title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: The album received generally favourable reviews from contemporary music critics, many of whom appreciated the album's combination of melodic song craft and catchy, pop-oriented material that, while slickly produced, avoided the commercial cynicism and adult contemporary posturing of some of their '80s and '90s forebears. The album bowed at number two on the UK Albums Chart and ultimately became the UK's fastest-selling debut album of 2011. "Up All Night" debuted to number one on the United States "Billboard" 200, selling 176,000 copies in its first week. "Up All Night" was an international success, the album topped the charts in sixteen countries. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "Up All Night" was the third global best-selling album of 2012 with sales of 4.5 million copies worldwide.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: One Direction finished 2012 with two of that year's top five best-selling albums in the United States; "Up All Night" at number three and their second studio album, "Take Me Home", at number five, making the boy band the first act to place two albums in the year-end top five in the Nielsen SoundScan era. In addition, "Up All Night" became the best-selling album by a group and the third best-selling debut album of 2012. Four singles were released from the album, including the UK Singles Chart top ten hits "What Makes You Beautiful", "Gotta Be You", and "One Thing". To promote the album, the band performed on many TV shows and awards ceremonies, including the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards. Furthermore, One Direction embarked on their first headlining concert tour, the Up All Night Tour. Footage from this concert was recorded and released on a live album, entitled .


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: After being formed and finishing third in the seventh series of "The X Factor" in 2010, One Direction were signed by Simon Cowell to a £2 million Syco Records record contract. Recording for their debut album began in January 2011, as they flew to Los Angeles to work with Moroccan-Swedish producer RedOne. In February 2011, One Direction and nine other contestants from the series participated in the "X Factor" Live Tour. After the tour concluded in April 2011, the group continued working on their debut album. Recording took place in Sweden, the United States, and the United Kingdom, as One Direction worked with producers Carl Falk, Savan Kotecha, Steve Mac, RedOne, Toby Gad and Rami Yacoub, among others. The album also features songs written by Ed Sheeran, Kelly Clarkson, and Tom Fletcher. In May 2011, Kotecha spoke to "Digital Spy", and he elaborated that One Direction were "experimenting" with sounds on their debut album. Kotecha said that he was involved in the "early stages" of producing the record. "The stuff I've heard has been really catchy and everyone loves the guys, so it's just about capturing that in the music, which I think is what they're going to be doing." Sonny Takhar, the chief executive officer of Syco Records, in an August 2011 issue of "Music Week", described the recording process as a "very intensive period" for the group. Takhar added the resulting album was one of the best pop records made by Syco Records in the past few years, and that he was confident it would be successful. In November 2011, they signed a record deal with Columbia Records in North America. Steve Barnett, the co-chairman of Columbia Records, said it was not a difficult decision to sign with One Direction. "Other artists in that category had gotten a little older," he said. "I just thought there was a void, and maybe they could seize and hold it."


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: "Up All Night" is predominately a pop music record which orientates into elements of the dance-pop, teen pop, pop rock and power pop genres, with electropop and rock music influences. Instrumentation throughout the record is provided by guitar strings, drums and a piano. The album opens with lead single "What Makes You Beautiful", an uptempo teen pop and power pop song. The opening guitar riff has been noted as similar to that of "Grease" single "Summer Nights". "What Makes You Beautiful" has a guitar-based chorus; Digital Spy's Robert Copsey likened it to a cross between Pink's "Raise Your Glass" and McFly's "All About You". It also contains cowbell instrumentation, and the middle eight consists of an "oh na na na" hook. The second song on the album, as well as the second single, "Gotta Be You", is a mid-tempo pop rock ballad. Set in an orchestral arrangement, its instrumentation includes a guitar, piano lines, and abundant strings. The chorus of the song opens with falsettos that are followed by vocal harmonies.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: The third single from the album, "One Thing", is an upbeat pop rock song. The song has a "plucky" guitar riff and a "forceful" chorus with Lewis Corner of Digital Spy dubbing it "arena-ready". The song's melody has been noted for similarities between Backstreet Boys song "I Want It That Way". The fourth song on the album and fourth single, "More than This", is a pop ballad. "More than This" contains sounds of synthesizers. The fifth song on the album, title track "Up All Night", is an uptempo electropop and dance-pop song. Lyrically, the song is a party-anthem, with the Katy Perry name-check in the chorus being noted by various publications. The sixth cut, "I Wish", is a mid-tempo pop ballad. The song's lyrical tone has been compared to Robyn's "Dancing on My Own". The seventh song, "Tell Me a Lie", is an uptempo pop rock song which features prominent guitar instrumentation and pulsating beats. The song was originally intended for Kelly Clarkson's album "Stronger" (2011). Clarkson spoke to Capital FM on how she was proud of the end result. "It's a really cute song, I love it. I loved that they liked it. They sound really great on it. I already have it – I'm so VIP with my copy on my computer! It does sound really good."


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: The eighth track, "Taken", is a guitar-driven pop ballad. Lyrically, the song is about heartbreak and relationships. The ninth cut, "I Want", is an uptempo pop rock song which features a prominent piano line. This song was co written by The Vaccines. The tenth song on the album, "Everything About You", is an uptempo teen pop and electro pop song. The eleventh song on the album, "Same Mistakes", is a mid-tempo pop song, which utilizes piano lines, synthesizers and percussions. The twelfth track, "Save You Tonight", is an uptempo synthpop song, and has a retro sound and arrangement. The thirteenth song, final song on the standard edition, "Stole My Heart", is an uptempo dance-pop track which has been noted for similarities between Taio Cruz's hit 2010 single "Dynamite". The first cut on the deluxe edition and overall fourteenth song on the album, "Stand Up", is an uptempo electropop and pop rock song. The second and final song on the deluxe edition, and fifteenth overall, "Moments", is a mid-tempo pop ballad. Instrumentation includes a gently strummed guitar and intermediate piano lines. The song's lyrics revolve around an unrequited love. During the album's UK launch in late 2011, Tomlinson referred to the song as his favourite track on the album.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: "Up All Night" was made available on CD and digital download in two editions: the deluxe edition, in hard form shape of a yearbook, features a book-sized collection of photos, quotes, and lyrics from the five members of One Direction, and two extra songs: "Stand Up" and "Moments". The album was released by Syco Records in Ireland and the UK on 18 November 2011 and 21 November 2011 respectively. The album was released on 25 November 2011 and 28 November 2011 in Australia and New Zealand respectively. The album was fully released in Europe in early 2012. The album was initially set for release in North America on 23 March 2012 through Columbia Records; however, it was rescheduled for a one-week earlier release on 13 March 2012 with Columbia Records releasing a statement: "due to overwhelming fan demand, their debut album will be released one week early on 13 March 2012."


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: For the North American release on 13 March 2012, Columbia Records executives used social media to shape its marketing campaign. Columbia Records co-chairman Steve Barnett and his team decided to reverse the usual pattern of releasing a single on the radio. Instead, the label mounted a four-month marketing campaign aimed at building a fan base through social media before a single was ever released or played on the radio. The social media campaign asked fans to sign petitions and to enter video competitions to win a concert in their town. The campaign was a success as One Direction's Facebook followers in the United States rose from 40,000 to 400,000. "What Makes You Beautiful" sold more than 131,000 copies in its first week, even though it had yet to be played on the radio. Radio programmers were flooded with calls from fans. Johnny Wright, who managed New Kids on the Block, Backstreet Boys and 'N Sync, said: "Now they are calling the radio station, and the radio station is scratching its head, saying, 'We don't even have that record yet,’. It's almost like the return of The Beatles. I call it hype, but it's positive hype because it's all real. It's not manufactured. No one paid these kids."


