title: Nursing home

text: When looking into nursing homes, consider what activities and/or medical needs patients one would need from the nursing home. Also consider finances, such as medical insurance and personal funds. Ensure the nursing home is properly licensed and has qualified staff. If time allows, visit the nursing home in person to receive a walk through of the facility and if given the opportunity to speak with a guest or family member of guest, ask about their experience thus far.


title: Nursing home

text: Nursing home employees are all required to be licensed or uphold a certificate in the state of which they work. In most facilities, nursing homes are required to provide enough staff to adequately care for residents. In the U.S., for instance, nursing homes must have at least one registered nurse (RN) available for at least 8 straight hours a day throughout the week, and at least one licensed practical nurse (LPN) on duty 24 hours a day. Direct care nursing home employees usually include registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, social workers, certified nursing assistants, and physical therapists, amongst others.


title: Nursing home

text: Nursing homes require assessment and monitoring of residents by a registered nurse (RN) who is typically required to have between two and six years of education. The RN's job duties include implementing care plans, administering medications, recording and maintaining accurate reports for each resident, monitoring and recording medical changes, and providing direction to the nursing assistants and licensed practical nurses (LPN). RNs are not required to choose a specialization. To gain recognition as a specialized nurse professional, RNs typically need education in their specialized field, and further experience through clinical practices. LPNs are typically required to have a year of training before working with any patients. The LPN monitors residents' well-being and administers treatments and medications, such as dressing wounds and dispensing prescribed drugs. LPNs are responsible for patients' direct bed care and carry out a daily routine.


title: Nursing home

text: A nursing assistant provides basic care to patients while working directly under a LPN or RN. These basic care activities, also referred to as activities of daily living, can include assisting with bathing and dressing residents, helping residents with meals, either serving them or with feeding, transferring to and from the bed or wheelchair, making and cleaning beds, assisting with toileting, and answering call lights. Nursing assistants' official titles can vary between jurisdictions and facilities. They can include Certified Nursing Assistants (CNAs), nursing aides, caregivers, patient care associates, patient care technicians, personal care attendants (PCAs), and care assistants.


title: Nursing home

text: At skilled nursing facilities, in addition to required 24 hour skilled nursing, a licensed physician supervises individual patients. At nursing homes other than skilled nursing facilities, patients receive care from physicians not affiliated with the nursing home. These physicians are typically employed by a private agency that sends physicians to nursing homes per the request of the patient, nursing home, or patient's family. The majority of these physicians are family medicine doctors or internists; however, some specialists such as cardiologist or nephrologist may also make independent visits to supplement their care.


title: Nursing home

text: Depending on the size of the nursing home, a nursing home may have either a nursing home administrator or an executive director. Some nursing homes may have both, but their job duties are similar and can include overseeing staff, supplying medical supplies, and financial matters. Some nursing homes also have human resources personnel, who are in charge of all aspects of hiring new employees. Human resources job duties vary but can also include coordinating payroll, organizing orientation programs for new employees, interviewing, disciplinary actions, and ensuring compliance with federal and state laws. Nursing homes are usually licensed and heavily regulated under governing legislation. Compliance with the federal and state legislatures are reviewed regularly for adherence to strict standards of building codes, care plans, behavior and altercations between residents, nutrition and dietary services, medical services, nursing and personal care, religious and spiritual practices, pets, and recreational programs.


title: Nursing home

text: Housekeepers perform everyday cleaning and upkeep in nursing homes. They play a huge part in ensuring that nursing homes are kept clean and free of disease causing agents. Housekeepers have a long list of duties which include cleaning floors, changing linens, disinfecting bathrooms, changing towels, washing clothes, emptying trashcans, sanitizing rooms, replenishing supplies, dusting, vacuuming, and keeping windows and woodwork clean. These duties can vary from facility to facility but it will overall include basic cleaning. Housekeeping does not require any licensure or schooling, but some jobs may prefer experienced housekeepers.


title: Nursing home

text: Recreational staff usually include an activity director and possibly activity assistants depending on the size of the nursing home. Activities aim to meet each resident's emotional, intellectual, physical, social, spiritual, and vocational needs. The transition from being independent to having to depend on others and be away from home is oftentimes very difficult, which is why activities are important to combat depression and anxiety. Some of the different activities that may be offered include hosting birthday parties, celebrating holidays, book clubs, musical events, outdoor activities, discussion and social groups, exercise, arts and crafts, pet therapy, religious services and community outings. Volunteer involvement is also an important part of nursing home activities given that volunteers can act as a link between the nursing home and the outside community.


title: Nursing home

text: One of the many services offered in a nursing home is occupational therapy. Occupational therapy may be necessary following an injury or illness in order to regain skills and to receive support during any physical or cognitive changes. Occupational therapy will focus on activities of daily living such as bathing, dressing, grooming. Occupational therapy also assists with instrumental activities of daily living which include home and financial management, rest and sleep, education, work, play, leisure, and social participation. Occupational therapists work to allow the person to safely and comfortably reintegrate into society by practicing public dining, transferring to different surfaces (chairs, beds, couches etc.), and will assess the need for any home modifications or safety equipment to ensure a proper and safe transition. When a cognitive and/or perceptual deficit is presented, therapists will work with the person by teaching strategies to maximize memory, sequencing and attention span length.


title: Nursing home

text: Another important service found in a nursing home is physical therapy. Physical therapy may be necessary following an injury, illness or surgery. Physical therapy works with the person to help them regain strength, endurance, flexibility, balance and range of motion. Physical therapy is also used as a way of preventing injuries and accidents by focusing on restoring mobility, increasing fitness levels, reducing pain and overall reaching a certain point of independence. There are many conditions that can benefit from receiving physical therapy in a nursing home, these conditions include arthritis, pain associated with cancer, dementia, Alzheimer's, stroke and incontinence.


title: Nursing home

text: Speech-language pathology is another service found in a nursing home. Speech language pathologists specialize in working with those who have a difficult time with language and/or speech, usually following an injury or an underlying diagnoses. The SLP will evaluate the persons speech. If the person is having trouble with speech, this points to an issue with coordinating the movements and muscles used to produce speech. While trouble with language points to the person having difficulty with understanding what they are hearing and seeing. The SLP will also look at difficulty with swallowing food and will evaluate the person in order to figure out which part of the swallowing process is not working. Some of the many speech disorders worked with by the SLP are:


title: Nursing home

text: Elder abuse is more prevalent in hospitalized settings including nursing homes than in the general community. There are three major types of abuses reported in nursing homes: physical, emotional, and sexual abuse.


title: Nursing home

text: Emotional abuse occurs when an employee makes verbal threats and continuously degrades the patient, resulting in the patient experiencing mood swings, anxiety, and depression.


title: Nursing home

text: Sexual abuse is when an elderly patient is being forced into unwanted sexual activity by an employee, resident or visitor, usually attempted and reported when the patient is sleeping, sick, or weak.


title: Nursing home

text: Nursing home neglect is similar to elder abuse. It is when employees begin to repeatedly ignore and leave a patient alone, neglect the patient's personal hygiene like bathing and brushing of teeth, provide the patient with an inadequate amount of food and water, or neglect to provide the patient with the correct amount of medication they require. One factor unique to elder abuse in nursing homes is that many nursing home contracts require residents to sign delegation clauses, giving up their right to trial by jury and instead using an Arbitrator to settle disputes.


title: Nursing home

text: Long-term care facilities exist under three major types: privately owned, non-profit/charitable, and municipal. Regardless of their ownership, aspects of funding, admission criteria, and cost to the individuals are all regulated by their respective provincial governments. As medical care is publicly funded in Canada, all long-term care facilities receive funding from provincial governments for the health care component of the residence – the nurses and personal support workers. Residents pay daily rates for 'room and board' (accommodation and food) that are determined by the type of room chosen, either shared or private. Provincial governments manage waiting lists for long-term care facilities. People who cannot afford to pay the monthly fees receive subsidies, and no one is refused due to inability to pay.


title: Nursing home

text: In the United Kingdom, care homes and care homes with nursing are regulated by different organisations in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. To enter a care home, a candidate patient needs an assessment of needs and of their financial condition from their local council. The candidate may also have an assessment by a nurse, should the patient require nursing care. The cost of a care home is means tested in England.


title: Nursing home

text: Care homes for adults in the UK are regulated by Care Quality Commission, which replaced the Commission for Social Care Inspection, and each care home is inspected at least every three years. In Wales the Care Standards Inspectorate for Wales has responsibility for oversight, In Scotland Social Care and Social Work Improvement Scotland otherwise known as the Care Inspectorate, and in Northern Ireland the Regulation and Quality Improvement Authority in Northern Ireland.


title: Nursing home

text: In 2002, nursing homes became known as care homes with nursing, and residential homes became known as care homes.


title: Nursing home

text: As of April 2009, the lower capital limit is £13,500. At this level, all income from pensions, savings, benefits and other sources, except a "personal expenses allowance" (currently £21.90), goes towards paying the care home fees. The local council pays the remaining contribution provided the room occupied is not more expensive than the local council's normal rate.


title: Nursing home

text: The NHS has full responsibility for funding the whole placement if the resident is in a care home with nursing that meets the criteria for NHS continuing Health Care. This is identified by a multidisciplinary assessment process.


title: Nursing home

text: In May 2010, a coalition government announced the formation of an independent commission on the funding of long-term care, which was due to report within a 12-month time frame on the financing of care for an ageing population. It delivered its recommendations on Monday 4 July 2011. The Care Quality Commission have themselves implemented a re-registration process, completed in October 2010, which will result in a new form of regulation being outlined in April 2011.


title: Nursing home

text: In 2020 it emerged that some UK care home residents had blanket Do Not Attempt Resuscitation (DNACPR) orders applied during the COVID-19 pandemic. These decisions were made without discussion with the patients involved, and the practice is being investigated by the Care Quality Commission.


title: Nursing home

text: An intermediate care facility (ICF) is a health care facility for individuals who are disabled, elderly, or non-acutely ill, usually providing less intensive care than that offered at a hospital or skilled nursing facility. Typically an ICF is privately paid by the individual or by the individual's family. An individual's private health insurance and/or a third party service like a hospice company may cover the cost. Board and Care Homes are special facilities designed to provide those who require assisted living services both living quarters and proper care. Often referred to as residential care homes, these facilities can either be located in a small residential home or a large modern facility. In fact, a large majority of board and care homes are designed to accommodate fewer than 6 people. Board and care homes are typically staffed by licensed professionals, including nurses, doctors and other medical professionals. These facilities are highly regulated in order to ensure that the best possible care is being provided for the residents. Board and care homes offer residents 24-hour assistance, making them a highly popular choice for those in need of regular assistance.


title: Nursing home

text: Assisted living residences or assisted living facilities (ALFs) are housing facilities for people with disabilities. These facilities provide supervision or assistance with activities of daily living (ADLs); ALFs are an eldercare alternative on the continuum of care for people, for whom independent living is not appropriate but who do not need the 24-hour medical care provided by a nursing home and are too young to live in a retirement home. Assisted living is a philosophy of care and services promoting independence and dignity.


title: Nursing home

text: A skilled nursing facility (SNF) is a nursing home certified to participate in, and be reimbursed by Medicare. Medicare is the federal program primarily for the aged (65+) who contributed to Social Security and Medicare while they were employed. Medicaid is the federal program implemented with each state to provide health care and related services to those who are below the poverty line. Each state defines poverty and therefore Medicaid eligibility. Those eligible for Medicaid may be low-income parents, children (including those in State Children's Health Insurance Programs (SCHIPs) and maternal-child wellness and food programs), seniors, and people with disabilities.


title: Nursing home

text: The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services is the component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) that oversees Medicare and Medicaid. A large portion of Medicare and Medicaid dollars is used each year to cover nursing home care and services for the elderly and disabled. State governments oversee the licensing of nursing homes. In addition, states have a contract with CMS to monitor those nursing homes that want to be eligible to provide care to Medicare and Medicaid beneficiaries. Congress established minimum requirements for nursing homes that want to provide services under Medicare and Medicaid. These requirements are broadly outlined in the Social Security Act, which also entrusts the Secretary of Health and Human Services with the responsibility of monitoring and enforcing these requirements. CMS is also charged with the responsibility of working out the details of the law and how it will be implemented, which it does by writing regulations and manuals.


title: Real Time Streaming Protocol

text: The Real Time Streaming Protocol (RTSP) is an application-level network protocol designed for multiplexing and packetizing multimedia transport streams (such as interactive media, video and audio) over a suitable transport protocol. RTSP is used in entertainment and communications systems to control streaming media servers. The protocol is used for establishing and controlling media sessions between endpoints. Clients of media servers issue commands such as "play", "record" and "pause", to facilitate real-time control of the media streaming from the server to a client (video on demand) or from a client to the server (voice recording).


title: Real Time Streaming Protocol

text: RTSP was developed by RealNetworks, Netscape and Columbia University. The first draft was submitted to IETF in October 1996 by Netscape and Progressive Networks, after which Henning Schulzrinne from Columbia University submitted "RTSP'" ("RTSP prime") in December 1996. The two drafts were merged for standardization by the Multiparty Multimedia Session Control Working Group (MMUSIC WG) of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and further drafts were published by the working group. The Proposed Standard for RTSP was published as RFC 2326 in 1998. RTSP 2.0 published as RFC 7826 in 2016 as a replacement of RTSP 1.0. RTSP 2.0 is based on RTSP 1.0 but is not backwards compatible other than in the basic version negotiation mechanism, and remains a "Proposed Standard".


title: Real Time Streaming Protocol

text: The transmission of streaming data itself is not a task of RTSP. Most RTSP servers use the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) in conjunction with Real-time Control Protocol (RTCP) for media stream delivery. However, some vendors implement proprietary transport protocols. The RTSP server software from RealNetworks, for example, also used RealNetworks' proprietary Real Data Transport (RDT).


title: Real Time Streaming Protocol

text: While similar in some ways to HTTP, RTSP defines control sequences useful in controlling multimedia playback. While HTTP is stateless, RTSP has state; an identifier is used when needed to track concurrent sessions. Like HTTP, RTSP uses TCP to maintain an end-to-end connection and, while most RTSP control messages are sent by the client to the server, some commands travel in the other direction (i.e. from server to client).


title: Real Time Streaming Protocol

text: Presented here are the basic RTSP requests. Some typical HTTP requests, like the OPTIONS request, are also available. The default transport layer port number is 554 for both TCP and UDP, the latter being rarely used for the control requests.


title: Real Time Streaming Protocol

text: Many CCTV / Security cameras, often called IP cameras, support RTSP streaming too, especially these with ONVIF profiles G, S, T.


title: Honda Grom

text: The Honda Grom (MSX125 in Europe and East Asia) is a air-cooled standard motorcycle made by Honda Motor Co. Inc. It won the Motorcycle USA Motorcycle of the Year prize for 2014.


title: Honda Grom

text: Part of the Honda Grom's success has been its fuel economy rating of , a power output of at 7,000 rpm, and a top speed of .


title: Honda Grom

text: The Honda Grom is part of Honda's "miniMOTO" line up of "pocket-sized" motorcycles (small displacement, generally 125cc or lower and sometimes referred to as "Pocket bikes," "Minibikes," or "Tiny Motorcycles. Other motorcycles under the miniMOTO lineup include the MONKEY, SUPER CUB C125, TRAIL125 ABS, and NAVI.


title: Birdwatching

text: Birdwatching, or birding, is the observing of birds, either as a recreational activity or as a form of citizen science. A birdwatcher may observe by using their naked eye, by using a visual enhancement device like binoculars or a telescope, by listening for bird sounds, or by watching public webcams.


title: Birdwatching

text: Most birdwatchers pursue this activity for recreational or social reasons, unlike ornithologists, who engage in the study of birds using formal scientific methods.


title: Birdwatching

text: The first recorded use of the term "birdwatcher" was in 1901 by Edmund Selous; "bird" was introduced as a verb in 1918. The term "birding" was also used for the practice of "fowling" or hunting with firearms as in Shakespeare's "The Merry Wives of Windsor" (1602): "She laments sir... her husband goes this morning a-birding." The terms "birding" and "birdwatching" are today used by some interchangeably, although some participants prefer "birding", partly because it includes the auditory aspects of enjoying birds.


title: Birdwatching

text: In North America, many birders differentiate themselves from birdwatchers, and the term "birder" is unfamiliar to most lay people. At the most basic level, the distinction is perceived as one of dedication or intensity, though this is a subjective differentiation. Generally, self-described birders perceive themselves to be more versed in minutiae such as identification (aural and visual), molt, distribution, migration timing, and habitat usage. Whereas these dedicated "birders" may often travel specifically in search of birds, "birdwatchers" have been described by some enthusiasts as having a more limited scope, perhaps not venturing far from their own yards or local parks to view birds. Indeed, in 1969 a "Birding Glossary" appeared in "Birding" magazine which gave the following definitions:


title: Birdwatching

text: "Twitching" is a British term used to mean "the pursuit of a previously located rare bird." In North America, it is more often called "chasing". The term "twitcher", sometimes misapplied as a synonym for "birder", is reserved for those who travel long distances to see a rare bird that would then be "ticked", or counted on a list. The term originated in the 1950s, when it was used to describe the nervous behaviour of Howard Medhurst, a British birdwatcher. Earlier terms for those who chased rarities were "pot-hunter", "tally-hunter", or "tick-hunter". The main goal of twitching is often to accumulate species on one's lists. Some birders engage in competition to accumulate the longest species list. The act of the pursuit itself is referred to as a "twitch" or a "chase". A rare bird that stays long enough for people to see it is "twitchable" or "chaseable".


title: Birdwatching

text: Twitching is highly developed in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Denmark, Ireland, Finland and Sweden. The size of these countries makes it possible to travel throughout them quickly and with relative ease. The most popular twitches in the UK have drawn large crowds; for example, approximately 2,500 people travelled to Kent, to view a golden-winged warbler ("Vermivora chrysoptera"), which is native to North America. Twitchers have developed their own vocabulary. For example, a twitcher who fails to see a rare bird has "dipped out"; if other twitchers do see the bird, he may feel "gripped off". "Suppression" is the act of concealing news of a rare bird from other twitchers.


title: Birdwatching

text: Many birders maintain a "life list", that is, a list of all of the species they have seen in their life, usually with details about the sighting such as date and location. The American Birding Association has specific rules about how a bird species may be documented and recorded in such a list if it is submitted to the ABA; however, the criteria for the personal recording of these lists are very subjective. Some birders "count" species they have identified audibly, while others only record species that they have identified visually. Some also maintain a "country list", "state list", "county list", "yard list", "year list", or any combination of these.


title: Birdwatching

text: The early interest in observing birds for their aesthetic rather than utilitarian (mainly food) value is traced to the late 18th century in the works of Gilbert White, Thomas Bewick, George Montagu and John Clare. The study of birds, and of natural history in general, became increasingly prevalent in Britain during the Victorian Era, often associated with collection, eggs and later skins being the artifacts of interest. Wealthy collectors made use of their contacts in the colonies to obtain specimens from around the world. It was only in the late 19th century that the call for bird protection led to the rising popularity of observations of living birds. The Audubon Society was started to protect birds from the growing trade in feathers in the United States while the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds began in Britain.


title: Birdwatching

text: The phrase "bird watching" appeared for the first time as the title of the book "Bird Watching" by Edmund Selous in 1901. In North America, the identification of birds, once thought possible only by shooting, was made possible by the emergence of optics and field identification guides. The earliest field guide in the US was "Birds through an Opera Glass" (1889) by Florence Bailey.


