title: Lê Duẩn

text: Lê Duẩn said that land ownership entailed a "struggle between the two roads – collective production and private production; large-scale socialist production and small scattered production." That quote could easily have been taken from Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong or Trường Chinh in his radical years. His views had a direct impact on Vietnam. Since it was believed that collective ownership was the only alternative to capitalism, it was introduced without controversy by the country's leadership.


title: Lê Duẩn

text: Subcontracting co-operatives to peasants became the norm by the late 1970s and was legalised in 1981. For conservatives, that policy was similar to that of Lenin's New Economic Policy, a temporary break from hardline socialist development. However, those who supported reforms saw subcontracting as another way of implementing socialism in agriculture, which was justified by the ideological tenet of the "three interests". That was an important ideological innovation and broke with Lê Duẩn's "two roads" theory.


title: Lê Duẩn

text: Lê Duẩn departed from Marxist–Leninist orthodoxy when it came to practical policy and stated that the country had to "carry out agricultural cooperation immediately, even before having built large industry." While he acknowledged that his view was heresy, Lê Duẩn insisted that Vietnam was in a unique situation: "It seems that no country so far in history has been in a situation such as ours. We must lead the peasantry and agriculture immediately to socialism, without waiting for a developed industry, though we know very well that without the strong impact of industry, agriculture cannot achieve large-scale production and new relations of agriculture cannot be consolidated... To proceed from small-scale production to large-scale production is a new one." According to Lê Duẩn, the key to socialism was not mechanisation and industrialisation but a new division of labour. He also believed that co-operatives needed to be not autarkic but "organically connected, through the process of production itself, with other cooperatives and with the state economic sector." Vietnam could achieve this through state intervention and control. He saw the economy as one whole directed by the state and not many parts intertwined.


title: Lê Duẩn

text: In his victory speech after the 1976 parliamentary election, Lê Duẩn talked about perfecting socialism in the North by eliminating private ownership and the last vestiges of capitalism and of the need to initiate socialist transformation in the South where, the party, according to Lê Duẩn, would focus on abolishing the comprador bourgeoisie and the last "remnants of the feudal landlord classes". "Comprador bourgeoisie" was their term for the bourgeois classes, which made a living by financial dealings and through transactions with Westerners. Lê Duẩn did not reveal that in addition to removing the comprador bourgeoisie and the feudal landlord classes from the South, he intended to obliterate the entire bourgeois class.


title: Mickey Jones

text: Mickey Jones (June 10, 1941 – February 7, 2018) was an American musician and actor. He played drums with acts such as Trini Lopez and Bob Dylan, with whom he played on his 1966 world tour. He became a founding member of The First Edition with singer Kenny Rogers, and played on all of their albums. Overall, Jones played on 17 gold records from his musical career of over two decades.


title: Mickey Jones

text: After the break-up of The First Edition in 1976, Jones concentrated on his career as a character actor, where he made many appearances in film and television.


title: Mickey Jones

text: Mickey Jones was born on June 10, 1941, in Houston, Texas, to Fred Edward Jones, a U.S. Navy officer, and Frances Marie (née Vieregge) Jones, a homemaker. His sister, Cheryl Marie, died in 2006.


title: Mickey Jones

text: Jones attended Sunset High School in the Oak Cliff neighborhood of Dallas. It was during this time that he obtained and learned to play his first set of drums. After sitting in with several local bands, Jones and four schoolmates formed their own band, called The Catalinas. Although the band saw some local success, he was replaced by a new drummer, as Jones was only sixteen at the time, and the band wanted someone who was of legal age.


title: Mickey Jones

text: After working as a freelance drummer with various acts, Jones was introduced to Trini Lopez. When Lopez's drummer became ill, he was asked to take his place and eventually became the band's new permanent drummer.


title: Mickey Jones

text: In 1959, Jones left Lopez's band to pursue a degree in business administration at North Texas State College (now University of North Texas). After college, he took a job at Rohr Aircraft in San Diego. Seeing that the life of a factory worker was not for him, Jones moved to Los Angeles to get back into the entertainment industry. He landed a job as a page at the NBC studios, while re-establishing his friendship with Lopez, who had moved to Los Angeles as well. Jones would again become Lopez's drummer, while Lopez would see much success with hits such as "If I Had A Hammer", "La Bamba" and "America".


title: Mickey Jones

text: In 1966, Jones was made an offer by Bob Dylan to join him as his back-up drummer. Replacing Levon Helm, who had quit, Jones would accompany Dylan with the other members of what would become The Band, on his world tour of Australia and Europe. It was during this tour while performing at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester, England, on May 17, 1966, that the audience jeered Dylan for playing the electric guitar during the latter half of the show.


title: Mickey Jones

text: Jones' career with Dylan would be cut short when Dylan had to temporarily stop performing in order to recover from a motorcycle accident.


title: Mickey Jones

text: At this time, Jones had decided to pursue a career in acting. He had landed jobs as an extra, when in 1967 he was approached to be the drummer for a new group called The First Edition, with lead singer Kenny Rogers.


title: Mickey Jones

text: With hits such as "Something's Burning", "Ruby, Don't Take Your Love to Town" and "Just Dropped In (To See What Condition My Condition Was In)", The First Edition would see much success over the next ten years, even having their own television variety show, "Rollin' on the River" (later shortened to "Rollin"), in the early 1970s.


title: Mickey Jones

text: After the breakup of The First Edition in 1976, Jones pursued a full-time career in acting. As a character actor, he would make many appearances on television and film, such as being part of the cast of "Flo", the short-lived spin-off to the CBS sitcom "Alice", his role as a crooked mechanic/sheriff in "National Lampoon's Vacation" and his role as Chris Farber, the buddy of Ham Tyler (Michael Ironside) in the miniseries and weekly television series, "V".


title: Mickey Jones

text: Later, Jones would have a cameo in Ironside's film "Total Recall" (1990). Jones had no scenes with Ironside – he played a Martian miner on a train with Doug Quaid (Arnold Schwarzenegger).


title: Mickey Jones

text: In 1992, he played a small but memorable role in the television show "Northern Exposure" episode "Heroes" as Chris Stevens’ (John Corbett) deceased mentor, Tooley O'Toole, who is delivered to Chris in a wooden box.


title: Mickey Jones

text: He appeared as the subway riding biker in a Breath Savers commercial and had a recurring role as Pete Bilker on the ABC sitcom "Home Improvement". In 1996, he appeared in "Sling Blade" as the drummer in the band (a prominent speaking part in the band scenes), and "Tin Cup", with fellow character actor Dennis Burkley. He and Burkley were commonly mistaken for each other.


title: Mickey Jones

text: In 2005, he contributed to the documentary, "No Direction Home: Bob Dylan". From 2011 to 2014, he had a recurring role on the television show "Justified", as Rodney "Hot Rod" Dunham, a marijuana distributor who ran a small band of criminals.


title: Mickey Jones

text: In 2007, Jones published his autobiography "That Would Be Me", the title based on the catchphrase often used by his character on "Home Improvement".


title: Mickey Jones

text: Jones died from complications of diabetes on February 7, 2018, aged 76. He is survived by his wife, Phyllis Jean Starr, and their two children, and three step children.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: A Prayer for Owen Meany is the seventh novel by American writer John Irving. Published in 1989, it tells the story of John Wheelwright and his best friend Owen Meany growing up together in a small New Hampshire town during the 1950s and 1960s. According to John's narration, Owen is a remarkable boy in many ways; he believes himself to be God's instrument and sets out to fulfill the fate he has prophesied for himself.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The novel is also an homage to Günter Grass's most famous novel, "The Tin Drum". Grass was a great influence for John Irving, as well as a close friend. The main characters of both novels, Owen Meany and Oskar Matzerath, share the same initials as well as some other characteristics, and their stories show some parallels.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Irving has confirmed the similarities. "A Prayer for Owen Meany", however, follows an independent and separate plot.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The story is narrated by John Wheelwright, a former citizen of New Hampshire who has become a voluntary expatriate from the United States, having settled in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and taken on Canadian citizenship.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The story is narrated in two interwoven time frames. The first time frame is the perspective of John in the present day (1987). The second time frame is John's memories of the past: growing up in New Hampshire in the 1950s and 1960s alongside his best friend, Owen Meany.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The events of 1987 are related in the style of diary entries. The present-day John Wheelwright works as an English teacher at the Bishop Strachan School in Toronto. He is an Anglican, and although he feels a strong sense of religious faith, he also experiences doubts about Christianity. A virgin and a bachelor, John is fixated on his past life and the political conditions in the United States, in particular, the Reagan administration. John's present-day narrative punctuates his retelling of past events, providing commentary and more recent anecdotes.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: John Wheelwright and Owen Meany both live in the fictional town of Gravesend, New Hampshire. The boys are close friends, despite the fact that John comes from an historical and wealthy family — as the illegitimate son of Tabitha Wheelwright — and Owen is the only child of a working-class granite quarryman. John's earliest memories of Owen involve lifting him up in the air, which was easy due to his permanently small stature, in order to make him speak. An underdeveloped larynx caused Owen to speak in a high-pitched voice at all times. During the course of his life, Owen develops the conviction that he is "God's instrument".