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: One Direction performed "What Makes You Beautiful" on "Red or Black?" on 10 September 2011. The performance started with hosts Ant & Dec announcing that the band was supposedly running late for their appearance, and cut to a video of One Direction boarding a London Tube carriage full of fans, as the studio version of the song began playing. Each fan on the tube was given a numbered ticket. The band and fans disembarked the tube and made their way to the television studio, where the remainder of the song was sung live. After the song, Styles caught a numbered ticket raining onstage. The number corresponded to a ticket held by a fan from the tube; the colour of the fan's shirt was the correct answer for the "Red or Black?" challenge. The band performed "What Makes You Beautiful" and its B-side, "Na Na Na", at the BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards on 9 October 2011. The band also performed the song to open telethon "Children in Need 2011" on 19 November 2011. One Direction performed "Gotta Be You", "One Thing", and "What Makes You Beautiful" at Capital FM's "Jingle Bell Ball" on 4 December 2011, at The O Arena. They performed a medley of "She Makes Me Wanna" and "What Makes You Beautiful" with JLS on "The X Factor" eighth series final on 10 December 2011. The group performed "One Thing" and "What Makes You Beautiful" on "Dancing on Ice" on 5 February 2012.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: In Italy, the group performed "What Makes You Beautiful" at the 2012 Sanremo Music Festival on 14 February 2012. In France, they performed "What Makes You Beautiful" and "One Thing" on "Le Grand Journal" on 22 February 2012. In the United States, One Direction performed "What Makes You Beautiful", "More than This" and "One Thing" on "The Today Show" at the Rockefeller Center on 12 March 2012. An estimated 15,000 fans descended on the plaza. They also performed "What Makes You Beautiful" at the 2012 Kids' Choice Awards on 31 March 2012. One Direction performed "What Makes You Beautiful" and "One Thing" on comedy television show "Saturday Night Live" and also appeared in a comedy sketch with Sofía Vergara on 7 April 2012. In Australia, they performed "One Thing" and "What Makes You Beautiful" at the 54th Logie Awards, where they also presented an award for "Most Popular New Female Talent" on 15 April 2012. On 12 August 2012, One Direction performed "What Makes You Beautiful" at the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony in London, which represented the handover to Rio de Janeiro as the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: One Direction's debut headline UK concert tour, the Up All Night Tour, was officially announced on 27 September 2011. The tour began on 18 December 2011 in Watford, England and ended 26 January 2012 in Belfast, Northern Ireland. Shows in the UK and Ireland were an instant success—many rumored to have sold out in under 10 seconds. In February 2012, One Direction announced an Australasia leg, the tour dates set for April 2012, set to visit cities Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Auckland and Wellington. Once the first leg of the tour was complete, the band joined Big Time Rush as an opening act on the "Better With U Tour". On 21 March 2012, One Direction announced an extended North American leg of the tour. The North American leg was set to start on 24 May 2012 and comprise 26 shows. Shortly after the announcement, British recording artist Olly Murs was confirmed to be the opening act for select dates on tour. On the tour, One Direction covered Kings of Leon's "Use Somebody", Gym Class Heroes' "Stereo Hearts", The Zutons' "Valerie", Ednaswap's "Torn" and The Black Eyed Peas' "I Gotta Feeling". A recording of their tour, entitled "", was released in late May 2012.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: "Up All Night" yielded four singles. The lead single, "What Makes You Beautiful", was released in September 2011 and debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart, after becoming the most pre-ordered Sony Music Entertainment single in history and selling 153,965 copies in its first week. The single also topped the Irish and Scottish Singles Charts, and reached the top ten on the Australian and New Zealand Singles Charts, Flemish Ultratop 50, Canadian Hot 100, Japan Hot 100 and the United States "Billboard" Hot 100. "What Makes You Beautiful" was released by Columbia Records in the United States on 14 February 2012. In the US, the single became the highest "Billboard" Hot 100 debut for a British act since 1998, when it debuted at number 28. It peaked at number 4 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and also became a chart success on other "Billboard" charts, reaching the top five on the Pop Songs, Adult Pop Songs, and Hot 100 Airplay charts, whilst topping the Hot Dance Club Songs chart. The track sold 3,881,000 copies in the United States in 2012, becoming the best-selling song by a boy band in digital history. With over 5 million copies sold worldwide, it is among the best-selling singles of all time. At the 2012 BRIT Awards, the song won the BRIT Award for Best British Single.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: "Gotta Be You" was released as the album's second single in Ireland and the United Kingdom in November 2011. The second single peaked on both the Irish and UK Singles Charts at number three. "One Thing" was released on 6 January 2012 as the second single in various European countries and in the UK as the third single on 13 February 2012. The song also served as the album's second single in the United States being sent to US contemporary hit radio (CHR) playlists on 22 May 2012. The single peaked at number six and nine on the Irish and UK Singles Charts respectively, becoming the third consecutive top ten single for One Direction in Ireland and the UK. "One Thing" was One Direction's second best-selling song in the UK by August 2012, denoting sales of 154,000 copies. In Australia, One Direction became the second act of 2012 to have two singles in the top ten simultaneously with "One Thing" at number 3 and "What Makes You Beautiful" at number 10. "One Thing" peaked at number 39 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The track was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on 21 September 2012, denoting sales of 1,000,000 copies. "More than This" was confirmed to be released as the fourth single by Sony Music Australia in early May 2012. Released digitally on 25 May 2012, the final single failed to replicate the success of its predecessors, charting in lower regions on the singles charts in Australia, Ireland, and the United Kingdom.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: "Up All Night" received generally positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 64, which indicates "generally favourable reviews". AllMusic's Matthew Chisling commended the album for its appeal to the teenage audience, "limitless potential for the time being, this is a perfectly sized, and targeted, collection." "PopMatters" Zachary Houle called the album a "laudable addition to the boy band pantheon" and a "well-crafted slice of pop you can pop bubbles to". Digital Spy's Robert Copsey commended the album for "a collection of pg pop rock with killer choruses" and summarised it as "an adorable as expected debut with a surprising amount of bite". "Cosmopolitan" Sophie Goddard lauded the album for a collection of "toe-tappers that are just impossible to dislike".


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: In a detailed review, Jason Lipshutz from "Billboard" wrote, ["Up All Night"] demonstrates an originality in sound that was necessary for the revitalization of the boy band movement. The electropop currently dominating Top 40 radio is seamlessly weaved into the pop harmonies made standards by 'N Sync, Backstreet Boys and 98 Degrees -- for instance, the title track sounds like a hybrid of Backstreet Boys' "Larger than Life" and an LMFAO song, and even includes a Katy Perry name-check. "Up All Night" has its ups and downs, but One Direction complete two important tasks on their debut album: the boy band notches a long-lasting hit with "What Makes You Beautiful," and they look forward instead of back. Get ready to hear a lot more of One Direction. Matthew Horton of "Virgin Media" opined that the album brims with "punchy pop-rock", and considered the dance-orientated "Stole My Heart": "the only misstep, which only reinforces their decision to go pop-rock." "MSN Music"s Ben Chalk called the album: "manufactured, calculated and commercial", assessing that the resulting album "is a corking pop album". In his review, he also complimented the album for its collection of singles: "'["Up All Night"] is a collection of highly polished pop gems, which knows its market and gives it what it wants". Chris Lopez of "USA Today" wrote that the album is "charmingly innocent" while noting that a majority of the album "emphasizes songs and harmonies over grooves". Judah Joseph of "HuffPost" commented that "obviously, the five have vocal talent" and that the album "is full of surprisingly varied tracks, songs with British accents that somehow managed to sneak in, and a generally over-romantic cheesiness that can only be attributed to a boy band", ending the review by telling the group "to enjoy the immense worldwide success coming your way".


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: In less positive reviews, Jody Rosen of "Rolling Stone" criticised the album for lacking personality. Adam Markovitz of "Entertainment Weekly" perceived that the album "won't help the group earn much respect in music circles. But if a tween-pop empire is what these boys are after, they're definitely headed in the right direction". "The Independent" editor Simon Price gave the album two out of five stars, and in an assessment wrote: "the album consists of fifteen installments of inoffensive daytime radio pop, of which half the songs sound like "I Want It That Way" by the Backstreet Boys, the other half like "Free Fallin'" by Tom Petty, it will sell by the zillion."


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: The album topped the charts in sixteen countries. "Up All Night" became the third best selling album of 2012 globally, selling 4.5 million copies. It entered the UK Albums Chart at number two on 27 November 2011, selling 138,631 copies, becoming the UK's fastest-selling debut album of 2011 and also the fastest selling album of 2011 to miss out on the top spot. The album was kept off the top spot by the first week sales of Rihanna's "Talk That Talk", which sold 163,819 copies. The album became the sixteenth biggest-selling album in the UK of 2011, with 468,000 copies sold. As of 8 December 2012, the album had sold 777,000 copies in the UK. The record became the fifteenth best-selling album in the UK of 2012, with sales of 372,000 copies. It was certified tripled platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) in 2013, denoting shipments of 900,000 copies, and quadruple platinum in 2021. As of November 2014, the album has sold 1,086,434 copies in the UK. The record held the runner-up position for four non-consecutive weeks on the Irish Albums Chart, and was the tenth biggest selling album in 2011 in Ireland. After six months in the Irish Albums Chart top twenty, the album peaked at number one in its twenty-seventh week. The album topped the Australian ARIA Chart for five consecutive weeks, and was certified quintuple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), denoting shipments of 350,000 units. In New Zealand, the album topped New Zealand Albums Chart for three non-consecutive weeks, and was certified triple platinum by Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ), denoting shipments of 45,000 units.


title: Up All Night (One Direction album)

text: The album debuted atop the Italian Albums Chart on the issue dated 16 February 2012. In 2013 it was certified double platinum by Federation of the Italian Music Industry (FIMI), denoting sales of 120,000 units. In Mexico, the album topped the Mexican Albums Chart for twelve non-consecutive weeks, and was finally certified Diamond by the Mexican Recording Industry Association (AMPROFON) in 2019, denoting shipments of 300,000 units. In Canada, the album bowed atop the Canadian Albums Chart with first-week sales of 35,000 copies, which made One Direction the first UK group in Canadian chart history to enter at number one with their debut album, and the first international act to debut at number one in the Nielsen SoundScan era (post 1991) with their debut album. The album has been certified double platinum by Music Canada, denoting shipments of 160,000 units. The album debuted at number one on the United States "Billboard" 200 chart, selling 176,000 copies in its first week, which made One Direction the first UK group in US chart history to debut at number one with their first album, as well as the first number-one album by a boy band in eleven years, since 'N Sync's "Celebrity". They were inducted into the "Guinness World Records" as a result. The album was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on 26 July 2020, denoting shipments of 3,000,000 copies. "Up All Night" also became the first album by a boy band to sell 500,000 digital copies in the US by October 2012. The album has sold over 2.05 million copies in the United States as of August 2015.


title: Hamza

text: Hamza ( "") () is a letter in the Arabic alphabet, representing the glottal stop . Hamza is not one of the 28 "full" letters and owes its existence to historical inconsistencies in the standard writing system. It is derived from the Arabic letter "ʿAyn" (). In the Phoenician and Aramaic alphabets, from which the Arabic alphabet is descended, the glottal stop was expressed by "alif" (), continued by "Alif" (  ) in the Arabic alphabet. However, Alif was used to express both a glottal stop and also a long vowel . In order to indicate that a glottal stop is used, and not a mere vowel, it was added to Alif diacritically. In modern orthography, hamza may also appear on the line, under certain circumstances as though it were a full letter, independent of an Alif.


title: Hamza

text: "Hamza" is derived from the verb "" () meaning 'to prick, goad, drive' or 'to provide (a letter or word) with hamzah'.


title: Hamza

text: The letter hamza () on its own always represents ' (, "the "hamzah" which breaks, ceases or halts", i.e. the broken, cessation, halting"), that is, a phonemic glottal stop unlike the ' (, "the "hamzah" which attaches, connects or joins", i.e. the attachment, connection, joining"), a non-phonemic glottal stop produced automatically only if at the beginning of an utterance, otherwise assimilated. Although the ' can be written as an alif carrying a ' sign (only in the Quran), it is normally indicated by a plain alif without a hamza.


title: Hamza

text: It is not pronounced following a vowel (, "). This event occurs in the definite article or at the beginning of a noun following a preposition or a verb following a relative pronoun. If the definite article "al-" is followed by a sun letter, -"l-" also gives way for the next letter for "lām" is assimilated.


title: Hamza

text: The hamza can be written either alone, as if it were a letter, or with a carrier, when it becomes a diacritic:


title: Hamza

text: The rules for writing hamza differ somewhat between languages even if the writing is based on the Arabic abjad. The following addresses Arabic specifically.


title: Hamza

text: In the Jawi alphabet (Arabic script used to write Malay), hamza is used for various purposes, but is rarely used to denote a glottal stop except in certain Arabic loanwords. The default isolated hamza form () is the second least common form of hamza, whereas another form unique to the Jawi script, the three-quarter high hamza (Malay: hamzah tiga suku) is most commonly used in daily Jawi writing. The three-quarter high hamza itself is used in many cases:


title: Hamza

text: This form, however, has yet to be added to the Unicode Standard as it is in the process of being proposed to the Unicode Consortium. Currently, the only way of writing this form is by using a normal hamza and altering its vertical position.


title: Hamza

text: Hamza above alif is used for prefixed words using the prefixes , , or , where its root word starts with a vowel (such as (), becomes ()). This form as well as hamza below alif are both also in Arabic loanwords where the original spelling has been retained.


title: Hamza

text: The hamza above ya is known as a "housed hamzah" (), and is most commonly used in Arabic loanwords. It is also used for words which repeat or combine ""i"" and ""é"" vowels like ( meaning "taunt") and for denoting a glottal stop in the middle of a word after a consonant such as (subeditor). More commonly, however, it is used for denoting a schwa after the vowels ""i"", ""é"", ""o"", and ""u"" such as (chandelier).


title: Hamza

text: Hamza above waw is completely removed from the Jawi alphabet, and for Arabic loanwords using the letter, it is replaced with a normal waw followed by a three-quarter high hamza instead.


title: Hamza

text: In the Urdu alphabet, hamza does not occur at the initial position over alif since alif is not used as a glottal stop in Urdu. In the middle position, if hamza is surrounded by vowels, it indicates a diphthong between the two vowels. In the middle position, if hamza is surrounded by only one vowel, it takes the sound of that vowel. In the final position hamza is silent or produces a glottal sound, as in Arabic.


title: Hamza

text: In Urdu, hamza usually represents a diphthong between two vowels. It rarely acts like the Arabic hamza except in a few loanwords from Arabic.


title: Hamza

text: Hamza is also added at the last letter of the first word of ezāfe compound to represent -e- if the first word ends with yeh or with he or over bari yeh if it is added at the end of the first word of the ezāfe compound.


title: Hamza

text: Hamza is always written on the line in the middle position unless in waw if that letter is preceded by a non-joiner letter; then, it is seated above waw. Hamza is also seated when written above bari yeh. In the final form, Hamza is written in its full form. In ezāfe, hamza is seated above he, yeh or bari yeh of the first word to represent the -e- of ezāfe compound.


title: Hamza

text: In the Uyghur Arabic alphabet, the hamza is not a distinct letter and is not generally used to denote the glottal stop, but rather to indicate vowels. The hamza is only depicted with vowels in their initial or isolated forms, and only then when the vowel starts a word. It is also occasionally used when a word has two vowels in a row.


title: Procopius

text: Procopius of Caesarea ( "Prokópios ho Kaisareús"; ; – after 565) was a prominent late antique Greek scholar from Caesarea Maritima. Accompanying the Roman general Belisarius in Emperor Justinian's wars, Procopius became the principal Roman historian of the 6th century, writing the "History of the Wars", the "Buildings", and the "Secret History".


title: Procopius

text: Apart from his own writings the main source for Procopius's life was an entry in the "Suda", a Byzantine Greek encyclopaedia written sometime after 975 which discusses his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in the province of "Palaestina Prima". He would have received a conventional upper class education in the Greek classics and rhetoric, perhaps at the famous school at Gaza. He may have attended law school, possibly at Berytus (present-day Beirut) or Constantinople (now Istanbul), and became a lawyer ("rhetor"). He evidently knew Latin, as was natural for a man with legal training. In 527, the first year of the reign of the emperor JustinianI, he became the legal adviser ("") for Belisarius, a general whom Justinian made his chief military commander in a great attempt to restore control over the lost western provinces of the empire.


title: Procopius

text: Procopius was with Belisarius on the eastern front until the latter was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 and recalled to Constantinople. Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January, 532, which Belisarius and his fellow general Mundus repressed with a massacre in the Hippodrome. In 533, he accompanied Belisarius on his victorious expedition against the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, took part in the capture of Carthage, and remained in Africa with Belisarius's successor Solomon the Eunuch when Belisarius returned east to the capital. Procopius recorded a few of the extreme weather events of 535–536, although these were presented as a backdrop to Byzantine military activities, such as a mutiny in and around Carthage. He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and experienced the Gothic siege of Rome that lasted a year and nine days, ending in mid-March 538. He witnessed Belisarius's entry into the Gothic capital, Ravenna, in 540. Both the "Wars" and the "Secret History" suggest that his relationship with Belisarius cooled thereafter. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with a renewal of the war with the Goths, now led by the able king Totila, Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius's staff.


title: Procopius

text: As "magister militum", Belisarius was an "illustrious man" (; , "illoústrios"); being his ', Procopius must therefore have had at least the rank of a "visible man" ("vir spectabilis"). He thus belonged to the mid-ranking group of the senatorial order ('). However, the "Suda", which is usually well informed in such matters, also describes Procopius himself as one of the '. Should this information be correct, Procopius would have had a seat in Constantinople's senate, which was restricted to the ' under Justinian. He also wrote that under Justinian's reign in 560, a major Christian church dedicated to the Virgin Mary was built on the site of the Temple Mount.


title: Procopius

text: It is not certain when Procopius died. Many historiansincluding Howard-Johnson, Cameron, and Geoffrey Greatrexdate his death to 554, but there was an urban prefect of Constantinople ("") called Procopius in 562. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect.


title: Procopius

text: In fact, some scholars have argued that Procopius died at least a few years after 565 as he unequivocally states in the beginning of his "Secret History" that he planned to publish it after the death of Justinian for fear he would be tortured and killed by the emperor (or even by general Belisarius) if the emperor (or the general) learned about what Procopius wrote (his scathing criticism of the emperor, of his wife, of Belisarius, of the general's wife, Antonia: calling the former "demons in human form" and the latter incompetent and treacherous) in this later history. However, most scholars believe that the "Secret History" was written in 550 and remained unpublished during Procopius' lifetime.


title: Procopius

text: The writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the emperor JustinianI. Procopius was the author of a history in eight books on the wars prosecuted by Justinian, a panegyric on the emperor's public works projects throughout the empire, and a book known as the "Secret History" that claims to report the scandals that Procopius could not include in his officially sanctioned history for fear of angering the emperor, his wife, Belisarius, and the general's wife and had to wait until all of them were dead to avoid retaliation.


title: Procopius

text: Procopius's "Wars" or "History of the Wars" (, "Hypèr tōn Polémon Lógoi", "Words on the Wars"; , "On the Wars") is his most important work, although less well known than the "Secret History". The first seven books seem to have been largely completed by 545 and may have been published as a unit. They were, however, updated to mid-century before publication, with the latest mentioned event occurring in early 551. The eighth and final book brings the history to 553.


title: Procopius

text: The first two booksoften known as "The Persian War" ()deal with the conflict between the Romans and Sassanid Persia in Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia, Lazica, and Iberia (present-day Georgia). It details the campaigns of the Sassanid shah KavadhI, the 532 'Nika' revolt, the war by Kavadh's successor KhosrauI in 540, his destruction of Antioch and deportation of its inhabitants to Mesopotamia, and the great plague that devastated the empire from 542. The "Persian War" also covers the early career of Procopius's patron Belisarius in some detail.


title: Procopius

text: The "Wars"’ next two booksknown as "The Vandal War" or "Vandalic War" ()cover Belisarius's successful campaign against the Vandal kingdom that had occupied Rome's provinces in northwest Africa for the last century.


title: Procopius

text: The final four booksknown as "The Gothic War" ()cover the Italian campaigns by Belisarius and others against the Ostrogoths. Procopius includes accounts of the 1st and 2nd sieges of Naples and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd sieges of Rome. He also includes an account of the rise of the Franks (see "Arborychoi"). The last book describes the eunuch Narses's successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern borders as well.


title: Procopius

text: Procopius's now famous "Anecdota", also known as "Secret History" (, "Apókryphe Historía"; ), was discovered centuries later at the Vatican Library in Rome and published in Lyon by Niccolò Alamanni in 1623. Its existence was already known from the "Suda", which referred to it as Procopius's "unpublished works" containing "comedy" and "invective" of Justinian, Theodora, Belisarius and Antonina. The "Secret History" covers roughly the same years as the first seven books of "The History of the Wars" and appears to have been written after they were published. Current consensus generally dates it to 550, or less commonly 558.


title: Procopius

text: In the eyes of many scholars, the "Secret History" reveals an author who had become deeply disillusioned with Emperor Justinian, his wife Theodora, the general Belisarius, and his wife Antonina. The work claims to expose the secret springs of their public actions, as well as the private lives of the emperor and his entourage. Justinian is portrayed as cruel, venal, prodigal, and incompetent. In one passage, it is even claimed that he was possessed by demonic spirits or was himself a demon:


title: Procopius

text: Similarly, the Theodora of the "Secret History" is a garish portrait of vulgarity and insatiable lust juxtaposed with cold-blooded self-interest, shrewishness, and envious and fearful mean-spiritedness. Among the more titillating (and dubious) revelations in the "Secret History" is Procopius's account of Theodora's thespian accomplishments:


title: Procopius

text: Furthermore, "Secret History" portrays Belisarius as a weak man completely emasculated by his wife, Antonina, who is portrayed in very similar terms to Theodora. They are both said to be former actresses and close friends. Procopius claimed Antonina worked as an agent for Theodora against Belisarius, and had an ongoing affair with Belisarius' godson, Theodosius.


