.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: After Wilson's death, the donation of his organs helped to save the lives of five people. On 27 August IndyCar drivers Marco Andretti, James Hinchcliffe, Josef Newgarden, Will Power and Graham Rahal converted what had been a previously planned promotion for the season-ending Grand Prix of Sonoma at Sonoma Raceway by driving their cars across the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco into a tribute for Wilson. Andretti drove Wilson's No. 25 car. Honda and Andretti Autosport employed Wilson's close friend and fellow driver Oriol Servià to drive his car in Sonoma.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: Joey Gase, a NASCAR Xfinity Series driver, carried a photograph of Wilson on the rear of his No. 52 car to promote awareness of eye, organ and tissue donation. A. J. Allmendinger had his former teammate Wilson's name above the window of his vehicle for the final 12 rounds of the 2015 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. At the 2016 Indianapolis 500, Stefan drove the No. 25 KV Racing Technology car in honour of his elder sibling. The name of a hairpin turn on the Snetterton Circuit's 300 layout was changed from Montreal Corner to Wilson Corner by the track's owners MotorSport Vision in July 2016; a board at the corner features the design of Wilson's multi-coloured rainbow racing helmet and his surname.


title: Justin Wilson (racing driver)

text: The Wilson Children's Fund was launched with the support of his widow Julia to ensure their two daughters would be financially secure in the long term following his death. Contributions are raised through the auctioning of motor racing memorabilia on the internet and by public donations.


title: Logic programming

text: Logic programming is a programming paradigm which is largely based on formal logic. Any program written in a logic programming language is a set of sentences in logical form, expressing facts and rules about some problem domain. Major logic programming language families include Prolog, answer set programming (ASP) and Datalog. In all of these languages, rules are written in the form of "clauses":


title: Logic programming

text: H is called the "head" of the rule and B, ..., B is called the "body". Facts are rules that have no body, and are written in the simplified form:


title: Logic programming

text: In the simplest case in which H, B, ..., B are all atomic formulae, these clauses are called definite clauses or Horn clauses. However, there are many extensions of this simple case, the most important one being the case in which conditions in the body of a clause can also be negations of atomic formulas. Logic programming languages that include this extension have the knowledge representation capabilities of a non-monotonic logic.


title: Logic programming

text: In ASP and Datalog, logic programs have only a declarative reading, and their execution is performed by means of a proof procedure or model generator whose behaviour is not meant to be controlled by the programmer. However, in the Prolog family of languages, logic programs also have a procedural interpretation as goal-reduction procedures:


title: Logic programming

text: based on an example used by Terry Winograd to illustrate the programming language Planner. As a clause in a logic program, it can be used both as a procedure to test whether X is fallible by testing whether X is human, and as a procedure to find an X which is fallible by finding an X which is human. Even facts have a procedural interpretation. For example, the clause:


title: Logic programming

text: can be used both as a procedure to show that socrates is human, and as a procedure to find an X that is human by "assigning" socrates to X.


title: Logic programming

text: The declarative reading of logic programs can be used by a programmer to verify their correctness. Moreover, logic-based program transformation techniques can also be used to transform logic programs into logically equivalent programs that are more efficient. In the Prolog family of logic programming languages, the programmer can also use the known problem-solving behaviour of the execution mechanism to improve the efficiency of programs.


title: Logic programming

text: The use of mathematical logic to represent and execute computer programs is also a feature of the lambda calculus, developed by Alonzo Church in the 1930s. However, the first proposal to use the clausal form of logic for representing computer programs was made by Cordell Green. This used an axiomatization of a subset of LISP, together with a representation of an input-output relation, to compute the relation by simulating the execution of the program in LISP. Foster and Elcock's Absys, on the other hand, employed a combination of equations and lambda calculus in an assertional programming language that places no constraints on the order in which operations are performed.


title: Logic programming

text: Logic programming in its present form can be traced back to debates in the late 1960s and early 1970s about declarative versus procedural representations of knowledge in artificial intelligence. Advocates of declarative representations were notably working at Stanford, associated with John McCarthy, Bertram Raphael and Cordell Green, and in Edinburgh, with John Alan Robinson (an academic visitor from Syracuse University), Pat Hayes, and Robert Kowalski. Advocates of procedural representations were mainly centered at MIT, under the leadership of Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert.