title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: County residents also elect a sheriff, district attorney, probate court judge, clerk of superior court, clerk of the state court, state court solicitor, chief magistrate judge (who then appoints other magistrate court judges), superior court judges, state court judges, tax commissioner, surveyor, and a seven-member board of education. In addition to the county sheriff, the constitutional chief law enforcement officer of the county, Cobb County has a separate police department under the authority of the Board of Commissioners. The sheriff oversees the jail, to which everyone arrested under state law is taken, regardless of the city or other area of the county where it happens, or which police department makes the arrest.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: Each city has a separate police department, answerable to its governing council. Marietta, Smyrna, and Austell have separate fire departments, with the Cobb County Fire Department being the authority having jurisdiction over Kennesaw, Acworth, Powder Springs, and unincorporated areas. Cobb 911 covers unincorporated areas and the city of Marietta. Kennesaw and Acworth jointly operate a small 911 call center (PSAP) upstairs in Kennesaw city hall, dispatching the police departments in both cities, and forwarding fire calls to Cobb. Smyrna operates a separate PSAP while offering dispatch services to the city of Powder Springs. Austell operates its own separate 911 system.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: From 1964 until 2012, the county was a Republican stronghold in presidential elections. The only time during this period that the county supported a Democrat was in 1976, when native son Jimmy Carter swept every county in the state. Before 1960, it was a typical "Solid South" Democratic county, except when Warren G. Harding came close to carrying it in 1920, and when Herbert Hoover won it by nine points due to anti-Catholic voting against Al Smith in 1928.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: In the latter 20th century, the county developed a reputation as a conservative stronghold. However, due to rapid racial and ethnic demographic changes since the 1990s, the county has increasingly supported the Democratic Party. In 2016, when Hillary Clinton became the first Democrat to win Cobb County since Carter, and the first non-Georgian Democrat since John F. Kennedy in 1960. The county then supported Joe Biden in 2020 by 14 points–the best showing for a Democrat since Carter's 17-point win in 1976, and the best for a non-Georgian Democrat since Kennedy. This was crucial to Biden winning the state for the Democrats for the first time since 1992.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: In 2018, Stacey Abrams became the first Democrat to win Cobb County in a gubernatorial election since 1986, when Joe Frank Harris swept every county statewide.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: In 2020, in the turmoil surrounding the election defeat of Donald Trump, the chairman of the Cobb County Republicans and another person challenged the election results in an attempt to remove 16,024 Cobb County voters from eligibility to vote in the runoff election for both Georgia senators, scheduled for January 5, 2021. The county Board of Elections held a hearing to decide whether there was probable cause to move forward with hearings for each name on the list. The Board's attorney stated that there was not probable cause and gave reasons. After a brief discussion, the board voted unanimously to deny the challenge.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: In addition to the 4% statewide sales tax, Cobb County levies an additional 2% for special projects, each 1% subject to separate renewal every few years by countywide referendum (including within its cities). This funds mainly transportation and parks. Cobb levies a 1% tax to lower property taxes, but only for the public school budget, and not the additional 1% HOST homestead exemption for general funds. The county has also voted not to pay the extra 1% to join MARTA.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: At the beginning of 2006, Cobb became the last county in the state to raise the tax to 6%, which also doubled the tax on food to 2%. The SPLOST barely passed by a 114 vote margin, or less than one-quarter of a percent, in a September 2005 referendum. The revenue was to go to a new county courthouse, expanded jail, various transportation projects, and the purchasing of property for parks and green space. In 2008, the school tax was renewed for a third term, funding the Marietta and Cobb school systems.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: The Consulate-General of Costa Rica in Atlanta is located in Suite 100 at 1870 The Exchange in an unincorporated section of Cobb County.


title: Cobb County, Georgia

text: Until 1971, the Louisville & Nashville Railroad, running on tracks now owned by CSX, operated passenger trains through Marietta depot.


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: The murder of Megan Nicole Kanka (December 7, 1986 – July 29, 1994) occurred in Hamilton Township, Mercer County, New Jersey, United States. Seven-year-old Megan Kanka was raped and murdered by her neighbor, Jesse Timmendequas, after he lured her into his house; Timmendequas had previously been convicted for child molestation. The murder attracted national attention and subsequently led to the introduction of "Megan's Law", which requires law enforcement to disclose details relating to the location of registered sex offenders.


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: In 1997, Timmendequas was convicted of Kanka's murder. He was initially sentenced to death, but his sentence was commuted to life without parole after New Jersey abolished capital punishment in 2007.


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: Jesse K. Timmendequas (born April 15, 1961) had two previous convictions for sexually assaulting young girls. In 1979, he pleaded guilty to the attempted aggravated sexual assault of a five-year-old girl in Piscataway Township, New Jersey. He was given a suspended sentence, and after failing to attend counseling, he was sent for nine months to the Middlesex Adult Correctional Center. In 1981, Timmendequas pleaded guilty to the assault of a seven-year-old girl, and was imprisoned at the Adult Diagnostic & Treatment Center (ADTC) in Avenel, New Jersey, for six years.


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: Timmendequas reportedly participated little in the treatment program offered at the ADTC. He was described by one therapist who treated him at the facility as a "whiner" who spent most of his time sleeping. Another therapist stated that she had believed that Timmendequas would eventually commit another sex crime (although she did not believe he would commit murder).


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: Timmendequas lured Kanka into his house, where he raped her before strangling her with a belt. He then disposed of her body in nearby Mercer County Park. The next day, he confessed to investigators and led police to the site.


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: Evidence included bloodstains, hair, and fiber samples, as well as a bite mark matching Kanka's teeth on Timmendequas' hand, and led to a guilty verdict on charges of kidnapping, four counts of aggravated sexual assault, and two counts of felony murder—causing a death in the course of certain specific felonies. The court sentenced Timmendequas to death, and the sentence was upheld by the New Jersey Supreme Court on appeal. Congressman Dick Zimmer stated, "I believe he is exactly the kind of predator that the legislature had in mind when it enacted the death penalty."


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: Timmendequas remained on death row in New Jersey until December 17, 2007, when the New Jersey Legislature abolished capital punishment in the state. As a result, Timmendequas' sentence was commuted to life in prison without the possibility of parole.


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: One month after the murder, the New Jersey General Assembly passed a series of bills proposed by Assemblyman Paul Kramer that would require sex offender registry, with a database tracked by the state, community notification of registered sex offenders moving into a neighborhood and then life in prison for repeat sex offenders. Kramer expressed incredulity at the controversy created by the bills, saying that "Megan K would be alive today" if the bills he proposed had been law.


title: Murder of Megan Kanka

text: The Megan Nicole Kanka Foundation is a non-profit charity founded by the family of Megan Kanka with the intent of preventing crimes against children.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Punjabi cuisine is a culinary style originating in the Punjab, a region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, which is now divided in an Indian part to the east and a Pakistani part to the west. This cuisine has a rich tradition of many distinct and local ways of cooking. One is a special form of tandoori cooking that is now famous in other parts of Pakistan and India, England, Canada, America, and in many other parts of the world.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: The local cuisine of Punjab is heavily influenced by the agriculture and farming lifestyle prevalent from the times of the ancient Indus Valley civilization. Locally grown staple foods form the major part of the local cuisine. Distinctively Punjabi cuisine is known for its rich, buttery flavours along with the extensive vegetarian and meat dishes. Main dishes include (a stew whose main ingredient is mustard greens) and "makki di roti" (flatbreads made with cornmeal).


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Karrhi is a spicy, yellow gravy with cakes made of chickpea flour (besan), containing lemon juice, red pepper and turmeric. It is commonly served with rice or naan.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Basmati rice is the indigenous variety of Punjab, and various meat- and vegetable-based rice dishes have been developed using it.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: There are many styles of cooking in Punjab. In the villages many people still employ the traditional methods and equipment for cooking purposes. This includes wood-fired and masonry ovens. Modern methods include cooking on gas cookers. Tandoori style of cooking involves use of the tandoor. In India, tandoori cooking is traditionally associated with Punjab as Punjabis embraced the tandoor on a regional level. This style of cooking became popular throughout India after the 1947 partition when Punjabis resettled in places such as Delhi. According to Planalp (1971), "the Panjab-style underground oven known as tandur is becoming increasingly popular in New Delhi" pointing to the Punjabi style of the tandoor. In rural Punjab, it is common to have communal tandoors, which are also called "Kath" "tadoors" in Punjabi.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Punjab is a major producer of wheat, rice and dairy products. These products also form the staple diet of the Punjabi people. The state of Punjab has one of the highest capita usage of dairy products in India. Therefore, dairy products form an important component of Punjabi diet.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Dairy products are a staple in Punjabi cuisine. Both cow milk and water buffalo milk are popular. Milk is used for drinking, to add to tea or coffee, to make homemade dahi (yogurt), for butter and making traditional Punjabi cottage cheese called paneer. Traditionally, yogurt is made every day using previous day's yogurt as the starting bacterial culture to ferment the milk. Curd is used as dressing for many raita dishes, to prepare Kadhi, to prepare cultured buttermilk (Chaas), and as a side dish in a meal. Buttermilk is used in making various kinds of "Lassi". It may also be used in curry preparations. Milk is also the prerequisite ingredient for butter and Ghee (clarified butter).