title: Procopius

text: On the other hand, it has been argued that Procopius prepared the "Secret History" as an exaggerated document out of fear that a conspiracy might overthrow Justinian's regime, whichas a kind of court historianmight be reckoned to include him. The unpublished manuscript would then have been a kind of insurance, which could be offered to the new ruler as a way to avoid execution or exile after the coup. If this hypothesis were correct, the "Secret History" would not be proof that Procopius hated Justinian or Theodora.


title: Procopius

text: "The Buildings" (, "Perì Ktismáton"; , "On Buildings") is a panegyric on Justinian's public works projects throughout the empire. The first book may date to before the collapse of the first dome of Hagia Sophia in 557, but some scholars think that it is possible that the work postdates the building of the bridge over the Sangarius in the late 550s. Historians consider "Buildings" to be an incomplete work due to evidence of the surviving version being a draft with two possible redactions.


title: Procopius

text: "Buildings" was likely written at Justinian's behest, and it is doubtful that its sentiments expressed are sincere. It tells us nothing further about Belisarius, and it takes a sharply different attitude towards Justinian. He is presented as an idealised Christian emperor who built churches for the glory of God and defenses for the safety of his subjects. He is depicted showing particular concern for the water supply, building new aqueducts and restoring those that had fallen into disuse. Theodora, who was dead when this panegyric was written, is mentioned only briefly, but Procopius's praise of her beauty is fulsome.


title: Procopius

text: Due to the panegyrical nature of Procopius's "Buildings", historians have discovered several discrepancies between claims made by Procopius and accounts in other primary sources. A prime example is Procopius's starting the reign of Justinian in 518, which was actually the start of the reign of his uncle and predecessor By treating the uncle's reign as part of his nephew's, Procopius was able to credit Justinian with buildings erected or begun under Justin's administration. Such works include renovation of the walls of Edessa after its 525 flood and consecration of several churches in the region. Similarly, Procopius falsely credits Justinian for the extensive refortification of the cities of Tomis and Histria in Scythia Minor. This had actually been carried out under who reigned before Justin.


title: Procopius

text: Procopius belongs to the school of late antique historians who continued the traditions of the Second Sophistic. They wrote in Attic Greek. Their models were Herodotus, Polybius and in particular Thucydides. Their subject matter was secular history. They avoided vocabulary unknown to Attic Greek and inserted an explanation when they had to use contemporary words. Thus Procopius includes glosses of monks ("the most temperate of Christians") and churches (as equivalent to a "temple" or "shrine"), since monasticism was unknown to the ancient Athenians and their "ekklesía" had been a popular assembly.


title: Procopius

text: The secular historians eschewed the history of the Christian church. Ecclesiastical history was left to a separate genre after Eusebius. However, Cameron has argued convincingly that Procopius's works reflect the tensions between the classical and Christian models of history in 6th-century Constantinople. This is supported by Whitby's analysis of Procopius's depiction of the capital and its cathedral in comparison to contemporary pagan panegyrics. Procopius can be seen as depicting Justinian as essentially God's vicegerent, making the case for buildings being a primarily religious panegyric. Procopius indicates that he planned to write an ecclesiastical history himself and, if he had, he would probably have followed the rules of that genre. As far as known, however, such an ecclesiastical history was never written.


title: Procopius

text: Some historians have criticized Propocius's description of some barbarians, for example, he dehumanized the unfamiliar Moors as "not even properly human". This was however, inline with Byzantine ethnographic practice in late antiquity.


title: Procopius

text: A number of historical novels based on Procopius's works (along with other sources) have been written. "Count Belisarius" was written by poet and novelist Robert Graves in 1938. Procopius himself appears as a minor character in Felix Dahn's "A Struggle for Rome" and in L. Sprague de Camp's alternate history novel "Lest Darkness Fall". The novel's main character, archaeologist Martin Padway, derives most of his knowledge of historical events from the "Secret History".


title: Procopius

text: The narrator in Herman Melville's novel "Moby-Dick" cites Procopius's description of a captured sea monster as evidence of the narrative's feasibility.


title: Dissection

text: Dissection (from Latin ' "to cut to pieces"; also called anatomization) is the dismembering of the body of a deceased animal or plant to study its anatomical structure. Autopsy is used in pathology and forensic medicine to determine the cause of death in humans. Less extensive dissection of plants and smaller animals preserved in a formaldehyde solution is typically carried out or demonstrated in biology and natural science classes in middle school and high school, while extensive dissections of cadavers of adults and children, both fresh and preserved are carried out by medical students in medical schools as a part of the teaching in subjects such as anatomy, pathology and forensic medicine. Consequently, dissection is typically conducted in a morgue or in an anatomy lab.


title: Dissection

text: Dissection has been used for centuries to explore anatomy. Objections to the use of cadavers have led to the use of alternatives including virtual dissection of computer models.


title: Dissection

text: Plant and animal bodies are dissected to analyze the structure and function of its components. Dissection is practised by students in courses of biology, botany, zoology, and veterinary science, and sometimes in arts studies. In medical schools, students dissect human cadavers to learn anatomy.


title: Dissection

text: Dissection is used to help to determine the cause of death in autopsy (called necropsy in other animals) and is an intrinsic part of forensic medicine.


title: Dissection

text: A key principle in the dissection of human cadavers is the prevention of human disease to the dissector. Prevention of transmission includes the wearing of protective gear, ensuring the environment is clean, dissection technique and pre-dissection tests to specimens for the presence of HIV and hepatitis viruses. Specimens are dissected in morgues or anatomy labs. When provided, they are evaluated for use as a "fresh" or "prepared" specimen. A "fresh" specimen may be dissected within some days, retaining the characteristics of a living specimen, for the purposes of training. A "prepared" specimen may be preserved in solutions such as formalin and pre-dissected by an experienced anatomist, sometimes with the help of a diener. This preparation is sometimes called prosection.


title: Dissection

text: Most dissection involves the careful isolation and removal of individual organs, called the Virchow technique. An alternative more cumbersome technique involves the removal of the entire organ body, called the Letulle technique. This technique allows a body to be sent to a funeral director without waiting for the sometimes time-consuming dissection of individual organs. The Rokitansky method involves an "in situ" dissection of the organ block, and the technique of Ghon involves dissection of three separate blocks of organs - the thorax and cervical areas, gastrointestinal and abdominal organs, and urogenital organs. Dissection of individual organs involves accessing the area in which the organ is situated, and systematically removing the anatomical connections of that organ to its surroundings. For example, when removing the heart, connects such as the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava are separated. If pathological connections exist, such as a fibrous pericardium, then this may be deliberately dissected along with the organ.


title: Dissection

text: Human dissections were carried out by the Greek physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Chios in the early part of the third century BC. During this period, the first exploration into full human anatomy was performed rather than a base knowledge gained from 'problem-solution' delving. While there was a deep taboo in Greek culture concerning human dissection, there was at the time a strong push by the Ptolemaic government to build Alexandria into a hub of scientific study. For a time, Roman law forbade dissection and autopsy of the human body, so anatomists relied on the cadavers of animals or made observations of human anatomy from injuries of the living. Galen, for example, dissected the Barbary macaque and other primates, assuming their anatomy was basically the same as that of humans, and supplemented these observations with knowledge of human anatomy which he acquired while tending to wounded gladiators.


title: Dissection

text: The ancient societies that were rooted in India left behind artwork on how to kill animals during a hunt. The images showing how to kill most effectively depending on the game being hunted relay an intimate knowledge of both external and internal anatomy as well as the relative importance of organs. The knowledge was mostly gained through hunters preparing the recently captured prey. Once the roaming lifestyle was no longer necessary it was replaced in part by the civilization that formed in the Indus Valley. Unfortunately, there is little that remains from this time to indicate whether or not dissection occurred, the civilization was lost to the Aryan people migrating.


title: Dissection

text: Early in the history of India (2nd to 3rd century), the Arthashastra described the 4 ways that death can occur and their symptoms: drowning, hanging, strangling, or asphyxiation. According to that source, an autopsy should be performed in any case of untimely demise.


title: Dissection

text: The practice of dissection flourished during the 7th and 8th century. It was under their rule that medical education was standardized. This created a need to better understand human anatomy, so as to have educated surgeons. Dissection was limited by the religious taboo on cutting the human body. This changed the approach taken to accomplish the goal. The process involved the loosening of the tissues in streams of water before the outer layers were sloughed off with soft implements to reach the musculature. To perfect the technique of slicing, the prospective students used gourds and squash. These techniques of dissection gave rise to an advanced understanding of the anatomy and the enabled them to complete procedures used today, such as rhinoplasty.


title: Dissection

text: During medieval times the anatomical teachings from India spread throughout the known world; however, the practice of dissection was stunted by Islam. The practice of dissection at a university level was not seen again until 1827, when it was performed by the student Pandit Madhusudan Gupta. Through the 1900s, the university teachers had to continually push against the social taboos of dissection, until around 1850 when the universities decided that it was more cost effective to train Indian doctors than bring them in from Britain. Indian medical schools were, however, training female doctors well before those in England.