title: Birdwatching

text: Birding in North America was focused in the early and mid-20th century in the eastern seaboard region, and was influenced by the works of Ludlow Griscom and later Roger Tory Peterson. "Bird Neighbors" (1897) by Neltje Blanchan, an early birding book, sold over 250,000 copies. It was illustrated with color photographs of stuffed birds.


title: Birdwatching

text: The organization and networking of those interested in birds began through organizations like the Audubon Society, which was against the killing of birds, and the American Ornithologists' Union (AOU). The rising popularity of the car increased the mobility of birdwatchers and this made new locations accessible. Networks of birdwatchers in the UK began to form in the late 1930s under the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO). The BTO saw the potential to produce scientific results through the networks, unlike the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) which like the Audubon Society originated from the bird protection movement.


title: Birdwatching

text: Like the AOU in North America, the BOU had a focus mainly on collection-based taxonomy. The BOU changed focus to ecology and behaviour only in the 1940s. The BTO movement towards 'organized birdwatching' was opposed by the RSPB, which claimed that the 'scientification' of the pastime was 'undesirable'. This stand was to change only in 1936 when the RSPB was taken over by Tom Harrisson and others. Harrisson was instrumental in the organization of pioneering surveys of the great crested grebe.


title: Birdwatching

text: Increased mobility of birdwatchers ensured that books like "Where to Watch Birds" by John Gooders became best-sellers. By the 1960s air travel became feasible and long-distance holiday destinations opened up. By 1965, Britain's first birding tour company, "Ornitholidays" had been started by Lawrence Holloway. Travelling far away also led to problems in name usage: British birds such as "wheatear", "heron" and "swallow" needed adjectives to differentiate them in places where there were several related species. The falling cost of air travel made flying to remote birding destinations a possibility for a large number of people towards the 1980s. The need for global guides to birds increased, and one of the biggest resulting projects was the "Handbook of the Birds of the World", begun in the 1990s by Josep del Hoyo, Jordi Sargatal, David A. Christie, and ornithologist Andy Elliott.


title: Birdwatching

text: Initially, birdwatching was largely restricted to developed countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States of America. Since the second half of the 20th century an increasing number of people in developing countries have engaged in this activity, such as in the Degua Tembien district of Ethiopia. Transnational birding has played an important role in this, as birders in developing countries usually take up the pastime under the influence of foreign cultures with a history of birding. A majority of transnational birders are middle-aged, male, affluent, and belong to the Anglophone countries or Scandinavia.


title: Birdwatching

text: In the 20th century, most of the birding activity in North America was done on the east coast. The publication of Roger Tory Peterson's field guide in 1934 led to the initial increase in birding. Binoculars, an essential piece of birding equipment, became more easily available after World War II, making the hobby more accessible. The practice of travelling long distances to see rare bird species was aided by the rising popularity of cars.


title: Birdwatching

text: About 4% of North Americans were interested in birding in the 1970s and in the mid-1980s at least 11% were found to watch birds at least 20 days of the year. The number of birders was estimated at 61 million in the late 1980s. The income level of birders has been found to be well above average.


title: Birdwatching

text: "The Sibley Guide to Birds", published in 2000, had sold 500,000 copies by 2002. It was found that the number of birdwatchers rose, but there appeared to be a drop in birdwatching in the backyard.


title: Birdwatching

text: According to a U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service study, birders contributed $36 billion to the US economy in 2006, and one fifth (20%) of all Americans are identified as birdwatchers. According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2016, over 45 million Americans consider themselves birders.


title: Birdwatching

text: North American birders were estimated to have spent as much as US$32 billion in 2001. The spending is on the rise around the world. Kuşcenneti National Park (KNP) at Lake Manyas, a Ramsar site in Turkey, was estimated to attract birders who spent as much as US$103,320,074 annually. Guided bird tours have become a major business, with at least 127 companies offering tours worldwide. An average trip to a less-developed country costs $4000 per person and includes about 12 participants for each of 150 trips a year. It has been suggested that this economic potential needs to be tapped for conservation.


title: Birdwatching

text: Birdwatching tourism is considered to be one of the fastest-growing nature-based tourism sectors in the world, often involving well-educated or wealthy travelers with specific interests in the places they visit. In addition to this, birdwatching tourism is considered a niche market of nature-based tourism. Birdwatching and other niche tourism markets are good for market diversification and mitigating the impacts of seasonality in a tourism market as well as bringing economic resources to remote communities, thus diversifying their economies and contributing to biodiversity conservation. It is estimated that birdwatching ecotourism contributes $41 billion per year to the U.S. economy. The large funds generated by birdwatching ecotourism have been suggested as a replacement for tax revenue generated by bird hunting which has dropped to its lowest levels in decades.


title: Birdwatching

text: Birding ecotourism companies are also making contributions to conservation. Birding Ecotours, which runs both international and domestic trips, donates a minimum of 10% of its net profits to bird conservation and communities it operates in. Another tour operator, Hardy Boat, has donated $200,000 to Project Puffin to conserve puffin populations off the Atlantic Coast.


title: Birdwatching

text: One of the expectations of ecotourism is that the travels of birders to a place will contribute to the improvement of the local economy, ensuring that the environment is valued and protected. Birdwatchers contribute to conservation, helping build and disseminate environmental knowladge by participating in citizen science. However, birding can bring about an increased penetration of ecosystem services that are perceived as birdwatchers' indispensable attributes. By their presence and obstinacy, birdwatchers affect the attractiveness of the breeding migration or roosting sites for birds, flush birds, and otherwise increase the pressure on birds and their habitats (e.g., luring birds out of their hideouts and stressing them by playing their calls or exposing birds and their nests to predators). Furthermore, other impacts include disturbance to birds, the environment, local cultures and the economy. Methods to reduce negative impact and improve the value of conservation are the subject of research.


title: Birdwatching

text: Many birders occupy themselves with observing local species (birding in their "local patch"), but may also make specific trips to observe birds in other locales. The most active times of the year for birding in temperate zones are during the spring or fall migrations when the greatest variety of birds may be seen. On these occasions, large numbers of birds travel north or south to wintering or nesting locations. Early mornings are typically better as the birds are more active and vocal making them easier to spot.


title: Birdwatching

text: Certain locations such as a local patch of forest, wetland and coast may be favoured according to the location and season. Seawatching, or pelagic birding, is a type of birding where observers based at a coastal watch point, such as a headland, watch birds flying over the sea. This is one form of pelagic birding, though birders also seek pelagic species from seagoing vessels.


title: Birdwatching

text: Weather plays an important role in the occurrence of rare birds. In Britain, suitable wind conditions may lead to drift migration, and an influx of birds from the east. In North America, birds caught in the tail-end of a hurricane may be blown inland.


title: Birdwatching

text: Birdwatchers may take part in censuses of bird populations and migratory patterns which are sometimes specific to individual species. These birdwatchers may also count all birds in a given area, as in the Christmas Bird Count, or follow carefully designed study protocols. This kind of citizen science can assist in identifying environmental threats to the well-being of birds or, conversely, in assessing outcomes of environmental management initiatives intended to ensure the survival of at-risk species or to encourage the breeding of species for aesthetic or ecological reasons.


title: Birdwatching

text: This more scientific side of the hobby is an aspect of ornithology, coordinated in the UK by the British Trust for Ornithology. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology hosts many citizen-science projects to track the number and distribution of bird species across North America. These surveys help scientists note major changes from year to year which may occur as a result of climate change, disease, predation, and other factors.


title: Birdwatching

text: Because of their accessibility and ubiquity, birds are a useful tool for environmental education and awareness of environmental issues. Birdwatching can increase respect for nature and awareness of the fragility of ecosystems.


title: Birdwatching

text: Birding as a competitive event is organized in some parts of the world. Such competitions encourage individuals or teams to accumulate large numbers of species within a specified time or area with special rules. Some birdwatchers will also compete by attempting to increase their life list, national list, state list, provincial list, county list, or year list. Such events have been criticised, especially those claimed to aid conservation when they may actually mask serious environmental issues, or where competitive birding involves large amounts of driving. The American Birding Association was originally started as a club for "listers", but it now serves a much broader audience. Still, the ABA continues to publish an official annual report of North American list standings.


title: Birdwatching

text: Prominent national and continental organizations concerned with birding include the British Trust for Ornithology and Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in the United Kingdom, and the American Birding Association and the Cornell Lab of Ornithology in North America. Many statewide or local Audubon organizations are also active in the United States, as are many provincial and local organizations in Canada. BirdLife International is an important global alliance of bird conservation organizations. Many countries and smaller regions (states/provinces) have "rarities committees" to check, accept or reject reports of rare birds made by birders.


title: Birdwatching

text: Equipment commonly used for birding includes binoculars, a spotting scope with tripod, a smartphone, a notepad, and one or more field guides. Hides (known as "blinds" in North America) or observation towers are often used to conceal the observers from birds, and/or to improve viewing conditions. Virtually all optics manufacturers offer specific binoculars for birding, and some have even geared their whole brand to birders.


title: Birdwatching

text: Recognition of bird vocalizations is an important part of a birder's toolkit. Sound information can assist in the locating, watching, identification and sexing of birds. Recent developments in audio technology have seen recording and reproduction devices shrink in both size and price, making them accessible to a greater portion of the birding community.


title: Birdwatching

text: The non-linear nature of digital audio technology has also made selecting and accessing the required recordings much more flexible than tape-based models. It is now possible to take a recording of every bird call you are likely to encounter in a given area out into the field stored on a device that will slip into your pocket and to retrieve calls for playback and comparison in any order you choose.


title: Birdwatching

text: Photography has always been a part of birding, but in the past the cost of cameras with super-telephoto lenses made this a minority, often semi-professional, interest. The advent of affordable digital cameras, which can be used in conjunction with a spotting scope or binoculars (using the technique of afocal photography, referred to by the neologism ""digiscoping"" or sometimes "digibinning" for binoculars), have made this a much more widespread aspect of the hobby.


title: Birdwatching

text: As with the arrival of affordable digital cameras, the development of more compact and affordable digital video cameras has made them more attractive and accessible to the birding community. Cross-over, non-linear digital models now exist that take high-quality stills at acceptable resolutions, as well as being able to record and play audio and video. The ability to capture and reproduce not only the visual characteristics of a bird, but also its patterns of movement and its sound, has wide applications for birders in the field.


title: Birdwatching

text: This class of product includes devices that can play (and in some cases record) a range of digital media, typically video, audio and still image files. Many modern digital cameras, mobile phones, and camcorders can be classified as portable media players. With the ability to store and play large quantities of information, pocket-sized devices allow a full birding multimedia library to be taken into the field and mobile Internet access makes obtaining and transmitting information possible in near real time.


title: Birdwatching

text: New technologies are allowing birdwatching activities to take place over the Internet, using robotic camera installations and mobile phones set up in remote wildlife areas. Projects such as CONE allow users to observe and photograph birds over the web; similarly, robotic cameras set up in largely inhospitable areas are being used to attempt the first photographs of the rare ivory-billed woodpecker. These systems represent new technologies in the birdwatcher's toolkit.


title: Birdwatching

text: In the early 1950s, the only way of communicating new bird sightings was through the postal system and it was generally too late for the recipients to act on the information. In 1953 James Ferguson-Lees began broadcasting rare bird news on the radio in Eric Simms' "Countryside" program but this did not catch on. In the 1960s people began using the telephone and some people became hubs for communication. In the 1970s some cafés, such as that in Cley, Norfolk run by Nancy Gull, became centers for meeting and communication. This was replaced by telephone hotline services such as "Birdline" and "Bird Information Service".


title: Birdwatching

text: With the advent of the World Wide Web, birders have been using the Internet to convey information; this can be via mailing lists, forums, bulletin-boards, web-based databases and other social media. While most birding lists are geographic in scope, there are special-interest lists that cater to bird-identification, 'twitchers', seabirds and raptor enthusiasts to name but a few. Messages can range from the serious to trivial, notifying others of rarities, questioning the taxonomy or identification of a species, discussing field guides and other resources, asking for advice and guidance, or organizing groups to help save habitats. Occasional postings are mentioned in academic journals and therefore can be a valuable resource for professional and amateur birders alike. One of the oldest, Birdchat (based in the US), probably has the most subscribers, followed by the English-language fork of Eurobirdnet, Birding-Aus from Australia, SABirdnet from South Africa and Orientalbirding.


title: Birdwatching

text: As the numbers of birdwatchers increases, there is growing concern about the impact of birdwatching on the birds and their habitat. Birdwatching etiquette is evolving in response to this concern. Some examples of birdwatching etiquette include promoting the welfare of birds and their environment, limiting use of photography, pishing and playback devices to mitigate stress caused to birds, maintaining a distance away from nests and nesting colonies, and respecting private property.


title: Birdwatching

text: The lack of definite evidence, except arguably in the form of photographs, makes birding records difficult to prove but birdwatchers strive to build trust in their identification. One of the few major disputes was the case of the Hastings Rarities.


title: Birdwatching

text: Ethologist Nikolaas Tinbergen considers birdwatching to be an expression of the male hunting instinct, while Simon Baron-Cohen links it with a male tendency for "systemizing". There have been suggestions that identification of birds may be a form of gaining status which has been compared with Kula valuables noted in Papua New Guinean cultures.


title: Birdwatching

text: A study of the motivations for birdwatching in New York concluded that initial motivations were largely similar in males and females, but males who participate actively in birding are more motivated by "sharing knowledge" with others, and active female birders are more motivated by their "intellectual" interest in studying birds, and by the "challenge" of identifying new and rare birds and improving their skills. Another study suggested that males lean towards competitive birding, while females prefer recreational birdwatching. While the representation of women has always been low, it has been pointed out that nearly 90% of all birdwatchers in the United States are white, with only a few African Americans. Other minority groups have formed organizations to support fellow birders, such as the Gay Birders Club and the Disabled Birders Association.


title: Birdwatching

text: There are about 10,000 species of bird and only a small number of people have seen more than 7,000. Many birdwatchers have spent their entire lives trying to see all the bird species of the world. The first person who started this is said to be Stuart Keith.


title: Birdwatching

text: Birders have been known to go to great lengths and some have lost their lives in the process. Phoebe Snetsinger spent her family inheritance travelling to various parts of the world while suffering from a malignant melanoma, surviving an attack and rape in New Guinea before dying in a road accident in Madagascar. She saw as many as 8,400 species. The birdwatcher David Hunt who was leading a bird tour in Corbett National Park was killed by a tiger in February 1985. In 1971, Ted Parker (who later died an air crash in Ecuador) travelled around North America and saw 626 species. This record was beaten by Kenn Kaufman in 1973 who travelled 69,000 miles and saw 671 species and spent less than a thousand dollars.


title: Birdwatching

text: In 2012, Tom Gullick, an Englishman who lives in Spain, became the first birdwatcher to log over 9,000 species. In 2008, two British birders, Alan Davies and Ruth Miller, gave up their jobs, sold their home and put everything they owned into a year-long global birdwatching adventure about which they a wrote a book called "The Biggest Twitch". They logged their 4,431st species on 31 October 2008. Noah Strycker recorded 6,042 species during 2015, overtaking Davies and Miller. In 2016, Arjan Dwarshuis became the world-record holder for most species seen during a big year, logging 6,852 bird species in 40 countries.


title: Birdwatching

text: Birdwatching literature, field guides and television programs have been popularized by birders such as Pete Dunne and Bill Oddie.


title: Birdwatching

text: The 2011 film "The Big Year" depicted three birders competing in an American Birding Association Area big year, and the 2019 film "Birders" is a short documentary.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer (BB) is series of sports cars produced by Ferrari in Italy between 1973 and 1984. The BB was designed by Leonardo Fioravanti at Pininfarina. The first BB model, the 365 GT4 BB, replaced the front engined Daytona and was the first in a series of road-going Ferraris equipped with a mid-mounted flat-twelve engine. It was also the first mid-engined road-car to bear the Ferrari name and the Cavallino Rampante (prancing horse) logo. The 365 GT4 BB was succeeded in 1976 by the BB 512, equipped with a larger displacement engine, then by the fuel-injected BB 512i in 1981. The series was discontinued in 1984 when the BB 512i was replaced by the Testarossa, which used a revised version of the flat-twelve engine.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Production of the BB was a major step for Enzo Ferrari. He felt that a mid-engined road car would be too difficult for his buyers to handle, and it took many years for his engineers to convince him to adopt the layout. This attitude began to change as the marque lost its racing dominance in the late 1950s to mid-engined competitors. As a result, the rear-mid-engined 246 P Formula 1 car was introduced in 1960, followed by the Dino SP racing sports prototypes in 1961. In 1963, the company also moved its V12 engines to the rear with its P and LM racing cars.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Introduced in 1967, the Dino 206 GT and 246 GT/GTS road cars were the first road-going Ferraris to use the rear-mid-engined layout, albeit under the lower-cost Dino marque. Ferrari's flagship V12-powered road cars remained front-engined through the early 1970s, with the 365 GTB/4 Daytona and 365 GTC/4 introduced in 1968 and 1971, respectively. In 1973, Ferrari introduced the 365 GT4 Berlinetta Boxer as its first mid-engined 12-cylinder road car.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Ferrari first used the flat-12 engine layout in racing cars, starting with the 1964 512 F1. The 512 F1's 1.5 liter engine was designed by Mauro Forghieri, technical director of the racing department. This engine design was further developed in several Formula One and sports prototype racing cars, including the 1968 212 E, 1970-75 312B, and 1971 312PB. These racing engine designs became the basis for the road-going flat 12 engine introduced in the 365 GT4 BB.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Following the introduction of the production 365 GTB/4 Daytona in 1969, Ferrari engineers led by Dr. Ing. Angelo Bellei began work on a successor, the 365 GT4 BB. Though it shared its numerical designation with the 365 GTB/4 Daytona, the 365 GT4 BB was radically different in layout than the front-engined 365 GTB/4. The new car was to have rear mid-mounted flat-12 engine, arranged longitudinally. While this configuration was unprecedented among Ferrari road cars, the design team drew upon the existing chassis design of the mid-engine 250 LM and Dino 206/246, as well as the flat-12 engines developed for the Scuderia Ferrari beginning in 1964. The first prototype 365 GT4 BB was unveiled at the 1971 Turin Motor Show. Prototypes were further refined by an extensive road and track testing program led by Ferrari test driver Giorgio Enrico. As Ferrari engineers already had considerable experience with both the layout and engine design, development work proceeded rapidly and only small changes were seen between the early prototypes and the first production 365 GT4 BB. The production 365 GT4 BB was first offered for sale in 1973.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Dr. Ing. Giuliano de Angelis oversaw the development of the "Tipo" "F102A" engine used in the 365 GT4 BB. This engine was derived from both the Mauro Forghieri-designed "Tipo 001" 3.0-litre flat-12 engine used in the 1969 Ferrari 312B Formula One car and the roadgoing 365 GTB/4 engine. The total displacement of the new engine was 4390.35 cc with a bore of 81 mm and a stroke of 71 mm, dimensions which matched the 365 GTB/4 engine.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: While the "Berlinetta Boxer" name has been used by both Ferrari and the press to describe BB-series cars, this engine was not a true boxer engine. In the "Tipo" F102 A and its derivatives, each pair of opposing pistons share the same crank pin and move in the same direction during operation. In a boxer engine, pairs of opposing pistons move in opposite directions. On this point, Ferrari engine designer Mauro Forghieri stated "Please, don't call it boxer. Technically, it is correct to say that this engine is a flat-12, or has 12 cylinders with the heads at a vee angle of 180°."