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Food additives and condiments are usually added to enhance the flavor of the food. Food coloring as additive is used in sweet dishes and desserts. Starch is used as a bulking agent.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Breakfast recipes with respect to different regions within Punjab varies. Common ones are chana masala, nan, chole kulche, aloo paratha, panner paratha, gobi paratha, paratha with curd, paratha with butter, halwa poori, bhatoora, falooda, makhni doodh, Amritsari lassi, masala chai, tea, Amritsari kulchas, dahi vada, dahi, khoa, paya, aloo paratha with butter, panjeeri with milk.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Since Punjab is a landlocked region, freshwater fish, and not marine fish, forms an important part of the cuisine. Carp, rohu and catfish are the most commonly prepared fish. Other fish types include thela machi and tilapia. Recently shrimp has been introduced. Fish tikka is an Amritsari speciality.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Punjabis eat a variety of breads. Flatbreads and raised breads are eaten on a daily basis. Raised breads are known as "khamiri roti". Sunflower and flax seeds are also added in some breads occasionally. The breads may be made of different types of flour and can be made in various ways:


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Indian subcontinent-based spices are used in Punjabi cuisine, which are ground in a mortar and pestle or a food processor.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Punjab has a diverse range of beverages. Some are dairy-based such as lassi and buttermilk. Water buffalo milk-based products are especially common around Punjab. Examples are mango lassi, mango milkshake, and chaas. Others are juices derived from vegetables and fruits, such as watermelon shakes, carrot juice and tamarind juice (imli ka paani). Shikanjvi and neembu paani drinks are especially preferred during the summer. Jal-jeera is also common as well.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Sattu is a traditional North Indian drink that is also traditionally consumed in the Punjab. Sattu is made by roasting barley grains and then grinding them into powder, mixed with salt and turmeric and water.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: The local regional drinks in Punjab also include Doodh soda (milk soda), Desi Dharu (a local form of alcohol in India) and Bantay (a local soda drink) in Pakistan.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Fermented foods are common in Punjabi cuisine. Also fermented foods are added in the preparation of some dishes as well. Mango pickle is especially famous in many villages of Punjab.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Traditional and modern methods are employed for cooking Punjabi cuisine. The traditional stoves and ovens used to cook Punjabi food include:


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: The traditional name of the stove in the Punjabi language is "chulla". Traditional houses also have ovens ("wadda chulla" or "band chulla") that are made from bricks, stones, and in many cases clay. Older communities in Punjab also used earth ovens ("khadda chulla"), but this tradition is dying out now.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: A masonry oven is known as a bhathi. Outdoor cooking and grilling have many different types of bhathi. A bhathi is used to roast wheat or corn for which Kalsi (1992) describes as a "special oven with an open pan in which sand is heated to roast corn."


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: A hara is a six-foot-tall oven with its own roof. The hara is traditionally used to slow-heat milk or slow-cook pulses such as chickpeas.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: According to "Ancient Pakistan - An Archaeological History" by Mukhtar Ahmed, Harappan oven structures may have operated in a similar manner to the modern tandoors of the Punjab. The tandoor is traditionally made of clay and is a bell-shaped oven, set into the earth and fired with wood or charcoal reaching high temperatures. According to Roy Hayter the original versions of the tandoor "in the Punjab, a province in the north-west of India, were sunk neck deep in the ground". He further states that modern versions can also rest above the ground.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Etiquette of eating is considered a major part of the cuisine. Every Punjabi household follows certain regional etiquette. The word etiquette has many local names depending on the particular region of Punjab. Though certain etiquette varies regionally, there are many etiquette practices that are common throughout Punjab. Communal dining is a norm in Punjabi families.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Bringing and sending fresh fruits, sweets and food items as gifts to family members is a common practice in Punjab, particularly during the spring season. Food items are distributed among neighbors as well on special occasions and as a sign to show hospitality. Mango is considered a delicacy and produced widely in Punjab, and mango parties are common during the fruit's harvest season. Watermelon and radish at food stalls are shared among friends and relatives.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: The roadsides often serve as suburban eatery centers. They can also be a communal place to sit and chat. Some serve on the same concept of the greasy spoon.


title: Punjabi cuisine

text: Punjabi cuisine has spread internationally. Punjab in London has been family-run since 1946 and is the UK's oldest North Indian restaurant. The New Punjab Club, located in Hong Kong, became the world's first Punjabi restaurant to earn One Michelin Star in 2019.


title: Daggubati Purandeswari

text: Nandamuri Purandareswari (born 22 April 1959) is an Indian politician from the state of Andhra Pradesh. She represented the Visakhapatnam constituency of Andhra Pradesh as a Member of Parliament in the 15th Lok Sabha of India. She had previously represented the Bapatla constituency in the 14th Lok Sabha, during which period she served as the Minister of State in the Ministry of Human Resource Development. She joined the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) on 7 March 2014. In 2014, she fought the Lok Sabha election on a BJP ticket from Rajampet and lost. Purandareswari was appointed BJP Mahila Morcha Prabhari.


title: Daggubati Purandeswari

text: Purandeswari participated in debate on various bills such as 'Domestic Violence Bill, Hindu Succession Amendment Bill, and the bill on the establishment of special courts exclusively for trying cases of women to name a few' and made meaningful contributions. In appreciation of her performance in Parliament, the Asian Age adjudged her as the best Parliamentarian for 2004–05.


title: Daggubati Purandeswari

text: Born to N. T. Rama Rao and Basavatarakam, she did her schooling from Sacred Heart Matriculation Higher Secondary School, Church Park, Chennai. She has a Bachelor of Arts from the South Indian Educational Trust and Women College (Chennai) (renamed as the Bashir Ahmed Sayeed College for Women), followed by a short course in gemmology at the Gemmological Institute of India. Later she established Hyderabad Institute of Gem and Jewellery. She can read, write and speak five languages, English, Telugu, Tamil, Hindi and French. She is versatile in the Indian dance form Kuchipudi.


title: Fish scale

text: A fish scale is a small rigid plate that grows out of the skin of a fish. The skin of most jawed fishes is covered with these protective scales, which can also provide effective camouflage through the use of reflection and colouration, as well as possible hydrodynamic advantages. The term "scale" derives from the Old French , meaning a shell pod or husk.


title: Fish scale

text: Scales vary enormously in size, shape, structure, and extent, ranging from strong and rigid armour plates in fishes such as shrimpfishes and boxfishes, to microscopic or absent in fishes such as eels and anglerfishes. The morphology of a scale can be used to identify the species of fish it came from. Scales originated within the jawless ostracoderms, ancestors to all jawed fishes today.


title: Fish scale

text: Most bony fishes are covered with the cycloid scales of salmon and carp, or the ctenoid scales of perch, or the ganoid scales of sturgeons and gars. Cartilaginous fishes (sharks and rays) are covered with placoid scales. Some species are covered instead by scutes, and others have no outer covering on part or all of the skin.


title: Fish scale

text: Fish scales are part of the fish's integumentary system, and are produced from the mesoderm layer of the dermis, which distinguishes them from reptile scales. The same genes involved in tooth and hair development in mammals are also involved in scale development. The placoid scales of cartilaginous fishes are also called dermal denticles and are structurally homologous with vertebrate teeth. Most fish are also covered in a layer of mucus or slime which can protect against pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses, and reduce surface resistance when the fish swims.


title: Fish scale

text: The bony scales of thelodonts, the most abundant form of fossil fish, are well understood. The scales were formed and shed throughout the organisms' lifetimes, and quickly separated after their death.


title: Fish scale

text: Bone, a tissue that is both resistant to mechanical damage and relatively prone to fossilization, often preserves internal detail, which allows the histology and growth of the scales to be studied in detail. The scales comprise a non-growing "crown" composed of dentine, with a sometimes-ornamented enameloid upper surface and an aspidine base. Its growing base is made of cell-free bone, which sometimes developed anchorage structures to fix it in the side of the fish. Beyond that, there appear to be five types of bone-growth, which may represent five natural groupings within the thelodonts—or a spectrum ranging between the end members meta- (or ortho-) dentine and mesodentine tissues. Each of the five scale morphs appears to resemble the scales of more derived groupings of fish, suggesting that thelodont groups may have been stem groups to succeeding clades of fish.


title: Fish scale

text: However, using scale morphology alone to distinguish species has some pitfalls. Within each organism, scale shape varies hugely according to body area, with intermediate forms appearing between different areas—and to make matters worse, scale morphology may not even be constant within one area. To confuse things further, scale morphologies are not unique to taxa, and may be indistinguishable on the same area of two different species.


title: Fish scale

text: The morphology and histology of thelodonts provides the main tool for quantifying their diversity and distinguishing between species, although ultimately using such convergent traits is prone to errors. Nonetheless, a framework comprising three groups has been proposed based upon scale morphology and histology. Comparisons to modern shark species have shown that thelodont scales were functionally similar to those of modern cartilaginous fish, and likewise has allowed an extensive comparison between ecological niches.


title: Fish scale

text: Cosmoid scales are found only on ancient lobe-finned fishes, including some of the earliest lungfishes (subclass Dipnoi), and in Crossopterygii, including the living coelacanth in a modified form (see elasmoid scales, below). They were probably derived from a fusion of placoid-ganoid scales. The inner part of the scales is made of dense lamellar bone called isopedine. On top of this lies a layer of spongy or vascular bone supplied with blood vessels, followed by a complex dentine-like layer called cosmine with a superficial outer coating of vitrodentine. The upper surface is keratin. Cosmoid scales increase in size through the growth of the lamellar bone layer.


title: Fish scale

text: Elasmoid scales are thin, imbricated scales composed of a layer of dense, lamellar collagen bone called isopedine, above which is a layer of tubercles usually composed of bone, as in "Eusthenopteron". The layer of dentine that was present in the first lobe-finned fish is usually reduced, as in the extant coelacanth, or entirely absent, as in extant lungfish and in the Devonian "Eusthenopteron". Elasmoid scales have appeared several times over the course of fish evolution. They are present in some lobe-finned fishes, such as all extant and some extinct lungfishes, as well as the coelacanths which have modified cosmoid scales that lack cosmine and are thinner than true cosmoid scales. They are also present in some tetrapodomorphs like "Eusthenopteron", amiids, and teleosts, whose cycloid and ctenoid scales represent the least mineralized elasmoid scales.