title: Dissection

text: The current state of dissection in India is deteriorating. The number of hours spent in dissection labs during medical school has decreased substantially over the last twenty years. The future of anatomy education will probably be an elegant mix of traditional methods and integrative computer learning. The use of dissection in early stages of medical training has been shown more effective in the retention of the intended information than their simulated counterparts. However, there is use for the computer-generated experience as review in the later stages. The combination of these methods is intended to strengthen the students' understanding and confidence of anatomy, a subject that is infamously difficult to master. There is a growing need for anatomist—seeing as most anatomy labs are taught by graduates hoping to complete degrees in anatomy—to continue the long tradition of anatomy education.


title: Dissection

text: From the beginning of the Islamic faith in 610 A.D., Shari'ah law has applied to a greater or lesser extent within Muslim countries, supported by Islamic scholars such as Al-Ghazali. Islamic physicians such as Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091–1161) in Al-Andalus, Saladin's physician Ibn Jumay during the 12th century, Abd el-Latif in Egypt , and Ibn al-Nafis in Syria and Egypt in the 13th century may have practiced dissection, but it remains ambiguous whether or not human dissection was practiced. Ibn al-Nafis, a physician and Muslim jurist, suggested that the "precepts of Islamic law have discouraged us from the practice of dissection, along with whatever compassion is in our temperament", indicating that while there was no law against it, it was nevertheless uncommon. Islam dictates that the body be buried as soon as possible, barring religious holidays, and that there be no other means of disposal such as cremation. Prior to the 10th century, dissection was not performed on human cadavers. The book "Al-Tasrif", written by Al-Zahrawi in 1000 A.D., details surgical procedure that differed from the previous standards. The book was an educational text of medicine and surgery which included detailed illustrations. It was later translated and took the place of Avicenna's "The Canon of Medicine" as the primary teaching tool in Europe from the 12th century to the 17th century. There were some that were willing to dissect humans up to the 12th century, for the sake of learning, after which it was forbidden. This attitude remained constant until 1952, when the Islamic School of Jurisprudence in Egypt ruled that "necessity permits the forbidden". This decision allowed for the investigation of questionable deaths by autopsy. In 1982, the decision was made by a fatwa that if it serves justice, autopsy is worth the disadvantages. Though Islam now approves of autopsy, the Islamic public still disapproves. Autopsy is prevalent in most Muslim countries for medical and judicial purposes. In Egypt it holds an important place within the judicial structure, and is taught at all the country's medical universities. In Saudi Arabia, whose law is completely dictated by Shari'ah, autopsy is viewed poorly by the population but can be compelled in criminal cases; human dissection is sometimes found at university level. Autopsy is performed for judicial purposes in Qatar and Tunisia. Human dissection is present in the modern day Islamic world, but is rarely published on due to the religious and social stigma.


title: Dissection

text: Tibetan medicine developed a rather sophisticated knowledge of anatomy, acquired from long-standing experience with human dissection. Tibetans had adopted the practice of sky burial because of the country's hard ground, frozen for most of the year, and the lack of wood for cremation. A sky burial begins with a ritual dissection of the deceased, and is followed by the feeding of the parts to vultures on the hill tops. Over time, Tibetan anatomical knowledge found its way into Ayurveda and to a lesser extent into Chinese medicine.


title: Dissection

text: Throughout the history of Christian Europe, the dissection of human cadavers for medical education has experienced various cycles of legalization and proscription in different countries. Dissection was rare during the Middle Ages, but it was practised, with evidence from at least as early as the 13th century. The practice of autopsy in Medieval Western Europe is "very poorly known" as few surgical texts or conserved human dissections have survived.


title: Dissection

text: A modern Jesuit scholar has claimed that the Christian theology contributed significantly to the revival of human dissection and autopsy by providing a new socio-religious and cultural context in which the human cadaver was no longer seen as sacrosanct.


title: Dissection

text: An edict of the 1163 Council of Tours, and an early 14th-century decree of Pope Boniface VIII have mistakenly been identified as prohibiting dissection and autopsy, misunderstanding or extrapolation from these edicts may have contributed to reluctance to perform such procedures. The Middle Ages witnessed the revival of an interest in medical studies, including human dissection and autopsy.


title: Dissection

text: Frederick II (1194–1250), the Holy Roman emperor, ruled that any that were studying to be a physician or a surgeon must attend a human dissection, which would be held no less than every five years. Some European countries began legalizing the dissection of executed criminals for educational purposes in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. Mondino de Luzzi carried out the first recorded public dissection around 1315. At this time, autopsies were carried out by a team consisting of a Lector, who lectured, the Sector, who did the dissection, and the Ostensor who pointed to features of interest.


title: Dissection

text: The Italian Galeazzo di Santa Sofia made the first public dissection north of the Alps in Vienna in 1404.


title: Dissection

text: Vesalius in the 16th century carried out numerous dissections in his extensive anatomical investigations. He was attacked frequently for his disagreement with Galen's opinions on human anatomy. Vesalius was the first to lecture and dissect the cadaver simultaneously.


title: Dissection

text: The Catholic Church is known to have ordered an autopsy on conjoined twins Joana and Melchiora Ballestero in Hispaniola in 1533 to determine whether they shared a soul. They found that there were two distinct hearts, and hence two souls, based on the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles, who believed the soul resided in the heart.


title: Dissection

text: Human dissection was also practised by Renaissance artists. Though most chose to focus on the external surfaces of the body, some like Michelangelo Buonarotti, Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Baccio Bandinelli, and Leonardo da Vinci sought a deeper understanding. However, there were no provisions for artists to obtain cadavers, so they had to resort to unauthorised means, as indeed anatomists sometimes did, such as grave robbing, body snatching, and murder.


title: Dissection

text: Anatomization was sometimes ordered as a form of punishment, as, for example, in 1806 to James Halligan and Dominic Daley after their public hanging in Northampton, Massachusetts.


title: Dissection

text: In modern Europe, dissection is routinely practised in biological research and education, in medical schools, and to determine the cause of death in autopsy. It is generally considered a necessary part of learning and is thus accepted culturally. It sometimes attracts controversy, as when Odense Zoo decided to dissect lion cadavers in public before a "self-selected audience".


title: Dissection

text: In Britain, dissection remained entirely prohibited from the end of the Roman conquest and through the Middle Ages to the 16th century, when a series of royal edicts gave specific groups of physicians and surgeons some limited rights to dissect cadavers. The permission was quite limited: by the mid-18th century, the Royal College of Physicians and Company of Barber-Surgeons were the only two groups permitted to carry out dissections, and had an annual quota of ten cadavers between them. As a result of pressure from anatomists, especially in the rapidly growing medical schools, the Murder Act 1752 allowed the bodies of executed murderers to be dissected for anatomical research and education. By the 19th century this supply of cadavers proved insufficient, as the public medical schools were growing, and the private medical schools lacked legal access to cadavers. A thriving black market arose in cadavers and body parts, leading to the creation of the profession of body snatching, and the infamous Burke and Hare murders in 1828, when 16 people were murdered for their cadavers, to be sold to anatomists. The resulting public outcry led to the passage of the Anatomy Act 1832, which increased the legal supply of cadavers for dissection.


title: Dissection

text: By the 21st century, the availability of interactive computer programs and changing public sentiment led to renewed debate on the use of cadavers in medical education. The Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry in the UK, founded in 2000, became the first modern medical school to carry out its anatomy education without dissection.


title: Dissection

text: In the United States, dissection of frogs became common in college biology classes from the 1920s, and were gradually introduced at earlier stages of education. By 1988, some 75 to 80 percent of American high school biology students were participating in a frog dissection, with a trend towards introduction in elementary schools. The frogs are most commonly from the genus "Rana". Other popular animals for high-school dissection at the time of that survey were, among vertebrates, fetal pigs, perch, and cats; and among invertebrates, earthworms, grasshoppers, crayfish, and starfish. About six million animals are dissected each year in United States high schools (2016), not counting medical training and research. Most of these are purchased already dead from slaughterhouses and farms.


title: Dissection

text: Dissection in U.S. high schools became prominent in 1987, when a California student, Jenifer Graham, sued to require her school to let her complete an alternative project. The court ruled that mandatory dissections were permissible, but that Graham could ask to dissect a frog that had died of natural causes rather than one that was killed for the purposes of dissection; the practical impossibility of procuring a frog that had died of natural causes in effect let Graham opt out of the required dissection. The suit gave publicity to anti-dissection advocates. Graham appeared in a 1987 Apple Computer commercial for the virtual-dissection software Operation Frog. The state of California passed a Student's Rights Bill in 1988 requiring that objecting students be allowed to complete alternative projects. Opting out of dissection increased through the 1990s.


title: Dissection

text: In the United States, 17 states along with Washington, D.C. have enacted dissection-choice laws or policies that allow students in primary and secondary education to opt out of dissection. Other states including Arizona, Hawaii, Minnesota, Texas, and Utah have more general policies on opting out on moral, religious, or ethical grounds. To overcome these concerns, J. W. Mitchell High School in New Port Richey, Florida, in 2019 became the first US high school to use synthetic frogs for dissection in its science classes, instead of preserved real frogs.


title: Dissection

text: As for the dissection of cadavers in undergraduate and medical school, traditional dissection is supported by professors and students, with some opposition, limiting the availability of dissection. Upper-level students who have experienced this method along with their professors agree that "Studying human anatomy with colorful charts is one thing. Using a scalpel and an actual, recently-living person is an entirely different matter."


title: Dissection

text: The way in which cadaveric specimens are obtained differs greatly according to country. In the UK, donation of a cadaver is wholly voluntary. Involuntary donation plays a role in about 20 percent of specimens in the US and almost all specimens donated in some countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe. Countries that practice involuntary donation may make available the bodies of dead criminals or unclaimed or unidentified bodies for the purposes of dissection. Such practices may lead to a greater proportion of the poor, homeless and social outcasts being involuntarily donated. Cadavers donated in one jurisdiction may also be used for the purposes of dissection in another, whether across states in the US, or imported from other countries, such as with Libya. As an example of how a cadaver is donated voluntarily, a funeral home in conjunction with a voluntary donation program identifies a body who is part of the program. After broaching the subject with relatives in a diplomatic fashion, the body is then transported to a registered facility. The body is tested for the presence of HIV and hepatitis viruses. It is then evaluated for use as a "fresh" or "prepared" specimen.