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The engine block was constructed of Silumin alloy, with cast iron cylinder liners. Pistons were light alloy and the crankshaft was forged steel. The cylinder head design was very similar to that of the 365 GTB/4, incorporating dual overhead camshafts and two valves per cylinder. The four camshafts were driven by two timing belts, which reduced noise and weight compared to the timing chains used on earlier 12 cylinder Ferrari engines. Air and fuel were supplied via four 3-bbl Weber 40 IF 3C carburetors. The ignition system consisted of a single Magneti Marelli distributor and two coils. The engine was lubricated by a wet sump, which was replaced by a dry sump in the BB512 to avoid oil starvation issues. According to de Angelis and Bellei, the first prototype F102 A engine produced 380 bhp at 7,100 rpm and propelled the prototype to during testing. Ferrari brochures reported the production version of the F102 A engine produced 360 bhp at 7,500 rpm and 311 ft/lb of torque at 4,500 rpm, although figures reported in other factory and press publications vary.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The 365 GT4 BB was equipped with a five speed manual transaxle and limited slip differential. The transmission and differential were placed directly underneath the engine, alongside the oil sump. The Fichtel & Sachs single plate dry clutch was located at the rear of the engine. Power reached the transmission via a set of drop gears and a horizontal shaft. While this layout increased the vertical height of the engine and transmission assembly and raised the car's center of gravity, it shortened the overall length of the assembly. This was advantageous for packaging reasons, as a compact engine/transmission meant the chassis could have a short overall wheelbase as well as a comfortable, spacious cabin.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The engine design of the "Tipo" F102 A continued to be developed by Ferrari after the introduction of the 365 GT4 BB. It led to the creation of a family of road-going Ferrari flat-12 engines, including the F102 B (used in the BB 512), F110 A (used in the BBi 512) and the engines of the Testarossa, 512TR and F512M. These later engines had an overall displacement of 5 liters.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The body of the 365 GT4 BB was styled at Pininfarina, supervised by Leonardo Fioravanti. The design was influenced by the Ferrari P6 Berlinetta Speciale, a one-off concept car created by Pininfarina in 1968. The first 365 GT4 BB prototype was presented to the public at the 1971 Turin Auto Show. It had a low, wedge shaped nose with hidden headlamps, a steeply raked windscreen and a wide rear section truncated by a vertical tail. The design was refined using wind tunnel testing at Pininfarina's facility. As a result of these aerodynamic studies, a spoiler was placed behind and above the passenger compartment, spanning the two buttresses or sail panels on either side of the engine cover. This spoiler was intended to reduce drag, improve stability and direct air into the intakes on the top of the engine cover.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The central section of the bodywork was constructed of steel, while the front and rear covers and door were constructed of aluminum alloy. The front and rear lower valences/bumpers were fiberglass. The front and rear covers are a clamshell design, with hinges allowing the front cover to pivot forward and the rear engine cover to pivot rearward. This allowed easier maintenance access to the engine and use of the small front luggage compartment.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The 1971 prototype's paint scheme was designed to lower and reduce the visual mass of the car when seen in profile. To this effect, the bodywork was split with a horizontal seam near the top of the wheel rims and everything below this point was painted satin black, including both front and rear bumpers. This two-tone paint scheme would carry over into production BB models. Ferrari later offered the two-tone paint scheme as an option on other models such as the 308, where it was commonly referred to as "Boxer" paint.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The bodywork of the 1971 Turin Auto Show prototype closely represented that of the production 365 GT4 BB, with some small differences. The prototype had four tail lamps, while the production 365 GT4 BB had six. The prototype's fuel filler was placed below the rear quarter window, but this was relocated to a buttress/sail panel in the production version. This design was carried over with only minor changes through the final model of the series, the BB 512i.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The 365 GT4 BB chassis was constructed of steel tubing, as was standard Ferrari practice at the time. According to lead engineer Dr. Ing. Angelo Bellei, the chassis design was directly influenced by the chassis of the 250 LM and the Dino 206/246. While the central bodywork formed a semi-monocoque with the steel chassis, the front and rear bodywork was unstressed and only supported by light subframes. The front bodywork and subframe was designed to deform and absorb energy during a crash. Crash safety was also improved by the presence of two large diameter tubes which ran diagonally from the engine cradle to the roof, providing extra strength during a rollover crash.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: All four wheels had double wishbone independent suspension, with a single coil spring and shock absorber for each front wheel and a pair for each rear wheel. Dual anti-roll bars, non-powered rack and pinion steering and four wheel disc brakes were also equipped. The 365 GT4 BB was fitted with Michelin XWX tires, with front and rear tires both sized 215 70 VR 15. Later models would use a staggered configuration with wider rear tires.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The production version of the 365 GT4 BB was introduced at the 1973 Paris Motor Show. The start of production coincided with the 1973 oil crisis, and as a result initial demand was low. Ferrari initially planned a limited production run of only 25 cars. Production began slowly, with only two dozen cars constructed during the first year of production. Demand gradually increased and later cars were produced at the rate of one per day. In total, 387 examples were built between 1973 and 1976, making it the rarest of all Berlinetta Boxer models. 88 were right-hand drive, with 58 of these intended for the UK market. Production 365 GT4 BB bodywork was constructed by Scaglietti and final assembly took place at Ferrari's factory in Maranello.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Factory list price in 1973 was 18,290,00 Lire. By 1976, the price increased to 24,375,000 L., approximately US$30,000. List price in the UK was in 1975. Air conditioning was optional, but most buyers selected it. Buyers could choose the two-tone "Boxer" paint with a black lower half, or conventional single color paint.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Contemporary press reception to the 365 GT4 BB was positive and journalists praised the car's handling and straight line performance. Road & Track tested a 365 GT4 BB in June 1975. The clutch in their test car slipped, but they still measured 0-60 mph in 7.2 seconds, 0-100 mph in 14.8 seconds and a standing quarter mile time of 15.5 seconds. R&T testers reached a top speed of 175 mph, making the 365 GT4 BB the fastest road car tested at the time. A later test of a fully functional car in the November 1976 issue of Car and Driver recorded 0-60 mph in 6.1 seconds and 0-100 mph in 14.1 seconds.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The name "512" referred to the car's 5 litre, 12 cylinder engine, resurrecting the name of the earlier Ferrari 512 racer. This was a deviation from Ferrari's established practice of naming 12-cylinder road cars (as the 365 BB) after their individual cylinder displacement.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The "Tipo" F102 B engine was enlarged to 4943 cc. Bore and stroke were now 82 mm x 78 mm and the compression ratio was increased to 9.2:1. Ferrari sales brochures claimed a peak power output of ; later Ferrari publications revised this to . This was lower than the claimed power of the 365 GT4 BB, but the BB 512 reached peak power at 6200 rpm, lower than the 7000 rpm peak of the previous model. Torque slightly increased to at 4300 rpm. Despite the loss in peak power, the flatter torque curve of the 5 liter engine provided a smoother and more user friendly power delivery. The larger displacement engine also allowed Ferrari to meet more stringent pollution and noise regulations without losing performance.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: A dual plate clutch handled the added torque and eased the pedal effort. Dry sump lubrication prevented oil starvation in hard cornering. In order to improve grip, the rear Michelin XWX tires were increased in width to 225 70 VR 15 and the rear wheels were widened from 7.5 inches to 9 inches wide. The front tires remained 215 70 VR 15 on 7.5 inch wide wheels, as on the 365 GT4 BB. The chassis remained unaltered, but these wider rear tires meant the rear track increased to 1563 mm and the rear bodywork was widened accordingly.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: External differentiators included a new chin spoiler upfront, incorporated in the bumper. At top speed the nose of 365 GT4 BB lifted 1 inch; the BB 512's chin spoiler eliminated this tendency. NACA ducts were added behind the door on each side, provided cooling for the exhaust system and rear brakes. At the rear, there were now twin tail lights and exhaust pipes each side, instead of triple units as on the 365 GT4 BB. The panel between the taillights was now slats, instead of black mesh. The number of vents in the engine cover increased, in order to improve engine cooling.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The BB 512i (also known as the 512 BBi) was introduced in 1981 and was the last of the series. The "Tipo" F110 A engine now incorporated Bosch K-Jetronic CIS fuel injection. The fuel injected motor produced cleaner emissions and offered a better balance of performance and driveability. Camshaft timing was changed and the Magneti Marelli "Dinoplex" electronic ignition system now had a built-in rev limiter. Claimed peak power output was at 6,000 rpm, making the BB 512i the least powerful model in the series.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: External differentiators from the BB 512 besides badging include small white running lights in the front fascia, a front grill that exposed the driving lamps, and a revised rear valence incorporating red fog lamps outboard of the exhaust pipes. Engine cover venting was also revised.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The BB 512i used Michelin TRX metric-sized tires and wheels, replacing the Michelin XWX tires used on earlier BB models. Tires were sized 240/55 VR 415 front and rear, with wheels sized 180 TR 415 front and 210 TR 415 rear.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: List price of the BB 512i in the UK was in 1981. Air conditioning, power windows, and a stereo were all standard equipment. Buyers could specify an optional interior trimmed with Ermenegildo Zegna wool cloth in the seats, door panels and headliner. This was a rare option, with possibly only 27 examples so equipped.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Neither the BB, nor its closest competitor, Lamborghini Countach, were built from the factory to meet United States or Canadian safety and emissions regulations. Enzo Ferrari believed that emerging environmental and safety regulations and the 55 MPH national speed limit suggested the company's eight-cylinder cars would suffice in the "Malaise era" U.S. market. The 365 GT4 BB was also initially planned for a very limited production run, which Ferrari believed could be easily sold in Europe alone.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Americans purchased the Berlinetta Boxer anyway, and both individual consumers and even authorized Ferrari dealers paid to modify each vehicle to meet United States Environmental Protection Agency and United States Department of Transportation regulations. This was known as the "grey market era (1976-1988)." While the BB, Lamborghini Countach, and Range Rover were among the first such vehicles, the infrastructure they created allowed the "grey market" to reach 66,900 vehicles in 1985.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The first 365/512 BBs to legally arrive in the US were modified by Richard "Dick" Fritz and his company, Amerispec. Fritz entered into an agreement with Ferrari dealer Chinetti Motors, his former employer, to modify and legalize a BB imported by the dealer. At that time there was no set process for determining whether an imported car met US government regulations. In order to resolve this issue, Fritz met with EPA and DOT officials to write a set of rules and tests to determine whether any specific imported car met legal requirements. Once these discussions yielded a set of enforceable requirements, Fritz began modifying BBs to meet them. This modification process, commonly known as "federalization", involved changes to the engine, instrumentation, lighting, seatbelts, and crash reinforcements. Amerispec's federalization process involved over 75 different changes. The front bumper and subframe had to be extensively modified in order to meet the "5 mph" zero damage standard in effect at the time. Carbureted models were modified with a secondary air injection system, catalytic converters, and various tuning adjustments in order to meet US emissions standards. The fuel injected BB 512i required fewer emissions-related modifications. The average cost to federalize a new BB was US$14,000.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: After Amerispec proved the federalization process was legal and practical, other companies began offering federalization services. There was no standardized process for federalization and companies differed in their approach. As a result, many BBs entered the US in varying states of modification and compliance. Due to short staffing at the EPA and DOT, not all cars were rigorously inspected. In 1990, new laws came into effect that forbid importation of all cars which had no comparable USA-spec model, unless the car is more than 25 years old. This ended the practice of federalization and outlawed further importation of BB models until they reached the 25 year old cutoff. While all BB models can currently be imported into the US without modification, some cars still retain federalization modifications from the "grey market" era. Removing these modifications can involve significant practical and bureaucratic difficulties for owners and restorers.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Measurements are notoriously variable, inaccurate, and definitionally vague even from Ferrari-issued sources of the same period. For example, the workshop manual documents maximum speed (typically speed at redline), whereas the owner's manual documents "attainable" speed, which appears to be speed at maximum HP per RPM not exceeding redline; for the 512 and 512i, this is likely not the maximum speed. Also, the workshop manual does not consistently distinguish measurements between the carbureted (512) and injected (512i) engines except with respect to the fuel delivery system, even though it is common knowledge that differences exist.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The 365 GT4 BB was never officially raced by Scuderia Ferrari, however Luigi Chinetti's North American Racing Team (NART) raced modified street cars with some factory support. In 1974, NART obtained two 365 GT4 BBs for use in sports car racing. These cars, chassis 18139 and 18095, began as standard road cars and were modified for competition use.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Chassis 18139 was totally disassembled by NART mechanics and received extensive modifications. These included removal of the factory interior, installation of a roll cage and larger fuel tank, improved suspension, wider bodywork with fixed headlights and wider wheels. Carburetor tuning was slightly adjusted and a new exhaust system was installed, but the engine was otherwise unmodified. 18139 was entered in the 1975 24 Hours of Daytona, but retired before the race after breaking a hub carrier during practice. 18139 finished 6th overall at the 12 Hours of Sebring two months later, then was entered at Road Atlanta where broke another hub carrier during practice and Lime Rock, where it retired from the race due to a broken connecting rod. The car was inactive during the 1976 season, then was entered in the 1977 24 Hours of Le Mans by NART. The car finished 16th overall and 5th in the IMSA class, driven by Francois Migault and Lucien Guitteny. For the 1978 season, 18139 was fitted with a 512 engine supplied by the factory. It placed 22nd overall at the 1978 24 hours of Daytona (again driven by Migault and Guitteny), 21st at Road Atlanta, 16th overall and 3rd in class at Le Mans and 11th at the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen. 18139's final competition appearance was in 1984 at the 6 Hours of Riverside. Although the car had been upgraded, it was no longer competitive and retired after 76 laps.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Chassis 18095 was also modified by NART, but not as radically as 18139. Wider wheels were used, measuring 8 in wide front and 11 in wide rear. The wheel arches were flared, a small rear spoiler and racing fuel filler were installed and the interior adapted with safety equipment including a roll bar, harness and fire extinguisher. The engine was standard except for a spacer to increase oil capacity and a new exhaust system. This car was entered in the 1975 24 Hours of Le Mans, but did not compete as NART withdrew from the race in protest over how the race organizers chose to classify their 308 GT4.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: In 1978, Ferrari began producing a purpose-built competition version of the BB 512, termed the 512 BB LM (also styled 512 BB/LM or 512 BBLM). They were produced in two series, with the first series constructed in 1978 and the second series constructed between late 1978 and 1982.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: Ferrari constructed three examples of the series one 512 BB LM in 1978. These had wider wheel arches, a roof-mounted aerofoil, and a rear wing adapted from the front wing of a Ferrari 312T2. Two of these cars were fitted with "long nose" bodywork, which extended the front of the car by several inches and replaced the standard full-width grill with a small oval air inlet. Power from the flat-12 was increased to approximately 400-440 bhp, while the cars' weight was decreased to approximately 1,200 kg (2,646 lb).