title: Fish scale

text: The zebrafish elasmoid scales are used in the lab to study bone mineralization process, and can be cultured (kept) outside of the organism.


title: Fish scale

text: Ganoid scales are found in the sturgeons, paddlefishes, gars, bowfin, and bichirs. They are derived from cosmoid scales and often have serrated edges. They are covered with a layer of hard enamel-like dentine in the place of cosmine, and a layer of inorganic bone salt called "ganoine" in place of vitrodentine.


title: Fish scale

text: Ganoine is a characteristic component of ganoid scales. It is a glassy, often multi-layered mineralized tissue that covers the scales, as well as the cranial bones and fin rays in some non-teleost ray-finned fishes, such as gars, bichirs, and coelacanths. It is composed of rod-like apatite crystallites. Ganoine is an ancient feature of ray-finned fishes, being found for example on the scales of stem group actinopteryigian "Cheirolepis". While often considered a synapomorphic character of ray-finned fishes, ganoine or ganoine-like tissues are also found on the extinct acanthodii. It has been suggested ganoine is homologous to tooth enamel in vertebrates or even considered a type of enamel.


title: Fish scale

text: Most ganoid scales are rhomboidal (diamond-shaped) and connected by peg-and-socket joints. They are usually thick and fit together more like a jigsaw rather than overlapping like other scales. In this way, ganoid scales are nearly impenetrable and are excellent protection against predation.


title: Fish scale

text: In sturgeons, the scales are greatly enlarged into armour plates along the sides and back, while in the bowfin the scales are greatly reduced in thickness to resemble cycloid scales.


title: Fish scale

text: Native Americans and people of the Caribbean used the tough ganoid scales of the alligator gar for arrow heads, breastplates, and as shielding to cover plows. In current times jewellery is made from these scales.


title: Fish scale

text: Leptoid (bony-ridge) scales are found on higher-order bony fish, the teleosts (the more derived clade of ray-finned fishes). The outer part of these scales fan out with bony ridges while the inner part is criss-crossed with fibrous connective tissue. Leptoid scales are thinner and more translucent than other types of scales, and lack the hardened enamel-like or dentine layers. Unlike ganoid scales, further scales are added in concentric layers as the fish grows.


title: Fish scale

text: Leptoid scales overlap in a head-to-tail configuration, like roof tiles, making them more flexible than cosmoid and ganoid scales. This arrangement allows a smoother flow of water over the body, and reduces drag. The scales of some species exhibit bands of uneven seasonal growth called "annuli" (singular "annulus"). These bands can be used to age the fish.


title: Fish scale

text: Cycloid (circular) scales have a smooth texture and are uniform, with a smooth outer edge or margin. They are most common on fish with soft fin rays, such as salmon and carp.


title: Fish scale

text: Ctenoid (toothed) scales are like cycloid scales, except they have small teeth or spinules called ctenii along their outer or posterior edges. Because of these teeth, the scales have a rough texture. They are usually found on fishes with spiny fin rays, such as the perch-like fishes. These scales contain almost no bone, being composed of a surface layer containing hydroxyapatite and calcium carbonate and a deeper layer composed mostly of collagen. The enamel of the other scale types is reduced to superficial ridges and ctenii.


title: Fish scale

text: Ctenoid scales, similar to other epidermal structures, originate from placodes and distinctive cellular differentiation makes them exclusive from other structures that arise from the integument. Development starts near the caudal fin, along the lateral line of the fish. The development process begins with an accumulation of fibroblasts between the epidermis and dermis. Collagen fibrils begin to organize themselves in the dermal layer, which leads to the initiation of mineralization. The circumference of the scales grows first, followed by thickness when overlapping layers mineralize together.


title: Fish scale

text: Most ray-finned fishes have ctenoid scales. Some species of flatfishes have ctenoid scales on the eyed side and cycloid scales on the blind side, while other species have ctenoid scales in males and cycloid scales in females.


title: Fish scale

text: Many teleost fish are covered with highly reflective scales which function as small mirrors and give the appearance of silvered glass. Reflection through silvering is widespread or dominant in fish of the open sea, especially those that live in the top 100 metres. A transparency effect can be achieved by silvering to make an animal's body highly reflective. At medium depths at sea, light comes from above, so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side.


title: Fish scale

text: The marine hatchetfish is extremely flattened laterally (side to side), leaving the body just millimetres thick, and the body is so silvery as to resemble aluminium foil. The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide structural coloration: stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of guanine spaced about ¼ of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection. In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in, only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected, so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage.


title: Fish scale

text: Most fish in the upper ocean are camouflaged by silvering. In fish such as the herring, which lives in shallower water, the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths, and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings. A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross-section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin, as they would fail to reflect horizontally. The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors, all oriented vertically.


title: Fish scale

text: Fish scales with these properties are used in some cosmetics, since they can give a shimmering effect to makeup and lipstick.


title: Fish scale

text: Placoid (pointed, tooth-shaped) scales are found in the cartilaginous fishes: sharks, rays. They are also called dermal denticles. Placoid scales are structurally homologous with vertebrate teeth ("denticle" translates to "small tooth"), having a central pulp cavity supplied with blood vessels, surrounded by a conical layer of dentine, all of which sits on top of a rectangular basal plate that rests on the dermis. The outermost layer is composed of vitrodentine, a largely inorganic enamel-like substance. Placoid scales cannot grow in size, but rather more scales are added as the fish increases in size.


title: Fish scale

text: Similar scales can also be found under the head of the denticle herring. The amount of scale coverage is much less in rays.


title: Fish scale

text: Rhomboidal scales with the properties of both placoid and ganoid scales are suspected to exist in modern jawed fish ancestors: jawless ostracoderms and then jawed placoderms.


title: Fish scale

text: Shark skin is almost entirely covered by small placoid scales. The scales are supported by spines, which feel rough when stroked in a backward direction, but when flattened by the forward movement of water, create tiny vortices that reduce hydrodynamic drag and reduce turbulence, making swimming both more efficient and quieter compared to that of bony fishes. It also serves a role in anti-fouling by exhibiting the lotus effect.


title: Fish scale

text: All denticles are composed of an interior pulp cavity with a nervous and arterial supply rooted in the dermis to supply the denticle with mucus. Denticles contain riblet structures that protrude from the surface of the scale; under a microscope this riblet can look like a hook or ridges coming out of the scale. The overall shape of the protrusion from the denticle is dependent on the type of shark and can be generally described with two appearances. The first is a scale in which ridges are placed laterally down the shark and parallel with the flow of the water. The second form is a smooth scale with what looks like a hooked riblet curling out of the surface aiming towards the posterior side of the shark. Both riblet shapes assist in creating a turbulent boundary layer forcing the laminar flow farther away from the sharks skin.


title: Fish scale

text: Unlike bony fish, sharks have a complicated dermal corset made of flexible collagenous fibers arranged as a helical network surrounding their body. The corset works as an outer skeleton, providing attachment for their swimming muscles and thus saving energy. Depending on the position of these placoid scales on the body, they can be flexible and can be passively erected, allowing them to change their angle of attack. These scales also have riblets which are aligned in the direction of flow, these riblets reduce the drag force acting on the shark skin by pushing the vortex further away from the skin surface, inhibiting any high-velocity cross-stream flow.


title: Fish scale

text: The general anatomy of the scales varies, but all of them can be divided into three parts: the crown, the neck and the base. The scale pliability is related to the size of the base of the scale. The scales with higher flexibility have a smaller base, and thus are less rigidly attached to the "stratum laxum." On the crown of the fast-swimming sharks there are a series of parallel riblets or ridges which run from an anterior to posterior direction.


title: Fish scale

text: Analyzing the three components of the scale it can be concluded that the base of the denticle does not come into contact with any portion of the fluid flow. The crown and the neck of the denticles however play a key role and are responsible for creating the turbulent vortices and eddies found near the skin's surface. Because denticles come in so many different shapes and sizes, it can be expected that not all shapes will produce the same type of turbulent flow. During a recent research experiment biomimetic samples of shark denticles with a crescent like microstructure and tested in a water tank using a traction table as a slide. The experiment showed that the surface with denticles experienced a 10% drag reduction overall versus the smooth sample. The reason for this drag reduction was that the turbulent vortices became trapped between the denticles, creating a ‘cushion like’ barrier against the laminar flow. This same type of experiment was performed by another research group which implemented more variation in their biomimetic sample. The second group arrived at the same conclusion as the first, however, because their experiment contained more variation within the samples they were able to achieve a high degree of experimental accuracy. In conclusion they stated that more practical shapes were more durable than ones with intricate ridge-lines. The practical shapes were low profile and contained trapezoidal or semi-circular trough-like cross sections, and were less effective but nonetheless reduced drag by 6 or 7%.


title: Fish scale

text: Sharks decrease drag and overall cost of transport (COT) through multiple different avenues. Pressure drag is created from the pressure difference between the anterior and posterior side of the shark due to the amount of volume that is pushed past the shark to propel itself forward. This type of drag is also directly proportional to the laminar flow. When the laminar flow increases around the fish the pressure drag does as well. Frictional drag is a result of the interaction between the fluid against the shark's skin and can vary depending on how the boundary layer changes against the surface of the fish.


title: Fish scale

text: The riblets impede the cross-stream translation of the streamwise vortices in the viscous sublayer. The mechanism is complex and not yet understood fully. Basically, the riblets inhibit the vortex formation near the surface because the vortex cannot fit in the valleys formed by the riblets. This pushes the vortex further up from the surface, interacting only with the riblet tips, not causing any high-velocity flow in the valleys. Since this high velocity flow now only interacts with the riblet-tip, which is a very small surface area, the momentum transfer which causes drag is now much lower than before, thereby effectively reducing drag. Also, this reduces the cross-stream velocity fluctuations, which aids in momentum transfer too.