title: Dissection

text: Cadaveric specimens for dissection are, in general, disposed of by cremation. The deceased may then be interred at a local cemetery. If the family wishes, the ashes of the deceased are then returned to the family. Many institutes have local policies to engage, support and celebrate the donors. This may include the setting up of local monuments at the cemetery.


title: Dissection

text: Human cadavers are often used in medicine to teach anatomy or surgical instruction. Cadavers are selected according to their anatomy and availability. They may be used as part of dissection courses involving a "fresh" specimen so as to be as realistic as possible—for example, when training surgeons. Cadavers may also be pre-dissected by trained instructors. This form of dissection involves the preparation and preservation of specimens for a longer time period and is generally used for the teaching of anatomy.


title: Dissection

text: Some alternatives to dissection may present educational advantages over the use of animal cadavers, while eliminating perceived ethical issues. These alternatives include computer programs, lectures, three dimensional models, films, and other forms of technology. Concern for animal welfare is often at the root of objections to animal dissection. Studies show that some students reluctantly participate in animal dissection out of fear of real or perceived punishment or ostracism from their teachers and peers, and many do not speak up about their ethical objections.


title: Dissection

text: One alternative to the use of cadavers is computer technology. At Stanford Medical School, software combines X-ray, ultrasound and MRI imaging for display on a screen as large as a body on a table. In a variant of this, a "virtual anatomy" approach being developed at New York University, students wear three dimensional glasses and can use a pointing device to "[swoop] through the virtual body, its sections as brightly colored as living tissue." This method is claimed to be "as dynamic as Imax [cinema]".


title: Dissection

text: Proponents of animal-free teaching methodologies argue that alternatives to animal dissection can benefit educators by increasing teaching efficiency and lowering instruction costs while affording teachers an enhanced potential for the customization and repeat-ability of teaching exercises. Those in favor of dissection alternatives point to studies which have shown that computer-based teaching methods "saved academic and nonacademic staff time … were considered to be less expensive and an effective and enjoyable mode of student learning [and] … contributed to a significant reduction in animal use" because there is no set-up or clean-up time, no obligatory safety lessons, and no monitoring of misbehavior with animal cadavers, scissors, and scalpels.


title: Dissection

text: With software and other non-animal methods, there is also no expensive disposal of equipment or hazardous material removal. Some programs also allow educators to customize lessons and include built-in test and quiz modules that can track student performance. Furthermore, animals (whether dead or alive) can be used only once, while non-animal resources can be used for many years—an added benefit that could result in significant cost savings for teachers, school districts, and state educational systems.


title: Dissection

text: Several peer-reviewed comparative studies examining information retention and performance of students who dissected animals and those who used an alternative instruction method have concluded that the educational outcomes of students who are taught basic and advanced biomedical concepts and skills using non-animal methods are equivalent or superior to those of their peers who use animal-based laboratories such as animal dissection.


title: Dissection

text: Some reports state that students' confidence, satisfaction, and ability to retrieve and communicate information was much higher for those who participated in alternative activities compared to dissection. Three separate studies at universities across the United States found that students who modeled body systems out of clay were significantly better at identifying the constituent parts of human anatomy than their classmates who performed animal dissection.


title: Dissection

text: Another study found that students preferred using clay modeling over animal dissection and performed just as well as their cohorts who dissected animals.


title: Dissection

text: In 2008, the National Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) affirmed its support for classroom animal dissection stating that they "Encourage the presence of live animals in the classroom with appropriate consideration to the age and maturity level of the students …NABT urges teachers to be aware that alternatives to dissection have their limitations. NABT supports the use of these materials as adjuncts to the educational process but not as exclusive replacements for the use of actual organisms."


title: Dissection

text: The National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) "supports including live animals as part of instruction in the K-12 science classroom because observing and working with animals firsthand can spark students' interest in science as well as a general respect for life while reinforcing key concepts" of biological sciences. NSTA also supports offering dissection alternatives to students who object to the practice.


title: Dissection

text: The NORINA database lists over 3,000 products which may be used as alternatives or supplements to animal use in education and training. These include alternatives to dissection in schools. InterNICHE has a similar database and a loans system.


title: Technical support

text: Technical support (abbreviated as tech support) is a call centre type customer service provided by companies to advise and assist registered users with issues concerning their technical products. Traditionally done on the phone, technical support can now be conducted online or through chat. At present, most large and mid-size companies have outsourced their tech support operations. Many companies provide discussion boards for users of their products to interact; such forums allow companies to reduce their support costs without losing the benefit of customer feedback.


title: Technical support

text: With the increasing use of technology in modern times, there is a growing requirement to provide technical support. Many organizations locate their technical support departments or call centers in countries or regions with lower costs. Dell was amongst the first companies to outsource their technical support and customer service departments to India in 2001. There has also been a growth in companies specializing in providing technical support to other organizations. These are often referred to as MSPs (Managed Service Providers).


title: Technical support

text: For businesses needing to provide technical support, outsourcing allows them to maintain high availability of service. Such need may result from peaks in call volumes during the day, periods of high activity due to the introduction of new products or maintenance service packs, or the requirement to provide customers with a high level of service at a low cost to the business. For businesses needing technical support assets, outsourcing enables their core employees to focus more on their work in order to maintain productivity. It also enables them to utilize specialized personnel whose technical knowledge base and experience may exceed the scope of the business, thus providing a higher level of technical support to their employees.


title: Technical support

text: Technical support is often subdivided into tiers, or levels, in order to better serve a business or customer base. The number of levels a business uses to organize their technical support group is dependent on the business's needs regarding their ability to sufficiently serve their customers or users. The reason for providing a multi-tiered support system instead of one general support group is to provide the best possible service in the most efficient possible manner. Success of the organizational structure is dependent on the technicians' understanding of their level of responsibility and commitments, their customer response time commitments, and when to appropriately escalate an issue and to which level. A common support structure revolves around a three-tiered technical support system. Remote computer repair is a method for troubleshooting software related problems via remote desktop connections.


title: Technical support

text: The first job of a Tier I specialist is to gather the customer's information and to determine the customer's issue by analyzing the symptoms and figuring out the underlying problem. When analyzing the symptoms, it is important for the technician to identify what the customer is trying to accomplish so that time is not wasted on "attempting to solve a symptom instead of a problem."


title: Technical support

text: Once identification of the underlying problem is established, the specialist can begin sorting through the possible solutions available. Technical support specialists in this group typically handle straightforward and simple problems while "possibly using some kind of knowledge management tool." This includes troubleshooting methods such as verifying physical layer issues, resolving username and password problems, uninstalling/reinstalling basic software applications, verification of proper hardware and software set up, and assistance with navigating around application menus. Personnel at this level have a basic to general understanding of the product or service and may not always contain the competency required for solving complex issues. Nevertheless, the goal for this group is to handle 70–80% of the user problems before finding it necessary to escalate the issue to a higher level.


title: Technical support

text: Tier II (or Level 2, abbreviated as T2 or L2) is a more in-depth technical support level than Tier I and therefore costs more as the technicians are more experienced and knowledgeable on a particular product or service. It is synonymous with level 2 support, support line 2, administrative level support, and various other headings denoting advanced technical troubleshooting and analysis methods. Technicians in this realm of knowledge are responsible for assisting Tier I personnel in solving basic technical problems and for investigating elevated issues by confirming the validity of the problem and seeking for known solutions related to these more complex issues. However, prior to the troubleshooting process, it is important that the technician review the work order to see what has already been accomplished by the Tier I technician and how long the technician has been working with the particular customer. This is a key element in meeting both the customer and business needs as it allows the technician to prioritize the troubleshooting process and properly manage their time.


title: Technical support

text: If a problem is new and/or personnel from this group cannot determine a solution, they are responsible for elevating this issue to the Tier III technical support group. In addition, many companies may specify that certain troubleshooting solutions be performed by this group to help ensure the intricacies of a challenging issue are solved by providing experienced and knowledgeable technicians. This may include, but is not limited to, onsite installations or replacement of various hardware components, software repair, diagnostic testing, or the utilization of remote control tools to take over the user's machine for the sole purpose of troubleshooting and finding a solution to the problem.


title: Technical support

text: Tier III (or Level 3, abbreviated as T3 or L3) is the highest level of support in a three-tiered technical support model responsible for handling the most difficult or advanced problems. It is synonymous with level 3 support, 3rd line support, back-end support, support line 3, high-end support, and various other headings denoting expert level troubleshooting and analysis methods. These individuals are experts in their fields and are responsible for not only assisting both Tier I and Tier II personnel, but with the research and development of solutions to new or unknown issues. Note that Tier III technicians have the same responsibility as Tier II technicians in reviewing the work order and assessing the time already spent with the customer so that the work is prioritized and time management is sufficiently utilized. If it is at all possible, the technician will work to solve the problem with the customer as it may become apparent that the Tier I and/or Tier II technicians simply failed to discover the proper solution. Upon encountering new problems, however, Tier III personnel must first determine whether or not to solve the problem and may require the customer's contact information so that the technician can have adequate time to troubleshoot the issue and find a solution. It is typical for a developer or someone who knows the code or backend of the product, to be the Tier 3 support person.


title: Technical support

text: In some instances, an issue may be so problematic to the point where the product cannot be salvaged and must be replaced. Such extreme problems are also sent to the original developers for in-depth analysis. If it is determined that a problem can be solved, this group is responsible for designing and developing one or more courses of action, evaluating each of these courses in a test case environment, and implementing the best solution to the problem. While not universally used, a fourth level often represents an escalation point beyond the organization. L4 support is generally a hardware or software vendor.


title: Technical support

text: A common scam typically involves a cold caller claiming to be from a technical support department of a company like Microsoft. Such cold calls are often made from call centers based in India to users in English-speaking countries, although increasingly these scams operate within the same country. The scammer will instruct the user to download a remote desktop program and once connected, use social engineering techniques that typically involve Windows components to persuade the victim that they need to pay in order for the computer to be fixed and then proceeds to steal money from the victim's credit card.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: Ariel Rechtshaid ( ;) is an American record producer, audio engineer, mixing engineer, multi-instrumentalist, and songwriter. His accolades include three Grammy Awards for music production.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: Rechtshaid was the lead singer and guitarist of the ska/pop-punk band The Hippos, and the bassist and producer of indie folk-rock group Foreign Born. In 2006, he produced the "Billboard" Hot 100 number one-charting single "Hey There Delilah" by the Plain White T's. He co-wrote and produced Usher's 2012 single "Climax", which won the 2013 Grammy award for Best R&B Performance. Rechtshaid was nominated for the 2014 Grammy award for Producer of the Year. He has won Grammys for production on Vampire Weekend album "Modern Vampires of the City" (2013, Best Alternative Music Album), Adele album "25" (2015, Album of the Year), and for another Vampire Weekend album "Father of the Bride" (2019, again Best Alternative Music Album).