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: As John and Owen move through their schooling, it becomes clear that Owen is advanced in his intellect and self-awareness. He expresses frustration with his parents, over whom he appears to have complete control, and favors John's mother and grandmother, choosing to spend the majority of his time at John's house on Front Street. John's mother, Tabitha, eventually marries a drama teacher from a local private high school, Dan Needham. Dan wins the affection of the boys by giving them a stuffed armadillo to play with; Owen is particularly taken with the creature, and he and John take turns playing hide-and-seek with it. Although John likes Dan, he and Owen speculate about who John's biological father might be — Tabitha refuses to tell him.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Owen is also fond of baseball; despite being a poor player, he curates an enormous collection of baseball cards. At a Little League baseball game, he unexpectedly gets up to bat and hits a foul ball, which strikes Tabitha in the head, killing her instantly. John is distressed, but he and Owen remain friends following a nonverbal exchange facilitated by Dan. It is at this point that Owen reveals that he feels that he is an instrument of God. In order to express this to John, he removes the claws of the stuffed armadillo, just as God has metaphorically taken command of his hands. Later on, he appears as the baby Jesus in a Nativity production at the Episcopal Church he and John attend, and as Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come in a local performance of "A Christmas Carol". During the latter role, he becomes convinced that he saw his full name (Paul Owen Meany) and the date of his death on Scrooge's grave stone. These events reinforce Owen's ideas about his connection with God.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Because John is held back in school, Owen repeats the ninth grade with him so that the two can attend the Gravesend Academy together. There, Owen Meany earns a reputation as an intelligent, sarcastic student. He is known for his heavily opinionated editorial column in the school newspaper, under the pen name of "The Voice," in which he writes in all-capital letters to reflect his shrill voice; he also earns respect by dating John's college-age cousin Hester. While Owen helps John with his schoolwork, John assists Owen in practicing a basketball maneuver they call "The Shot". This involves John lifting Owen above his head so that he can dunk the basketball. Owen does not reveal why they must practice The Shot; it is not legal in any basketball game. However, they continue to rehearse the move so that they can complete it in under four seconds.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Because of a rivalry with the headmaster of Gravesend Academy, Owen is expelled in his senior year, squandering his chances of going to Harvard or Yale University, both of which had offered him full scholarships. Instead, he chooses to attend the University of New Hampshire while undergoing ROTC training so that he will graduate as a second lieutenant and assume active duty following graduation. This is received poorly by both John and Hester, who oppose the Vietnam War. Despite his insistence that he must join the military himself, Owen helps John to avoid the draft by slicing off his index finger with Owen's father's stone saw.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Following graduation from university, Owen works as a casualty officer, bringing the bodies of Arizona soldiers home from California, recalling his work carving and selling tombstones from his father's quarry. Eventually, Owen tells John and Hester that he has had a recurring dream in which he saves many Vietnamese children, but he sustains wounds that kill him. He believes that this will happen on the date he saw on Scrooge's grave, and he sets out to realize the dream by going to Vietnam. John and Hester are distraught, and attempt to convince Owen that it was only a dream. However, at this point, the novel flashes forward a few years to Owen's funeral, which confirms his premature death. At the funeral, Owen's father reveals to John that he considered Owen to be "like the Christ Child", due to the fact that he and Mrs. Meany never performed intercourse prior to Owen's birth. He also tells John that he told Owen about his apparently miraculous conception when Owen was a young boy. In the flash forward, it is also revealed that John has discovered the identity of his father — a man whom he has known all his life. He is frustrated that it is Reverend Lewis Merrill, the meek married minister of the Gravesend Congregationalist Church.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The novel returns to a chronological sequence as John relates visiting Owen in Arizona as the predicted date of his death approaches. Owen delivers a body to a poor, dysfunctional family that expresses contempt for the military. At the wake, John accompanies Owen as he confronts Dick, the nihilistic, violent brother of the deceased soldier. Dick expresses a desire to kill Vietnamese people as he shows off the lethal weaponry his brother smuggled in from Vietnam. John and Owen then return to the airport, where Owen almost concludes that his dream was, after all, nothing more than a dream, as he has reached the date of his death and he is not in combat. However, a large group of Vietnamese children arrive at the airport, and Owen recognizes the circumstances of his dream immediately; although he is still not immediately sure about how exactly the final events will play out. Dick, whom John had seen skulking around the airport, attempts to murder the children using a grenade. John catches the weapon, and tosses it to Owen; together they complete The Shot maneuver in order to quickly remove the grenade from the vicinity of the children. The detonation fatally wounds Owen. As he dies, his voice and physique calm the frightened children. He dies satisfied that he has fulfilled the will of God.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: John is left with the memory of his friend, and the firm belief that Owen and his life were a miracle. The last words of his narrative are an impassioned plea: "O God—please bring him back! I shall keep asking You."


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The novel deals with serious spiritual issues, such as the importance of faith, matters of social justice, and the concept of fate, in the context of the narrative. Throughout the novel, John and Owen both offer criticisms of organized religion and religious hypocrisy. However, the spiritual dimension is repeatedly emphasized by Owen's foretelling of his own impending death. He is quite certain that he will die because he is an "instrument of God" and thus will serve some good and important purpose. He also believes that he knows the date of his death and that a heroic act on his part will kill him but also save some children. He is a bit unclear, however, about where and how this act will occur.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The narrative is constructed as the interweaving of three different stories of past John, present John, and Owen's life. There is the historical retelling of John's and Owen's childhood; the story of their (and particularly Owen's) adult lives; and the story of John's life after Owen's death. The three streams are brought together at the dénouement — the death of Owen. Owen had always predicted both the manner and the importance of his own death.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The familiar Irving setting (based on his own biography) of a New England private school relates the novel to the frameworks of his other works. However, other familiar Irving themes and settings (e.g., prostitutes, wrestling, and Vienna) are missing, or mentioned only briefly.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Young Johnny Wheelwright is skeptical of Owen Meany's unquestioned belief in the purpose of all things. He has certain reasons: namely, his mother's premature death (as the result of the impact of a baseball hit by Owen), and his mother's failure ever to disclose his father's identity. John is depicted as being spiritually apathetic as a youth, but the conclusion brings these spiritual pieces of the story together. Since the novel is written retrospectively, much of the novel takes the tone of John's new-found wisdom.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: John occasionally withdraws from the past to offer criticisms of the Vietnam War and the Iran-Contra Affair.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The setting is based on Phillips Exeter Academy, in Exeter, New Hampshire. A real-life John Wheelwright was the founder of the town of Exeter in 1638.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: John Irving uses a unique style when writing "A Prayer for Owen Meany". Shostak noticed Irving's "repetitive plot", visible throughout several of his novels. He gave two possible reasons for this, writing about the order this brings to a plot, instead of it being chaotic and corny. This repetition is also to place emphasis on certain key events and ideas. Irving described his writing process by saying, "I have the last chapters in my mind before I see the first chapters...I usually begin with endings, a sense of aftermath, of dust settling, of epilogue. I love plot, and how can you plot a novel if you don't know the ending first?" Bernstein also notes that Irving "strives for big novels in the 19th-century manner-eventful, heavily peopled stories of the sort...that you don't see much anymore." Another key feature of the novel's style is that Irving writes Owen's dialogue in all capital letters.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Following motifs of faith, religion, war and friendship, John Irving discussed the backstory of "A Prayer for Owen Meany" before an assembly of drama students at Yale University. Irving revealed the "effects of the morbid Vietnam generation" on the plot of his novel. He tried to communicate, "a victim of the war, but not the victim you see coming from Vietnam." He also mentioned a small boy from his New Hampshire hometown, a boy named Russell, who inspired the character Owen Meany. This protagonist with a "rock-dust falsetto" became the kid from the granite quarry that later dies in the Vietnam War. Critics also mentioned the similarities in plot between Irving's novels. Shostak recalled repetitive New Hampshire-based stories involving themes such as faith and determination. Irving has also added that his "accumulated churchgoing" has influenced his writing process.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: John Irving's mother, Frances Winslow, was not married at the time of his conception. Irving never met his biological father. As a child, he was told nothing about his father, and he told his mother that unless she gave him some information about his biological father, in his writing he would invent the father and the circumstances of how she got pregnant. Winslow would reply, "Go ahead, dear." This theme was also used in "The World According to Garp".


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: "A Prayer for Owen Meany" was published by William Morrow and Company in March 1989. Garp Enterprises owns this copyright. William and Morrow also released an e-book edition on March 13, 2012.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: "A Prayer for Owen Meany" has been both widely praised and criticized. Alfred Kazin described John Wheelwright as a "conscious and unapologetic wimp" and referred to Owen Meany as a "little squirt". However, J. Denny Weaver commented on Owen's "heroic death", and remarked on the book's continuing theme that life is miraculous. Overall, critics found the novel to be a different but successful addition to Irving's works. The book was on the "New York Times Bestseller List".


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: According to publisher Simon & Schuster, "A Prayer for Owen Meany" is Irving's "all-time bestselling novel, in every language".


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Novelist Frederick Buechner, a former teacher of Irving at the Phillips Exeter Academy whom Irving quoted in an epigraph to "A Prayer for Owen Meany", called it simply "a really good book".


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: In 1997, Book-It Repertory Theatre of Seattle, created a narrative-style theatrical adaptation of the novel's fourth chapter, "The Little Lord Jesus".


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The 1998 feature-length film "Simon Birch", written and directed by Mark Steven Johnson, was loosely based on the novel. The film starred Ian Michael Smith, Joseph Mazzello, Ashley Judd, Oliver Platt and Jim Carrey. It omitted much of the latter half of the novel and altered the ending. The movie does not share the same title as the book or the character names at Irving's request; he felt that it would "mislead the novel's readers to see a film of that same title which was so different from the book."