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The three factory S1 BB LMs competed in the 1978 24 Hours of Le Mans, with two cars entered by Ferrari importer Charles Pozzi and one car entered by NART. Jacques Swaters' Ecurie Francorchamps entered one additional 512 BB, which was converted to competition specification by the team. This car differed from the factory BB LM cars, weighing approximately 100 kg (220 lb) more. None of these cars finished the race due to mechanical issues.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: After the failure of the first series, Ferrari worked on fixing the BB LM with a second development program in late 1978. The flat-12's carburetors were replaced with a Lucas mechanical fuel injection system to increase power to approximately 470-480 bhp. The transmission and cooling system were improved to handle the additional power. The production-based bodywork of the first BB LMs was replaced by a new design developed by Pininfarina which carried over very little of the original styling. The bodywork was now 16 in (41 cm) longer and 6 in (15 cm) wider, increasing overall weight compared to the S1 by 30 kg (66 lb). The pop-up headlights were now replaced by fixed units integrated into the fascia, while the tail was lengthened to the maximum allowed by regulations. Wider wheels were equipped, measuring 10in wide at the front and 13 in wide at the rear. Brakes and suspension were also improved. Nine of these S2 BB LMs were built by Ferrari in 1979.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The S2 design was further improved in 1980, including vertical side skirts to take advantage of ground effect, a larger air inlet duct in front of the rear wheels and a lighter chassis with fiberglass body panels, reducing weight by 100 kg (220 lb). Some sources refer to these as series 3 cars. Sixteen updated S2 BB LMs were built from 1980 to 1982, bringing the total number of S2 512 BB LMs manufactured to 25.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The 512 BB LM was never raced by Scuderia Ferrari, but was instead campaigned by several independent teams with varying levels of factory support. Teams that used the BB LM in competition include NART, Pozzi, Ecurie Francorchamps, Bellancauto and others. The BB LM was campaigned in World Endurance Championship and IMSA races as well as smaller local events from its introduction in 1978 through 1985. Both S1 and S2 BB LMs had reliability issues that limited their competition success. This was exacerbated by the lack of a factory racing effort, as the BB LM was only raced by private teams with limited budgets and inconsistent factory support. Among the BB LM's best finishes was a fifth overall and first in the GTX class at the 1981 24 Hours of Le Mans, 6th overall at the 1982 24 hours of Le Mans and 10th overall at the 1980 24 hours of Le Mans. Since their retirement from top-level competition, BB LMs have competed at various vintage racing events worldwide.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: The letters "BB" are used an acronym for "Berlinetta Boxer" In both official Ferrari sales materials, owners manuals and independent press coverage of the 365 GT4 BB, BB 512 and BB 512i. However, two accounts from Ferrari insiders suggest that "Berlinetta Boxer" is a backronym and the letters "BB" originally had a different meaning.


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: According to engineer Mauro Forghieri, the designation "BB" did not originally mean "Berlinetta Boxer." During an interview with Davide Cironi, Forghieri stated that they knew the car was not equipped with a boxer engine due to the BB engine's crankshaft design. He explained the meaning of the acronym "Berlinetta Boxer" was fabricated by journalists, while the original meaning was "Berlinetta Bialbero" (dual camshaft).


title: Ferrari Berlinetta Boxer

text: An alternative origin story of this name was put forward by Leonardo Fioravanti. He claimed that the "BB" designation was derived from a nickname given to the car by designer Fioravanti, Angelo Bellei and Sergio Scaglietti. During development of the 365 GT4 BB, they began to refer to the car as "Brigitte Bardot", as they perceived the prototype to be exceptionally beautiful like the French actress. This nickname was shortened to "BB" and quickly adopted by other Ferrari factory workers. "Berlinetta Boxer" was later invented by Ferrari officials prior to the model's introduction at the 1971 Turin Auto Show, as it was considered unprecedented to name a Ferrari after a woman.


title: Brandy Ledford

text: Brandy Lee Ledford (born February 4, 1969) is an American actress, model and "Penthouse" magazine's 1992 "Pet of the Year". She played the role of Desiree on "Modern Family", starred as Dawn Masterton on "Baywatch Hawaii", and Doyle in the science fiction television series "Andromeda".


title: Brandy Ledford

text: In addition to "Andromeda" and "Baywatch Hawaii", Ledford also starred in the SciFi Channel series "The Invisible Man" and the critically acclaimed "Whistler", for which she was nominated for two Best Actress awards, at the Leo Awards and Gemini Awards.


title: Brandy Ledford

text: Ledford was born in Denver, Colorado. In the early 1990s she was married to snowboarder Damian Sanders, and appeared in "Critical Condition" and "Snowboarders in Exile" as herself. She was married to Martin Cummins, with whom she has a child. She is currently single.