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: His production, songwriting, and mixing credits include Haim, Vampire Weekend, Madonna, Usher, Adele, Brandon Flowers, Charli XCX, Kelela, Cass McCombs, Solange Knowles, Tobias Jesso Jr., Murs, Sky Ferreira, We Are Scientists, Kylie Minogue, U2, Glasser, Alex Clare, and Major Lazer.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: Ariel Rechtshaid was born and raised in Los Angeles, California, a first-generation American born to Israeli immigrants. He is of Jewish background. He attended Hamilton High School in the Los Angeles Unified School District, where he would form his first band, The Hippos. One of his high school classmates was rapper Murs with whom he would later record and produce.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: Rechtshaid would help form the band in 1995, while he and other members were still in high school. He fronted the band as the singer and guitarist with friends James Bairian on bass, Louis Castle on trumpet, Brandon Bairian on percussion, Roman Fleysher on saxophone, Danny Rukasin on trombone, and Kyle Briggs on drums. They began to play shows around southern California, and recorded and self-released cassette demos titled "Spreading the Cheese" and "Attack of the Killer Cheese". Shortly after this they were joined by Rich Zahniser on trombone. Despite their proximity to the Orange County ska scene, they found themselves shut out since they were from Los Angeles. Still, through perseverance and talent, they established themselves among a ska scene including bands such as Reel Big Fish, No Doubt, Dance Hall Crashers, and The Aquabats. The band would go on to release two full-length albums on Fueled By Ramen/Vagrant Records and Interscope, as well as a self-released third full length consisting of demos produced by Rechtshaid from their later years.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: "By the time [Rechtshaid] was 18/19, [he] knew [he] wasn't happy – and [he] quit. Part of the problem was benchmarking his efforts against his heroes". He later wrote the music in different genres for commercials.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: Rechtshaid joined the band as a bassist and producer in Los Angeles in late 2003. They self-released their first 12" single ("We Had Pleasure" b/w "Escape"), followed by their debut EP "In the Remote Woods" via StarTime International Records. While touring the US and UK with St. Vincent, Grizzly Bear, Vampire Weekend, Rogue Wave, Jason Collett, Cold War Kids, Giant Drag, and We Are Scientists, they recorded their first full-length album, "On the Wing Now", in the fall/winter of 2005, and officially released the album with Dim Mak on August 21, 2007. They released their second album, "Person to Person", on Secretly Canadian on June 23, 2009.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: After Plain White T's' 2006 single "Hey There Delilah", which Rechtshaid recorded and produced, eventually reached no. 1 / 2 on the US / UK charts respectively he started getting approached by labels and managers.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: Rechtshaid's production, songwriting, and mixing is found on a wide range of albums and genres. He has written with and produced for acts such as Haim, Vampire Weekend, Adele, Beyoncé, Madonna, Kylie Minogue, Usher, Blood Orange, Carly Rae Jepsen, Charli XCX, Kelela, Solange Knowles, Sky Ferreira, Plain White T's, Cass McCombs, Theophilus London, Glasser, We Are Scientists, Major Lazer, Foreign Born, Valencia, and Murs. He is also a partner in music publishing and production company Heavy Duty.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: During the production of Haim's second studio album "Something to Tell You" (2017), Rechtshaid was diagnosed with stage I testicular cancer. He was previously in a relationship with Haim frontwoman Danielle Haim.


title: Ariel Rechtshaid

text: Best effort list of songs produced (co-produced) and/or written (co-written) by Ariel Rechtshaid. His credits may also include instrumentation, vocals, arrangement, engineering, mixing, and others.


title: Kelly Marcel

text: Kelly Marcel (born 10 January 1974) is a British screenwriter, actress and television producer. She co-wrote the film "Saving Mr. Banks" (2013) and wrote the film "Fifty Shades of Grey" (2015), and created and served as executive producer of the television series "Terra Nova."


title: Kelly Marcel

text: Marcel is the daughter of director Terry Marcel and actress Lindsey Brookand, and the older sister of actress Rosie Marcel.


title: Kelly Marcel

text: Marcel has played minor roles in television series such as "The Bill", "Holby City", and "Casualty". She had a largely non-speaking role as Young Vera in the 1994 television film adaptation of "A Dark-Adapted Eye".


title: Kelly Marcel

text: Marcel eventually quit acting to pursue writing, while working part-time in Prime Time Video, a video rental shop in Battersea, London. Around the corner from the video shop was the Latchmere pub, where Tom Hardy hosted an acting workshop. Marcel and Hardy became friends, and he subsequently brought Marcel in to do uncredited rewrites on his 2008 film "Bronson", directed by Nicolas Winding Refn, after it ran into trouble. One of Hardy's tattoos says 'Skribe' in tribute to Marcel.


title: Kelly Marcel

text: While working at the video shop, she wrote a script for a TV show called "Gondwanaland Highway". She wrote it for her dad, who had been telling her about the supercontinent Gondwanaland and reading a Stephen Hawking book on time travel. Marcel, who had just seen Al Gore's 2006 global warming documentary "An Inconvenient Truth", combined these three influences into the script. "Gondwanaland Highway" was almost picked up by Carnival Films, the UK production company behind "Downton Abbey", when producer Aaron Kaplan persuaded Marcel to bring the show to America instead.


title: Kelly Marcel

text: She sold a script about death row, titled "Westbridge", to Showtime. She worked on the script with director Thomas Schlamme. Though the script went unmade, it became a calling card for Marcel in Hollywood.


title: Kelly Marcel

text: After her two-week trip to Los Angeles and her decision not to continue working on "Terra Nova", Marcel returned to the London video shop. She was approached by Ruby Films' Alison Owen to work on a project about "Mary Poppins" author P. L. Travers and her relationship with Walt Disney for BBC Films, based on an earlier draft by Sue Smith. The script, "Saving Mr. Banks", landed on the 2011 Black List, and was acquired by Disney.


title: Kelly Marcel

text: The film was released in 2013, directed by John Lee Hancock, and starring Tom Hanks as Walt Disney and Emma Thompson as P. L. Travers. Marcel and Smith shared writing credit. Marcel was nominated for Outstanding Debut by a British Writer, Director or Producer at the 67th Annual BAFTA Awards.


title: Kelly Marcel

text: Marcel was hired in 2012 to adapt E. L. James' bestselling erotic novel "Fifty Shades of Grey", with Sam Taylor-Johnson directing, after Universal Pictures and Focus Features won the rights to the "Fifty Shades" trilogy for $5 million in a bidding war. Though the film was financially successful, grossing $571.1 million worldwide on a $40 million budget and spawning two sequels, both Marcel and Johnson expressed unhappiness with the finished film, with Marcel describing it as too painful to watch. Of particular issue was James' insistence that the film preserve her original dialogue in its entirety, and threatening to boycott the film if the dialogue was rewritten.


title: Kelly Marcel

text: She was one of the writers on Sony's "Venom" adaptation, alongside Scott Rosenberg and Jeff Pinkner. Directed by Ruben Fleischer, the film stars Marcel's friend and frequent collaborator Tom Hardy in the title role. She returned to write the script for . In October 2022, it was announced that Marcel would serve as director for "Venom 3" (her directorial debut), in addition to writing and producing it.


title: Team Seas

text: Team Seas, stylized as #TeamSeas, is an international collaborative fundraiser that was started by YouTubers MrBeast and Mark Rober as a follow up to Team Trees. The fundraiser succeeded in raising over 33 million U.S. dollars. All of the donations from the fundraiser go to the Ocean Conservancy and the Ocean Cleanup, with the organisations splitting the donations. The fundraiser pledges to remove of marine debris from the ocean by removing of marine debris from the ocean for every 1 dollar donated. , $33,078,213 has been raised.


title: Team Seas

text: The preceding fundraiser, Team Trees, was started on October 25, 2019, by MrBeast and Mark Rober. They set to raise 20 million dollars, which was achieved. As of the start date of Team Seas, donations are still able to be made on the Team Trees website and planting progress is updated there.


title: Team Seas

text: Team Seas aimed to remove of marine debris from the ocean by the end of 2021 by raising 30 million dollars, with one pound removed for every dollar donated. The project was mass released over the internet on many different social media platforms on Friday October 29, 2021, at 1 PM (PT). On YouTube,


title: Team Seas

text: thousands of creators from 145 countries, with a combined follow count of 1 billion, created videos about the fundraiser. Most creators explained the purpose of Team Seas and convinced viewers to donate to Team Seas throughout the entirety of their videos, while some added a short explanatory segment in theirs. Videos on TikTok also featured a donation sticker for the campaign.


title: Team Seas

text: MrBeast released a video on October 29, 2021, showing his team cleaning the polluted beaches of Bajos de Haina, Dominican Republic as volunteers for Ocean Conservancy. Mark Rober released a video on the same day, filmed with The Ocean Cleanup.


title: Team Seas

text: On November 1, 2021, Tobi Lütke, CEO of Shopify, donated $1,200,001, exceeding the $1,000,001 he donated to Team Trees.