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: In 2002, the Royal National Theatre staged Simon Bent's adaptation "A Prayer for Owen Meany: On Faith" starring Aidan McArdle as the title character and Richard Hope as John Wheelwright.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: In 2009, the BBC aired Linda Marshall Griffiths' adaptation of "A Prayer for Owen Meany" starring Henry Goodman, Toby Jones, Charlotte Emmerson and Max Baldry as a five-part Afternoon Play on BBC Radio Four.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: In 2009, Audible.com produced an audio version of "A Prayer for Owen Meany", narrated by Joe Barrett, as part of its "Modern Vanguard" line of audiobooks.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: There have also been numerous theatrical adaptations, including Yale University's Dramatic Association's Freshman Show.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: California punk rock band Lagwagon based the song "Owen Meaney" from their 1998 album "Let's Talk About Feelings" on the book.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: The band Jimmy Eat World also based the song "Goodbye Sky Harbor" from their 1999 album "Clarity" on the book.


title: A Prayer for Owen Meany

text: Former Los Angeles Lakers coach Phil Jackson has passed out this book to his team in the past as part of his ritual of assigning readings to players.


title: Basque conflict

text: The Basque conflict, also known as the Spain–ETA conflict, was an armed and political conflict from 1959 to 2011 between Spain and the Basque National Liberation Movement, a group of social and political Basque organizations which sought independence from Spain and France. The movement was built around the separatist organization ETA, which had launched a campaign of attacks against Spanish administrations since 1959. ETA had been proscribed as a terrorist organization by the Spanish, British, French and American authorities at different moments. The conflict took place mostly on Spanish soil, although to a smaller degree it was also present in France, which was primarily used as a safe haven by ETA members. It was the longest running violent conflict in modern Western Europe. It has been sometimes referred to as "Europe's longest war".


title: Basque conflict

text: The terminology is controversial. "Basque conflict" is preferred by Basque nationalist groups, including those opposed to ETA violence. Others, such as a number of Basque academics and historians commissioned to draft a report on the subject by the Basque government, reject the term, seeing it as legitimate state agencies fighting a terrorist group which had been responsible for the vast majority of deaths.


title: Basque conflict

text: The conflict had both political and military dimensions. Its participants included politicians and political activists on both sides, the abertzale left (Basque nationalist left) and the Spanish government, and the security forces of Spain and France fighting against ETA and other small organizations, usually involved in the kale borroka (Basque youth guerrilla violence). Far-right paramilitary groups fighting against ETA were also active in the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Basque conflict

text: Although the debate on Basque independence started in the 19th century, the armed conflict did not start until ETA was created in 1959. Since then, the terrorist group activity resulted in the deaths of more than 800 people, including police and security officers, members of the armed forces, Spanish politicians, journalists and civilians and some ETA members. There also were thousands of people injured, dozens kidnapped and a disputed number going into exile, either to flee from the violence or to avoid capture by Spanish or French police or by Europol/Interpol.


title: Basque conflict

text: On 20 October 2011, ETA announced a "definitive cessation of its armed activity". Spanish premier Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero described the move as "a victory for democracy, law and reason".


title: Basque conflict

text: 1 the broad political conflict between a part of Basque society and the initially Francoist and later Constitutional model of the Spanish decentralized state


title: Basque conflict

text: 2 exclusively describe the armed confrontation between the separatist group ETA and the Spanish state


title: Basque conflict

text: France was not initially involved in the conflict with ETA nor was it ever targeted by the organization, and the French only slowly began to cooperate with Spanish law enforcement, beginning in 1987, regarding the conflict. Unlike the British participation in the conflict in Northern Ireland, the Spanish armed forces were never deployed or involved in the Basque conflict, although they represented one of ETA's major targets outside the Basque Country.


title: Basque conflict

text: José Luis de la Granja, Santiago de Pablo and Ludger Mees argue that the term Basque conflict, while technically correct in several languages as equivalent of 'question' or 'problem', should not give the impression of a war between Euskal Herria and the states of Spain and France, preferring the terms "problema" or "cuestión" (problem or question), that would encompass both the problems in the integration of the Basque territories in the contemporary Spanish state and also the secular problems of cohabitation among the Basques themselves.


title: Basque conflict

text: According to Gaizka Fernández Soldevilla, the narrative of the existence of a secular conflict between Basques and Spaniards has been one of the most used tropes by ETA and the abertzale left as pretext for the activity of the former. José Antonio Pérez Pérez points out that the perception of a war between an occupying Spain and a Basque people defending themselves from genocide would have served as justifying framework of the ETA armed activity. According to Luis Castells and Fernando Molina, the formulation of the existence of two symmetric violences, that would allow for a split of responsibilities between ETA and the states of Spain and France, carrying therefore a dilution of the responsibility of ETA, is a narrative heavily espoused by the Abertzale left, that also would present ETA as an inevitable historic response to the secular conflict. According to Fernández Soldevilla, in spite of the end of the armed activity, the narrative of the basque conflict, fixed and divulgated by abertzale organic intellectuals such as historians Francisco Letamendia and Jose Mari Lorenzo, publicists such as Iñaki Egaña or Eduardo Renobales or journalists such as Luis Núñez Astrain, would be still useful as suggestive message in order to delegitimize the current democratic system, mixing victims with victimaries and equating the Basque case to real conflicts such as those of South Africa and Northern Ireland.


title: Basque conflict

text: This idea has been rejected, for example, by José Maria Ruiz Soroa and by the main constitutionalist Spanish parties. Some politicians have gone as far as rejecting the existence of even a political conflict and refer only to the action of a terrorist organisation against the rule of law. A group of Basque historians argued that, rather than a Basque Conflict, the situation in the Basque Country was one of "ETA totalitarianism." In 2012, Antonio Basagoiti, the head of the Basque branch of the People's Party admitted the existence of a Basque conflict, but stated that it was a political one between different entities in the Basque country. Joseba Louzao and Fernando Molina argue that the idea of pluralism used by a part of Basque historiography relates more to a particular state of the public sphere ('plurality') rather than to a positive engagement of the several political and social actors ('pluralism'); according to them, the appeal to pluralism finally led to its conceptual voidment and banalization, allowing for it to be subsumed within the metanarrative of the basque conflict.


title: Basque conflict

text: The Basque Country () is the name given to the geographical area located on the shores of the Bay of Biscay and on the two sides of the western Pyrenees that spans the border between France and Spain. Nowadays, this area roughly belongs to three different political structures: the Basque autonomous community, also known as Euskadi; Navarre in Spain; and the three Northern Basque historical provinces (Labourd, Lower Navarre and Soule), administratively part of the French department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques. Approximately 3,000,000 people live in the Basque Country.


title: Basque conflict

text: Basque people have managed to preserve their own identifying characteristics such as their own culture and language throughout the centuries and today a large part of the population shares a collective consciousness and a desire to be self-governed, either with further political autonomy or full independence. For instance, the football club Athletic Bilbao, maintains a signing policy of only recruiting Basque born or raised players. Over the centuries, the Basque Country has maintained various levels of political self-governance under different Spanish political frameworks. Nowadays, Euskadi enjoys the highest level of self-governance of any nonstate entity within the European Union. However, tensions about the type of relationship the Basque territories should maintain with the Spanish authorities have existed since the origins of the Spanish state and in many cases have fuelled military confrontation, such as the Carlist Wars and the Spanish Civil War.


title: Basque conflict

text: Following the 1936 coup d'état that overthrew the Spanish republican government, a civil war between Spanish nationalist and republican forces broke out. Nearly all Basque nationalist forces, led by the Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) sided with the Republic, even though Basque nationalists in Álava and Navarre fought along Basque Carlists on the side of Spanish nationalists. The war ended with the victory of the nationalist forces, with General Francisco Franco establishing a dictatorship that lasted for almost four decades. During Franco's dictatorship, Basque language and culture were banned, institutions and political organisations abolished (to a lesser degree in Alava and Navarre), and people killed, tortured and imprisoned for their political beliefs. Although repression in the Basque Country was considerably less violent than in other parts of Spain, thousands of Basques were forced to go into exile, usually to Latin America or France.


title: Basque conflict

text: Influenced by wars of national liberation such as the Algerian War or by conflicts such as the Cuban Revolution, and disappointed with the weak opposition of the PNV against Franco's regime, a young group of students formed ETA in 1959. It first started as an organization demanding the independence of the Basque Country, from a socialist position, and it soon started its armed campaign. According to Xosé Manoel Núñez Seixas, ETA became a socialist and revolutionary organization using violence after inner struggles related both to the difficulties found in applying a Third World model of national liberation in an already industrialized territory and the division between purely nationalist stances (such as the Branka splinter group) and the revolutionary ones.


title: Basque conflict

text: ETA's first attacks were sometimes approved of by a part of the Spanish and Basque societies, who saw ETA and the fight for independence as a fight against the Franco administration. In 1970, several members of the organization were condemned to death in the Burgos trials ("Proceso de Burgos"), although international pressure resulted in commutation of the death sentences. ETA slowly became more active and powerful, and in 1973 the organisation was able to kill the president of the Government and possible successor of Franco, Luis Carrero Blanco. From that moment on, the regime became tougher in their struggle against ETA: many members died in shootouts with security forces and police carried out big raids, such as the arrest of hundreds of members of ETA in 1975, after the infiltration of a double agent inside the organisation.


title: Basque conflict

text: In mid-1975, a political bloc known as "Koordinadora Abertzale Sozialista" (KAS) was created by Basque nationalist organisations. Away from the PNV, the bloc comprised several organisations formed by people contrary to the right-wing Franco's regime and most of them had their origins in several factions of ETA, which was part of the bloc as well. They also adopted the same ideology as the armed organisation, socialism. The creation of KAS would mean the beginning of the Basque National Liberation Movement.


title: Basque conflict

text: In November 1975, Franco died and Spain started its transition to democracy. Many Basque activists and politicians returned from exile, although some Basque organizations were not legalized as had happened with other Spanish organizations. On the other side, the death of Franco elevated Juan Carlos I to the throne, who chose Adolfo Suárez as Prime Minister of Spain. Following the approval of the Spanish constitution in 1978, a Statute of Autonomy was promulgated and approved in referendum. The Basque Country was organized as an Autonomous Community.


title: Basque conflict

text: The new Spanish constitution had overwhelming support around Spain, with 88.5% voting in favour on a turnout of 67.1%. In the three provinces of the Basque Country, these figures were lower, with 70.2% voting in favour on a turnout of 44.7%. This was due to the call to abstention by EAJ-PNV and the creation of a coalition of Abertzale left organisations brought together to advocate for "no" in the referendum, as they felt that the constitution did not meet their demands for independence. The coalition was the beginning of the political party Herri Batasuna, which would become the main political front of the Basque National Liberation Movement. The coalition had its origins in another one made two years before, named "Mesa de Alsasua". ETA also felt that the constitution was unsatisfactory and intensified their armed campaign: 1978 to 1981 were ETA's bloodiest years with more than 230 people killed. Around 1975, the first far right paramilitary organizations (to which former OAS members joined) that fought against ETA and its supporters had been created, such as the Triple A (Alianza Apostólica Anticomunista), Guerrilleros de Cristo Rey, Batallón Vasco-español (BVE) and Antiterrorismo ETA (ATE); 41 deaths and 36 wounded have been reported in attacks blamed on paramilitary far-right organisations in the 1977–1982 period.


