title: MDNA (album)

text: Following the Super Bowl performance, Madonna announced the MDNA Tour which started in May 2012 at Tel Aviv, Israel and ended in South America in December 2012. The tour played in different venues like stadiums and arenas, as well as outdoor locations like the Plains of Abraham in Quebec. After visiting 26 markets in Europe, the tour returned to North America, where it remained until Thanksgiving 2012, and then moved South America. Like her previous few tours, Madonna canceled plans of visiting Australia and apologized for it. The tour was described by the singer as "a journey of a soul from darkness to light". It was divided into four sections: "Transgression", "Prophecy", "Masculine/Feminine" and "Redemption". The triangle-shaped stage consisted of two walkways for Madonna to wade into the crowd and an enclosed area where fans could get closer. Designers working on the tour's wardrobe included Jean Paul Gaultier, Arianne Phillips and Givenchy's Riccardo Tisci.


title: MDNA (album)

text: The tour portrayed controversial subjects such as violence, firearms, human rights, nudity, and politics. During one sequence the face of French far right politician Marine Le Pen appeared on the screen with a swastika on her forehead. Other segments showed the singer attacking dancers with fake guns, blood spattering on the backdrop screens, mooning, and briefly exposing her breasts to the audience. Despite the controversies, the MDNA Tour received positive reviews and became the highest-grossing tour of 2012 and was at that time the tenth highest-grossing tour of all time, grossing $305.1 million in ticket sales from 88 sold-out shows, watched by an audience of 2.21 million. The Miami shows on November 19–20, 2012 were recorded and released as a live album.


title: MDNA (album)

text: Upon its release, reviews ranged from favorable to mixed. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, "MDNA" received an average score of 64, based on 34 reviews, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Andy Gill from "The Independent" felt that the record represented a "determined, no-nonsense restatement" of Madonna's brand of music, after the underwhelming response she had received for "Hard Candy". "Rolling Stone" writer Joe Levy rated the release 3.5 out of 5 stars, describing it as a "disco-fied divorce record". He described the music composition as suggestive, but found depth in the content after repeated listening. Priya Elan of "NME" called "MDNA" as "a ridiculously enjoyable romp" while finding that lyrically they were the most intimate songwriting that Madonna had ever done. "Slant Magazine"s Sal Cinquemani found the album to be "surprisingly cohesive" in spite of the multiple producers, and commended Madonna and Orbit's compositions as among the best. Shirley Halperin from "Billboard" felt that Madonna was correct in not creating retro sounding music like her peers and believed that the singer's intuition in knowing what's popular in the musical landscape was beneficial for the album since EDM was becoming popular at that time. Also from "Billboard", Joel Lynch opined that "while it didn't quite seem to resonate emotionally with fans upon its release, it certainly has its moments".


title: MDNA (album)

text: Nick Levine, from BBC News, pointed out that "there's no denying "MDNA" delivers thrills [...] but also has something the last two Madge albums lacked: ballads, both of which are quite lovely". He concluded his review by saying that "["MDNA"] isn't just a good pop album, it's a good Madonna album too". Orbit's production received positive feedback from critics. Simon Goddard of "Q" listed "MDNA" as Madonna's best album since "Ray of Light" (1998), as did "Chicago Tribune" reviewer Greg Kot, who felt that the singer outdid on the Orbit-produced tracks. Caryn Ganz from "Spin" rated the album 7 out of 10 and said that "if there's one producer who knows how to pluck Madonna's heartstrings, it's Orbit". Writing for "The New York Times", Jon Pareles summarized that it was Madonna's "pop instinct" and ability to craft hooks that helped the record become a success musically. In his consumer guide review, critic Robert Christgau gave the album an A− rating. He preferred an alternate track list of the record, highlighting the first 10 track as "updated 90s arena-dance power tracks". According to Jennifer Gannon, from Irish website State, "what "MDNA" offers is the ideal that pop doesn't always have to be the newest, craziest thing to be effective; it doesn't have to deny the past to be relevant".


title: MDNA (album)

text: Mixed reception came from AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine, who described "MDNA" as "flinty" and "excessively lean" as a result of "cool calculations" in developing the music and catering to the contemporary music market. Melissa Maerz of "Entertainment Weekly" found "all those reminders of her work ethic [in the song 'I Don't Give A' as] exhausting". Emily Mackay of "The Quietus" noted a "lack of ambition" and accused Madonna of "playing it safe" on "MDNA". "The Observer"s Gareth Grundy was ambivalent toward the record's "clumsy rave-pop" tracks, feeling that "the more relaxed, less stentorian tracks sparkle". He opined that the second half of the release "sounds as if it's been borrowed from an entirely different and much better project". Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" viewed the album as "neither triumph nor disaster", writing that it "turns out to be just another Madonna album". Similarly, "Instinct"s Samuel Murrian concluded that "there is no such thing as a bad Madonna album; "MDNA", though, is the closest thing there is to a lifeless one". Graham Gremore from "Queerty" felt that "had it been released by another pop artist — perhaps someone younger and less established — it may have fared better. But coming from an icon like Madonna, it was, put simply, a disappointment".


title: MDNA (album)

text: Helen Brown of "The Daily Telegraph" criticized the songwriting for being "horribly clichéd", as well as Madonna's constant need to look and sound "like a teenager" in the tracks. "Pitchfork"s Matthew Perpetua found most of the record as "shockingly banal" and "particularly hollow, the dead-eyed result of obligations, deadlines, and hedged bets". Maura Johnston of "The Village Voice" criticized Madonna's vocals and her incorporation of EDM as insincere. "Los Angeles Times" writer Randall Roberts felt that the composition suffers from "familiarity" and "MDNA" was evidence that Madonna's music had become regressive. Genevieve Koski of "The A.V. Club" criticized its "electronically manipulated" vocals and "big, generic Euro-dance beats", calling "MDNA" "competent, but equally perfunctory". Wiriting for Turkish newspaper "Radikal", Yazi Boyutu called it a "parody of the real Madonna [...] an unnecessary and ridiculous dance album". "The Advocate" gave a scathing review: "Lacking a central image or theme, "MDNA" instead relied on uninspiring beats and silly references to guns and partying. Singles like 'Give Me All Your Luvin' and 'Girl Gone Wild' were so vapid, they made Taylor Swift songs look like cuts from a Joni Mitchell album. Almost instantly forgettable". "The Sydney Morning Herald"'s Bernard Zuel panned the album as "cold, stale and depressingly ordinary".


title: MDNA (album)

text: "MDNA" received the largest number of pre-order of the album at the iTunes Store since it was announced in February 2012. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "MDNA" was the twelfth best-selling album of 2012 globally with sales of 1.8 million copies. As of March 2014 it has sold over two million copies worldwide.


title: MDNA (album)

text: In the United States, the album debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 with 359,000 copies sold, making it Madonna's biggest first-week sales since "Music" (2000). It became Madonna's eighth chart-topper and her fifth consecutive studio album to debut at number one. The album's sales were aided by her tour audience, who had an option to receive the release as part of their ticket purchase. Around 185,000 copies of the first-week sales reportedly came from the album-ticket bundling. The next week, the album descended to number eight with sales of 48,000 copies or 86.7% decline, making it the then-largest second-week percentage sales drop for a number-one debuting album of the Nielsen SoundScan era. The album was present on the "Billboard" 200 for a total of 13 weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), for shipment of 500,000 copies. As of February 2015, it had sold 539,000 copies in the United States. In Canada, "MDNA" debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 32,000 copies in its first week. The album also debuted at number one in Brazil and was certified double platinum by the Associação Brasileira dos Produtores de Discos (ABPD) for sales of 80,000 copies.


title: MDNA (album)

text: In Australia, the album debuted at number one and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 35,000 copies during its first week. It became Madonna's tenth chart-topping album in Australia, which made her the solo artist with the most number-one albums of all time, thus surpassing Jimmy Barnes, and placed behind only the Beatles with 14 and U2 with 11. In Japan, "MDNA" debuted at number four on the Oricon Albums Chart with first-week sales of 31,000 physical units. In the same week, her Warner Bros.-released box set, "The Complete Studio Albums (1983–2008)", also debuted at number nine, making Madonna the first international female artist in Japanese chart history to have two albums in the top ten. With those two releases, Madonna accumulated 22 top-ten albums in Japan, more than any other international artist. "MDNA" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for shipments of 100,000 units. Madonna also set a record for a foreign album in Turkey as "MDNA" sold over 30,000 copies within four days, outselling all Turkish domestic albums.


title: MDNA (album)

text: In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart with first-week sales of 56,335 copies. It became Madonna's 12th album to top the chart, breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley, as the solo artist with the most number-one albums ever. Up to that point, only the Beatles had more number-one albums in British chart history, with 15. Presley reclaimed that record with his posthumous compilation album, "The Wonder of You" (2016). "MDNA" stayed in the top ten for two weeks before descending the chart. As of March 2015, the album had sold 134,803 copies in the country, being certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). In Russia, the album debuted atop the chart with 26,000 sold. After two weeks, the album accumulated sales of over 50,000 units there and 1.5 million streams, and was later certified seven-times platinum equivalent for sales of 70,000 copies. Across Europe, the album reached the top of the charts in Belgium, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Spain and Sweden, and the top ten in other nations.


title: MDNA (album)

text: At the 69th Golden Globe Awards, "Masterpiece", which was included in the soundtrack for "W.E.", won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song. The track was also sent to be shortlisted at the 84th Academy Awards, in the category of Best Original Song, but was not considered since a song is eligible only if it appears in a film no later than the start of the final credits and "Masterpiece" is played after more than one minute into the credits. "MDNA" won the category of Top Dance Album at the 2013 "Billboard" Music Awards, where Madonna was also honored with the Top Touring Artist and Top Dance Artist trophies. At the 2014 World Music Awards, the album was nominated for Best World Album, but did not win the award.


title: MDNA (album)

text: With "MDNA" reaching number one on the UK Albums Chart, Madonna was listed in the Guinness World Records book for this achievement. "Spin" magazine listed "MDNA" as one of their 20 Best Pop Albums of 2012, where writer Carolina Guerra wrote: "If you can't hear Madge winking her way through EDM stunners 'Girl Gone Wild' and 'Some Girls', or retro bouncers 'Give Me All Your Luvin' and 'I'm a Sinner' you're letting your assumptions about the Queen's reign speak louder than her still-solid studio work." A later review in 2018 by Christopher Rosa from "Glamour" called "MDNA" as the "Ultimate Divorce Album", explaining that within the album there lies "catharsis", and how Madonna's divorce had led to "an amalgamation of feeling: elation, betrayal, depression, numbness, fury—the list goes on and on. Madonna hits all of those points on "MDNA" and then some. Truthfully, you'll finish the album with emotional whiplash, but isn't that divorce? Isn't that life?"


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Bisbee is a city in and the county seat of Cochise County in southeastern Arizona, United States. It is southeast of Tucson and north of the Mexican border. According to the 2020 census, the population of the town was 4,923, down from 5,575 in the 2010 census.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Bisbee was founded as a copper, gold, and silver mining town in 1880, and named in honor of Judge DeWitt Bisbee, one of the financial backers of the adjacent Copper Queen Mine.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Mining in the Mule Mountains proved quite successful: in the early 20th century the population of Bisbee soared. Incorporated in 1902, by 1910 its population had swelled to 9,019, and it sported a constellation of suburbs, including Warren, Lowell, and San Jose, some of which had been founded on their own (ultimately less successful) mines. In 1917, open-pit mining was successfully introduced to meet the copper demand during World War I.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: A high quality turquoise promoted as "Bisbee Blue" was a by-product of the copper mining. Many high-quality mineral specimens have come from Bisbee area mines and are to be found in museum collections worldwide. Some of these minerals include cuprite, aragonite, wulfenite, malachite, azurite, and galena.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Miners attempted to organize to gain better working conditions and wages. In 1917, the Phelps Dodge Corporation, using private police and deputized sheriffs in conjunction with Cochise County Sheriff Harry C. Wheeler, transported at gunpoint over 1,000 striking miners out of town to Hermanas, New Mexico, due to allegations that they were members of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW); the company wanted to prevent unionization. Earlier that year, industry police conducted the Jerome Deportation, similarly intended to expel striking miners.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Continued underground work enabled the town to survive the changes in mining that caused mines in neighboring towns to close, leading to a resulting dramatic loss of population. But the population of Bisbee had dropped nearly 60%, from a high of 9,205 in 1920 down to 3,801 by 1950. In 1975 the Phelps Dodge Corporation halted its Bisbee copper-mining operations. Bisbee Mayor Chuck Eads, with the cooperation of Phelps Dodge, implemented development of a mine tour and historic interpretation of a portion of the Copper Queen Mine as part of an effort to create heritage tourism as another economic base to compensate for the financial loss due to the end of the mining industry.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Community volunteers cleared tons of fallen rock and re-timbered the old workings. Eventually, this local effort came to the attention of the federal Economic Development Administration. It approved a large grant to the City of Bisbee to help the mine tour project and other improvements in downtown Bisbee; these were designed to meet tourist business needs. The Queen Mine Tour was officially opened to visitors on February 1, 1976. More than a million visitors have taken the underground mine tour train.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: From 1950 to 1960, the sharp population decline happening over the previous few decades changed course and the number of residents of Bisbee increased by nearly 160 percent when open-pit mining was undertaken and the city annexed nearby areas. The peak population was in 1960, at 9,914.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: In the following decade, there was a decline in jobs and population, although not as severe as from 1930 to 1950. But, the economic volatility resulted in a crash in housing prices. Coupled with an attractive climate and picturesque scenery, Bisbee became a destination in the 1960s for artists and hippies of the counter culture.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Artist Stephen Hutchison and his wife Marcia purchased the Copper Queen Hotel, the town's anchor business and architectural gem, from the Phelps-Dodge mining company in 1970. The company had tried to find a local buyer, offering the deed to any local resident for the sum of $1, but there were no takers. The property needed renovation for continued use.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Hutchison purchased and renovated the hotel, as well as other buildings in the downtown area. One held the early 20th-century Brewery and Stock Exchange. Hutchison began to market Bisbee as a destination of the "authentic," old Southwest. His work attracted the developer Ed Smart.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Among the many guests at the hotel have been celebrities from nearby California. Actor John Wayne was a frequent visitor to Bisbee and the Copper Queen. He befriended Hutchison and eventually partnered with Smart in his real estate ventures. This period of Bisbee's history is well documented in contemporary articles in "The New Yorker" and in an article by Cynthia Buchanan in "The Cornell Review". It was at this time that Bisbee became a haven for artists and hippies fleeing the larger cities of Arizona and California. Later it attracted people priced out by gentrification of places such as Aspen, Colorado.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: In the 1990s, additional people were attracted to Bisbee, leading it to develop such amenities as coffee shops and live theatre. Many of the old houses have been renovated, and property values in Bisbee now greatly exceed those of other southeastern Arizona cities.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Today, the historic city of Bisbee is known as "Old Bisbee" and is home to a thriving downtown cultural scene. This area is noted for its architecture, including Victorian-style houses and an elegant Art Deco county courthouse. Because its plan was laid out to a pedestrian scale before the automobile, Old Bisbee is compact and walkable. The town's hilly terrain is exemplified by the old four-story high school; each floor has a ground-level entrance.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: The city of Bisbee now includes the satellite communities of Warren, Lowell, and San Jose. The Lowell and Warren townsites were consolidated into Bisbee proper during the early part of the twentieth century. There are also smaller neighborhoods interspersed between these larger boroughs, including Galena, Bakerville, Tintown, South Bisbee, Briggs, and Saginaw.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Warren was Arizona's first planned community. It was designed as a bedroom community for the more affluent citizens of the mining district. Warren has a fine collection of Arts and Crafts style bungalow houses. Many have been recognized as historic places, and the city has an annual home tour during which a varying selection are offered for tours. Since the end of mining in the 1970s, Warren has seen a steady decline in its standard of living. The residential district still houses a significant portion of the population, and includes City Hall, Greenway Elementary School, Bisbee High School, and the historic Warren Ballpark.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Lowell was at one time a sizable mining town located just to the southeast of Old Bisbee. The majority of the original townsite was consumed by the excavation of the Lavender Pit mine during the 1950s. All that is left today is a small portion of Erie Street, along with Evergreen Cemetery, Saginaw subdivision and Lowell Middle School. These days Lowell is considered by most of the local residents to be more of a place name than an operating community.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: San Jose, on the southern side of the Mule Mountains, is the most modern of the city's subdivisions. As it is not restricted by mountains, it has had the most new growth since the late 1990s. Named after a nearby Mexican mountain peak, it is the location of many newer county government buildings, the Huachuca Terrace Elementary School, and a large shopping center.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: In 2007, Freeport-McMoRan Copper & Gold bought Phelps-Dodge company. Freeport has invested in Bisbee by remediating soil contaminated in previous mining operations, donations to the school system, and other civic activities.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Arizona State Route 80 runs through the city, leading northwest to Tombstone and to Benson, and east to Douglas. The Mexican border at Naco is south of the center of Bisbee.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Natural vegetation around Bisbee has a semi-desert appearance with shrubby acacia, oak and the like, along with cacti, grass, ocotillo and yucca. The town itself is much more luxuriant with large trees such as native cypress, sycamore and cottonwood plus the introduced ailanthus and Old World cypresses, cedars and pines. Palms are capable of growing tall, but are not reliably hardy. At least one mature blue spruce may be seen.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Bisbee is a typical semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSk") of the upland Mountain West. Summer days are warm to hot and dry before the monsoon brings the wettest season from July to September with of Bisbee's total annual rainfall of , often with severe thunderstorms. During the winter, frontal cloudbands may bring occasional rainfall or even snowfall, though average maxima in the winter are typically very mild and sometimes even warm.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Bisbee first appeared on the 1890 U.S. Census as an unincorporated village. It did not appear on the 1900 census, despite having a population of thousands (many unincorporated communities were not reported). In 1902, it incorporated as a city and has appeared on every census since 1910. On September 10, 1959, it incorporated the adjacent unincorporated villages of Lowell-South Bisbee (1950 pop. 1,136) and Warren (pop. 2,610).


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 6,090 people, 2,810 households, and 1,503 families residing in the city. The population density was . As of the 2020 U.S. Census Redistricting Data there were 3,138 housing units (21.5% of which were vacant or possibly secondary homes) at an average density of . The racial and ethnic makeup of the city (where race/ethnicity of residents was known) was 65.2% non-Hispanic White, 29.2% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, 0.7% Non-Hispanic Black or African American, 0.6% Non-Hispanic Native American, 0.5% Non-Hispanic Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 0.5% from other races, and 3.3% from two or more races.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: There were 2,810 households, out of which 21.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.8% were married couples living together, 12.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.5% were non-families. 39.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.90.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: An analysis of United States Census Bureau data by researchers at The Williams Institute at the UCLA School of Law found that, on a proportional basis, Bisbee had more gay couples living together than anywhere else in the state. The ratio was 20.9 for every 1,000 households.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 21.6% under the age of 18, 6.8% from 18 to 24, 24.1% from 25 to 44, 27.8% from 45 to 64, and 19.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.1 males.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: The median income for a household in the city was $27,942, and the median income for a family was $36,685. Males had a median income of $29,573 versus $23,269 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,129. About 12.9% of families and 17.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.2% of those under age 18 and 9.0% of those age 65 or over.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: The Bisbee 1000 Stair Climb is a five-kilometer run through the city that traverses 1,034 stairs. Billed as "the most unique physical fitness challenge in the USA!" by the organizers, the Climb includes runners being serenaded by musicians at various locations among the stairs. The event has grown to include the Ice Man Competition, designed to honor the history of men delivering blocks of ice by hand before the advent of refrigeration. In the Ice Man Competition, entrants race up 155 steps carrying a ten-pound block of ice with antique ice tongs.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Bisbee hosts an annual Blues festival, occurring in 2015 during the second week of September. The festival effectively lengthens the tourist season, and provides a large amount of business to local bars and breweries.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Bisbee joined with Clifton in forming a cricket team that travelled to Santa Monica, California, in 1908 to play the Santa Monica Cricket Club in two games overlooking the Pacific Ocean on the grounds of the Polo Field. The miners lost both cricket games. "The Copper Echo" reported that Bennie, the general manager of the Shannon Company Copper Mine, was the miners' best cricketer.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Bisbee was home to a minor league baseball franchise. The Bisbee Bees played as members of the Arizona State League and Arizona-Texas League.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: Bisbee is governed via the mayor-council system. The city council consists of six members who are elected from three wards, each ward elects two members. The mayor is elected in a direct citywide vote.


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: In 2013, the city council received public notoriety when it proposed same-sex civil unions and shortly after became the first municipality in Arizona to pass a civil union law. The state's Attorney General, Tom Horne, threatened to sue, but decided against it after Bisbee amended the ordinance; the civil union ordinance came into effect July 5, 2013. "Bisbee was the first in Arizona to approve civil unions, with Tucson, Jerome and Clarkdale following."


title: Bisbee, Arizona

text: The City of Bisbee administers the Bisbee Bus System which is in fact operated by the City of Douglas under contract, with regularly scheduled services from Monday through Saturday within Bisbee and to Naco; One-way fare is $1; The City of Douglas also operates the Cochise Connection, with regular shuttle services between Douglas, Bisbee, and Sierra Vista; One-way fare is $3–4.


title: Virgin River

text: The Virgin River is a tributary of the Colorado River in the U.S. states of Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. The river is about long. It was designated Utah's first wild and scenic river in 2009, during the centennial celebration of Zion National Park.


title: Virgin River

text: The first known Euro-American party to encounter the Virgin was led by Jedediah Smith in 1826. Smith named it "Adams River", after then-president John Quincy Adams. Later explorer and mapmaker John C. Fremont reported that it was called "Rio Virgen" but did not state the origin of the name. Hiram Chittenden speculated that Smith had later renamed the river after Thomas Virgin, who was badly wounded in an 1827 attack by Mohave people during the crossing of the Mojave Desert. Virgin recovered from his wounds but was later killed, along with most of Smith's companions, in an attack by Umpqua people (in present-day Oregon).


title: Virgin River

text: The Old Spanish Trail followed the Virgin River for part of its length from near St. George to the point it ascended the Mormon Plateau to cross to the Muddy River in present-day Nevada.


title: Virgin River

text: Its origin is in Southwestern Utah, at the Navajo Reservoir in the Dixie National Forest, north of Zion National Park, and is formed by the confluence of the East Fork Virgin, that flows through Mount Carmel Junction on the east side of Zion National Park and Parunaweap Canyon, with the North Fork Virgin River, that flows from Navajo Lake through Zion Canyon in Zion National Park. The river flows in a southwesterly direction, passing south of the old townsite of St. George where the Santa Clara River joins the Virgin at a place the Paiutes called Tonaquint. The river then flows across the northwestern corner of Arizona through the Virgin River Gorge and past the towns of Beaver Dam and Littlefield. It enters southern Nevada near the town of Mesquite and empties into the Colorado at the Lake Mead reservoir, approximately east of Las Vegas. The last of the Virgin River forms the north arm of Lake Mead.


title: Virgin River

text: Despite flowing through an arid region, the Virgin River is home to a surprisingly diverse array of plants and animals. Southwestern Utah is located at the intersection of three physiographic regions: the Colorado Plateau, the Great Basin, and the Mojave Desert. The exceptional landscapes and habitats of this region harbor unique plant and animal communities and species found nowhere else in the world. Without the water of the Virgin River system, these species could not exist. The Virgin River directly supports hundreds of wildlife species, including woundfin, Virgin River chub, Virgin spinedace, flannelmouth sucker, desert sucker, speckled dace, and Southwestern Willow Flycatcher. Many of these species are endangered or are considered sensitive species within the State of Utah. The Virgin River Program was established to balance increasing human demand and maintain this unique system.


title: Virgin River

text: One of the rarest species on earth, the endangered woundfin is found only in a small section of the Virgin River. Woundfin have large fins and scale-less, streamlined bodies that help them survive in swift, silty conditions. Although small, it is shark-like in both appearance and action as it feeds on small insects in shallow areas along the river. Woundfin live only one to two years, and their survival depends upon sufficient flow within the river, especially during hot summer months.


title: Virgin River

text: Rare and beautiful, this fish is the top native predator in the Virgin River. Chub is a fast, streamlined fish with a sloped forehead, humped back, and thin, rounded tail. The Virgin River chub feeds on small fish, insects, and plant matter. Chub prefer deep pools and runs with boulders and debris for cover. Virgin River chub were once an important food source for Native Americans and early pioneers. Listed as an endangered species, the Virgin River chub is found from Pah Tempe Hot Springs down to Halfway Wash, Nevada.


title: Virgin River

text: Desert sucker ("Catostomus clarkii") State of Utah wildlife species of concern Size: 18″ (46.4 cm)<br>


title: Virgin River

text: The desert sucker gets its name from the way it feeds on aquatic vegetation and insects. It uses its thick cartilaginous lips to scrape and suck food from rocks and boulders along the bottom of the river. Desert Suckers are very colorful during the spring spawning season, developing bright orange and black 'racing stripes' along their sides. Desert suckers are considered a sensitive species in Utah, where they are only found in the Virgin River and its tributaries.


title: Virgin River

text: One of the most widespread species in western North America, the speckled dace is found in large numbers throughout the Virgin River and its tributaries. Speckled dace prefer rocky areas but are comfortable living in all habitats and stream sizes. Speckled dace exhibit a kaleidoscope of shapes and colors across their range. Males display bright red "lipstick" and red fins to attract mates during the breeding season.


title: Virgin River

text: The Southwestern Willow Flycatcher occurs in dense riparian habitats along streams rivers, and other wetlands. At low elevations, the flycatcher breeds in dense, patchy habitats composed of mid-sized to tall trees and shrubs. At higher elevations, it occurs in dense stands of low to moderate height riparian shrubs. Vegetation density within 4 m (13 ft) is especially important. Preferred habitats are almost always associated with standing or slow-flowing water. The destruction of riparian habitats has caused a severe decline in the populations of the southwestern willow flycatcher. Currently, this sub-species exists only in fragmented and scattered locations throughout its range. Historically, the breeding range reached from southern California, southern Nevada, southern Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, western Texas, southwestern Colorado, and northwestern Mexico. The flycatcher is a migratory bird that winters in Mexico, Central America, and northern South America. Currently, the breeding range for the flycatcher is similar to the historic range, though much of the riparian habitat in the southwest has been degraded by agricultural practices, invasion of non-native vegetation and urban development. The Southwestern Willow Flycatcher is an insectivore, taking insects from the air, or picking them from the foliage. The Southwestern Willow Flycatcher is present on breeding grounds by mid-May. By late May, nests are built, usually in a branched tree fork near the water. Typically, three eggs are laid and then incubated for 12–13 days.


title: Virgin River

text: Virgin spinedace ("Lepidomeda mollispinis mollispinis") State conservation species Size: 5″ (12.7 cm)<br>


title: Virgin River

text: The Virgin spinedace looks, feeds, and behaves like a miniature trout. This silvery minnow gets its name from the sharp spiny rays in its dorsal fin. Virgin spinedace are found only in the Virgin River Basin. Unlike the woundfin and chub, which live only in the Virgin River, spinedace are also found throughout many tributary streams. Virgin Spinedace prefer deep pools and runs and are at home in both clear and turbid water.


title: Virgin River

text: The flannelmouth sucker is the largest native fish in the Virgin River, growing over two feet in length and weighing over six pounds. The flannelmouth's thick fleshy lips contain taste buds that help it find food along the bottom of the River, including aquatic invertebrates, organic debris and algae. Flannelmouth suckers are usually found in deep sandy areas of the Virgin River, but large numbers congregate in shallow gravel areas for spawning in the spring.


title: Virgin River

text: Water in the river's lower valley provides irrigation for the cultivation of cotton, pomegranates, and figs.