title: Ahsan Khan

text: He began acting in 1998. He appeared in the films "Nikah", "Billi", "Ghar Kab Aao Gay", "Sultanat", "Ishq Khuda", "Dil Mera Dhadkan Teri" and later moved on to television.He is one of the highest paid actors of the country and is consistently listed among the A-listers of the country.


title: Ahsan Khan

text: He hosted a quiz show "Hayya Allal Falah" on Hum TV in 2011, during Ramadan. Ahsan Khan is also hosting 2020's Ramadan transmission which is airing on PTV Home named "Ramazan Pakistan."


title: Ahsan Khan

text: He was born in London on 9 October 1981, into a family of five siblings; an elder brother, two elder sisters and a twin brother, who is an author and poet (Yasir Khan) from London. He is the only one to have gone into acting, and when his family moved back to Lahore, he earned a master's degree in English literature at Government College University. According to Khan, his father is half-Pashtun and his mother is Punjabi.


title: Ahsan Khan

text: Khan began acting at age 17 when he appeared in the 1998 film "Nikah" and in the same year appeared in "Hans Ki Chaal" for PTV. Ahsan later appeared in the films "Ghar Kab Aao Gay" (2000) and "Billi". He then shifted to television appearing in many television dramas throughout the 2000s and 2010s. These dramas include blockbusters like Din Dhallay on PTV and Dastaan on Hum TV.He also appeared in many hit serials with his frequent costar Saba Qamar such as Tera Pyaar Nahi Bhole,Na Kaho Tum Mere Nahi.He also appeared in Mere Qatil Mere Dildar and Kabhi Kabhi with Mehwiah Hayat which were hit serials.He played a rich and handsome businessman in Mausam opposite Hareem Farooq and Yumna Zaidi. He also starred in hit serial Marasim opposite Urwa Hocane and Sonya Hussyn. He also appeared in many serials with Sajal Aly including Gohar e Nayab. He appeared in Kaise Huye Benaam with Neelam Munir for the first time of many serials. He hosted a quiz show "Hayya Allal Falah" on Hum TV in 2011, during Ramadan. He received acclaim for his role in the 2016 drama "Udaari".


title: Ahsan Khan

text: Since 2016, he has also turned to production, with the socially relevant series "Dukh Sukh", being "tired of the same old 'saas bahu' dramas", and as of 2018, has produced more than twenty works for television.


title: Ahsan Khan

text: In 2017, he starred in the romantic-comedy film "Chupan Chupai" opposite Neelam Muneer. The film was a commercial success. His performance in the film earned him a nomination for Lux Style Award for Best Film Actor.


title: Ahsan Khan

text: Khan was appointed as a CLF Goodwill Ambassador by the Children's Literature Festival on 30 July 2019.


title: Ahsan Khan

text: In 2019, he played a pivotal role in the acclaimed television series "Alif". That same year, he played the eponymous character in comedy series "Shahrukh Ki Saliyan", opposite Ramsha Khan.


title: Ahsan Khan

text: In 2021 he appeared in a different type of a role in Qayamat opposite Neelam Munir and also appeared in Qissa Meherbano Ka opposite Mawra Hussyn and played a grey shaded character.


title: Ahsan Khan

text: In 2022 he is playing the lead role in Meray Humnasheen opposite Hiba Bukhari. This drama became a superhit and later went to top the rating charts and Khan received critical acclaim for his role of a pushtoon .He is also playing the role of a Fraudster in Fraud opposite Saba Qamar since 11 years though they appeared in Zee-5 short film Momal Rano.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Medha Patkar née Khanolkar (born 1 December 1954) is an Indian social activist and former Politician working on various crucial political and economic issues raised by tribals, dalits, farmers, labourers and women facing injustice in India. She is an alumnus of TISS, a premier institute of social science research in India.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Patkar is the founder member of the 32 years old people's movement called Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) in three states: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat. NBA has been engaged in a struggle for justice for the people affected by the dam projects related to the Sardar Sarovar dam project, especially those whose homes will be submerged but have not yet been rehabilitated. She is also one of the founders of the National Alliance of People's Movements (NAPM), an alliance of hundreds of progressive people's organizations. In addition to the above, Patkar was a commissioner on the World Commission on Dams, which did thorough research on the environmental, social, political and economic aspects and impacts of the development of large dams globally and their alternatives. She was the national co-ordinator and then convenor of National Alliance of People's Movements for many years and now continues to be an advisor to NAPM. Under the banner of NAPM, she has participated in and supported various mass struggles across India against inequity, non-sustainability, displacement, and injustice in the name of development. Her work challenges Casteism, Communalism, and all forms of discrimination. She has been a part of numerous teams and panels that work on initiating and formulating various national policies and enactments including those related to land acquisition, unorganized sector workers, hawkers, slum-dwellers and forest-dweller Adivasis. NAPM filed several public interest litigations including those against Adarsh society, Lavasa Megacity, Hiranandani(Powai) and as well as other builders.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Medha Patkar was born as Medha Khanolkar on 1 December 1954 in Mumbai, Maharashtra, the daughter of Vasant Khanolkar, a freedom fighter, and labour union leader, and his wife Indumati Khanolkar, a gazetted officer in the Post and Telegraphs Department. She has one brother, Mahesh Khanolkar, an architect.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Medha Khanolkar earned an MA in Social Work from Tata Institute of Social Sciences. She was married for seven years (hence her surname Patkar) but the marriage ended in divorce.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Medha Patkar worked with voluntary organizations in Mumbai's slums for 5 years and tribal districts of North-East districts of Gujarat for three years. She worked as a member of the faculty at Tata Institute of Social Sciences but left her position to take up the fieldwork. She was a Ph.D. scholar at TISS, studying Economics development and its impact on traditional societies. After working up to M.Phil. level she left her unfinished Ph.D. when she became immersed in her work with the tribal and peasant communities in the Narmada valley spread over three states.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is a social movement protesting against the dam on river Narmada which began in 1985 consisting of Adivasis, farmers, fish workers, labourers, and others in the Narmada valley along with the intellectuals including environmentalists, human rights activists, Scientists, academicians, artists who stand for just and sustainable development. Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is one of the biggest dams on Narmada where the non-violent people's struggle has questioned social and environmental costs, undemocratic planning, and unjust distribution of benefits. The struggle is still on in the Sardar Sarovar affected areas and also other large and medium dams on Narmada and its tributaries. It has led to thousands of project-affected families receiving land-based rehabilitation and continues to fight against submergence and displacement without rehabilitation of more than 40,000 families residing in these submergence areas of Sardar Sarovar to date. Many of its claims and critique on economic, social, and environmental aspects of the Sardar Sarovar and Narmada valley development project stand vindicated today. Patkar has also questioned the wisdom of the currently popular developmental strategy of linking rivers in India as a means to address issues of water shortage.


title: Medha Patkar

text: NBA has been running JEEVANSHALAS- schools of life, since 1992 with about 5,000 students have passed out and many graduated. Tens of them are under training in athletics and some have won many awards. NBA also successfully established and managed two micro-hydro projects which got submerged due to the SS dam. It has been working in many sectors over the last 30 years including health, employment guarantee, Right to Food and PDS, rehabilitation, and environment protection.


title: Medha Patkar

text: It is a struggle for housing rights in Mumbai, started in 2005, and continues to fight for the rights of slum-dwellers and those created by the builders in various rehabilitation and re-development projects. It all began when the government of Maharashtra demolished 75,000 houses of the poor in 2005, against its promises before the election. Strong people's movement was founded by Medha Patkar and others when she gave the slogan in a large public meeting at Azaad Maidaan Mumbai. It was through mass action that the communities were rebuilt on the same sites and continued to assert and attain their right to shelter water, electricity, sanitation, and livelihood. As members of working-class GBGBA respect the slum-dwellers for contribution to the life of the city and involve them inequitable and inclusive planning for urban development.


title: Medha Patkar

text: The National Alliance of People's Movements (NAPM) is an alliance of people's movements in India, with the stated aim of working on a range of issues related to socio-economic justice, political justice, and equity. Medha Patkar founded the National Alliance of People's Movements with the objective of "facilitating unity and providing strength to peoples' movements in India, fighting against oppression, further questioning the current development model to work towards a just alternative". She is the national convener of the NAPM. British human rights activist William Gomes wrote to Prime Minister Narendra Damodardas Modi condemning malicious FIR against Medha Patkar.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Tata Motors started constructing a factory to manufacture their $2,500 car, the Tata Nano at Singur. She protested against the setting up of the plant at Singur, West Bengal. Patkar's convoy was assaulted, allegedly by CPI(M) activists, at Kapaseberia in East Midnapore district while on her way to strife-torn Nandigram. At the height of the agitation, Ratan Tata had made remarks questioning the source of funds of the agitators. In October 2008 Tata announced that the factory would not be completed and that the production of the Nano will be set up in Sanand, Gujarat.


title: Medha Patkar

text: She participated in and initiated various supportive actions including a fast during Diwali in Kolkata, mass-mobilization, complaints at various national fora, and building support of intellectuals and various citizens across the country. The battle was ultimately won in favor of the local people who had to lay their lives in large numbers during state violence.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Lavasa is a project by Hindustan Construction Corporation, in Maharashtra. It is a yet-to-be-completed city. Lavasa Project is criticized by P. Sainath for unjust use of water in a worst-hit farmer suicide state. Medha Patkar with villagers of Lavasa protested for the environmental damage in Nagpur. She also filed a PIL in Supreme Court against the Lavasa project.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Demolition took place on 2 and 3 April 2013 in the Golibar area, Mumbai, Maharashtra evicting 43 houses and displacing more than 200 people. the whole project is to displace thousands of families and 50–100 years old communities that are demanding in-situ and participatory housing rights. Medha Patkar with more than 500 slum dwellers set on indefinite fast to protest against any further demolition until the inquiry into the matter is completed. Patkar has alleged corruption and "atrocities" by builders in the city's slum rehabilitation scheme and called for the halting of six projects by the Slum Rehabilitation Authority until a proper inquiry is conducted. The inquiry was conducted giving partial solutions hence communities continue with their struggle.