YouTube Rewind 2018: Everyone Controls Rewind (also known as YouTube Rewind 2018 and Everyone Controls Rewind) is a video that was uploaded to the official channel of the video-sharing website YouTube on December 6, 2018, as the ninth installment of the "YouTube Rewind" series. The video featured references to "Fortnite Battle Royale" and starred YouTubers and online celebrities such as Ninja and Marques Brownlee, as well as celebrities like Will Smith and Trevor Noah. It is the first video in the "YouTube Rewind" series to feature a combination of animation and live-action sequences.


title: YouTube Rewind 2018: Everyone Controls Rewind

text: "YouTube Rewind 2018" was panned by critics, YouTubers, and viewers alike, who dubbed it the worst "YouTube Rewind" video to date. The video was criticized for featuring obscure or unpopular YouTubers; the inclusion of unpopular or outdated trends; and the exclusion of many prominent YouTubers of the year, such as Shane Dawson, MrBeast, and PewDiePie, as well as popular rivalries such as KSI vs Logan Paul and PewDiePie vs T-Series. However, its animated sequences were praised and Will Smith's appearance in the video became an Internet meme.


text: By December 13, 2018, only a week after its upload, "Everyone Controls Rewind" had over 10 million dislikes, making it the most-disliked video on YouTube, a record that was previously held by the music video for Justin Bieber's "Baby" for over seven years.


text: The video is themed around everyone being able to control YouTube Rewind, with various featured personalities describing what events they want to review. The video begins with actor Will Smith on the Swiss Alps suggesting the inclusion of popular video game "Fortnite" and YouTuber Marques Brownlee if he could control rewind in the video. The camera then cuts to Brownlee, other YouTubers and Twitch streamer Ninja, as the bus driver, conversing inside a battle bus, a "Fortnite" reference. "I Like It" by famous rapper Cardi B is played on the radio during the scene as well.


text: The following scene depicts a group of YouTube personalities surrounding a campfire. Casey Neistat and the Merrell Twins suggest that the Rewind should mention K-pop, after which the video cuts to Neistat, among others, imitating the music video of "Idol" by K-pop group BTS.


text: The video then cuts back to the campfire, as one YouTuber proposes a reference to the wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan Markle, but comedian Michael Dapaah establishes that the internet meme 'Bongo Cat' will be the groom. Following the wedding scene, Safiya Nygaard suggests a science experiment involving melting lipstick. Another then suggests the inclusion of electronic musician Marshmello, whose mask is removed, revealing Mason Ramsey underneath. The video then cuts to a group doing a mukbang in Korea.


text: Eventually, the scene shifts back to the campfire, when animator TheOdd1sOut suggests the inclusion of the "In My Feelings" challenge. The video rapidly cuts between scenes of various YouTubers and celebrities dancing to Drake's song "In My Feelings", including scenes of talk show hosts Trevor Noah and John Oliver performing dances from "Fortnite". Here, animator Jaiden Animations included several easter eggs, comprising references to other memes and events of the year, such as Ugandan Knuckles, an invitation to "Super Smash Bros. Ultimate" and the KSI vs. Logan Paul boxing match, a group of items on the wall that spell out "Sub 2 PewDiePie", as well as PewDiePie's swivel chair.


text: The video once again cuts back to the group sitting around the campfire, with Lilly Singh claiming that the video should feature "the people who managed to do something bigger than themselves". Then several Youtubers give shoutouts to various groups of people, including "everyone who proved it's OK to talk about mental health" and a shoutout to "all women in 2018 for finding their voices". Afterwards, Elle Mills decides to read a faux comments section for further suggestions on what to feature in the Rewind.


text: Various comments are featured, leading to the inclusion of more pop culture moments that took place over the past year. Some (including actress Lele Pons) take part in a fashion show, wearing the costumes featured in Kanye West and Lil Pump's "I Love It" music video, followed by references to the 2018 FIFA World Cup and the "Dame Tu Cosita" dance craze. The 'Sister Squad' (James Charles, Dolan Twins and Emma Chamberlain) are then shown in outer space, driving a car resembling Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster.


text: The video ends with Smith laughing and watching the aforementioned battle bus through a pair of binoculars. He states "That's hot, that's hot." While the credits are playing, Primitive Technology is featured, sculpting the "YouTube Rewind" logo with clay.


text: Below is a list of starring cast members in "YouTube Rewind 2018", derived from the video's description:


text: Upon its release, "Everyone Controls Rewind" received universally negative reviews, receiving extensive backlash from critics, YouTubers and viewers alike. Many YouTubers deemed it the "worst "Rewind" ever", although the video received some praise for its display of YouTube animators. Criticisms ranged from the inclusion of celebrities and personalities who are not affiliated with YouTube (such as Will Smith, Ninja, John Oliver, and Trevor Noah) to the exclusion of major YouTube personalities, such as Shane Dawson, KSI, Logan Paul, MrBeast and PewDiePie, and popular feuds such as KSI vs Logan Paul and PewDiePie vs T-Series.


text: Other criticisms included what viewers had seen as the video's overuse of some trends, many of which were classified as outdated or unpopular, including "Fortnite", as well as the lack of variety in references. It was also prominently criticized for its social commentary, which some felt was shoehorned into the video. Many people were also angered with PewDiePie's exclusion, as his channel was the most-subscribed on the platform at the time.


text: "Everyone Controls Rewind" incorporated user comment suggestions as a part of the video, although many viewers stated that the trends that the video included were unpopular with the majority of the community, calling YouTube "out of touch" with its viewers and their interests. Julia Alexander of "The Verge" suggested that YouTube had intentionally left out the biggest moments on the platform in 2018 from the video in an attempt to appease concerned advertisers over controversies that had plagued the platform over the past 2 years, saying "it's increasingly apparent, however, that YouTube is trying to sell a culture that's different from the one millions of people come to the platform for, and that's getting harder for both creators and fans to swallow". Meira Gebel of "Business Insider" shared a similar sentiment, saying "The video appears to be an attempt for the company to keep advertisers on its side following a rather rocky 2018."


text: PewDiePie, who was not included in "Everyone Controls Rewind", criticized the video, stating: "I'm almost glad I'm not in it. The reason why is because it's such a cringey video at this point which I think is quite a shame honestly." adding that "Rewind [used to be] something that seemed like an homage to the creators that year, it was something cool to be a part of". He further criticized the over-saturation of "Fortnite", the inclusion of celebrities not associated with YouTube, and the lack of any mention of the outpouring of support on the platform for those who died before December, including Icelandic actor and YouTuber Stefán Karl Stefánsson. On top of his criticism, he, along with FlyingKitty, Party In Backyard, Grandayy and Dolan Dark, created their take of "Everyone Controls Rewind" on December 27, 2018, titled "YouTube Rewind 2018 but it's actually good", which focused on the notable memes of 2018. It received more than 7 million likes in less than 2 days, making it the second most liked non-music video on YouTube, while also having more than three times the number of likes compared to the official YouTube Rewind video.


text: Marques Brownlee, who was prominently featured in the video, said "Rewind" had once been a "big celebration of YouTubers and the biggest events that had happened on the site in a particular year. It became an honor to be included in Rewind. But now YouTube saw Rewind as a way to showcase all the best stuff that happens on YouTube for advertisers." He concluded that "Instead of honoring creators, it is now a list of advertiser-friendly content. Rewind has turned into a giant ad for YouTube".


text: Only a few portions of the video received praise, with many viewers applauding Jaiden Animations for incorporating PewDiePie's chair, as well as other easter eggs, into her segment of the video.


text: In a video uploaded in February 2019, YouTube CEO Susan Wojcicki said "Even at home, my kids told me it ("Everyone Controls Rewind") was cringey." She promised a better "Rewind" for 2019 and revealed several priorities for YouTube for the year.


text: On December 13, 2018, just a week after it was uploaded, it became the most-disliked video in the history of the website, beating the previous record-holder: the music video for Justin Bieber's "Baby".


text: In a statement given to media outlets, YouTube spokeswoman Andrea Faville said that "dethroning 'Baby' in dislikes wasn't exactly our goal this year." She added: "Honest feedback can suck, but we are listening and we appreciate how much people care. Trying to capture the magic of YouTube in one single video is like trying to capture lightning in a bottle. We also learned that creating content can be really hard and this underscores our respect and admiration for YouTube creators doing it every day," adding in a tweet that "we hear what you're saying, and we want to make next year better for all of you."


text: After the release of the video and subsequent backlash, YouTube discussed possible options to prevent abuse of the dislike button by "dislike mobs", such as making the like–dislike ratings invisible by default, prompting disliking users to explain their dislike, removing the dislike count or the dislike button entirely. Tom Leung, the director of project management at YouTube, described the possibility of removing the dislike button to be the most extreme and undemocratic option, as "not all dislikes are from dislike mobs." In November 2021, dislike counts became viewable only by a video's uploader, in an attempt to "help better protect our creators from harassment, and reduce dislike attacks — where people work to drive up the number of dislikes on a creator's videos."


text: The API for dislikes was removed on December 13, 2021, coinciding with the third anniversary of the milestone.


title: Justin I

text: Justin I (; , "Ioustînos"; 450 – 1 August 527) was the Eastern Roman emperor from 518 to 527. Born to a peasant family, he rose through the ranks of the army to become commander of the imperial guard, and when Emperor Anastasius died he out-maneouvered his rivals and was elected as his successor, in spite of being almost 70 years old. His reign is significant for the founding of the Justinian dynasty that included his eminent nephew Justinian I and three succeeding emperors. His consort was Empress Euphemia.