title: Virgin River

text: The scenic Virgin River Gorge is in northwest Arizona just south of the Utah state line. It is a popular winter rock climbing area noted for its steep and overhanging limestone walls. Interstate 15 follows the Virgin River for several miles through the Virgin River Gorge.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: Let's Be Cops is a 2014 American buddy cop action comedy film co-written and directed by Luke Greenfield. The film stars Jake Johnson and Damon Wayans Jr. as two friends who pretend to be police officers in Los Angeles. The film co-starred Nina Dobrev, Rob Riggle, James D'Arcy, and Andy García. It was filmed on location in Atlanta, Georgia, and released on August 13, 2014. The film received negative reviews from critics. It was a box office success grossing $138.2 million worldwide against a production budget of $17 million.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: In Los Angeles, longtime friends Justin Miller, a struggling video game designer, and Ryan O'Malley, an unemployed former college quarterback, recall a pact they once made: if they had not achieved success by age thirty, they would move back to Columbus, Ohio. Leaving a bar, Ryan’s car is hit by an intimidating Albanian gang.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: After Justin’s unsuccessful pitch for a police-themed video game, Ryan convinces him to wear the police uniforms from his presentation as costumes at their college reunion. Confronted with their classmates’ success and their own sense of failure, they decide to honor their pact, but are treated like real cops on the street. Enjoying the charade, they kick the Albanian gang out of Georgie's, a restaurant where Justin finally gains the attention of Josie, a waitress he likes.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: Ryan doubles down on the hoax, learning official procedures from YouTube and modifying a used police cruiser to resemble a real LAPD vehicle. Justin reluctantly joins him, and begins a relationship with Josie. During their shenanigans, the friends end up on a real distress call with Patrol Officer Segars. Justin realizes they face serious jail time if exposed, but Josie calls about a man harassing her at the restaurant. He turns out to be Mossi Kasic, the Albanian gang’s leader, who intimidates the “officers” into doing nothing.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: The friends obtain surveillance equipment from Segars to stakeout Mossi, observing him with an unidentified partner who has been investigating Ryan and Justin, believing them to be federal agents. Mossi receives a shipment of crates, and the friends interrogate the delivery driver, Pupa. Josie, an aspiring makeup artist, helps disguise Justin as Pupa to infiltrate Mossi’s club, where Justin is forced to smoke crystal meth and fight in a bare-knuckle boxing match. He and Ryan discover the crates contain guns stolen from police evidence and SWAT equipment and weapons, along with a secret tunnel between Mossi's club and Georgie's restaurant.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: Fed up with being in danger, Justin accuses Ryan of filling his own lack of purpose with fake police work, while Ryan criticizes Justin for his cowardice and his inability to stand up for himself, and they part ways. Ryan brings his evidence against Mossi to Segars, who introduces the head of the organized crime unit, Detective Brolin — Mossi's partner.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: Recognizing each other, Brolin threatens Ryan, while a newly assertive Justin pitches his game again in uniform. One of Brolin's officers arrives to kill him, inadvertently helping sell the pitch, and Justin escapes but Ryan is abducted by Mossi’s men.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: Justin calls Segars for help and admits everything, before confessing to Josie that he is not a real cop and entering the tunnel alone. A captive Ryan pits Mossi and Brolin against each other, prompting Mossi to kill the detective. Justin attempts to save his friend, but is overpowered. Segars arrives and a gunfight ensues, with Ryan and Justin arming themselves with the stolen SWAT equipment. Cornered by Mossi, they are saved by Segars, who shoots Mossi in the neck and lets the friends go free.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: With his newfound confidence, Justin becomes a successful game developer, while a motivated Ryan graduates from the police academy as a full-fledged LAPD officer. Justin apologizes to Josie, and they rekindle their relationship. Ryan arrives with Pupa, his new informant, and drags Justin on a high-speed chase.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: Principal photography began in May 2013 in Atlanta, Georgia, some of the filming also took place in Charleston, SC, and wrapped up in July.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: The film was released on August 13, 2014 with an R rating in the United States and a 15 certificate in the UK.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: "Let's Be Cops" grossed $82.4 million in North America and $55.8 million in other territories for a total gross of $138.2 million, against a production budget of $17 million.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: The film grossed $8.4 million on Wednesday and Thursday, and $17.8 million in its opening weekend, finishing in third at the box office behind "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" ($28.5 million) and "Guardians of the Galaxy" ($25.1 million), but the first among the weekend's new releases.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 18% based on 81 reviews and an average rating of 3.86/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Damon Wayans, Jr. and Jake Johnson have comedic chemistry; unfortunately, "Let's Be Cops" fails to do anything with it." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 30 out of 100 based on 23 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Let's Be Cops

text: Joe Leydon of "Variety magazine" wrote: "The mix of funny business and rough stuff isn't always smooth, but the target audience likely will be amused." Nick de Semlyen of "Empire magazine" wrote: "Some nice comic beats and a sinister Andy Garcia turn make this far more watchable that the fratty conceit might suggest." Bilge Ebiri of New York Magazine wrote: "Let’s Be Cops has its moments, but it in no way distinguishes itself."


title: Let's Be Cops

text: "Time" magazine placed "Let's Be Cops" fifth in their ranking of the 10 worst movies of 2014, stating: "The initial setup of "Let's Be Cops" could have been a funny premise for a B-plot on a show ... but instead, the idea is stretched into a never-ending feature that fails to find any chemistry between Johnson and Wayans".


title: Let's Be Cops

text: The movie's release on August 13, 2014, occurring just four days after the fatal shooting of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, was interpreted by more progressive-leaning media as somewhat ill-timed. In a 2015 interview on Sway in the Morning, Wayans hinted that he would not be interested in a sequel until real-life police brutality was addressed.


title: Ex officio member

text: An "ex officio" member is a member of a body (notably a board, committee, council) who is part of it by virtue of holding another office. The term "ex officio" is Latin, meaning literally 'from the office', and the sense intended is 'by right of office'; its use dates back to the Roman Republic.


title: Ex officio member

text: According to "Robert's Rules of Order", the term denotes only how one becomes a member of a body. Accordingly, the rights of an "ex officio" member are exactly the same as other members unless otherwise stated in regulations or bylaws. It relates to the notion that the position refers to the position the ex officio holds, rather than the individual that holds the position. In some groups, "ex officio" members may frequently abstain from voting.


title: Ex officio member

text: Opposite notions are dual mandate, when the same person happens to hold two offices or more, although these offices are not in themselves associated; and personal union, when two states share the same monarch.


title: Ex officio member

text: Any "ex officio" membership (for example, of committees, or of the board) is as defined by the nonprofit association's bylaws or other documents of authority. For example, the bylaws quite often provide that the organization's president will be "ex officio" a member of all committees, except the nominating committee.


title: Ex officio member

text: In the Empire of Brazil, some princes became members by right of the Imperial Senate once they turned 25.


title: Ex officio member

text: According to the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party, the General Secretary of the Central Committee must be a member of Politburo Standing Committee.


title: Ex officio member

text: , the Executive Council of Hong Kong is still composed of "ex officio" members (official members since 1997) and unofficial members (non-official members since 1997). By practice the "ex officio" members include the secretaries of departments, i.e. the Chief Secretary, the Financial Secretary and the Secretary for Justice. Since 2002 all secretaries of bureaux are also appointed by the Chief Executive to be official members of the Executive Council. But since 2005 the secretaries of bureaux attend only when items on the agenda concern their portfolios.


title: Ex officio member

text: The President of the French Republic and the Catholic Bishop of Urgell are by virtue of office ("ex officio") appointed Co-Princes of Andorra.


title: Ex officio member

text: The Vice-President of India is "ex officio" Chairman of Rajya Sabha, the Upper House of the Indian Parliament.


title: Ex officio member

text: The Prime Minister of India is "ex officio" Chairman of NITI Aayog. Other "ex officio" members of NITI Aayog are the Minister of Home Affairs, the Minister of Finance, the Minister of Railways, and the Minister of Agriculture and Farmers' Welfare.


title: Ex officio member

text: In Congress, the presiding officers and their deputies, and the majority and minority leaders, are "ex officio" members of all committees. The chairman on each chamber's committee on rules is the majority leader. The Senate President is the "ex officio" chairman of the Commission on Appointments, but can only vote on ties. In the Judicial and Bar Council, several positions are due to occupying another office.


title: Ex officio member

text: In provincial boards, the provincial presidents of the League of Barangays (villages), Sangguniang Kabataan (youth councils) and of the Philippine Councilors League sit as "ex officio" board members. In city and municipal councils, the city and municipal presidents of the League of Barangays and the youth councils sit as "ex officio" councilors. In barangays, the youth council chairman is an "ex officio" member of the barangay council. The "ex officio" members have the same rights and privileges as the regular members of each legislature. The deputies of local chief executives (vice governors and vice mayors) are "ex officio" presiding officers of their respective legislatures, but can only vote when there is a tie.


title: Ex officio member

text: Russian Prime Minister, chairmans of State Duma and Federation Council, Chief of Staff and heads of federal subjects are "ex officio" members of State Council (an advisory body to the head of state). President of Russia is an "ex officio" chairman of it.


title: Ex officio member

text: In the House of Lords, the bishops of the five Great Sees of Canterbury, York, London, Durham, and Winchester are "ex officio" members, and are entitled to vote just as any other Lord Spiritual.


title: Ex officio member

text: Formerly, anyone holding a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom was "ex officio" a member of the House of Lords. This entitlement was abolished in 1999. Since then, only the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain (offices that are themselves hereditary) remain "ex officio"; another 90 hereditary peers are elected by and from among those eligible.


title: Ex officio member

text: The Lord President of the Court of Session is by virtue of office appointed as Lord Justice General of Scotland. As such, he is both head of the judiciary of Scotland, president of the Court of Session (the most senior civil court in Scotland), and president of the High Court of Justiciary (the most senior criminal court in Scotland).


title: Ex officio member

text: The Vice President of the United States, who also serves as President of the Senate, may vote in the Senate on matters decided by a majority vote (as opposed to a three-fifths vote or two-thirds vote), if the votes for passage and rejection are equally divided. Also the leader of the parties in both houses are "ex officio" members of the House and Senate intelligence committees. Many committee chairs in the House of Representatives are "ex officio" members of subcommittees.


title: Ex officio member

text: In most Colorado counties, the county sheriff is elected by the citizens of the county. However, in the City and County of Denver, the mayor of Denver appoints a "Manager of Safety" who oversees the Department of Safety (including the Fire, Police, and Sheriff Departments) and is the "ex officio" sheriff of the jurisdiction. Similarly, in the City and County of Broomfield, Colorado, near Denver, the police chief (an appointed position) also acts "ex officio" as the county sheriff.


title: Ex officio member

text: The Speaker of the New York City Council, and its Majority and Minority Leaders, are all "ex officio" members of each of its committees. Furthermore, each member of the Council is a non-voting "ex officio" member of each community board whose boundaries include any of the council member's constituents.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: Gérard Paul Francis Houllier (; 3 September 194714 December 2020) was a French professional football manager and player. Clubs he managed include Paris Saint-Germain, Lens and Liverpool, where he won the FA Cup, League Cup, FA Charity Shield, UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2001. He then guided Lyon to two French titles, before announcing his resignation on 25 May 2007. He became manager of Aston Villa in September 2010. He also coached the France national team between 1992 and 1993. He assisted Aimé Jacquet in the 1998 FIFA World Cup, was part of UEFA's and FIFA's Technical Committee in the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cup finals, and technical director for the French Football Federation during the 2010 finals. In June 2011, he stepped down from club coaching, leaving his managerial role at Aston Villa, following frequent hospitalisation over heart problems.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: From July 2012 until his death, Houllier had been head of global football for Red Bull. He was responsible for Austrian side Red Bull Salzburg, Germany's RB Leipzig and American club New York Red Bulls, Red Bull Brasil, as well as the now dissolved Red Bull Ghana academies. He became the technical director of women's football clubs Lyon Féminin and OL Reign in November 2020.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: Born in Thérouanne, Houllier entered Lille University to pursue a degree in English, but in the first year his father's serious illness forced him to drop out of full-time study and start work, eventually as a school teacher, while he completed his degree part-time. As part of his degree, he elected to spend a year in 1969–1970 in the city of Liverpool as an assistant at Alsop Comprehensive School, and while there he attended his first Liverpool F.C. match on 16 September 1969, a 10–0 thrashing of Irish club Dundalk. He also played for an amateur local side, Alsop. He was an enthusiastic footballer, but never threatened the professional ranks as a player. He was deputy headmaster of the École Normale d'Arras until reaching age 26 in 1973, when he began his full-time managerial career as player-manager of Le Touquet.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: Between 1976 and 1982, Houllier was head coach of French amateur club Nœux-les-Mines. Despite limited resources, the team achieved promotion during his tenure, rising to the Division 2. He then moved to Lens in 1982, coaching them to promotion to the top division and qualification for the UEFA Cup, before moving to Paris Saint-Germain in 1985, where PSG won the French title the following year. In 1988, Houllier was appointed technical director and assistant to the France national team, under manager Michel Platini. Houllier became manager in 1992, but resigned in November 1993 after France failed to qualify for the 1994 FIFA World Cup finals.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: In the 2011 book "Secrets de coachs", Houllier singled out winger David Ginola for blame in a crucial defeat to Bulgaria during the qualification campaign. Ginola filed a lawsuit against Houllier for defamation, but this was dismissed by a French court in 2012. Houllier remained as technical director for the national team until 1998, a role which included the coaching of France's junior sides. In 1996, Houllier's under-18 side won the European Under-18 Championship, and several members of his youth teams, such as David Trezeguet and Thierry Henry went on to form part of France's victorious team in the 1998 FIFA World Cup.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: In July 1998, Houllier was invited to become joint team manager of Liverpool, together with Roy Evans. The arrangement did not work out and Evans resigned in November after losing to Tottenham Hotspur 3–1 at home in the League Cup on 10 November 1998. Prior to the defeat, Liverpool were eliminated from the UEFA Cup by Spanish side Celta de Vigo. The departure of Evans left Houllier in sole charge of the team.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: Houllier began what he described as a five-year programme to rebuild the team, and restore discipline to a squad that had been labelled widely as "Spice Boys", as well as begin a continental approach, both tactically and in terms of personnel, to the game starting in 1999. That summer, Paul Ince, David James, Jason McAteer, Rob Jones, Tony Warner and Steve Harkness were all sold, while Steve McManaman left on a free transfer. Simultaneously, eight new players were signed: Sami Hyypiä, Dietmar Hamann, Stéphane Henchoz, Vladimír Šmicer, Sander Westerveld, Titi Camara, Eric Meijer and Djimi Traoré. The club's youth players such as Jamie Carragher, Michael Owen and Steven Gerrard also became a cornerstone of the team. Liverpool's training facilities at Melwood were thoroughly overhauled.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: The rebuilding continued in 2000 with the signings of Markus Babbel, Nicky Barmby, Pegguy Arphexad, Grégory Vignal, Emile Heskey, Gary McAllister, Igor Bišćan and Christian Ziege, as well as the departures of David Thompson, Phil Babb, Dominic Matteo, Steve Staunton, Brad Friedel and Stig Inge Bjørnebye. The efforts yielded a result in the successful 2000–01 season, when Liverpool won a cup treble of the League Cup, the FA Cup and the UEFA Cup and finished third in the Premier League, hence qualifying for Champions League. In August 2001, Liverpool won the Charity Shield against Manchester United and UEFA Super Cup against Bayern Munich.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: In October 2001, after falling ill at half-time at Liverpool's Premier League match with Leeds United, Houllier was rushed to hospital for an emergency operation due to the discovery of a heart condition, an aortic dissection. With the help of caretaker manager Phil Thompson, he guided Liverpool to a second-place finish in the 2001–02 FA Premier League season, at the time their best record in the Premiership. Houllier returned to active management of the club after five months, although significantly weakened by the heart condition.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: In the 2002—03 season, Liverpool finished in the fifth place in the Premier League, failing to qualify for the following season's UEFA Champions League after a final-day defeat to Chelsea. Critics blamed Houllier's unsuccessful summer signings in 2002, namely El Hadji Diouf (Lens, £10 million), Salif Diao (Sedan, £5 million) and Bruno Cheyrou (Lille, £4 million), and his failure to make Nicolas Anelka's loan move permanent in favour of signing the ineffective Diouf. Houllier's failure to replace creative talents such as Gary McAllister and Jari Litmanen was also criticised. In March 2003, Liverpool defeated Manchester United 2–0 in the League Cup Final. In October 2003, Houllier appointed Steven Gerrard club captain. With Liverpool failing to mount a title challenge in his last two seasons despite substantial investment in players with what was perceived as negative one-dimensional tactics and unattractive football, a poor youth policy, his constant mention of "turning corners" and a lack of support from fans, these factors led to Houllier's departure from Liverpool on 24 May 2004. Having qualified the club for the following season's Champions League, Houllier left Liverpool by mutual consent, after reluctantly agreeing to a board request that he leave the club. He was replaced by Valencia coach Rafael Benítez.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: On 29 May 2005, it was announced that Houllier had signed a two-year contract as manager of the champions of Ligue 1, succeeding Paul Le Guen. Olympique Lyonnais had just won their previous fourth successive championship and Houllier was hired to convert this domestic dominance to the European stage. Despite continuing this dominance of Ligue 1, Lyon lost to Milan in the quarter-finals of the 2005–06 Champions League while they crashed out to the inexperienced Roma in the first knockout round of the 2006–07 Champions League. Houllier also suffered a cup final defeat (Coupe de la Ligue) to Bordeaux. However, in April 2007, Houllier won his second-straight (Lyon's sixth-straight) Ligue 1 title after Toulouse's loss to Rennes. The 2006–07 season proved to be his last with the club: on 25 May 2007, he stepped down due to a fractious relationship with outspoken chairman Jean-Michel Aulas, who was frustrated at the club's inability to convert domestic dominance into European success. An official statement on Lyon's website stated that Houllier asked to be released from the last season of his contract and that request was granted by the president. Houllier also said that he needed a break after experiencing two seasons with Lyon.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: Houllier was reappointed to the role of technical director for the French national team in September 2007, replacing interim-incumbent Jean-Pierre Morlans. Despite the team's poor performance during UEFA Euro 2008, Houllier advised French Football Federation president Jean-Pierre Escalettes to keep faith with manager Raymond Domenech. This decision attracted criticism as France went on to be eliminated in the first round of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Escalettes resigned from his post after the tournament, but Houllier chose not to step down. In an interview with Stéphane Mandard of "Le Monde", he denied responsibility for the failed campaign, stating that his responsibilities did not extend to the first team and that he was not Domenech's line manager.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: On 8 September 2010, it was announced that English Premier League club Aston Villa had appointed Houllier as their new full-time manager, following the resignation of previous boss Martin O'Neill the month before. In his first press conference at the club, it was revealed Houllier had not yet signed a contract and would not take charge of the club until a later date due to commitments with the French Football Federation.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: Houllier's first match in charge was the League Cup match against Blackburn Rovers on 22 September. Villa won the match 3–1, coming back from a goal down to progress to the next round of the competition. It was announced on 18 September 2010 that Gary McAllister had agreed to become his assistant manager, with Gordon Cowans also taking a role in Houllier's backroom staff. Two days after the Blackburn match, he signed a three-year contract. However, Houllier's start at the club proved to be difficult. The side was hit with injuries to key players Gabriel Agbonlahor, Stiliyan Petrov, Nigel Reo-Coker and Emile Heskey, and managed just one win in ten Premier League matches. In November 2010, Houllier signed 37-year-old former Arsenal midfielder Robert Pires on a free transfer in an attempt to aid the club during its injury crisis. By January 2011, Villa had picked up just 21 points from 20 Premier League matches. The club had also been knocked out of the League Cup the previous month by local rivals Birmingham City. On 5 January, Villa were beaten 1–0 at home by Sunderland; this loss left Villa in 18th position in the league table, the first time they had been in the relegation zone since 2003. During the match, a selection of the home crowd targeted Houllier with chants of "you're getting sacked in the morning" to vent their frustration at the club's poor run of form. Despite this, Villa directors acted quickly to insist that Houllier's job as manager was safe.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: In the January transfer Window, Houllier signed Kyle Walker on loan from Tottenham Hotspur in a bid to improve Villa's struggling defence. This signing was followed by the arrival of Jean Makoun from Houllier's former club Lyon, before Sunderland's Darren Bent was brought to Villa Park in a deal that broke the club's transfer record. Villa's January transfer window was rounded off with the loan signing of American international midfielder Michael Bradley from Borussia Mönchengladbach. In February 2011, Houllier criticised the commitment of Villa defenders Habib Beye and Stephen Warnock. The pair were forced to train with the club's reserve side and were not selected by the Frenchman, even when the club faced even more injury concerns. After the defeat to Sunderland, Villa underwent a revival, winning five and drawing three of their next nine matches in the league and FA Cup, including defeating Manchester City 1–0 in a run which saw the team climb to 12th.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: However, Villa were eliminated from the FA Cup by Manchester City via a 3–0 away loss in early March. Houllier chose to rest a number of key first-team players, a move that was criticised by fans and the media alike. The club's league form also failed to improve. During a team-bonding exercise at a health spa in Leicestershire, Villa defenders James Collins and Richard Dunne were involved in a confrontation with club staff. The players were each fined two weeks' wages. However, Houllier said the incident did not affect team morale. On 19 March, Villa faced local rivals Wolverhampton Wanderers in the Premier League at Villa Park. Prior to the match, a banner reading, "Had enough, Houllier out" was unveiled by some supporters in the stadium's Holte End stand. However, this was quickly removed by the club's stewarding staff. The away side won 1–0 thanks to a goal from Matt Jarvis, claiming their first win against Aston Villa in 31 years. Towards the end of the match, the home fans once again verbally attacked Houllier with chants of "we want Houllier out" and "you don't know what you're doing", before giving a chorus of boos at the final whistle.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: On 20 April, Houllier was admitted to hospital after falling ill during the night. His condition was said to be stable, but he was not able to be at Aston Villa's training session the following day, and was not able to attend their match against Stoke City on 23 April, or any subsequent matches of the 2010–11 season. Gary McAllister took charge of all first team affairs in his stead. On 1 June, Houllier stepped down as manager of Aston Villa by mutual consent. In Houllier's only season, Villa finished ninth; they have not finished higher since his departure.