title: Medha Patkar

text: To save the Sugar-Cooperative sector in Maharashtra from falling into the hands of politicians including tens of ministers in the Maharashtra cabinet till 2014, Medha Patkar organized protests. She explained that "the politicians are interested in the prime plots of land, old equipment, and machinery," of sugar co-operatives and accused the state government of selling assets of the industry at throw-away rates. A case against Girna Sugar factory at Malegaon, Nasik, Maharashtra and members of Chhagan Bhujbal Family pending before the Supreme court of India and the unused land of the factory is re-occupied and cultivated by the local farmers who were the donors of the cooperative that was privatized by the former minister purchasing it at a throwaway price.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Medha Patkar along with other activists registered in PIL in the High Court of Mumbai, alleging violations by property tycoon Niranjan Hiranandani in building luxury flats instead of affordable houses. Hiranandani had signed a lease for the 230 acres of land in 1986 at a rate of Re 1 per hectare in a tripartite agreement with the state and Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority. Responding to PIL Maharashtra High Court judges say that" we appreciate the elegance of the construction and the intent on creating an architectural marvel for the city of Mumbai, we see the specific intent of wholly ignoring the most vital, and perhaps the only, condition in tripartite agreement (to create affordable houses of 40 and 80 sq m)". If calculated according to the current market price, the quantum of the scam will be around Rs. 450  billion. The judgment of 2012 directed Hirandani to build 3,144 houses for the low-income groups before any other construction at Hiranandani gardens which is yet to happen. The case is at the stage of final hearing at HC of Mumbai.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Patkar expressed strong opposition to the land acquisition in Kovvada of Ranasthalam Mandal in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh saying that the nuclear plant would be a disaster for ecology as well as people of the region.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Patkar said what the state needed was development not destruction. She was speaking at a protest meet against the CPM-led Kerala government's ambitious SilverLine semi high speed rail corridor project on 24th March 2022. "This has become an internal war. This is not Ukraine, this is Kerala. This is to save our country from the high speed development tragedy," she said.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Patkar has been opposing the JSW steel project in Odisha citing environmental reasons. However in June 2022, when she tried to meet her aide at Dhinsukia village in Odisha, the villagers opposed her presence and protested following which police intervened and Patkar had to go back.


title: Medha Patkar

text: In January 2004 during the World Social Forum held in Mumbai. Medha Patkar and other members of National Alliance of People's Movement initiated a Political Party 'People's Political Front' also called as 'Lok Rajniti Manch'. However, Medha did not participate as an active politician but adhered herself to creating an atmosphere and environment by organizing a fifteen days Maharashtra state-level campaign. She was accompanied by two young activists, Maju Varghese and journalist Jaspal Singh Naol (Jal). Meetings were organized under her leadership in each district of Maharashtra. Most of the members had asked Patkar to stand for election, but she denied it.


title: Medha Patkar

text: In January 2014, Medha Patkar joined the Aam Aadmi Party, a political party led by Arvind Kejriwal. She and her organization, National Alliance of People's Movement, provided support to the Aam Aadmi Party during the Lok Sabha campaign.


title: Medha Patkar

text: Patkar also contested the 2014 Lok Sabha election for the North East Mumbai constituency as an Aam Aadmi Party candidate. She lost, receiving 8.9% of the vote cast in North East Mumbai constituency, trailing at third position behind Kirit Somaiya (BJP candidate, winner) and Sanjay Patil (NCP candidate). She resigned from Aam Aadmi Party's primary membership on 28 March 2015.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: Vulcan (Gabriel Summers) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He first appeared in "" #1 (January 2006). He is the third Summers brother to be revealed, the younger brother of X-Men characters Cyclops and Havok.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: Though a third Summers brother was mentioned years before by Sinister during an encounter with Cyclops, Vulcan first appeared in "" #1, a story written by Ed Brubaker that ran from January to July 2006. Vulcan then appeared in "The Rise and Fall of the Shi'ar Empire" storyline, also written by Brubaker, in "The Uncanny X-Men" issues #475 to 486 (September 2006 to July 2007).


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: After Brubaker left "The Uncanny X-Men", Christopher Yost took over as writer beginning with the "X-Men: Emperor Vulcan" mini-series, which ran from November 2007 to March 2008.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: In July, 2008, Marvel.com posted a news article of an alternate cover of "Emperor Vulcan" featuring the phrase "Who Will Rule?", accompanied by the text "Stay tuned to Marvel.com and get ready for the blockbuster answer at San Diego Comic-Con!" This was all to build up to the "War of Kings" storyline, and Vulcan's part of the story is set up in the "" mini-series, written by Yost.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: Vulcan's history began on the Shi'ar throneworld, as the unborn child of Christopher Summers (later known as Corsair) and Katherine Summers, parents of Cyclops and Havok. Katherine was pregnant when the Summers were abducted by D'Ken, Majestor of the Shi'ar Imperium. The unborn child was seemingly killed when the mad emperor, in retaliation for an attempt by Corsair to escape, stabbed Katherine and killed her. The fetus was removed from Katherine's lifeless body and placed in an incubation-accelerator, which is used to breed slaves. As a result, the child was aged to the prime of adolescence.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: Sent to Earth to become a slave for Erik the Red, the Emperor's hand on Earth, he escaped and was found by Moira MacTaggert with little or no memories of who he was or where he came from. She took him as her ward and instructed him in the use of his nascent powers. He claimed his name was Gabriel, but he chose the code name of Vulcan from a book on Roman mythology, and Charles Xavier recognized his mental imprint as being related to Cyclops and his age suggests he is older. Vulcan became part of a team of X-Men formed by Petra, Darwin, and Sway that attempted to rescue the original X-Men from the sentient island . Viewing Vulcan as a menace, Krakoa sent a human-shaped volcano to deal with his team, killing the two women and leaving Darwin and Vulcan for dead.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: With the help of his dying teammates, Vulcan was able to survive. Reawakened in modern days by the mutant energies released during M-Day, he returns from his space exile to get revenge against Professor Xavier, killing Banshee in the process, as well as attempting to kill Logan and even kidnapping Rachel Summers and Cyclops.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: Vulcan subconsciously uses the absorbed powers of Petra and Sway to manipulate the X-Men, and figures out the truth of the mystery behind the missing team of X-Men that were lost on Krakoa. Vulcan is able to lure Professor Xavier out of hiding, and confronts him in front of the X-Men, wanting the Professor to reveal to them all what really happened to Vulcan and his team. However, Xavier is unable to do so, because, in the wake of M-Day, he is no longer a Mutant. Enraged, Vulcan commands Marvel Girl to link their minds so that everyone can see what transpired. Reluctantly, Rachel does so, and with Xavier as a guide, she is able to not only reveal the truth behind what really happened on Krakoa, but she also detects another consciousness within the mind of Vulcan.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: It is revealed that Vulcan and his team rescued Scott from Krakoa (it was previously thought that Krakoa itself released Scott to bring it more victims), and Vulcan was able to hurt the living island, which greatly enraged the creature. Vulcan revealed to Cyclops that they were in fact brothers, and sent Cyclops away on their jet to safety. As the jet took off, Cyclops watched in horror as the living island struck down and seemingly killed Vulcan and his team. Sway was hit first, and severed in two at her torso. Her body released the last of her mutant power to slow time down around them. As Petra was incinerated, she also reacted reflexively and drew them all below the surface into a cave that her power created. There, Vulcan and Darwin lay dying, and Darwin transformed himself into energy and bonded with Vulcan, thus saving them both. They were launched into space along with the Krakoa land mass by Polaris and fell into a state of suspended animation. After the apparent deaths of Vulcan and his team, Cyclops returned to Professor Xavier in a hysterical state, blaming himself for their deaths, and the Professor decided it was best for all involved if he altered their memories to forget about the second team, and spare everyone the agony.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: Vulcan thus remained on Krakoa, inert, until the massive backlash of power resulting from M-Day awakened him, whereupon he returned to Earth to confront the X-Men, revealing the truth behind the Krakoa incident to them. With these revelations, Marvel Girl reaches into Vulcan's mind and releases the subconscious inert form of Darwin, which Vulcan expels from his body. Using this opportunity, the X-Men attack him as they deem him too dangerous to be left alone. Vulcan easily repels their attack and flees the planet, renouncing Cyclops as his brother, and heads for space with the vision of D'Ken killing his mother raging in his mind, bent on revenge.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: While traveling through Shi'ar space, he learns from a crew member whose starship he had destroyed that D'Ken has been comatose for years after his experience in the M'Kraan Crystal and that Lilandra Neramani is the current ruler of the Shi'ar. Undaunted, Vulcan continues on his quest for vengeance by engaging a trio of Shi'ar warships, and destroying two of them, thereby showing his superiority to the crew of the surviving third ship, which Vulcan then commandeers for his own. After reaching the inner territory of the Shi'ar throneworld, Chandilar, the ship is confronted and ordered to surrender by the Imperial Guard. However, the captain of Vulcan's ship had deceived Vulcan as to the Guard's true strength, hoping to use him as a pawn in Vice-Chancellor K'Tor's plan to restore the old Empire; as a result, Vulcan is unprepared for the true power of the Guard, and especially their leader, Gladiator.


title: Vulcan (Marvel Comics)

text: Vulcan kills several powerful guardsmen in combat (Neutron, Cosmo, Smasher, and Impulse, among possible others), but is defeated by Gladiator, and taken to a prison moon. He remains a prisoner there until an agent of the Vice-Chancellor frees him from his shackles, and directs him to another cell to free Deathbird.