title: Fish scale

text: Recent research has shown that there is a pre and post breakdown regime in the near-wall boundary layer where the sublayer thickens at a declining rate and then abruptly undergoes a breakdown into turbulent vortices before finally collapsing. This system is completely self regulating and mediates the growth and decay cycle; the vortices accumulate during the growth period and abruptly liquidated in into Strouhal arrays of hairpin vortices lifting off the wall. Lifting vortices are what push the boundary layer out and away from the surface of the shark which results in reducing the overall drag experienced by the fish.


title: Fish scale

text: The rough, sandpaper-like texture of shark and ray skin, coupled with its toughness, has led it to be valued as a source of rawhide leather, called shagreen. One of the many historical applications of shark shagreen was in making hand-grips for swords. The rough texture of the skin is also used in Japanese cuisine to make graters called "oroshiki", by attaching pieces of shark skin to wooden boards. The small size of the scales grates the food very finely.


title: Fish scale

text: In the marine industry, there is an extremely large market and need for anti-fouling surfaces. In laymen's terms, fouling is known as the process by which something becomes encrusted with material from the surrounding environment such as barnacles, algae, and green sludge. Dermal denticles are an extremely promising area of research for this type of application due to the fact that sharks are among the only fish without build up or growth on their scales. Studies by the U.S. Navy have shown that if a biomimetic material can be engineered, it could potentially lead to fuel cost savings for military vessels of up to 45%.


title: Fish scale

text: There are many examples of biomimetic materials and surfaces based on the structure of aquatic organisms, including sharks. Such applications intend to enable more efficient movement through fluid mediums such as air, water, and oil.


title: Fish scale

text: Surfaces that mimic the skin of sharks have also been used in order to keep microorganisms and algae from coating the hulls of submarines and ships. One variety is traded as "sharklet".


title: Fish scale

text: A lot of the new methods for replicating shark skin involve the use of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) for creating a mold. Usually the process involves taking a flat piece of shark skin, covering it with the PDMS to form a mold and pouring PDMS into that mold again to get a shark skin replica. This method has been used to create a biomimetic surface which has superhydrophobic properties, exhibiting the lotus effect. One study found that these biomimetic surfaces reduced drag by up to 9%, while with flapping motion drag reduction reached 12.3%.


title: Fish scale

text: Along with marine applications, the aerospace industry can also benefit from these biomimetic designs. Parametric modeling has been done on shark denticles with a wide range of design variations such as low and high-profile vortex generators. These biomimetic models were designed and analyzed to see the effects of applying the denticle-like structures to the wings of various airplanes. During the simulation, it was noted that the sample altered how the low and high angles of attack reacted. Out of both the low and high-profile samples tested, the low profile vortex generators outperformed the current smooth wing structures by 323%. This increase in performance is due to a separation bubble in the denticles wake and stream-wise vortices that replenish momentum lost in the boundary layer due to skin friction.


title: Fish scale

text: Scutes are similar to scales and serve the same function. Unlike the scales of fish, which are formed from the epidermis, scutes are formed in the lower vascular layer of the skin and the epidermal element is only the top surface. Forming in the living dermis, the scutes produce a horny outer layer, that is superficially similar to that of scales.


title: Fish scale

text: Some fish, such as pineconefish, are completely or partially covered in scutes. River herrings and threadfins have an abdominal row of scutes, which are scales with raised, sharp points that are used for protection. Some jacks have a row of scutes following the lateral line on either side.


title: Fish scale

text: Scales typically appear late in the development of fish. In the case of zebrafish, it takes 30 days after fertilization before the different layers needed to start forming the scales have differentiated and become organized. For this it is necessary that consolidation of the mesenchyme occurs, then morphogenesis is induced, and finally the process of differentiation or late metamorphosis occurs.


title: Fish scale

text: Unlike elasmoid scales, ganoid scales are composed of mineralized and non-mineralized collagen in different regions. The formation of these occurs through the entry of the surface cells of the mesenchyme into the matrix, the latter is composed of collagen fibers and is located around the vascular capillaries, thus giving rise to vascular cavities. At this point, elasmoblasts are replaced by osteoblasts, thus forming bone. The patches of the matrix of the scale that are not ossified are composed of compacted collagen that allow it to maintain the union with the mesenchyme. This are known as Sharpey fibers.


title: Fish scale

text: One of the genes that regulate the development of scale formation in fish is the sonic hedgehog (shh) gene, which by means of the (shh) protein, involved in organogenesis and in the process of cellular communication, enable the formation of the scales. The apolipoprotein E (ApoE), that allows the transport and metabolism of triglycerides and cholesterol, has an interaction with shh, because ApoE provides cholesterol to the shh signaling pathway. It has been shown that during the process of cell differentiation and interaction, the level of ApoE transcription is high, which has led to the conclusion that this protein is important for the late development of scales.


title: Fish scale

text: Fish without scales usually evolve alternatives to the protection scales can provide, such as tough leathery skin or bony plates.


title: Fish scale

text: Many groups of bony fishes, including pipefish, seahorses, boxfish, poachers, and several families of sticklebacks, have developed external bony plates, structurally resembling placoid scales, as protective armour against predators.


title: Fish scale

text: Filefish have rough non-overlapping scales with small spikes, which is why they are called filefish. Some filefish appear scaleless because their scales are so small.


title: Fish scale

text: Prominent scaling appears on tuna only along the lateral line and in the corselet, a protective band of thickened and enlarged scales in the shoulder region. Over most of their body tuna have scales so small that to casual inspection they seems scaleless.


title: Fish scale

text: A passage in Leviticus declares that, "of all that are in the waters... in the seas, and in the rivers" those that do not have both fins and scales "shall be an abomination unto you" and may not be eaten. This eliminates all aquatic invertebrates as abominations and unclean, as well as any fish that lack scales (there do not seem to be fish that lack fins).


title: Fish scale

text: According to the "chok" or divine decrees of the Torah and the Talmud, for a fish to be declared kosher, it must have scales and fins. The definition of "scale" differs from the definitions presented in biology, in that the scales of a kosher fish must be visible to the eye, and can be easily removed from the skin either by hand or scaling knife. According to the kosher certification agency of the Orthodox Union, a fish is kosher if the scales can be removed without tearing its skin. Thus carp and salmon are kosher, whereas a shark, whose scales are microscopic, a sturgeon, whose scutes can not be easily removed without cutting them out of the body, are all not kosher. Other non-kosher fish include catfish, eels, freshwater cod, snake mackerels, and puffer fish.


title: Fish scale

text: Lepidophagy (Ancient Greek for "scale-eating") is a specialised feeding behaviour in fish that involves eating the scales of other fish. Lepidophagy has independently evolved in at least five freshwater families and seven marine families.


title: Fish scale

text: Fish scales can be nutritious, containing a dermal portion and a layer of protein-rich mucus apart from the layers of keratin and enamel. They are a rich source of calcium phosphate. However, the energy expended to make a strike versus the amount of scales consumed per strike puts a limit on the size of lepidophagous fish, and they are usually much smaller than their prey. Scale eating behaviour usually evolves because of lack of food and extreme environmental conditions. The eating of scales and the skin surrounding the scales provides protein rich nutrients that may not be available elsewhere in the niche.


title: Fish scale

text: Fish jaws normally show bilateral symmetry. An exception occurs with the scale-eating cichlid "Perissodus microlepis". The jaws of this fish occur in two distinct morphological forms. One morph has its jaw twisted to the left, allowing it to eat scales more readily on its victim's right flank. The other morph has its jaw twisted to the right, which makes it easier to eat scales on its victim's left flank. The relative abundance of the two morphs in populations is regulated by frequency-dependent selection.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), also known as Müllerian-inhibiting hormone (MIH), is a glycoprotein hormone structurally related to inhibin and activin from the transforming growth factor beta superfamily, whose key roles are in growth differentiation and folliculogenesis. In humans, it is encoded by the gene, on chromosome 19p13.3, while its receptor is encoded by the gene on chromosome 12.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: AMH is activated by SOX9 in the Sertoli cells of the male fetus. Its expression inhibits the development of the female reproductive tract, or Müllerian ducts (paramesonephric ducts), in the male embryo, thereby arresting the development of fallopian tubes, uterus, and upper vagina. "AMH" expression is critical to sex differentiation at a specific time during fetal development, and appears to be tightly regulated by nuclear receptor SF-1, transcription GATA factors, sex-reversal gene DAX1, and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Mutations in both the "AMH" gene and the type II AMH receptor have been shown to cause the persistence of Müllerian derivatives in males that are otherwise normally masculinized.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: AMH is also a product of granulosa cells of the preantral and small antral follicles in women. As such, AMH is only present in the ovary until menopause. Production of AMH regulates folliculogenesis by inhibiting recruitment of follicles from the resting pool in order to select for the dominant follicle, after which the production of AMH diminishes. As a product of the granulosa cells, which envelop each egg and provide them energy, AMH can also serve as a molecular biomarker for relative size of the ovarian reserve. In humans, this is helpful because the number of cells in the follicular reserve can be used to predict timing of menopause. In bovine, AMH can be used for selection of females in multi-ovulatory embryo transfer programs by predicting the number of antral follicles developed to ovulation. AMH can also be used as a marker for ovarian dysfunction, such as in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: AMH is a dimeric glycoprotein with a molar mass of 140 kDa. The molecule consists of two identical subunits linked by sulfide bridges, and characterized by the N-terminal dimer (pro-region) and C-terminal dimer. AMH binds to its Type 2 receptor AMHR2, which phosphorylates a type I receptor under the TGF beta signaling pathway.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: In male mammals, AMH prevents the development of the Müllerian ducts into the uterus and other Müllerian structures. The effect is ipsilateral, that is each testis suppresses Müllerian development only on its own side. In humans, this action takes place during the first eight weeks of gestation. If no hormone is produced from the gonads, the Müllerian ducts automatically develop, while the Wolffian ducts, which are responsible for male reproductive parts, automatically die. Amounts of AMH that are measurable in the blood vary by age and sex. AMH works by interacting with specific receptors on the surfaces of the cells of target tissues (anti-Müllerian hormone receptors). The best-known and most specific effect, mediated through the AMH type II receptors, includes programmed cell death (apoptosis) of the target tissue (the fetal Müllerian ducts).