title: Gérard Houllier

text: Houllier died on 14 December 2020, aged 73, in Paris after a heart operation. Former Liverpool captain Steven Gerrard paid tribute to Houllier, saying, "He was more than just a manager" and that he shaped him into "a better player, a better person, a better leader".


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to formulate such models in the 19th century.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: A continuum model assumes that the substance of the object fills the space it occupies. Modeling objects in this way ignores the fact that matter is made of atoms, and so is not continuous; however, on length scales much greater than that of inter-atomic distances, such models are highly accurate. These models can be used to derive differential equations that describe the behavior of such objects using physical laws, such as mass conservation, momentum conservation, and energy conservation, and some information about the material is provided by constitutive relationships.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Continuum mechanics deals with the physical properties of solids and fluids which are independent of any particular coordinate system in which they are observed. The physical properties are then represented by tensors, which are mathematical objects with the property of being independent of coordinate systems. Coordinate systems allow these tensors to be expressed computationally.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Space separates molecules that make up solids, liquids, and gases. Materials have cracks and discontinuities on a microscopic level. Physical phenomena can, however, be modeled if the materials exist as a continuum, meaning the matter in the body is continuously distributed and fills the entire space it occupies. A continuum is a body that can be continually sub-divided into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk material.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The validity of the continuum assumption may be verified by a theoretical analysis, in which either some clear periodicity is identified or statistical homogeneity and ergodicity of the microstructure exist. More specifically, the continuum hypothesis/assumption hinges on the concepts of a representative elementary volume and separation of scales based on the Hill–Mandel condition. This condition provides a link between an experimentalist's and a theoretician's viewpoint on constitutive equations (linear and nonlinear elastic/inelastic or coupled fields) as well as a way of spatial and statistical averaging of the microstructure.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: When the separation of scales does not hold, or when one wants to establish a continuum of a finer resolution than the size of the representative volume element (RVE), a statistical volume element (SVE) is employed, which results in random continuum fields. The latter then provide a micromechanics basis for stochastic finite elements (SFE). The levels of SVE and RVE link continuum mechanics to statistical mechanics. Experimentally, the RVE can only be evaluated when the constitutive response is spatially homogenous


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Somewhat surprisingly, and in a tribute to its effectiveness, continuum mechanics effectively models the movement of cars via a partial differential equation (PDE) for the density of cars.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The familiarity of this situation empowers us to understand a little of the continuum-discrete dichotomy underlying continuum modelling in general.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: To start modelling define that: formula_1 measures distance (in km) along the highway; formula_2 is time (in minutes); formula_3 is the density of cars on the highway (in cars/km in the lane); and formula_4 is the flow velocity (average velocity) of those cars 'at' position formula_1.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Consider any group of cars: from the particular car at the back of the group located at formula_6 to the particular car at the front located at formula_7.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Since cars are conserved (if there is overtaking, then the 'car at the front / back' may become a different car) formula_9.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The only way an integral can be zero for all intervals is if the integrand is zero for all formula_1.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: This conservation PDE applies not only to car traffic but also to fluids, solids, crowds, animals, plants, bushfires, financial traders, and so on.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The previous PDE is one equation with two unknowns, so another equation is needed to form a well-posed problem. Such an extra equation is typically needed in continuum mechanics and typically comes from experiments. For car traffic it is well established that cars typically travel at a speed depending upon density, formula_14 for some experimentally determined function formula_15 that is a decreasing function of density. For example, experiments in the Lincoln Tunnel found that a good fit (except at low density) is obtained by formula_16 (km/hr for density in cars/km).


title: Continuum mechanics

text: An additional area of continuum mechanics comprises elastomeric foams, which exhibit a curious hyperbolic stress-strain relationship. The elastomer is a true continuum, but a homogeneous distribution of voids gives it unusual properties.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Continuum mechanics models begin by assigning a region in three-dimensional Euclidean space to the material body formula_19 being modeled. The points within this region are called particles or material points. Different "configurations" or states of the body correspond to different regions in Euclidean space. The region corresponding to the body's configuration at time formula_2 is labeled formula_21.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: A particular particle within the body in a particular configuration is characterized by a position vector


title: Continuum mechanics

text: where formula_23 are the coordinate vectors in some frame of reference chosen for the problem (See figure 1). This vector can be expressed as a function of the particle position formula_24 in some "reference configuration", for example the configuration at the initial time, so that


title: Continuum mechanics

text: This function needs to have various properties so that the model makes physical sense. formula_26 needs to be:


title: Continuum mechanics

text: For the mathematical formulation of the model, formula_26 is also assumed to be twice continuously differentiable, so that differential equations describing the motion may be formulated.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Continuum mechanics deals with deformable bodies, as opposed to rigid bodies. A solid is a deformable body that possesses shear strength, "sc." a solid can support shear forces (forces parallel to the material surface on which they act). Fluids, on the other hand, do not sustain shear forces. For the study of the mechanical behavior of solids and fluids these are assumed to be continuous bodies, which means that the matter fills the entire region of space it occupies, despite the fact that matter is made of atoms, has voids, and is discrete. Therefore, when continuum mechanics refers to a point or particle in a continuous body it does not describe a point in the interatomic space or an atomic particle, rather an idealized part of the body occupying that point.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Following the classical dynamics of Newton and Euler, the motion of a material body is produced by the action of externally applied forces which are assumed to be of two kinds: surface forces formula_28 and body forces formula_29. Thus, the total force formula_30 applied to a body or to a portion of the body can be expressed as:


title: Continuum mechanics

text: "Surface forces" or "contact forces", expressed as force per unit area, can act either on the bounding surface of the body, as a result of mechanical contact with other bodies, or on imaginary internal surfaces that bound portions of the body, as a result of the mechanical interaction between the parts of the body to either side of the surface (Euler-Cauchy's stress principle). When a body is acted upon by external contact forces, internal contact forces are then transmitted from point to point inside the body to balance their action, according to Newton's third law of motion of conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum (for continuous bodies these laws are called the Euler's equations of motion). The internal contact forces are related to the body's deformation through constitutive equations. The internal contact forces may be mathematically described by how they relate to the motion of the body, independent of the body's material makeup.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The distribution of internal contact forces throughout the volume of the body is assumed to be continuous. Therefore, there exists a "contact force density" or "Cauchy traction field" formula_32 that represents this distribution in a particular configuration of the body at a given time formula_33. It is not a vector field because it depends not only on the position formula_34 of a particular material point, but also on the local orientation of the surface element as defined by its normal vector formula_35.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Any differential area formula_36 with normal vector formula_35 of a given internal surface area formula_38, bounding a portion of the body, experiences a contact force formula_39 arising from the contact between both portions of the body on each side of formula_38, and it is given by


title: Continuum mechanics

text: where formula_42 is the "surface traction", also called "stress vector", "traction", or "traction vector". The stress vector is a frame-indifferent vector (see Euler-Cauchy's stress principle).