title: Basque conflict

text: Also in the late 1970s, several Basque nationalist organizations, such as Iparretarrak, Hordago or Euskal Zuzentasuna, started to operate in the French Basque Country. An anarchist breakaway of ETA, Comandos Autónomos Anticapitalistas, also started carrying out attacks around the Basque Country. A similar but smaller organization to ETA, Terra Lliure, appeared demanding independence for the Catalan Countries. The Basque conflict had always had an influence on the Catalan society and politics, due to the similarities between Catalonia and the Basque Country.


title: Basque conflict

text: During the process of electing Leopoldo Calvo-Sotelo as Spain's new president in February 1981, Civil Guards and army members broke into the Congress of Deputies and held all deputies at gunpoint. One of the reasons that led to the coup d'état was the increase in ETA's violence. The coup failed after the King called for the military powers to obey the Constitution. Days after the coup, ETA's faction politiko-militarra started its disbanding, with most of its members joining Euskadiko Ezkerra, a leftist nationalist party away from the Abertzale left. General elections were held in 1982, and Felipe González, from the Socialist Workers' Party became the new president, while Herri Batasuna won two seats. In the Basque Country, Carlos Garaikoetxea from the PNV became lehendakari in 1979. During those years, hundreds of members of Herri Batasuna were arrested, especially after some of them sang the Eusko Gudariak in front of Juan Carlos I.


title: Basque conflict

text: After Felipe González's victory, the Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación (GAL), death squads established by officials belonging to the Spanish government, were created. Using state terrorism, the GAL carried out dozens of attacks around the Basque Country, killing 27 people. It targeted ETA and Herri Batasuna members, although sometimes civilians were also killed. The GAL were active from 1983 until 1987, a period referred to as the Spanish Dirty War. ETA responded to the dirty war by intensifying its attacks. These included the Plaza República Dominicana bombing in Madrid - which killed 12 police officers, the Hipercor bombing in Barcelona - which killed 21 civilians and the Zaragoza barracks bombing - which killed 11 people. After the Hipercor bombing, most of the Spanish and Basque political parties signed many pacts against ETA, such as the "Madrid pact" or the "Ajuria-Enea pact". It was during this time that Herri Batasuna got its best results: it was the most voted party in the Basque autonomous community for the European Parliament elections.


title: Basque conflict

text: While talks between the Spanish government and ETA had already taken place in the late 1970s and early 1980s, which had led to the dissolution of ETA politiko-militarra, it was not until 1989 that both sides held formal peace talks. In January, ETA announced a 60-day ceasefire, while negotiations between ETA and the government were taking place in Algiers. No successful conclusion was reached, and ETA resumed violence.


title: Basque conflict

text: After the end of the dirty war period, France agreed to cooperate with the Spanish authorities in the arrest and extradition of ETA members. These would often travel to and from between the two countries using France as a base for attacks and training. This cooperation reached its peak in 1992, with the arrest of all ETA leaders in the town of Bidart. The raid came months before the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, with which ETA tried to gather worldwide attention with massive attacks around Catalonia. After that, ETA announced a two-months ceasefire, while they restructured the whole organisation and created the kale borroka groups.


title: Basque conflict

text: In 1995, ETA tried to kill José María Aznar, who would become prime minister of Spain one year later, and Juan Carlos I. That same year, the organisation made a peace proposal, which was refused by the government. The following year, ETA announced a one-week ceasefire and tried to engage in peace talks with the government, a proposal that was once again rejected by the new conservative government. In 1997, a young councillor, Miguel Ángel Blanco, was kidnapped and killed by the organisation. The killing produced a widespread rejection by Spanish and Basque societies, massive demonstrations and a loss of sympathisers, with even some ETA prisoners and members of Herri Batasuna condemning the killing. That same year, the Spanish government arrested 23 leaders of Herri Batasuna for allegedly collaborating with ETA. After the arrest, the government started to investigate Herri Batasuna's ties with ETA, and the coalition changed its name to Euskal Herritarrok, with Arnaldo Otegi as their leader.


title: Basque conflict

text: In the 1998 Basque elections, the Abertzale left got its best results since the 1980s, and Euskal Herritarrok became the third main force in the Basque Country. This increase of support was due to the declaration of a ceasefire by ETA one month before the elections. The ceasefire came after Herri Batasuna and several Basque organisations, such as the PNV, which at that time was part of the PP's government, agreed to the "Lizarra pact", aimed at putting pressure on the Spanish government to make further concessions towards independence. The Basque nationalist forces agreed in defining the Basque conflict as having a political nature and in presenting ETA and the Spanish State as the two conflicting parties. Influenced by the Northern Ireland peace process, ETA and the Spanish government engaged in peace talks, which ended in late 1999, after ETA announced the end of the ceasefire.


title: Basque conflict

text: In 2000, ETA resumed violence and intensified its attacks, especially against senior politicians, such as Ernest Lluch. At the same time, dozens of ETA members were arrested and the Abertzale left lost some of the support it had obtained in the 1998 elections. The breaking of the truce provoked Herri Batasuna's dissolution and its reformation into a new party called Batasuna. Following disagreements over the internal organization of the Batasuna, a group of people broke away to form a separate political party, Aralar, present mainly in Navarre. In 2002, the Spanish government passed a law, named "Ley de Partidos" (Law of Parties), which allows the banning of any party that directly or indirectly condones terrorism or sympathises with a terrorist organisation. As ETA was considered a terrorist organisation and Batasuna did not condemn its actions, the government banned Batasuna in 2003. It was the first time since Franco's dictatorship that a political party had been banned in Spain. That same year, Spanish authorities closed the only newspaper written fully in Basque, "Egunkaria", and journalists were arrested, due to allegations of links with ETA which were dismissed by a Spanish justice seven years later. In 1998, another newspaper, "Egin", had already been closed on similar grounds that were also dismissed by Spanish justice eleven years later.


title: Basque conflict

text: After the government falsely accused ETA of carrying out the 2004 Madrid train bombings, the conservative government lost the elections to the Socialist Workers' Party, and José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero became the new Prime Minister of Spain. One of Zapatero's first actions was to engage in new peace talks with ETA. In mid-2006, the organisation declared a ceasefire, and conversations between Batasuna, ETA and the Basque and Spanish governments started. Despite the claims of peace talks ending in December, when ETA broke the truce with a massive car bomb at Madrid-Barajas Airport, a new round of conversations took place in May 2007. ETA officially ended the ceasefire in 2007, and resumed its attacks around Spain. From that moment on, the Spanish government and police intensified their struggle both against ETA and the Abertzale left. Hundreds of members of the armed organisation were arrested after the end of the truce, with four of its leaders being arrested in less than one year. Meanwhile, the Spanish authorities banned more political parties such as Basque Nationalist Action, Communist Party of the Basque Homelands or Demokrazia Hiru Milioi. Youth organisations such as Segi were banned, while members of trade unions, such as Langile Abertzaleen Batzordeak were arrested. In 2008, Falange y Tradición, a new Spanish far-right nationalist group appeared, carrying out dozens of attacks in the Basque Country. The organisation was dismantled in 2009.


title: Basque conflict

text: In 2009 and 2010, ETA suffered even more blows to its organization and capacity, with more than 50 members arrested in the first half of 2010. At the same time, the banned Abertzale left started to develop documents and meetings, where they committed to a "democratic process" that "must be developed in a complete absence of violence". Due to these demands, ETA announced in September that they were stopping their armed actions.


title: Basque conflict

text: On 17 October, an international peace conference was held in Donostia-San Sebastián, aimed at promoting a resolution to the Basque conflict. It was organized by the Basque citizens' group Lokarri, and included leaders of Basque parties, as well as six international personalities known for their work in the field of politics and pacification: Kofi Annan (former UN Secretary-General), Bertie Ahern (former Prime Minister of Ireland), Gro Harlem Brundtland (international leader in sustainable development and public health, former Prime Minister of Norway), Pierre Joxe (former Interior Minister of France), Gerry Adams (president of Sinn Féinn, member of the Irish Parliament) and Jonathan Powell (British diplomat who served as the first Downing Street Chief of Staff). Tony Blair – former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom – could not be present due to commitments in the Middle East, but he supported the final declaration. The former US President Jimmy Carter (2002 Nobel Peace Prize) and the former US senator George J. Mitchell (former United States Special Envoy for Middle East Peace) also backed this declaration.


title: Basque conflict

text: The conference resulted in a five-point statement that included a plea for ETA to renounce any armed activities and to demand instead negotiations with the Spanish and French authorities to end the conflict. It was seen as a possible prelude to the end of ETA's violent campaign for an independent Basque homeland.


title: Basque conflict

text: Three days later – on 20 October – ETA announced a "definitive cessation of its armed activity". They said they were ending their 43-year armed campaign for independence and called on Spain and France to open talks. Spanish premier Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero described the move as "a victory for democracy, law and reason".


title: Basque conflict

text: Though the group declared a permanent ceasefire, the French police made a declaration warning that ETA had made no steps towards dissolution. It is also known that ETA was still hoarding weaponry and explosives, several members guarding explosives have been detained since their permanent ceasefire declaration.


title: Basque conflict

text: In March 2017 ETA declared that it would disarm completely by 8 April. On that date, civilian 'go-betweens' (Artisans of Peace) handed a list of 8 coordinates to the authorities which showed the locations of weapons caches in southwestern France used by the group. The caches were reported to have contained 120 firearms, about 3 tonnes of explosives and several thousand rounds of ammunition, which were seized by the Spanish and French authorities. The Spanish government stated that ETA will gain no impunity for their disarmament, and urged the group to dissolve formally.


title: Basque conflict

text: On 3 May 2018, during a ceremony held at the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue in Geneva, Switzerland, the ETA released a statement announcing its permanent dissolution, which was distributed by the Centre's director. Following this announcement, a ceremony was organized in Northern Basque Country, in Cambo-les-Bains () where the "declaration of Arnaga" was pronounced.