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: AMH is expressed by granulosa cells of the ovary during the reproductive years, and limits the formation of primary follicles by inhibiting excessive follicular recruitment by FSH. AMH expression is greatest in the recruitment stage of folliculogenesis, in the preantral and small antral follicles. This expression diminishes as follicles develop and enter selection stage, upon which FSH expression increases. Some authorities suggest it is a measure of certain aspects of ovarian function, useful in assessing conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome and premature ovarian failure.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: AMH production by the Sertoli cells of the testes remains high throughout childhood in males but declines to low levels during puberty and adult life. AMH has been shown to regulate production of sex hormones, and changing AMH levels (rising in females, falling in males) may be involved in the onset of puberty in both sexes. Functional AMH receptors have also been found to be expressed in neurons in the brains of embryonic mice, and are thought to play a role in sexually dimorphic brain development and consequent development of gender-specific behaviours. In a clade of "Sebastes" rockfishes in the Northwest Pacific Ocean, a duplicated copy of the "AMH" gene (called "AMHY") is the master sex-determining gene. "In vitro" experiments demonstrate that the overexpression of "AMHY" causes female-to-male sex reversal in at least one species, "S. schlegelii".


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: In men, inadequate embryonal AMH activity can lead to the "persistent Müllerian duct syndrome" (PMDS), in which a rudimentary uterus is present and testes are usually undescended. The AMH gene ("AMH") or the gene for its receptor ("AMH-RII") are usually abnormal. AMH measurements have also become widely used in the evaluation of testicular presence and function in infants with intersex conditions, ambiguous genitalia, and cryptorchidism.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: A study published in Nature Medicine found a link between hormonal imbalance in the womb and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), specifically prenatal exposure to anti-Müllerian hormone. For the study, the researchers injected pregnant mice with AMH so that they had a higher than normal concentration of the hormone. Indeed, they gave birth to daughters who later developed PCOS-like tendencies. These included problems with fertility, delayed puberty, and erratic ovulation. To reverse it, the researchers dosed the polycystic mice with an IVF drug called cetrorelix, which made the symptoms to go away. These experiments should be confirmed in humans, but it could be the first step in understanding the relationship between the polycystic ovary and the anti-Müllerian hormone.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: In healthy females AMH is either just detectable or undetectable in cord blood at birth and demonstrates a marked rise by three months of age; while still detectable it falls until four years of age before rising linearly until eight years of age remaining fairly constant from mid-childhood to early adulthood – it does not change significantly during puberty. The rise during childhood and adolescence is likely reflective of different stages of follicle development. From 25 years of age AMH declines to undetectable levels at menopause.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: The standard measurement of AMH follows the "Generation II assay". This should give the same values as the previously used IBC assay, but AMH values from the previously used DSL assay should be multiplied with 1.39 to conform to current standards because it used different antibodies.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Weak evidence suggests that AMH should be measured only in the early follicular phase because of variation over the menstrual cycle. Also, AMH levels decrease under current use of oral contraceptives and current tobacco smoking.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Reference ranges for anti-Müllerian hormone, as estimated from reference groups in the United States, are as follows:


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: AMH measurements may be less accurate if the person being measured is vitamin D deficient. Note that males are born with higher AMH levels than females in order to initiate sexual differentiation, and in women, AMH levels decrease over time as fertility decreases as well.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Comparison of an individual's AMH level with respect to average levels is useful in fertility assessment, as it provides a guide to ovarian reserve and identifies women that may need to consider either egg freezing or trying for a pregnancy sooner rather than later if their long-term future fertility is poor. A higher level of anti-Müllerian hormone when tested in women in the general population has been found to have a positive correlation with natural fertility in women aged 30–44 aiming to conceive spontaneously, even after adjusting for age. However, this correlation was not found in a comparable study of younger women (aged 20 to 30 years).


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: AMH is a predictor for ovarian response in "in vitro" fertilization (IVF). Measurement of AMH supports clinical decisions, but alone it is not a suitable predictor of IVF success. Additionally, AMH levels are used to estimate a woman's remaining egg supply.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: According to NICE guidelines of "in vitro" fertilization, an anti-Müllerian hormone level of less than or equal to 5.4 pmol/L (0.8 ng/mL) predicts a low response to gonadotrophin stimulation in IVF, while a level greater than or equal to 25.0 pmol/L (3.6 ng/mL) predicts a high response. Other cut-off values found in the literature vary between 0.7 and 20 pmol/L (0.1 and 2.97 ng/mL) for low response to ovarian hyperstimulation. Subsequently, higher AMH levels are associated with greater chance of live birth after IVF, even after adjusting for age. AMH can thereby be used to rationalise the programme of ovulation induction and decisions about the number of embryos to transfer in assisted reproduction techniques to maximise pregnancy success rates whilst minimising the risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS). AMH can predict an excessive response in ovarian hyperstimulation with a sensitivity and specificity of 82% and 76%, respectively.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Measuring AMH alone may be misleading as high levels occur in conditions like polycystic ovarian syndrome and therefore AMH levels should be considered in conjunction with a transvaginal scan of the ovaries to assess antral follicle count and ovarian volume.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Studies into treatments to improve low ovarian reserve and low AMH levels have met with some success. Current best available evidence suggests that DHEA improves ovarian function, increases pregnancy chances and, by reducing aneuploidy, lowers miscarriage rates. The studies into DHEA for low AMH show that a dose of 75 mg for a period of 16 weeks should be taken. Improvement of oocyte/embryo quality with DHEA supplementation potentially suggests a new concept of ovarian aging, where ovarian environments, but not oocytes themselves, age. DHEA has positive outcomes for women with AMH levels over 0.8 ng/mL or 5.7 pmol/L DHEA has no apparent effect on oocytes or ovarian environments under this range.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Studies on CoQ10 supplementation in an aged animal model delayed depletion of ovarian reserve, restored oocyte mitochondrial gene expression, and improved mitochondrial activity. Authors note that to replicate the 12–16 weeks of using CoQ10 supplements on mice to achieve these results would be the equivalent to a decade in humans.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Vitamin D is believed to play a role in AMH regulation. The AMH gene promoter contains a vitamin D response element that may cause vitamin D status to influence serum AMH levels. Women with levels of Vitamin D of 267.8 ± 66.4 nmol/L show a 4 times better success rate with IVF procedure than those with low levels of 104.3 ± 21 nmol/L. Vitamin D deficiency should be considered when serum AMH levels are obtained for diagnosis.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: In women with cancer, radiation therapy and chemotherapy can damage the ovarian reserve. In such cases, a pre-treatment AMH is useful in predicting the long-term post-chemotherapy loss of ovarian function, which may indicate fertility preservation strategies such as oocyte cryopreservation. A post-treatment AMH is associated with decreased fertility.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Granulosa cell tumors of the ovary secrete AMH, and AMH testing has a sensitivity ranging between 76 and 93% in diagnosing such tumors. AMH is also useful in diagnosing recurrence of granulosa cell tumors.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: In veterinary medicine, AMH measurements are used to determine neutering status in male and female dogs and cats. AMH levels can also be used to diagnose cases of ovarian remnant syndrome.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is an endocrine disorder most commonly found in women of reproductive age that is characterized by oligo- or anovulation, hyperandrogenism, and polycystic ovaries (PCO). This endocrine disorder increases AMH levels at nearly two to three times higher in women with PCOS than in normal type women. This is often attributed to the increased follicle count number characteristic of PCOS, indicating an increase in granulosa cells since they surround each individual egg. However, increased AMH levels have also been attributed not just to the increased number of follicles, but also to an increased amount of AMH produced per follicle. The high levels of androgens, characteristic of PCOS, also stimulate and provide feedback for increased production of AMH, as well. In this way, AMH has been increasingly considered to be a tool or biomarker that can be used to diagnose or indicate PCOS.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: Turner syndrome is the most common sex chromosome-related inherited diseases in female around the world, with the incidence of 1 in 2000 live female births. One of the significant pathological features is the premature ovarian failure, leading to amenorrhea or even infertility. Follicle stimulating hormone and inhibin B were recommended to be monitored routinely by specialists to speculate the condition of ovary. Recently, anti-Müllerian hormone is advised as a more accurate biomarker for follicular development by several researchers. The biological function of anti-Müllerian hormone in ovary is to counteract the recruitment of primordial follicles triggered by FSH, reserving the follicle pool for further recruitment and ovulation. When menopause takes place, the serum concentration of anti-Müllerian hormone will be nearly undetectable amongst normal women. Thus, variations in AMH levels during childhood may theoretically predict the duration of any given girl's reproductive life span, assuming that the speed of the continuous follicle loss is comparable between individuals.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: AMH has been synthesized. Its ability to inhibit growth of tissue derived from the Müllerian ducts has raised hopes of usefulness in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions including endometriosis, adenomyosis, and uterine cancer. Research is underway in several laboratories.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: If there were more standardized AMH assays, it could potentially be used as a biomarker of polycystic ovary syndrome.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: In mice, an increase in AMH has been shown to reduce the number of growing follicles and thus the overall size of the ovaries. This increase in AMH production reduces primary, secondary and antral follicles without reducing the number of primordial follicles suggesting a blockade of primordial follicle activation. This may provide a viable method of contraception which protects the ovarian reserve of oocytes during chemotherapy without extracting them from the body allowing the potential for natural reproduction later in life.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: The adjective "Müllerian" is written either "Müllerian" or "müllerian", depending on the governing style guide; the derived term with the prefix of "anti-" is then "anti-Müllerian", "anti-müllerian", or "antimüllerian". The Müllerian ducts are named after Johannes Peter Müller.


title: Anti-Müllerian hormone

text: A list of the names that have been used for the antimüllerian hormone is as follows. For the sake of simplicity, this list ignores some orthographic variations; for example, it gives only one row for "Müllerian-inhibiting hormone", although there are 4 acceptable stylings thereof (cap M or lowercase m, hyphen or space).