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The total contact force on the particular internal surface formula_38 is then expressed as the sum (surface integral) of the contact forces on all differential surfaces formula_36:


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In continuum mechanics a body is considered stress-free if the only forces present are those inter-atomic forces (ionic, metallic, and van der Waals forces) required to hold the body together and to keep its shape in the absence of all external influences, including gravitational attraction. Stresses generated during manufacture of the body to a specific configuration are also excluded when considering stresses in a body. Therefore, the stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only those produced by deformation of the body, "sc." only relative changes in stress are considered, not the absolute values of stress.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: "Body forces" are forces originating from sources outside of the body that act on the volume (or mass) of the body. Saying that body forces are due to outside sources implies that the interaction between different parts of the body (internal forces) are manifested through the contact forces alone. These forces arise from the presence of the body in force fields, "e.g." gravitational field (gravitational forces) or electromagnetic field (electromagnetic forces), or from inertial forces when bodies are in motion. As the mass of a continuous body is assumed to be continuously distributed, any force originating from the mass is also continuously distributed. Thus, body forces are specified by vector fields which are assumed to be continuous over the entire volume of the body, "i.e." acting on every point in it. Body forces are represented by a body force density formula_46 (per unit of mass), which is a frame-indifferent vector field.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In the case of gravitational forces, the intensity of the force depends on, or is proportional to, the mass density formula_47 of the material, and it is specified in terms of force per unit mass (formula_48) or per unit volume (formula_49). These two specifications are related through the material density by the equation formula_50. Similarly, the intensity of electromagnetic forces depends upon the strength (electric charge) of the electromagnetic field.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Body forces and contact forces acting on the body lead to corresponding moments of force (torques) relative to a given point. Thus, the total applied torque formula_52 about the origin is given by


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In certain situations, not commonly considered in the analysis of the mechanical behavior of materials, it becomes necessary to include two other types of forces: these are "couple stresses" (surface couples, contact torques) and "body moments". Couple stresses are moments per unit area applied on a surface. Body moments, or body couples, are moments per unit volume or per unit mass applied to the volume of the body. Both are important in the analysis of stress for a polarized dielectric solid under the action of an electric field, materials where the molecular structure is taken into consideration ("e.g." bones), solids under the action of an external magnetic field, and the dislocation theory of metals.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Materials that exhibit body couples and couple stresses in addition to moments produced exclusively by forces are called "polar materials". "Non-polar materials" are then those materials with only moments of forces. In the classical branches of continuum mechanics the development of the theory of stresses is based on non-polar materials.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Thus, the sum of all applied forces and torques (with respect to the origin of the coordinate system) in the body can be given by


title: Continuum mechanics

text: A change in the configuration of a continuum body results in a displacement. The displacement of a body has two components: a rigid-body displacement and a deformation. A rigid-body displacement consists of a simultaneous translation and rotation of the body without changing its shape or size. Deformation implies the change in shape and/or size of the body from an initial or undeformed configuration formula_56 to a current or deformed configuration formula_21 (Figure 2).


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The motion of a continuum body is a continuous time sequence of displacements. Thus, the material body will occupy different configurations at different times so that a particle occupies a series of points in space which describe a path line.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: It is convenient to identify a reference configuration or initial condition which all subsequent configurations are referenced from. The reference configuration need not be one that the body will ever occupy. Often, the configuration at formula_58 is considered the reference configuration, formula_59. The components formula_60 of the position vector formula_24 of a particle, taken with respect to the reference configuration, are called the material or reference coordinates.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: When analyzing the motion or deformation of solids, or the flow of fluids, it is necessary to describe the sequence or evolution of configurations throughout time. One description for motion is made in terms of the material or referential coordinates, called material description or Lagrangian description.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In the Lagrangian description the position and physical properties of the particles are described in terms of the material or referential coordinates and time. In this case the reference configuration is the configuration at formula_58. An observer standing in the frame of reference observes the changes in the position and physical properties as the material body moves in space as time progresses. The results obtained are independent of the choice of initial time and reference configuration, formula_56. This description is normally used in solid mechanics.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In the Lagrangian description, the motion of a continuum body is expressed by the mapping function formula_64 (Figure 2),


title: Continuum mechanics

text: which is a mapping of the initial configuration formula_56 onto the current configuration formula_21, giving a geometrical correspondence between them, i.e. giving the position vector formula_68 that a particle formula_69, with a position vector formula_24 in the undeformed or reference configuration formula_56, will occupy in the current or deformed configuration formula_21 at time formula_2. The components formula_74 are called the spatial coordinates.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Physical and kinematic properties formula_75, i.e. thermodynamic properties and flow velocity, which describe or characterize features of the material body, are expressed as continuous functions of position and time, i.e. formula_76.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The material derivative of any property formula_75 of a continuum, which may be a scalar, vector, or tensor, is the time rate of change of that property for a specific group of particles of the moving continuum body. The material derivative is also known as the "substantial derivative", or "comoving derivative", or "convective derivative". It can be thought as the rate at which the property changes when measured by an observer traveling with that group of particles.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In the Lagrangian description, the material derivative of formula_75 is simply the partial derivative with respect to time, and the position vector formula_24 is held constant as it does not change with time. Thus, we have


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The instantaneous position formula_34 is a property of a particle, and its material derivative is the "instantaneous flow velocity" formula_82 of the particle. Therefore, the flow velocity field of the continuum is given by


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Continuity in the Lagrangian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity of the mapping from the reference configuration to the current configuration of the material points. All physical quantities characterizing the continuum are described this way. In this sense, the function formula_64 and formula_86 are single-valued and continuous, with continuous derivatives with respect to space and time to whatever order is required, usually to the second or third.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Continuity allows for the inverse of formula_64 to trace backwards where the particle currently located at formula_34 was located in the initial or referenced configuration formula_56. In this case the description of motion is made in terms of the spatial coordinates, in which case is called the spatial description or Eulerian description, i.e. the current configuration is taken as the reference configuration.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The Eulerian description, introduced by d'Alembert, focuses on the current configuration formula_21, giving attention to what is occurring at a fixed point in space as time progresses, instead of giving attention to individual particles as they move through space and time. This approach is conveniently applied in the study of fluid flow where the kinematic property of greatest interest is the rate at which change is taking place rather than the shape of the body of fluid at a reference time.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Mathematically, the motion of a continuum using the Eulerian description is expressed by the mapping function


title: Continuum mechanics

text: which provides a tracing of the particle which now occupies the position formula_34 in the current configuration formula_21 to its original position formula_24 in the initial configuration formula_56.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: A necessary and sufficient condition for this inverse function to exist is that the determinant of the Jacobian Matrix, often referred to simply as the Jacobian, should be different from zero. Thus,


title: Continuum mechanics

text: where the functional form of formula_99 in the Lagrangian description is not the same as the form of formula_100 in the Eulerian description.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The first term on the right-hand side of this equation gives the "local rate of change" of the property formula_101 occurring at position formula_34. The second term of the right-hand side is the "convective rate of change" and expresses the contribution of the particle changing position in space (motion).


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Continuity in the Eulerian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity and continuous differentiability of the flow velocity field. All physical quantities are defined this way at each instant of time, in the current configuration, as a function of the vector position formula_34.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The vector joining the positions of a particle formula_106 in the undeformed configuration and deformed configuration is called the displacement vector formula_107, in the Lagrangian description, or formula_108, in the Eulerian description.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: A "displacement field" is a vector field of all displacement vectors for all particles in the body, which relates the deformed configuration with the undeformed configuration. It is convenient to do the analysis of deformation or motion of a continuum body in terms of the displacement field, In general, the displacement field is expressed in terms of the material coordinates as


title: Continuum mechanics

text: where formula_111 are the direction cosines between the material and spatial coordinate systems with unit vectors formula_112 and formula_23, respectively. Thus


title: Continuum mechanics

text: It is common to superimpose the coordinate systems for the undeformed and deformed configurations, which results in formula_120, and the direction cosines become Kronecker deltas, i.e.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Continuum mechanics deals with the behavior of materials that can be approximated as continuous for certain length and time scales. The equations that govern the mechanics of such materials include the balance laws for mass, momentum, and energy. Kinematic relations and constitutive equations are needed to complete the system of governing equations. Physical restrictions on the form of the constitutive relations can be applied by requiring that the second law of thermodynamics be satisfied under all conditions. In the continuum mechanics of solids, the second law of thermodynamics is satisfied if the Clausius–Duhem form of the entropy inequality is satisfied.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The balance laws express the idea that the rate of change of a quantity (mass, momentum, energy) in a volume must arise from three causes:


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Let formula_124 be the body (an open subset of Euclidean space) and let formula_125 be its surface (the boundary of formula_124).


title: Continuum mechanics

text: where formula_128 is the position of a point in the initial configuration and formula_129 is the location of the same point in the deformed configuration.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Let formula_131 be a physical quantity that is flowing through the body. Let formula_132 be sources on the surface of the body and let formula_133 be sources inside the body. Let formula_134 be the outward unit normal to the surface formula_125. Let formula_136 be the flow velocity of the physical particles that carry the physical quantity that is flowing. Also, let the speed at which the bounding surface formula_125 is moving be formula_138 (in the direction formula_139).