title: Basque conflict

text: Estimates of the total number of conflict-related deaths vary and are highly disputed. The number of deaths caused by ETA is consistent among different sources, such as the Spanish Interior Ministry, the Basque government, and most major news agencies. According to these sources, the number of deaths caused by ETA are 829. This list does not include Begoña Urroz, killed in 1960 when she was 22 months old. Although this killing was attributed by Ernest Lluch to ETA in 2000, as revealed in El País, the attack was committed by the DRIL ("Directorio Revolucionario Ibérico de Liberación").


title: Basque conflict

text: Some organizations such as the "Colectivo de Víctimas del Terrorismo en el País Vasco" raise the death toll of ETA's victims to 952. This is due to the inclusion to the list of several unresolved attacks such as the Hotel Corona de Aragón fire. The Asociación de Víctimas del Terrorismo also includes the victims of the Corona de Aragón fire on its list of ETA's deaths. Sources have suggested ETA responsibility in the crash of Iberia Airlines Flight 610 at Monte Oiz (Bilbao) on 19 February 1985 with 148 killed


title: Basque conflict

text: Regarding the Basque National Liberation Movement side the Euskal Memoria foundation, linked to the Abertzale left, and born in 2009 with the proclaimed purpose of having a database in order to "counter the lies from the State", list the number of deaths on their side as 474 in the period between 1960 and 2010. News agency Eusko News states that at least 368 people died on the Basque nationalist side. Most of the lists also include an undefined number of suicides caused by the conflict, coming from former ETA members, tortured people or policemen. Additional death causes in the Euskal Memoria list such as deaths to natural illnesses, a death of an ETA member due to a stroke suffered while having sexual relations, deaths due to the accidental activation of ETA bombs by ETA members, deaths in car and plane accidents, the death of common criminals, the death of a football fan killed by rivals, and deaths abroad such as a death in a mine in Nicaragua, a missionary killed by guerrilla in Colombia, two Uruguayans in Uruguay, two guerrilla collaborators in El Salvador and a protester in Rome have been claimed.


title: Basque conflict

text: The Spanish and French law enforcement agencies have convicted a number of people for terrorist activities (primarily murder or attempted murder), or for belonging to ETA or organizations subservient to this organization. A small minority have been imprisoned for "enaltecimiento del terrorismo" which literally translates as "glorification of terrorism". The number of people incarcerated reached a peak of 762 in 2008. These prisoners are jailed in prisons all over France and Spain "to make it difficult for ETA to communicate with them," according to non-revealed sources. There have officially been 5,500 claims or complaints of torture or mistreating in police custody in the Basque Autonomous Community, but some sources and Spanish authorities claim that many of those claims are false because ETA used to instruct their militants to systematically denounce torture by the Spanish Forces.


title: Basque conflict

text: For the Abertzale left this is one of the most emotive issues relating to Basque Nationalism. Demonstrations calling for their return to the Basque region often involve thousands of people. Currently there is a highly publicised campaign calling for the return of these dispersed prisoners to the Basque Country. Its slogan is "Euskal presoak- Euskal Herrira" ("Basque prisoners- to the Basque Country").


title: Basque conflict

text: Some groups such as Etxerat have been calling for a general amnesty, similar to that which took place in Northern Ireland in 2000. The Spanish government has so far rejected moves to treat all prisoners in the same way. Instead they opened the 'Via Nanclares' in 2009 which is a way for individual prisoners to get better conditions, and eventually gain limited release. It involves the individual asking for forgiveness, distancing themselves from ETA and paying compensation.


title: Heather Hemmens

text: Heather Hemmens is an American actress, film director, and film producer. She is best known for her role as Alice Verdura in The CW series "Hellcats" (2010-2011). She starred as Stacy Collins in the Netflix comedy "Dad Stop Embarrassing Me!" opposite Jamie Foxx and currently stars as Maria DeLuca in the series "Roswell, New Mexico", which premiered in January, 2019 on The CW. Previous credits include the OWN series, "If Loving You Is Wrong", where she played Marcie Holmes for five seasons.


title: Heather Hemmens

text: Hemmens was raised in the woods of Waldo, Maine with her two older brothers and older sister. Hemmens attended Mount View High School in Thorndike, Maine, before attending the performing arts high school Walnut Hill School for the Arts near Boston for her final two years of high school graduating in 2002. She went to Los Angeles to pursue an acting career upon graduating. She has a black belt in martial arts and weapons training.


title: Heather Hemmens

text: In early career, Hemmens had small roles in the films "The Dukes of Hazzard" (2005) and "Glory Road" (2006). In addition, Hemmens has also directed and produced the short films "Perils of an Active Mind" and "Designated" which were both released in 2010. In 2010, she was cast as Alice Verdura in The CW series "Hellcats", a comedy-drama about competitive college cheerleading, executive produced by Tom Welling. The show received mixed reviews, but Hemmens' performance was very positively received by critics, with many referring to Hemmens as the breakout star. The series was canceled after one season in 2011. She also guest starred on "", "", "Without a Trace", "The Haves and the Have Nots", "Grey's Anatomy", and "The Vampire Diaries".


title: Heather Hemmens

text: In 2014, Hemmens was cast as one of leads in the Oprah Winfrey Network prime time soap opera "If Loving You Is Wrong", created, produced and written by Tyler Perry. In 2018, she was cast in the CW series, "Roswell, New Mexico".


title: Appendicular skeleton

text: The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates consisting of the bones that support the appendages. There are 126 bones. The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as supporting shoulder girdle and pelvic girdle. The word appendicular is the adjective of the noun "appendage", which itself means a part that is joined to something larger.


title: Appendicular skeleton

text: Of the 206 bones in the human skeleton, the appendicular skeleton comprises 126. Functionally it is involved in locomotion (lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and manipulation of objects in the environment (upper limbs).


title: Appendicular skeleton

text: The appendicular skeleton forms during development from cartilage, by the process of endochondral ossification.


title: Appendicular skeleton

text: Through anatomical variation, the skeleton may have an accessory bone. Examples include sutural bones in the skull, cervical ribs, lumbar ribs, and a sixth lumbar vertebrae. Some occurrences are rarer than others.


title: Appendicular skeleton

text: The appendicular skeleton of 126 bones and the axial skeleton of 80 bones together form the complete skeleton of 206 bones in the human body. Unlike the axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton is unfused. This allows for a much greater range of motion.


title: 433 Eros

text: Eros (minor planet designation: (433) Eros), provisional designation is a stony asteroid of the Amor group and the first discovered and second-largest near-Earth object with an elongated shape and a mean diameter of approximately . Visited by the NEAR Shoemaker space probe in 1998, it became the first asteroid ever studied from orbit around the asteroid.


title: 433 Eros

text: The asteroid was discovered by German astronomer C.G. Witt at the Berlin Observatory on 13 August 1898 in an eccentric orbit between Mars and Earth. It was later named after Eros, a god from Greek mythology, the son of Aphrodite. He is identified with the planet Venus.


title: 433 Eros

text: Eros was discovered on 13 August 1898 by C.G. Witt at Berlin Urania Observatory and A. Charlois at Nice Observatory. Witt was taking a two-hour exposure of beta Aquarii to secure astrometric positions of asteroid 185 Eunike.


title: 433 Eros

text: Eros is named after the Greek god of love, Erōs. It is pronounced or sometimes . The rarely used adjectival form of the name is "Erotian" .


title: 433 Eros

text: Eros was the first minor planet to be given a male name, on account of its orbit (it was the first near-Earth asteroid discovered).


title: 433 Eros

text: During the approach (opposition) of 1900–1901, a worldwide program was launched to make parallax measurements of Eros to determine the solar parallax (or distance to the Sun), with the results published in 1910 by A. Hinks of Cambridge and C.D. Perrine of the Lick Observatory, University of California. Perrine published progress reports in 1906 and 1908. He took 965 photographs with the Crossley Reflector and selected 525 for measurement. A similar program was then carried out, during a closer approach, in 1930–1931 by H.S. Jones. The value of the Astronomical Unit (roughly the Earth-Sun distance) obtained by this program was considered definitive until 1968, when radar and dynamical parallax methods started producing more precise measurements.


title: 433 Eros

text: Eros was one of the first asteroids visited by a spacecraft, the first one orbited, and the first one soft-landed on. NASA spacecraft NEAR Shoemaker entered orbit around Eros in 2000, and landed in 2001.


title: 433 Eros

text: Eros is a Mars-crosser asteroid, the first known to come within the orbit of Mars. Objects in such an orbit can remain there for only a few hundred million years before the orbit is perturbed by gravitational interactions. Dynamical integrations suggest that Eros may evolve into an Earth-crosser within as short an interval as two million years, and has a roughly 50% chance of doing so over a time scale of ~ years. It is a potential Earth impactor, about five times larger than the impactor that created Chicxulub crater and led to the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.


title: 433 Eros

text: The NEAR Shoemaker probe visited Eros twice, first with a brief flyby in 1998, and then by orbiting it in 2000, when it extensively photographed its surface. On 12 February 2001, at the end of its mission, it landed on the asteroid's surface using its maneuvering jets.


title: 433 Eros

text: Surface gravity depends on the distance from a spot on the surface to the center of a body's mass. Eros's surface gravity varies greatly because Eros is not a sphere but an elongated peanut-shaped object. The daytime temperature on Eros can reach about at perihelion. Nighttime measurements fall near . Eros's density is 2.67 g/cm, about the same as the density of Earth's crust. It rotates once every 5.27 hours.


title: 433 Eros

text: NEAR scientists have found that most of the larger rocks strewn across Eros were ejected from a single crater in an impact approximately 1 billion years ago. (The crater involved was proposed to be named "Shoemaker", but is not recognized as such by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), and has been formally designated Charlois Regio.) This event may also be responsible for the 40 percent of the Erotian surface that is devoid of craters smaller than 0.5 kilometers across. It was originally thought that the debris thrown up by the collision filled in the smaller craters. An analysis of crater densities over the surface indicates that the areas with lower crater density are within 9 kilometers of the impact point. Some of the lower density areas were found on the opposite side of the asteroid but still within 9 kilometers.