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: The dogs of war is a phrase spoken by Mark Antony in Act 3, Scene 1, line 273 of English playwright William Shakespeare's "Julius Caesar": "Cry 'Havoc!', and let slip the dogs of war."


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: In the scene, Mark Antony is alone with Julius Caesar's body, shortly after Caesar's assassination. In a soliloquy, he reveals his intention to incite the crowd at Caesar's funeral to rise up against the assassins. Foreseeing violence throughout Rome, Antony even imagines Caesar's spirit joining in the exhortations: "raging for revenge, with Ate by his side come hot from hell, shall in these confines with a Monarch's voice cry 'Havoc!' and let slip the dogs of war."


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: In a literal reading, "dogs" are the familiar animals, trained for warfare; "havoc" is a military order permitting the seizure of spoil after a victory and "let slip" is to release from the leash. Shakespeare's source for "Julius Caesar" was "The Life of Marcus Brutus" from Plutarch's "Lives", and the concept of the war dog appears in that work, in the section devoted to the Greek warrior Aratus.


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: Apart from the literal meaning, a parallel can be drawn with the prologue to "Henry V", where the warlike king is described as having at his heels, awaiting employment, the hounds "famine, sword and fire".


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: Along those lines, an alternative proposed meaning is that "the dogs of war" refers figuratively to the wild pack of soldiers "let slip" by war's breakdown of civilized behavior and/or their commanders' orders to wreak "havoc", i.e., rape, pillage, and plunder.


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: Based on the original meaning of "dog" in its mechanical sense ("any of various usually simple mechanical devices for holding, gripping, or fastening that consist of a spike, bar, or hook"), the "dogs" are "let slip" as an act of releasing. Thus, the "dogs of war" are the political and societal restraints against war that operate during times of peace.


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: Many books, films, video games, songs, and television episodes are titled using variations of the phrase “Dogs of War.”


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: The phrase was used by Christopher Plummer's character General Chang in the film "", in a scene which featured Chang's Klingon Bird of Prey attacking the USS "Enterprise".


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: Jeremy Clarkson used the phrase during a "Top Gear" special, before attempting a speed run at the Bonneville Salt Flats in a Chevrolet Corvette C6 ZR1, adding "They probably think that's a Bon Jovi lyric here."


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: Sterling Archer misquotes the phrase before embarking on a rampage to find the chemotherapy drugs for his aforementioned breast cancer.


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: Kevin Spacey on his role as Frank Underwood in the Series "House of Cards" used the phrase as he began a political attack to undermine the power of the President of the United States and move forward on his silent plan to take control of the White House and the executive power.


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: In 2017, it was used on a tifo at the King Power Stadium during the Champions League last 16 match featuring Leicester City and Sevilla FC. The tifo displayed a person holding onto dogs via a chain, with the phrase "Let Slip the Dogs of War" underneath.


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: The term “Dogs of War” is used in the boardgame Warhammer as a colloquial for various mercenary groups selling their swords for loot, plunder, and adventure.


title: The dogs of war (phrase)

text: The title of the 2000 PlayStation 1 game, Hogs of War (a turn based 3D tactics game with similarities to Worms, but with pigs of many national stereotypes) was a direct reference.


title: Great Offices of State

text: The Great Offices of State are senior offices in the UK government. They are the Prime Minister, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Foreign Secretary and Home Secretary or, alternatively, three of those offices excluding the Prime Minister.


title: Great Offices of State

text: The Great Offices of State are derived from the most senior positions in the Royal Household – the Great Officers of State. These eventually became hereditary and honorary titles, while the substantive duties of the Officers passed to individuals who were appointed on behalf of the Crown. James Callaghan is the first and, to date, only person to have served in all four positions.


title: Great Offices of State

text: The Truss ministry, formed on 6 September 2022, had no white men holding positions in the Great Offices of State, for the first time in British political history. This remained the case for just 38 days until the appointment of Jeremy Hunt as Chancellor of the Exchequer on 14 October 2022, replacing Kwasi Kwarteng who had been the first black Chancellor. Five days later on 19 October 2022, Grant Shapps was appointed Home Secretary, replacing Suella Braverman, although Braverman was then reappointed by incoming Prime Minister Rishi Sunak just six days later.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) is a multilateral treaty to ban nuclear weapons test explosions and any other nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military purposes, in all environments. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996, but has not entered into force, as eight specific nations have not ratified the treaty.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: The movement for international control of nuclear weapons began in 1945, with a call from Canada and the United Kingdom for a conference on the subject. In June 1946, Bernard Baruch, an emissary of President Harry S. Truman, proposed the Baruch Plan before the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission, which called for an international system of controls on the production of atomic energy. The plan, which would serve as the basis for U.S. nuclear policy into the 1950s, was rejected by the Soviet Union as a US ploy to cement its nuclear dominance.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: Between the Trinity nuclear test of 16 July 1945 and the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) on 5 August 1963, 499 nuclear tests were conducted. Much of the impetus for the PTBT, the precursor to the CTBT, was rising public concern surrounding the size and resulting nuclear fallout from underwater and atmospheric nuclear tests, particularly tests of powerful thermonuclear weapons (hydrogen bombs). The Castle Bravo test of 1 March 1954, in particular, attracted significant attention as the detonation resulted in fallout that spread over inhabited areas and sickened a group of Japanese fishermen. Between 1945 and 1963, the US conducted 215 atmospheric tests, the Soviet Union conducted 219, the UK conducted 21, and France conducted three.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: In 1954, following the Castle Bravo test, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India issued the first appeal for a "standstill agreement" on testing, which was soon echoed by the British Labour Party. Negotiations on a comprehensive test ban, primarily involved the US, UK, and the Soviet Union, began in 1955 following a proposal by Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. Of primary concern throughout the negotiations, which would stretch with some interruptions to July 1963, was the system of verifying compliance with the test ban and detecting illicit tests. On the Western side, there were concerns that the Soviet Union would be able to circumvent any test ban and secretly leap ahead in the nuclear arms race. These fears were amplified following the US "Rainier" shot of 19 September 1957, which was the first contained underground test of a nuclear weapon. Though the US held a significant advantage in underground testing capabilities, there was worry that the Soviet Union would be able to covertly conduct underground tests during a test ban, as underground detonations were more challenging to detect than above-ground tests. On the Soviet side, conversely, the on-site compliance inspections demanded by the US and UK were seen as amounting to espionage. Disagreement over verification would lead to the Anglo-American and Soviet negotiators abandoning a comprehensive test ban (i.e., a ban on all tests, including those underground) in favor of a partial ban, which would be finalized on 25 July 1963. The PTBT, joined by 123 states following the original three parties, banned detonations for military and civilian purposes underwater, in the atmosphere, and outer space.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: The PTBT had mixed results. On the one hand, enactment of the treaty was followed by a substantial drop in the atmospheric concentration of radioactive particles. On the other hand, nuclear proliferation was not halted entirely (though it may have been slowed) and nuclear testing continued at a rapid clip. Compared to the 499 tests from 1945 to the signing of the PTBT, 436 tests were conducted over the ten years following the PTBT. Furthermore, US and Soviet underground testing continued "venting" radioactive gas into the atmosphere. Additionally, though underground testing was generally safer than above-ground testing, underground tests continued to risk the leaking of radionuclides, including plutonium, into the ground. From 1964 through 1996, the year of the CTBT's adoption, an estimated 1,377 underground nuclear tests were conducted. The final non-underground (atmospheric or underwater) test was conducted by China in 1980.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: The PTBT has been seen as a step towards the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968, which directly referenced the PTBT. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon states were prohibited from possessing, manufacturing, and acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories, including nuclear weapon states, were committed to the goal of total nuclear disarmament. However, India, Pakistan, and Israel have declined to sign the NPT on the grounds that such a treaty is fundamentally discriminatory as it places limitations on states that do not have nuclear weapons while making no efforts to curb weapons development by declared nuclear weapons states.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: In 1974, a step towards a comprehensive test ban was made with the Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT), ratified by the US and Soviet Union, which banned underground tests with yields above 150 kilotons. In April 1976, the two states reached agreement on the Peaceful Nuclear Explosions Treaty (PNET), which concerns nuclear detonations outside the weapons sites discussed in the TTBT. As in the TTBT, the US and Soviet Union agreed to bar peaceful nuclear explosions (PNEs) at these other locations with yields above 150 kilotons, as well as group explosions with total yields over 1,500 kilotons. To verify compliance, the PNET requires that states rely on national technical means of verification, share information on explosions, and grant on-site access to counterparties. The TTBT and PNET entered into force on 11 December 1990.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: In October 1977, the US, UK, and Soviet Union returned to negotiations over a test ban. These three nuclear powers made notable progress in the late 1970s, agreeing to terms on a ban on all testing, including a temporary prohibition on PNEs, but continued disagreements over the compliance mechanisms led to an end to negotiations ahead of Ronald Reagan's inauguration as president in 1981. In 1985, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev announced a unilateral testing moratorium, and in December 1986, Reagan reaffirmed US commitment to pursue the long-term goal of a comprehensive test ban. In November 1987, negotiations on a test ban restarted, followed by a joint US-Soviet program to research underground-test detection in December 1987.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: Given the political situation prevailing in the subsequent decades, little progress was made in nuclear disarmament until the end of the Cold War in 1991. Parties to the PTBT held an amendment conference that year to discuss a proposal to convert the Treaty into an instrument banning all nuclear-weapon tests. With strong support from the UN General Assembly, negotiations for a comprehensive test-ban treaty began in 1993.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: Extensive efforts were made over the next three years to draft the Treaty text and its two annexes. However, the Conference on Disarmament, in which negotiations were being held, did not succeed in reaching consensus on the adoption of the text. Under the direction of Prime Minister John Howard and Foreign Minister Alexander Downer, Australia then sent the text to the United Nations General Assembly in New York, where it was submitted as a draft resolution. On 10 September 1996, the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) was adopted by a large majority, exceeding two-thirds of the General Assembly's Membership.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: The Treaty was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 September 1996. It opened for signature in New York on 24 September 1996, when it was signed by 71 states, including five of the eight then nuclear-capable states. , 176 states have ratified the CTBT and another 10 states have signed but not ratified it.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: The treaty will enter into force 180 days after the 44 states listed in Annex 2 of the treaty have ratified it. These "Annex 2 states" are states that participated in the CTBT's negotiations between 1994 and 1996 and possessed nuclear power reactors or research reactors at that time. , eight Annex 2 states have not ratified the treaty: China, Egypt, Iran, Israel and the United States have signed but not ratified the Treaty; India, North Korea and Pakistan have not signed it.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: Geophysical and other technologies are used to monitor for compliance with the Treaty: forensic seismology, hydroacoustics, infrasound, and radionuclide monitoring. The first three forms of monitoring are known as wave-form measurements. Seismic monitoring is performed with a system of 50 primary stations located throughout the world, with 120 auxiliary stations in signatory states. Hydroacoustic monitoring is performed with a system of 11 stations that consist of hydrophone triads to monitor for underwater explosions. Hydroacoustic stations can use seismometers to measure T-waves from possible underwater explosions instead of hydrophones. The best measurement of hydroacoustic waves has been found to be at a depth of 1000 m. Infrasound monitoring relies on changes in atmospheric pressure caused by a possible nuclear explosion, with 41 stations certified as of August 2019. One of the biggest concerns with infrasound measurements is noise due to exposure from wind, which can affect the sensor's ability to measure if an event occurred. Together, these technologies are used to monitor the ground, water, and atmosphere for any sign of a nuclear explosion.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: Radionuclide monitoring takes the form of either monitoring for radioactive particulates or noble gases as a product of a nuclear explosion. Radioactive particles emit radiation that can be measured by any of the 80 stations located throughout the world. They are created from nuclear explosions that can collect onto the dust that is moved from the explosion. If a nuclear explosion took place underground, noble gas monitoring can be used to verify whether or not a possible nuclear explosion took place. Noble gas monitoring relies on measuring increases in radioactive xenon gas. Different isotopes of xenon include Xe, Xe, Xe, and Xe. All four monitoring methods make up the International Monitoring System (IMS). Statistical theories and methods are integral to CTBT monitoring providing confidence in verification analysis. Once the Treaty enters into force, on-site inspections will be conducted where concerns about compliance arise.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO), an international organization headquartered in Vienna, Austria, was created to build the verification framework, including establishment and provisional operation of the network of monitoring stations, the creation of an international data centre (IDC), and development of the on-site Inspection capability. The CTBTO is responsible for collecting information from the IMS and distribute the analyzed and raw data to member states to judge whether or not a nuclear explosion occurred through the IDC. Parameters such as determining the location where a nuclear explosion or test took place is one of the things that the IDC can accomplish. If a member state chooses to assert that another state had violated the CTBT, they can request an on-site inspection to take place to verify.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: The monitoring network consists of 337 facilities located all over the globe. As of May 2012, more than 260 facilities have been certified. The monitoring stations register data that is transmitted to the international data centre in Vienna for processing and analysis. The data are sent to states that have signed the Treaty.