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The functions formula_131, formula_132, and formula_133 can be scalar valued, vector valued, or tensor valued - depending on the physical quantity that the balance equation deals with. If there are internal boundaries in the body, jump discontinuities also need to be specified in the balance laws.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: If we take the Eulerian point of view, it can be shown that the balance laws of mass, momentum, and energy for a solid can be written as (assuming the source term is zero for the mass and angular momentum equations)


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In the above equations formula_145 is the mass density (current), formula_146 is the material time derivative of formula_147, formula_136 is the particle velocity, formula_149 is the material time derivative of formula_150, formula_151 is the Cauchy stress tensor, formula_152 is the body force density, formula_153 is the internal energy per unit mass, formula_154 is the material time derivative of formula_155, formula_156 is the heat flux vector, and formula_157 is an energy source per unit mass.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: With respect to the reference configuration (the Lagrangian point of view), the balance laws can be written as


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In the above, formula_159 is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, and formula_160 is the mass density in the reference configuration. The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is related to the Cauchy stress tensor by


title: Continuum mechanics

text: We can alternatively define the nominal stress tensor formula_162 which is the transpose of the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor such that


title: Continuum mechanics

text: where formula_150 is a vector field, formula_167 is a second-order tensor field, and formula_168 are the components of an orthonormal basis in the current configuration. Also,


title: Continuum mechanics

text: where formula_150 is a vector field, formula_167 is a second-order tensor field, and formula_172 are the components of an orthonormal basis in the reference configuration.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The Clausius–Duhem inequality can be used to express the second law of thermodynamics for elastic-plastic materials. This inequality is a statement concerning the irreversibility of natural processes, especially when energy dissipation is involved.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Just like in the balance laws in the previous section, we assume that there is a flux of a quantity, a source of the quantity, and an internal density of the quantity per unit mass. The quantity of interest in this case is the entropy. Thus, we assume that there is an entropy flux, an entropy source, an internal mass density formula_147 and an internal specific entropy (i.e. entropy per unit mass) formula_175 in the region of interest.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Let formula_124 be such a region and let formula_125 be its boundary. Then the second law of thermodynamics states that the rate of increase of formula_175 in this region is greater than or equal to the sum of that supplied to formula_124 (as a flux or from internal sources) and the change of the internal entropy density formula_180 due to material flowing in and out of the region.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: Let formula_125 move with a flow velocity formula_138 and let particles inside formula_124 have velocities formula_150. Let formula_139 be the unit outward normal to the surface formula_125. Let formula_147 be the density of matter in the region, formula_188 be the entropy flux at the surface, and formula_189 be the entropy source per unit mass.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: The scalar entropy flux can be related to the vector flux at the surface by the relation formula_191. Under the assumption of incrementally isothermal conditions, we have


title: Continuum mechanics

text: where formula_193 is the heat flux vector, formula_194 is an energy source per unit mass, and formula_195 is the absolute temperature of a material point at formula_129 at time formula_2.


title: Continuum mechanics

text: In terms of the Cauchy stress and the internal energy, the Clausius–Duhem inequality may be written as


title: Inside the World's Toughest Prisons

text: Inside the World's Toughest Prisons is a television documentary series produced by London-based Emporium Productions and available on Netflix. The documentary shows life in 19 prisons around the world, mostly from the prisoner perspective but also including the perspective of prison guards and others interacting with the prison system. Season 1 was hosted by Irish journalist Paul Connolly and originally aired on Channel 5 (UK). Since the second season, the series has been commissioned by Netflix and hosted by UK journalist Raphael Rowe, who had himself served 12 years in prison for a crime he was eventually acquitted of. The series's sixth season was released on 28 September 2022.


title: Inside the World's Toughest Prisons

text: Season 1, hosted by Paul Connolly, was aired in 2016 on Channel 5 in the United Kingdom. It is now available on Netflix along with Seasons 2, 3, 4 and 5.


title: Pashtunwali

text: Pashtunwali or Pakhtunwali () is the traditional lifestyle and is best described as a code of honor of the Pashtun people, by which they live. Scholars widely have interpreted it as being "the way of the Afghans" or "the code of life". Pashtunwali is widely practised by Pashtuns in the Pashtun dominated regions.


title: Pashtunwali

text: The native Pashtun tribes, often described as fiercely independent people, have inhabited the Pashtunistan region (eastern Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan) since at least the 1st millennium BC. During that period, much of their mountainous territory has remained outside government rule or control. Pashtun resistance to outside rule and the terrain they reside in is sometimes speculated to be why Indigenous Pashtuns still follow the "code of life".


title: Pashtunwali

text: Pashtunwali rules are accepted in Afghanistan and Pakistan, and also in some Pashtun communities around the world. Some non-Pashtun Afghans and others have also adopted its ideology or practices for their own benefit. Conversely, many urbanized Pashtuns tend to ignore the rules of Pashtunwali. Passed on from generation to generation, Pashtunwali guides both individual and communal conduct. Practiced by the majority of Pashtuns, it helps to promote Pashtunization.


title: Pashtunwali

text: Pashtuns embrace an ancient traditional, spiritual, and communal identity tied to a set of moral codes and rules of behaviour, as well as to a record of history spanning some seventeen hundred years.


title: Pashtunwali

text: Pashtunwali promotes self-respect, independence, justice, hospitality, love, forgiveness, revenge and tolerance toward all (especially to strangers or guests). It is considered to be the personal responsibility of every Pashtun to discover and rediscover Pashtunwali's essence and meaning.


title: Pashtunwali

text: Pashtuns are organised into tribal or extended family groups often led by a "Khan" (a wealthy and influential leader from the group).


title: Pashtunwali

text: Disputes within clans are settled by a jirga (traditionally a tribal assembly involving all adult males).


title: Pashtunwali

text: In times of foreign invasion, Pashtuns have been known to unite under a Pashtun religious leaders such as Saidullah Baba in the Siege of Malakand and even under Pashtána female leaders such as Malalai of Maiwand in the Battle of Maiwand.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: Tiffany Ann Cole (born December 3, 1981) is an American convicted murderer who was found guilty of the kidnapping and first-degree murder of a Duval County, Florida husband and wife and sentenced to death. Also found guilty in the case were three men: Alan Wade; Bruce Nixon; and Cole's boyfriend, Michael Jackson. Prosecutors said Cole and the three men developed a plan to kidnap and kill the couple to steal their money, and dug a grave for them in Charlton County, Georgia, two days before knocking on their door and asking to use the phone. As of February 2015, Cole is the third youngest woman on death row in the United States; she was 26 at the time of her conviction.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: Tiffany Cole was a familiar face to Carol and Reggie Sumner since her family had been neighbors to the 61-year-old couple in South Carolina. When the Sumners moved to Jacksonville, Florida, in March 2005, they sold a car to Cole. Cole agreed to make monthly payments and often drove to Jacksonville with friends.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: In June 2005, Cole and her new boyfriend, Michael James Jackson, drove to Jacksonville to complete the paperwork on the car. While there, they stayed at the Sumner home. While staying with the couple, Jackson began hatching a plan to rob the couple and steal money from their bank accounts.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: In early July 2005, Tiffany Cole, Michael Jackson, and two other men, Alan Wade and Bruce Nixon, drove to the Sumners' home. Wade and Nixon went to the door and asked to use the phone. Once inside, Wade and Nixon attacked. The Sumners were bound and gagged with duct tape, put into the trunk of their Lincoln Town Car, and driven across the border to a remote part of Georgia. Cole and Jackson traveled separately in their car, planning to get deliberately pulled over for speeding if the police got too close to the Lincoln. Once in Georgia, the Sumners were forced to reveal the personal identification numbers of their bank accounts. The couple, blindfolded and bound, was pushed into a pre-dug grave and buried alive by Wade and Nixon.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: Cole subsequently pawned jewelry and other items stolen from the Sumners' home, and the ATM card was used to obtain more than $1000 in cash. Three of the group were tracked back to a hotel in South Carolina by the use of the ATM card and arrested there. After being arrested Nixon willingly led police to the Sumners' grave, revealing that both victims had managed to free themselves of their bonds, but could only manage to hug each other in their final moments before they died.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: At Cole's week-long trial in October 2007, the jury deliberated for less than 90 minutes before finding her guilty of first-degree murder. They voted 9-3 that she should receive the death penalty. Evidence included photos of Cole and two co-defendants in a limousine, celebrating with champagne and handfuls of cash.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: Five months later, a judge handed down two death sentences for the murders, and a sentence of life in prison for the kidnappings. She awaits execution at Lowell Correctional Institution Annex.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: Cole is one of three women currently on Florida's death row, the others being Margaret Allen and Tina Brown, each sentenced to death in unrelated murders.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: Wade and Jackson also received death sentences. Nixon, who had led police to the bodies and testified against the others, pleaded guilty to second-degree murder and was sentenced to 45 years in prison.


title: Tiffany Cole

text: In 2017, the Florida Supreme Court ordered new sentencing hearings for Cole, Wade, and Jackson, because their juries had not unanimously recommended the death penalty. A 2016 U.S Supreme Court ruling, "Hurst v. Florida", found that Florida's prior law permitting non-unanimous jury verdicts in death penalty cases violated the Sixth Amendment, prompting Florida to resentence more than 150 convicted felons. In July 2022, Wade was resentenced to life in prison with no chance of parole. A resentencing hearing for Cole won't happen until February 2023.