title: 433 Eros

text: It is theorized that seismic shockwaves propagate through the asteroid, shaking smaller craters into rubble. Since Eros is irregularly shaped, parts of the surface antipodal to the point of impact can be within 9 kilometres of the impact point (measured in a straight line through the asteroid) even though some intervening parts of the surface are more than 9 kilometres away in straight-line distance. A suitable analogy would be the distance from the top centre of a bun to the bottom centre as compared to the distance from the top centre to a point on the bun's circumference: top-to-bottom is a longer distance than top-to-periphery when measured along the surface but shorter than it in direct straight-line terms.


title: 433 Eros

text: Data from the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous spacecraft collected on Eros in December 1998 suggests that it could contain 20 billion tonnes of aluminum and similar amounts of metals that are rare on Earth, such as gold and platinum.


title: 433 Eros

text: On 31 January 2012, Eros passed Earth at , about 70 times the distance to the Moon, with a visual magnitude of +8.1. During rare oppositions, every 81 years, such as in 1975 and 2056, Eros can reach a magnitude of +7.0, which is brighter than Neptune and brighter than any main-belt asteroid except 1 Ceres, 4 Vesta and, rarely, 2 Pallas and 7 Iris. Under this condition, the asteroid actually appears to stop, but unlike the normal condition for a body in heliocentric conjunction with Earth, its retrograde motion is very small. For example, in January and February 2137, it moves retrograde only 34 minutes in right ascension.


title: 433 Eros

text: In the novel and television series "The Expanse", a catastrophic science experiment is unleashed on a civilian population living within tunnels cut through Eros. This so-called "Eros Incident" ends with the asteroid mysteriously breaking its usual orbit and crashing into Venus.


title: 433 Eros

text: It makes an appearance in the novel (and its film adaption) "Ender's Game" by Orson Scott Card, serving as a base for humanity.


title: 433 Eros

text: In the "Space Angel" episode 'Visitors from Outer Space' (title text not quite matching narration), Scott McCloud and his crew are forced to destroy Eros by deflecting it into the Sun, after it becomes a hazard to spacecraft navigation.


title: Kumar Sanu discography and filmography

text: Kumar Sanu is an Indian playback singer, working primarily in Hindi films, he also sings in many other Indian languages, including English, Marathi, Assamese, Bhojpuri, Gujarati, Telugu, Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil, Punjabi, Oriya, Chhattisgarhi, Urdu, Pali, and his native language, Bengali.


title: Roses Are Red

text: "Roses Are Red" is the name of a love poem and children's rhyme with Roud Folk Song Index number 19798. It has become a cliché for Valentine's Day, and has spawned multiple humorous and parodic variants.


title: Roses Are Red

text: The rhyme builds on poetic conventions that are traceable as far back as Edmund Spenser's epic "The Faerie Queene" of 1590:


title: Roses Are Red

text: A rhyme similar to the modern standard version can be found in "Gammer Gurton's Garland", a 1784 collection of English nursery rhymes published in London by Joseph Johnson:


title: Roses Are Red

text: Victor Hugo was probably familiar with Spenser, but may not have known the English nursery rhyme when he published his novel "Les Misérables" in 1862. A song by the character Fantine contains this refrain:


title: Roses Are Red

text: This translation replaces the original version's cornflowers (""bleuets"") with violets, and makes the roses red rather than pink, effectively making the song closer to the English nursery rhyme.


title: Roses Are Red

text: The short poem has since become a snowclone, and numerous satirical versions have long circulated in children's lore. Among them:


title: 1997–98 NBA season

text: The 1997–98 NBA season was the 52nd season of the National Basketball Association. The season ended with the Chicago Bulls winning their third straight championship and sixth in the last eight years, beating the Utah Jazz 4 games to 2 in the 1998 NBA Finals. It also marked the departure of Michael Jordan and the end of the dynasty for the Chicago Bulls.


title: 1997–98 NBA season

text: Teams in bold advanced to the next round. The numbers to the left of each team indicate the team's seeding in its conference, and the numbers to the right indicate the number of games the team won in that round. The division champions are marked by an asterisk. Home court advantage does not necessarily belong to the higher-seeded team, but instead the team with the better regular season record; teams enjoying the home advantage are shown in italics.


title: Hip bone

text: The hip bone (os coxae, innominate bone, pelvic bone or coxal bone) is a large flat bone, constricted in the center and expanded above and below. In some vertebrates (including humans before puberty) it is composed of three parts: the ilium, ischium, and the pubis.


title: Hip bone

text: The two hip bones join at the pubic symphysis and together with the sacrum and coccyx (the pelvic part of the spine) comprise the skeletal component of the pelvis – the pelvic girdle which surrounds the pelvic cavity. They are connected to the sacrum, which is part of the axial skeleton, at the sacroiliac joint. Each hip bone is connected to the corresponding femur (thigh bone) (forming the primary connection between the bones of the lower limb and the axial skeleton) through the large ball and socket joint of the hip.


title: Hip bone

text: The hip bone is formed by three parts: the ilium, ischium, and pubis. At birth, these three components are separated by hyaline cartilage. They join each other in a Y-shaped portion of cartilage in the acetabulum. By the end of puberty the three regions will have fused together, and by the age 25 they will have ossified.


title: Hip bone

text: The two hip bones join each other at the pubic symphysis. Together with the sacrum and coccyx, the hip bones form the pelvis.


title: Hip bone

text: Ilium (plural "ilia") is the uppermost and largest region. It makes up two fifths of the acetabulum. It is divisible into two parts: the body and the ala or wing of ilium; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the acetabulum. The body of ilium forms the sacroiliac joint with the sacrum. The edge of the wing of ilium forms the S-shaped iliac crest which is easily located through the skin. The iliac crest shows clear marks of the attachment of the three abdominal wall muscles.


title: Hip bone

text: The ischium forms the lower and back part of the hip bone and is located below the ilium and behind the pubis. The ischium is the strongest of the three regions that form the hip bone. It is divisible into three portions: the body, the superior ramus, and the inferior ramus. The body forms approximately one-third of the acetabulum.


title: Hip bone

text: The ischium forms a large swelling, the tuberosity of the ischium, also referred to colloquially as the "sit bone". When sitting, the weight is frequently placed upon the "ischial tuberosity". The gluteus maximus covers it in the upright posture, but leaves it free in the seated position.


title: Hip bone

text: The "pubic region" or "pubis" is the ventral and anterior of the three parts forming the hip bone. It is divisible into a body, a superior ramus, and an inferior ramus. The body forms one-fifth of the acetabulum. The body forms the wide, strong, medial and flat portion of the pubic bone which unites with the other pubic bone in the pubic symphysis. The fibrocartilaginous pad which lies between the symphysial surfaces of the coxal bones, that secures the pubic symphysis, is called the "interpubic disc".


title: Hip bone

text: The "pelvic brim" is a continuous oval ridge of bone that runs along the pubic symphysis, pubic crests, arcuate lines, sacral alae, and sacral promontory.


title: Hip bone

text: The "false pelvis" is that portion superior to the pelvic brim; it is bounded by the alae of the ilia laterally and the sacral promontory and lumbar vertebrae posteriorly.


title: Hip bone

text: The "true pelvis" is the region inferior to the pelvic brim that is almost entirely surrounded by bone.


title: Hip bone

text: The "pelvic inlet" is the opening delineated by the pelvic brim. The widest dimension of the pelvic inlet is from left to right, that is, along the frontal plane. The "pelvic outlet" is the margin of the true pelvis. It is bounded anteriorly by the pubic arch, laterally by the ischia, and posteriorly by the sacrum and coccyx.


title: Hip bone

text: The "superior pubic ramus" is a part of the pubic bone which forms a portion of the obturator foramen. It extends from the body to the median plane where it articulates with its fellow of the opposite side. It is conveniently described in two portions: a medial flattened part and a narrow lateral prismoid portion. The "inferior pubic ramus" is thin and flat. It passes laterally and downward from the medial end of the superior ramus. It becomes narrower as it descends and joins with the inferior ramus of the ischium below the obturator foramen.


title: Hip bone

text: The hip bone is ossified from eight centers: three primary, one each for the ilium, ischium, and pubis, and five secondary, one each for the iliac crest, the anterior inferior spine (said to occur more frequently in the male than in the female), the tuberosity of the ischium, the pubic symphysis (more frequent in the female than in the male), and one or more for the Y-shaped piece at the bottom of the acetabulum.


title: Hip bone

text: The centers appear in the following order: in the lower part of the ilium, immediately above the greater sciatic notch, about the eighth or ninth week of fetal life; in the superior ramus of the ischium, about the third month; in the superior ramus of the pubis, between the fourth and fifth months. At birth, the three primary centers are quite separate, the crest, the bottom of the acetabulum, the ischial tuberosity, and the inferior rami of the ischium and pubis being still cartilaginous.


title: Hip bone

text: By the seventh or eighth year, the inferior rami of the pubis and ischium are almost completely united by bone. About the thirteenth or fourteenth year, the three primary centers have extended their growth into the bottom of the acetabulum, and are there separated from each other by a Y-shaped portion of cartilage, which now presents traces of ossification, often by two or more centers. One of these, the os acetabuli, appears about the age of twelve, between the ilium and pubis, and fuses with them about the age of eighteen; it forms the pubic part of the acetabulum. The ilium and ischium then become joined, and lastly the pubis and ischium, through the intervention of this Y-shaped portion.


title: Hip bone

text: At about the age of puberty, ossification takes place in each of the remaining portions, and they join with the rest of the bone between the twentieth and twenty-fifth years. Separate centers are frequently found for the pubic tubercle and the ischial spine, and for the crest and angle of the pubis. The proportions of the female hip bone may affect the ease of passage of the baby during childbirth.


title: Hip bone

text: Several muscles attach to the hip bone including the internal muscles of the pelvic, abdominal muscles, back muscles, all the gluteal muscles, muscles of the lateral rotator group, hamstring muscles, two muscles from the anterior compartment of the thigh.