title: Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty

text: Three countries have tested nuclear weapons since the CTBT opened for signature in 1996. India and Pakistan both carried out two sets of tests in 1998. North Korea carried out six announced tests, one each in 2006, 2009, 2013, two in 2016 and one in 2017. All six North Korean tests were picked up by the International Monitoring System set up by the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission. A North Korean test is believed to have taken place in January 2016, evidenced by an "artificial earthquake" measured as a magnitude 5.1 by the U.S. Geological Survey. The first successful North Korean hydrogen bomb test supposedly took place in September 2017. It was estimated to have an explosive yield of 120 kilotons.


title: Post-metal

text: Post-metal is a music genre rooted in heavy metal but exploring approaches beyond metal conventions. It emerged in the 1990s with bands such as Neurosis and Godflesh, who transformed metal texture through experimental composition. In a way similar to the predecessor genres post-rock and post-hardcore, post-metal offsets the darkness and intensity of extreme metal with an emphasis on atmosphere, emotion, and even "revelation", developing an expansive but introspective sound variously imbued with elements of ambient, noise, psychedelic, progressive, and classical music. Songs are typically long, with loose and layered structures that discard the verse–chorus form in favor of crescendos and repeating themes. The sound centres on guitars (subjected to various effects) and drums, while any vocals are usually screamed or growled and resemble an additional instrument.


title: Post-metal

text: Post-metal is related to other experimental styles of metal: avant-garde metal, drone metal, progressive metal, and industrial metal. It has also been called metalgaze and art metal, highlighting its connection to shoegaze (an indie music style related to post-rock) and art music, respectively. Contemporary post-metal, pioneered by diverse groups such as Isis, Agalloch, Boris, Pelican, Jesu, and Wolves in the Throne Room, typically employs the deep heaviness of doom metal and sludge metal and/or the dark ferocity of black metal. The widespread acclaim of Deafheaven, who succeeded Alcest in combining black metal and shoegaze (a fusion nicknamed blackgaze), recently made this global post-metal underground scene more visible.


title: Post-metal

text: The groundwork for post-metal was laid in the 1980s and early 1990s by various artists (mostly in the US) combining heavy metal and punk rock sounds with an "avant-garde sensibility", such as the Melvins (particularly on 1991's "Bullhead"), The Flying Luttenbachers, Justin Broadrick of Napalm Death and Godflesh, Swans, Gore, Last Exit, Glenn Branca, Rollins Band, and Fugazi. Helmet's albums "Meantime" (1992) and "Betty" (1994) were also significant, while Tool's music was described as post-metal as early as 1993. Many of these artists emerged from hardcore punk and post-punk circles but their combination of sonic violence with experimentation and eclecticism made them difficult to categorize under any one genre.


title: Post-metal

text: The term post-rock was coined in 1994 and soon used to describe a diverse group of bands that shared "a penchant for drifting melodies and the desire to expand beyond established rock boundaries". As this movement swelled, bands from post-hardcore and experimental backgrounds began to incorporate its tendencies of "ambience, offbeat experimentation, downcast melodies and psychedelia" into metal. The two genres further converged through the influence of post-rock bands such as Mogwai, Godspeed You! Black Emperor, and Lift to Experience who shared metal's emphasis on loudness.


title: Post-metal

text: Neurosis' third album "Souls at Zero" and Godflesh's second album "Pure", both released in 1992, are often retrospectively considered the first post-metal records. Godflesh had already pioneered "sluggish and tortured" industrial metal of their 1989 debut "Streetcleaner", but "Pure" showcased "more expansive structures and long stretches of billowing noise", inspiring a number of subsequent bands to combine metal with "layered washes of sound". Neurosis on the other hand were a hardcore band who embraced doom metal, post-punk and industrial influences, experimenting with texture and dynamics. They have since become recognized "for their pioneering post-metal efforts and unwavering dedication to expanding their artistic boundaries." In 2010, guitarist Steve Von Till stated:


title: Post-metal

text: The band's 1996 fifth album "Through Silver in Blood" was credited by "Terrorizer" with "effectively invent[ing] the post-metal genre" and named the best post-metal album of all time by "Fact". The fluctuating 12-minute song "Purify" has been described as the album's "signature track". Neurosis' work has also contributed the development of doom metal, sludge metal, and drone metal, and these genres have been associated with post-metal since. Similarly, drone metal pioneers Earth have been significant to post-metal ever since their 1991 debut release "Extra-Capsular Extraction".


title: Post-metal

text: Furthermore, "Fact" writer Robin Jahdi highlights the late 1990s US noisecore of bands such as Botch, Kiss It Goodbye, the Dillinger Escape Plan and Coalesce, who merged brutal metallic hardcore with jazz into fast-and-complex compositions, as a fundamental influence on post-metal. Writing for "Bandcamp Daily", Jon Wiederhorn also noted the significance of Botch and Cave In, while Converge have been connected to post-metal through their longer songs since the closing track of their seminal 2001 album "Jane Doe". According to Jahdi, the genre emerged as "those young intellectuals decided to slow it down" and labels such as Relapse Records and Hydra Head Records began releasing "slower, more bass-heavy and abstract" music more akin to post-rock.


title: Post-metal

text: Hydra Head Records had been established in 1993 by Aaron Turner. In 1997, Turner co-founded Isis, a band which became central to an increasingly recognizable post-metal movement. In particular, their 2002 album "Oceanic" – which showcased "buzzing washes of multilayered sound that ebbed and flowed in intensity", combining the "barbed guitars" and "shouted vocals" of post-hardcore with "meandering, psychedelic progressions" – has become regarded as a classic of the genre. At the same time, Hydra Head signed further prominent bands, releasing the early records of Pelican and Jesu. While Pelican are an instrumental quartet inspired as much by Neurosis and Godflesh as by Mogwai, Jesu was formed by Justin Broadrick after the breakup of Godflesh to explore "ambient guitar compositions", embracing shoegaze and slowcore influences.