title: Hip bone

text: Fractures of the hip bone are termed pelvic fractures, and should not be confused with hip fractures, which are actually femoral fractures that occur in the proximal end of the femur.


title: Hip bone

text: Pelvimetry is the assessment of the female pelvis in relation to the birth of a baby in order to detect an increased risk for obstructed labor.


title: Hip bone

text: The hip bone first appears in fishes, where it consists of a simple, usually triangular bone, to which the pelvic fin articulates. The hip bones on each side usually connect with each other at the forward end, and are even solidly fused in lungfishes and sharks, but they never attach to the vertebral column.


title: Hip bone

text: In the early tetrapods, this early hip bone evolved to become the ischium and pubis, while the ilium formed as a new structure, initially somewhat rod-like in form, but soon adding a larger bony blade. The acetabulum is already present at the point where the three bones meet. In these early forms, the connection with the vertebral column is not complete, with a small pair of ribs connecting the two structures; nonetheless the pelvis already forms the complete ring found in most subsequent forms.


title: Hip bone

text: In practice, modern amphibians and reptiles have substantially modified this ancestral structure, based on their varied forms and lifestyles. The obturator foramen is generally very small in such animals, although most reptiles do possess a large gap between the pubis and ischium, referred to as the "thyroid fenestra", which presents a similar appearance to the obturator foramen in mammals. In birds, the pubic symphysis is present only in the ostrich, and the two hip bones are usually widely separated, making it easier to lay large eggs.


title: Hip bone

text: In therapsids, the hip bone came to rotate counter-clockwise, relative to its position in reptiles, so that the ilium moved forward, and the pubis and ischium moved to the rear. The same pattern is seen in all modern mammals, and the thyroid fenestra and obturator foramen have merged to form a single space. The ilium is typically narrow and triangular in mammals, but is much larger in ungulates and humans, in which it anchors powerful gluteal muscles. Monotremes and marsupials also possess a fourth pair of bones, the prepubes or "marsupial bones", which extend forward from the pubes, and help to support the abdominal muscles and, in marsupials, the pouch. In placental mammals, the pelvis as a whole is generally wider in females than in males, to allow for the birth of the young.


title: Hip bone

text: The pelvic bones of cetaceans were formerly considered to be vestigial, but they are now known to play a role in sexual selection.


title: All India Bakchod

text: All India Bakchod (abbreviated as AIB) was a Mumbai-based comedy company which created the eponymous podcast, YouTube channel and production company. The name is a parody of All India Radio. It began in 2012 as a humour/pop-culture podcast co-started by comedians Tanmay Bhat and Gursimran Khamba. Their friends and contemporary comedians, Rohan Joshi and Ashish Shakya were frequent guests and the four co-founded the YouTube channel in 2013 and began making sketches. They subsequently formed a digital agency and produced sketches, live comedy and TV shows.


title: All India Bakchod

text: In October 2018, the company halted operation and fired its entire staff, after Bhat and Khamba were implicated in two separate sexual harassment allegations. No formal charges were made but the company dissolved in May 2019. Khamba was dissatisfied with the independent investigation into the allegation against him and has since disassociated himself with the company and brand. The company's four founders continue to work in the comedy circuit. Bhat, Joshi and Shakya continue to collaborate independently. The company's social media accounts and YouTube channel are dormant.


title: All India Bakchod

text: Tanmay Bhat, Rohan Joshi and Ashish Shakya entered the Mumbai stand-up comedy circuit around 2008. The three frequently performed at an influential open-mic show called "Hamateur Night" while Joshi and Bhat also worked with Vir Das's Weirdass Comedy company on award show (Filmfare, MTV and Channel V) scripts.


title: All India Bakchod

text: Joshi and Bhat performed improv with Das, Kavi Shastri, Ashwin Mushran and Anu Menon as "The Cardinal ".


title: All India Bakchod

text: Bhat also wrote for Hindi TV and alongside Joshi contributed to "JLT" ( "Just Like That"), a weekly youth-focused magazine published by "The Times of India".


title: All India Bakchod

text: Besides stand-up Shakya wrote a humour column for "Hindustan Times" and wrote for satirical show called "The Week That Wasn't" and MTV India's "Wassup: The Voice of Youngistaan".


title: All India Bakchod

text: Gursimran Khamba is a Delhi-based humour blogger who had gained popularity with political commentary, satirical essays and film reviews. He had also contributed to satirical newsmagazine "Faking News". In 2011, he moved to Mumbai to attend graduate school at Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS) and soon transitioned to stand-up and podcasting.


title: All India Bakchod

text: Bhat approached Khamba after seeing him perform stand-up, and in 2012 they began the humour and pop-culture SoundCloud podcast "All India Bakchod". Initial podcast topics included discussions on pop-culture, parody songs and interviews with contemporary comedians. Joshi and Shakya were frequent guests, first appearing in the third episode.


title: All India Bakchod

text: When performing or working as a quartet, the four comedians were commonly referred to as AIB. They co-founded the All India Bakchod YouTube channel in 2013 and began writing sketches. They subsequently formed AIB as a comedy company which filmed videos, performed stand-up comedy and co-wrote shows. By early 2015, the comedy group became a creative agency, making branded content for corporate clients.


title: All India Bakchod

text: AIB started uploading sketches to YouTube in February 2013. Their first series, "AIB 365", used mimicry and other comedic devices. In April 2013, they created a spoof of Bollywood award shows, "Royal Turds" and performed it live for over a year."" In September 2013, their sketch "It's Your Fault" went viral. It was a satirical take on the Indian patriarchal mindset of victim blaming. During this period, comics Karunesh Talwar and Abish Matthew were frequent collaborators.


title: All India Bakchod

text: In December 2014, they performed and filmed the "All India Bakchod Knockout" (a celebrity roast) at the NSCI Dome in Worli. Karan Johar was the host with roasters AIB, Rajeev Masand, Raghu Ram, Aditi Mittal and Abish Matthew. Ranveer Singh and Arjun Kapoor were roasted. The show was uploaded on YouTube and subsequently removed from its channel because of widespread public backlash. AIB apologized and explained their decision:


title: All India Bakchod

text: Multiple Bollywood celebrities expressed both their dissatisfaction at the content and positive support in favour of artistic freedom.


title: All India Bakchod

text: Facing public backlash due to "Knockout", AIB ceased uploading content until 11 April 2015 when they released a call to action video which urged viewers to email their member of parliament to support net neutrality. In February 2017, they made a video asking people to vote in the BMC Mumbai elections.


title: All India Bakchod

text: By May 2015, AIB had transitioned into a creative agency and started an advertisement division called Vigyapanti. Between 2015 and 2018 they hired and contracted multiple writers to work on branded content. During this period, the four original members, with a writing team, created a satirical web television show called "On Air With AIB", produced by Only Much Louder. This show ran on Hotstar for three seasons, with some shorter segments uploaded on the AIB YouTube channel along with branded content. In 2016, they launched film-making workshop First Draft. By September 2018, they had 40 employees working as writers and producers.


title: All India Bakchod

text: In December 2016, a report stated that AIB was producing Amazon Prime Video's first Indian original fiction show, "Ministry", starring Irrfan Khan. In October 2017, it was reported that Khan would play a washed-up Bollywood actor seeking to regain the love of the masses while appointed as a placeholder culture minister. In August 2018, Irrfan left the project due to a health issue, and the show was renamed to "Gormint", a pronunciation from a viral video of an elderly woman criticizing the government. In November 2018, Khamba was fired as showrunner after allegations of sexual misconduct against him surfaced. In May 2019, Khamba uploaded a photograph of the end of filming. There has been no update since, as of January 2022. "Chintu Ka Birthday" was AIB's first self-financed film. It was released after the company's dissolution and the individual co-founders are listed as producers. It was co-directed by frequent collaborators Devanshu Kumar and Satyanshu Singh, and starred Vinay Pathak and Tillotama Shome. The film was released on ZEE5 on 5 June 2020.


title: All India Bakchod

text: Parodies featured in AIB's works from their initial podcast, exaggerating the songs of Baba Sehgal ("Paaji Fuck All Control [The Pro Boy Feticide Song]"), and John Lennon ("Imagine There's No Channel").


title: All India Bakchod

text: AIB's first foray into YouTube consisted of short spoofs and mimicry-based sketches. Song parodies continued to feature in their work, along with stereotypical situations and plays on heavy nostalgia. They popularized a satirical trope, "Honest Indian...", which they applied to various situations.


title: All India Bakchod

text: The majority of their sketches were branded content and included promotions for AskMe Snapdeal, Furlenco, Swiggy, Bacardi, TrulyMadly, Google Allo and OnePlus. Their podcast guests and work collaborators, included numerous Bollywood celebrities, global and Indian comedians and filmmakers.


title: All India Bakchod

text: The AIB's "progressive outlook" was criticized for reproducing "the very models of patriarchy it seeks out to address". In February 2017, within a week of being hired as a social-media writer, 22-year-old Krupa Gohil felt, "the company in general and the four founders in particular, saw the internet's emerging conversation about feminism as just another meme-worthy narrative to tap into." Gohil said: "[an employee] made a meme about smashing patriarchy but he didn't even know what patriarchy meant. It was just made and shared on social media to score woke points. These were empty, token actions." Another writer, Nisha Kalra, however, felt supported and looked out for by the team, when a similar incident happened with her. She said that in July 2017, when she was working with AIB as a writer on a contract, a male employee dropped his trousers and underpants and exposed his penis. This incident was repeated by the man, for three days and when he exposed his penis in her presence, thrice in a single day, Kalra decided to confront the person, who said his "pants were loose". After she filed a formal complaint, the man was fired after an inquiry and overall she was very grateful for how the situation was handled.


title: All India Bakchod

text: In early 2018, contemporary comics called out the group on their unidimensional portrayal of female characters who had no agency in their work. Characters in their sketches, podcast guests and their collaborators skewed towards being almost entirely male. The group addressed the issue and said they'd "work harder to create content that's inclusive." Since 2017, they have deleted material that has drawn criticism including videos that Utsav Chakraborty had worked on.


title: All India Bakchod

text: On 4 October 2018, comedian and actor Utsav Chakraborty, a former editor at Huffington Post India, former AIB employee and frequent collaborator, was accused of impropriety. The allegations against Chakraborty garnered attention when poet Mahima Kukreja accused him of sending her an unsolicited explicit image. Before publicly denouncing Chakraborty on Twitter, Kukreja had previously told Bhat about Chakraborty's behaviour. Bhat confronted Chakraborty, took no action and continued a professional working relationship between Chakraborty and AIB. This incident was the genesis of the Indian #MeToo movement in 2018. One year later, Chakraborty made public statements alleging that Bhat did not act as he said previously and that Chakraborty was "thrown under the bus" in an attempt to save the company and called the allegations "fabricated".


title: All India Bakchod

text: In a series of Instagram videos, Bhat issued an update on his professional and personal life. He said he was diagnosed with Clinical Depression at the end of 2018, while the company was being shut down. He said he felt "mentally checked out" and "paralyzed and unable to participate socially, online or even offline". His statement drew both support and criticism from former colleagues and contemporaries.


title: All India Bakchod

text: On 8 October 2018, Khamba was accused of violating consent and emotional abuse by an unknown woman. She said they had "hooked up two-three times" and continued being friends. She added that Khamba drunk called her and threatened to ruin their friendship and emotionally blackmailed her for five months. Khamba acknowledged to a certain degree of misbehaviour but has rejected the suggestion that he violated her consent.


title: All India Bakchod

text: Regarding the statement, Khamba said the allegation was made by a person who shared a "deep personal relationship" with him. He said that an independent committee looked into the allegation for four months and was "replete with procedural lapses and did not follow principals of natural justice". He withdrew from the committee because of this. He founded a new digital content company called Light@27.


title: All India Bakchod

text: As a result of these allegations, Bhat was asked to step away from the company and Khamba was put on indefinite leave. Both were fired from their roles as judges on the talent show "Comicstaan" and other Amazon projects. Khamba was fired from his position as showrunner on "Gormint". The company's web television show "On Air With AIB" was canceled. "Chintu Ka Birthday" (Chintu's Birthday), an AIB produced film, was dropped from the 2018 MAMI Mumbai Film Festival and its Netflix release was cancelled.


title: All India Bakchod

text: On 8 October 2018, Khamba and Bhat were asked to leave AIB due to their involvement and complicit behaviour in separate sexual harassment allegations. Subsequently, Bhat was asked to step away from the company and Khamba was put on indefinite leave. The two were also fired from various roles they individually held on other shows. The company's web television show was cancelled entirely by its network, Hotstar, mid-season. In October 2018, the company was temporarily shut down and was steering towards permanent closure. In May 2019, they issued a statement that confirmed that their entire staff was let go, that Bhat's suspension was lifted (but he would not be allowed to return as CEO) and that Khamba had cut all ties with the company. Bhat, Joshi and Shakya have since re-entered the comedy circuit and continue to be associated with the company's name. Khamba, dissatisfied with an independent inquiry into the allegation against him, decided to leave the company and start another comedic venture.


title: All India Bakchod

text: At the time of dissolution, Bhat, Joshi, Shakya and Khamba each owned 25 per cent of the company. As of March 2018, the company collectively owed the founders just over $51,000 from loans. In May 2019, AIB announced that their YouTube channel was dead for the foreseeable future. On 26 and 27 May 2020, they broke their silence on Instagram and Twitter respectively to announce the world satellite premiere of Chintu Ka Birthday. The trailer of the film was uploaded to AIB's YouTube channel on 29 May 2020.


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: "The pen is mightier than the sword" is a metonymic adage, created by English author Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 1839, indicating that the written word is more effective than violence as a means of social or political change.


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: Under some interpretations, "written communication" can refer to administrative power or an independent news media.


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: The sentence was coined by English author Edward Bulwer-Lytton in 1839 for his play "Richelieu; Or the Conspiracy". The play was about Cardinal Richelieu, though in the author's words "license with dates and details ... has been, though not unsparingly, indulged". The Cardinal's line in Act II, scene II, was more fully:


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: The play opened at London's Covent Garden Theatre on 7 March 1839 with William Charles Macready in the lead role. Macready believed its opening night success was "unequivocal"; Queen Victoria attended a performance on 14 March.


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: In 1870, literary critic Edward Sherman Gould wrote that Bulwer "had the good fortune to do, what few men can hope to do: he wrote a line that is likely to live for ages". By 1888 another author, Charles Sharp, feared that repeating the phrase "might sound trite and commonplace". The Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress, which opened in 1897, has the adage decorating an interior wall. Although Bulwer's phrasing was novel, the idea of communication surpassing violence in efficacy had numerous predecessors.


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: The saying quickly gained currency, says Susan Ratcliffe, associate editor of the Oxford Quotations Dictionaries. "By the 1840s it was a commonplace."


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: Assyrian sage Ahiqar, who reputedly lived during the early 7th century BCE, coined the first known version of this phrase. One copy of the Teachings of Ahiqar, dating to about 500 BCE, states, "The word is mightier than the sword."


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: According to the website Trivia Library, the book "The People's Almanac" lists several supposed predecessors to Bulwer's phrasing. Their first example comes from the Greek playwright Euripides, who died c. 406 BCE. He is supposed to have written: "The tongue is mightier than the blade."


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: Several possible precursors do appear in the Old and New Testaments, for example, in the Epistle to the Hebrews, whose authorship is uncertain, has been translated as: "Indeed, the word of God is living and effective, sharper than any two-edged sword, penetrating even between soul and spirit, joints and marrow, and able to discern reflections and thoughts of the heart."


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: The Islamic prophet Muhammad is quoted, in a saying narrated by 'Abdullah ibn Amr: ""There will be a tribulation that will wipe out the Arabs in which those killed on both sides are in the Hellfire. In that time the spoken word will be stronger than the sword"".


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, who died in 1602 and was personal scribe and vizier to Akbar the Great, wrote of a gentleman put in charge of a fiefdom having ""been promoted from the pen to the sword and taken his place among those who join the sword to the pen, and are masters both of peace and war"." Syad Muhammad Latif, in his 1896 history of Agra, quoted King Abdullah of Bokhara (Abdullah-Khan II), who died in 1598, as saying that "He was more afraid of Abu'l-Fazl's pen than of Akbar's sword."


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: In 1529, Antonio de Guevara, in "Reloj de príncipes", compared a pen to a lance, books to arms, and a life of studying to a life of war. Thomas North, in 1557, translated "Reloj de príncipes" into English as "Diall of Princes." The analogy would appear in again in 1582, in George Whetstone's "An Heptameron of Civil Discourses": ""The dashe of a Pen, is more greeuous than the counterbuse of a Launce"."


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: Netizens have suggested that a 1571 edition of Erasmus' "Institution of a Christian Prince" contains the words ""There is no sworde to bee feared more than the Learned pen"", but this is not evident from modern translations and this could be merely a spurious quotation.


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: William Shakespeare in 1600, in his play "Hamlet" , wrote: "... "many wearing rapiers are afraid of goosequills"."


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: Robert Burton, in 1621, in "The Anatomy of Melancholy", stated: "It is an old saying, "A blow with a word strikes deeper than a blow with a sword": and many men are as much galled with a calumny, a scurrilous and bitter jest, a libel, a pasquil, satire, apologue, epigram, stage-play or the like, as with any misfortune whatsoever." After listing several historical examples he concludes: ""Hinc quam sit calamus saevior ense patet"", which translates as "From this it is clear how much more cruel the pen may be than the sword."


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: The French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), known to history for his military conquests, also left this : ""Four hostile newspapers are more to be feared than a thousand bayonets"." He also said: ""There are only two powers in the world, saber and mind; at the end, saber is always defeated by mind"." ("Il n'y a que deux puissances au monde, le sabre et l'esprit : à la longue, le sabre est toujours vaincu par l'esprit.").


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: Thomas Jefferson, on 19 June 1792, ended a letter to Thomas Paine with: "Go on then in doing with your pen what in other times was done with the sword: shew that reformation is more practicable by operating on the mind than on the body of man, and be assured that it has not a more sincere votary nor you a more ardent well-wisher than Y[ou]rs. &c. "Thomas Jefferson""


title: The pen is mightier than the sword

text: Published in 1830, by Joseph Smith, an account in the Book of Mormon related, ""the word had a greater tendency to lead the people to do that which was just; yea, it had more powerful effect upon the minds of the people than the sword"".


title: Filipino martial arts

text: Filipino martial arts (FMA) () refer to ancient and newer modified fighting methods devised in the Philippines. It incorporates elements from both Western and Eastern Martial Arts, the most popular forms of which are known as Arnis, Eskrima, and Kali. The intrinsic need for self-preservation was the genesis of these systems. Throughout the ages, invaders and evolving local conflict imposed new dynamics for combat in the islands now making up the Philippines. The Filipino people developed battle skills as a direct result of an appreciation of their ever-changing circumstances. They learned often out of necessity how to prioritize, allocate and use common resources in combative situations. Filipinos have been heavily influenced by a phenomenon of cultural and linguistic mixture. Some of the specific mechanisms responsible for cultural and martial change extended from phenomena such as war, political and social systems, technology, trade and practicality.


title: Filipino martial arts

text: Filipino martial arts have seen an increase in prominence due to several Hollywood movies and the teachings of modern masters such as Venancio "Anciong" Bacon, Dan Inosanto, Roland Dantes, Edgar Sulite, Cacoy Canete, Danny Guba, Mike Inay, Remy Presas, Wilson Pangan Sr. (Grand Master), Ernesto Presas Sr., Doug Marcaida, Ernesto Presas Jr., Carlito A. Lanada, Sr., and Carlos Deleon.


title: Filipino martial arts

text: There have been numerous scholarly calls on the inclusion of the many martial arts of the Philippines into the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists. As of 2019, a total of nine elements scattered in eight countries, such as Thailand, Georgia, and Korea, have successfully inscribed their martial arts in the UNESCO list.