title: Post-metal

text: As black metal "spread beyond Scandinavia to infect the global underground", it joined shoegaze as a major factor in the evolution of post-metal. Many bands employ the "speed and ferocity" of black metal in "contrast to slower, more ethereal compositions". This approach was pioneered by Agalloch, who formed in 1995 and also employed elements of doom metal, progressive rock, folk music, and post-hardcore. Wolves in the Throne Room, who became a significant act for American black metal by the release of their 2007 album "Two Hunters", were also inspired by Neurosis in combining "ambience and violence" to craft deeply melancholic music.


title: Post-metal

text: While all aforementioned post-metal pioneers are either from the US (Neurosis, Isis, Pelican, Agalloch, and WITTR) or the UK (Broadrick's Godflesh and Jesu), the genre soon spread internationally. The Japanese band Boris, formed in 1992, "have always embraced the spirit and vitality of the vibrant movement" and some of their works, such as the 2005 albums "Dronevil" and "Pink", have become influential to it. Boris often employ elements of drone music and have collaborated with prominent Seattle drone metal band Sunn O))), who have also been associated with post-metal. Several European bands also gained prominence within the genre, including: Cult of Luna from Sweden, whose sound is indebted to Isis' "Oceanic"; Amenra from Belgium, who signed to Neurosis' label Neurot Recordings and rival their predecessors in sheer spiritual intensity; and Year of No Light from France, who have transitioned from a sludge-oriented sound to monumental instrumental compositions, "beautifully layered, but still dark and heavy".


title: Post-metal

text: Back in the US, another instrumental band rose to prominence: Russian Circles, also strongly influenced by "Oceanic". By contrast, True Widow, whose sound is rooted as much in 1990s indie rock and psychedelic rock as in doom metal, offer a distinctive take, most impactfully on the 2013's "Circumambulation", by employing "male/female vocal interplay" and showcasing "vulnerability and restraint". Meanwhile, the Melvins returned to the sound they themselves helped inspire, impacting it with the 2004 album "Pigs of the Roman Empire", a collaboration with Welsh dark ambient composer Lustmord.


title: Post-metal

text: Gradually, post-metal as a genre has achieved major critical acclaim. This was reinforced by the "widely publicized" success of California band Deafheaven, whose second album "Sunbather" became one of the most celebrated releases of 2013. The band's successful fusion of caustic black metal with blissfull shoegaze in the vein of My Bloody Valentine and Slowdive, although preceded by the French musician Neige of Alcest, was nicknamed blackgaze and met with controversy among fans of conventional extreme metal. It has also inspired a new wave of bands such as: Ghost Bath from North Dakota, who use undistorted guitar melodies to develop unsettling atmospheres; Austria's Harakiri for the Sky, whose despairing sound melds black metal and post-hardcore; and the recent work of Oathbreaker, who are rooted in the Belgian dark hardcore scene of Amenra.


title: Post-metal

text: Post-metal is generally heavy, aggressive, and dark, but explores a variety of musical approaches alien to conventional heavy metal and extreme metal. It mirrors post-rock and post-hardcore in its emphasis on atmosphere and deep emotion and may be considered abstract, introspective, expansive, hypnotic, progressive, layered, or even apocalyptic. Jon Wiederhorn writes that though some post-metal bands "sought to break away from their raging roots by exploring less bombastic and more dynamic musical techniques" and others "sought to remain raw and corrosive", their music shares a "heavy-lidded yet eye-opening" effect. "The New York Times" associated the term with a "wave of bands using metal as a jumping-off point for a range of experimental styles, dabbling in free jazz, minimalist post-rock, noise and even modern classical music." Contemporary post-metal bands incorporate influences ranging through doom metal, black metal, shoegaze, progressive rock, folk music, and classical music.


title: Post-metal

text: "Fact" writer Robin Jahdi notes that "the best Neurosis albums don't sound anything like the best offerings from Isis" and that the genre cannot be readily distinguished from doom metal, modern black metal, and progressive metal, "taking in all of these elements without being entirely any one of them". Contemporary post-metal is often seen as combining "elements of doom metal, sludge, and/or black metal with elements of post-rock and shoegaze", being more "peaceful" than metal but retaining its dark theming and harsh vocal style. As with post-rock, however, many bands are instrumental and when vocals are used, they often "resemble another accompanying instrument" rather than actual words. Songs are typically long and employ crescendos, gradually building upon repeated themes; Aaron Turner of Isis stated that "the standard song format of verse-chorus-verse-chorus is something that has been done and redone, and it seems pointless to adhere to that structure when there are so many other avenues to explore".


title: Post-metal

text: Noting the divergence from typical metal fashion, "The New York Times" described a 2005 Pelican show at the Knitting Factory in New York City: "Instead of long hair and all-black outfits, the crowd was displaying the trappings of brainy, slightly nerdy indie rock. Young men wore artistically cropped hair and tight-legged jeans, and there was even a smattering of young women in librarian glasses and worn-out Chuck Taylor sneakers." Jon Wiederhorn describes the post-metal scene as a "global community of artists" positioned on the "fringes of the underground." Pelican's Trevor de Brauw stated in 2007:


title: Mitch Daniels

text: Mitchell Elias Daniels Jr. (born April 7, 1949) is an American academic administrator, businessman, author, and retired politician. A Republican, Daniels served as the 49th governor of Indiana from 2005 to 2013. Since 2013, Daniels has been president of Purdue University, but has announced he will retire as of January 1, 2023.


title: Mitch Daniels

text: Daniels began his career as an assistant to senator Richard Lugar, working as his chief of staff in the Senate from 1977 to 1982. He was appointed executive director of the National Republican Senatorial Committee when Lugar was chairman from 1983 to 1984. He worked as a chief political advisor and as a liaison to President Ronald Reagan in 1985. He then moved back to Indiana to become president of the Hudson Institute, a conservative think tank. He later joined Eli Lilly and Company where he served as president of North American Pharmaceutical Operations from 1993 to 1997 and as senior vice president of corporate strategy and policy from 1997 to 2001. In January 2001, Daniels was appointed by President George W. Bush as the director of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget, where he served until June 2003.


title: Mitch Daniels

text: Daniels ran in Indiana's 2004 gubernatorial election after leaving the Bush administration. He won the Republican primary with 67% of the vote and defeated Democratic incumbent Governor Joe Kernan in the general election. In 2008, Daniels was reelected to a second term, defeating Jill Long Thompson. During his tenure, Daniels cut the state government workforce by 18%, cut and capped state property taxes, balanced the state budget through austerity measures and increasing spending by less than the inflation rate. In his second term, Daniels saw protest by labor unions and Democrats in the state legislature over Indiana's school voucher program, privatization of public highways, and the attempt to pass 'right to work' legislation, leading to the 2011 Indiana legislative walkouts. During the legislature's last session under Daniels, he signed a 'right-to-work law', with Indiana becoming the 23rd state in the nation to pass such legislation.


title: Mitch Daniels

text: It was widely speculated that Daniels would be a candidate in the 2012 presidential election, but he chose not to run. Daniels was selected by the Trustees of the Board of Purdue University, all of whom he appointed or re-appointed while Governor, to become the university president after his term as governor ended on January 14, 2013. He will retire as Purdue president effective January 1, 2023, leading to speculation that he would again run for governor or the U.S Senate.


title: Mitch Daniels

text: Mitchell Elias Daniels Jr. was born on April 7, 1949, in Monongahela, Pennsylvania, the son of Dorothy Mae (née Wilkes) and Mitchell Elias Daniels. His father's parents were immigrants from Qalatiyah, Syria, of Antiochian Greek Orthodox descent. Daniels has been honored by the Arab-American Institute with the 2011 Najeeb Halaby Award for Public Service. His mother's ancestry was mostly English (where three of his great-grandparents were born). Daniels spent his early childhood years in Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Georgia.


title: Mitch Daniels

text: The Daniels family moved to Indiana from Pennsylvania in 1959 when his father accepted a job at the Indianapolis headquarters of the pharmaceutical company Pitman-Moore. The 10-year-old Daniels was accustomed to the mountains, and he at first disliked the flatland of central Indiana. He was still in grade school at the time of the move and first attended Delaware Trail Elementary, Westlane Junior High School, and North Central High School. In high school he was student body president. After graduation in 1967, Daniels was named one of Indiana's Presidential Scholars—the state's top male high school graduate that year—by President Lyndon B. Johnson.


title: Mitch Daniels

text: In 1970, while an undergraduate at Princeton, Daniels and three roommates were a part of a several months long drug investigation that began on Saturday, March 7, 1970, when one of Daniels's roommates was arrested for possessing "large quantities" of marijuana and other drugs. Two months later police raided the same residence hall, finding enough marijuana to fill two size 12 shoeboxes and arresting five additional individuals, including Daniels. Daniels and a roommate were charged with possession of marijuana, LSD and other drugs, along with "maintaining a common nuisance" for allowing the room to be used for the sale and use of drugs. In a plea agreement, the prosecutor dropped the charges in exchange for Daniels agreeing to pay a fine of $350 for using marijuana.


title: Mitch Daniels

text: Thirty-four years after the arrest, the first roommate detained (the individual arrested months before Daniels), told the Indianapolis Star that he was a partisan Democrat who "would gladly offer unflattering information about a Republican—if he had any" but Daniels had "nothing to do" with selling drugs. Another roommate said that police obtained a warrant to search the room based on the activity of the first roommate arrested. "Unbeknownst to [Daniels and the other current roommates] ... [he] was coming back there and using the room when we're not there and was involved with drugs much worse than pot...We considered ourselves innocent victims." Daniels refutes the idea that he was innocent saying he "had used marijuana" and "was fined for that, and that was appropriate". Daniels has disclosed the arrest on job applications and in government background checks and spoken about the incident in opinion columns.