title: K. M. Cariappa

text: During the 1965 war, his son, Nanda, was shot down over Pakistan. He was captured and held as a prisoner of war (POW). On realizing the identity of the wounded soldier at Kargil, Radio Pakistan immediately announced the capture of the younger Cariappa. General Ayub Khan himself contacted General Cariappa, who was living a retired life at Mercara, his hometown, with information about his son's safety. When Ayub Khan offered to release his son immediately, Cariappa is reported to have scoffed at the idea and told him to give his son no better treatment than any other POW. Singh recounts that Cariappa replied, "He is my son no longer. He is the child of this country, a soldier fighting for his motherland like a true patriot. My many thanks for your kind gesture, but I request you to release all or release none. Give him no special treatment."


title: André Roberson

text: André Lee Roberson (born December 4, 1991) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Colorado Buffaloes. As a junior in 2013, Roberson earned first-team all-conference honors in the Pac-12 for the second time, and was also named the Pac-12 Defensive Player of the Year. He was selected in the first round of the 2013 NBA draft with the 26th overall pick. He was acquired by the Oklahoma City Thunder in a draft night trade. He was named to the NBA All-Defensive Second Team in 2017.


title: André Roberson

text: Roberson attended Karen Wagner High School on the outskirts of San Antonio. During his senior year, he averaged 15 points, 12 rebounds and 1.7 blocked shots per game. Considered a three-star recruit by ESPN.com, Roberson was listed as the No. 62 power forward in the nation in 2010.


title: André Roberson

text: Roberson played for the Colorado Buffaloes under coach Tad Boyle. In his three seasons at CU, Roberson was one of the country's top rebounders, finishing third in the country in 2011–12 and second in 2012–13. He led the Buffaloes to the NCAA Tournament both years. As a junior in 2012–13, Roberson averaged 10.9 points and 11.2 rebounds per game. He was named first-team All-Pac-12 and the conference Defensive Player of the Year. At the end of his junior season, Roberson declared his eligibility for the 2013 NBA draft.


title: André Roberson

text: Roberson was selected with the 26th overall pick in the 2013 NBA draft by the Minnesota Timberwolves, but was later acquired by the Oklahoma City Thunder on draft night. On July 12, he signed with the Thunder after an impressive Summer League performance. During his rookie season, he had multiple assignments with the Tulsa 66ers of the NBA Development League.


title: André Roberson

text: In July 2014, Roberson re-joined the Thunder for the 2014 NBA Summer League. On October 22, 2014, the Thunder exercised their third-year team option on Roberson's rookie scale contract, extending the contract through the 2015–16 season. Earning the Thunder's starting shooting guard spot for the 2014–15 season, Roberson recorded his first career double-double (10 points, 12 rebounds) on December 18 against the Golden State Warriors, and scored a then career-high 12 points on February 9 against the Denver Nuggets.


title: André Roberson

text: On October 23, 2015, the Thunder exercised their fourth-year team option on Roberson's rookie scale contract, extending the contract through the 2016–17 season. He retained the starting shooting guard spot in 2015–16, and on December 23, he scored a then career-high 15 points in a 120–85 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. On January 25, 2016, he was ruled out for three weeks with a right knee sprain. He returned to action on February 24 after missing 10 games. In Game 4 of the Western Conference Finals, Roberson scored a career-high 17 points and grabbed 12 rebounds, as the Thunder defeated the Golden State Warriors 118–94 to take a 3–1 lead in the series. The Thunder went on to lose the series in seven games.


title: André Roberson

text: Roberson was moved to the starting small forward spot for the 2016–17 season due to the loss of Kevin Durant and the acquisition of Victor Oladipo. On February 24, 2017, he set a new career high with 19 points in a 110–93 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. At the season's end, Roberson was named to the NBA All-Defensive Second Team.


title: André Roberson

text: On July 14, 2017, Roberson re-signed with the Thunder to a three-year, $30 million contract. After missing eight games in January 2018 with left patellar tendinitis, Roberson ruptured his left patellar tendon on January 27 against the Detroit Pistons. He underwent surgery the following day and was subsequently ruled out for the rest of the season.


title: André Roberson

text: On October 4, 2018, Roberson was ruled out for an additional two months after undergoing a procedure following a setback during his rehab from left knee surgery. In late November, Roberson experienced discomfort after landing from a jump, and an MRI revealed that he had suffered a small avulsion fracture in his knee. He was subsequently ruled out for at least another six weeks.


title: André Roberson

text: On February 16, 2021, Roberson signed with the Brooklyn Nets. He played two games for the Nets before being waived. On February 26, Roberson signed a 10-day contract with the Nets.


title: André Roberson

text: Roberson comes from a family of athletes. Both of his parents were All-Americans in their respective sports during college at New Mexico State. He has six siblings. Other than the two youngest siblings who have not yet reached college age, all the Roberson children are current or former NCAA Division I athletes.


title: Steve Holmes (actor)

text: Steve Holmes (born 23 March 1961) is a German pornographic actor, producer and director. He has received several adult industry awards, including the AVN Award for Male Foreign Performer of the Year in 2005 and 2006. In 2017, Holmes was inducted into the AVN Hall of Fame.


title: Steve Holmes (actor)

text: Holmes was born to Transylvanian Saxon parents in Sibiu, Romania. In the summer of 1968, while on holiday in Bulgaria, Holmes and his family crossed the Turkish border. Upon arrival at the Federal Republic of Germany in Istanbul, they sought political asylum. Holmes eventually returned to Romania to visit family.


title: Steve Holmes (actor)

text: After dropping out of school, Holmes began working in fashion. He eventually became an assistant buyer for several clothing stores. While attending a computer show in Munich, he decided to enter the tech industry. On 1 January 1986, Holmes started working as a sales representative for an IT company. He continued to work in the tech industry for several years.


title: Steve Holmes (actor)

text: Holmes spent most of 1996 attempting to break into the adult film industry with little success. Prior to performing in porn, Holmes sought permission from his wife. On 22 November 1996, he performed in his first pornographic scene in Dortmund, Germany. The scene was part of an amateur series called "Have a Wish". Holmes wasn't compensated for the shoot. While giving an interview, he was instructed by a reporter to adopt the stage name "Steve Holmes" due to his similar appearance to that of actor John Holmes.


title: Steve Holmes (actor)

text: In 2001, Holmes won the NINFA Award for Best Supporting Actor at the Barcelona International Erotic Film Festival. That same year, he met Manuel Ferrara on a shoot for Rocco Siffredi. After hitting it off, the two went on to produce the film series "Euro Girls Never Say No" and "The Pussy Is Not Enough". In 2003, Holmes performed in over 280 scenes. That same year, Holmes became one of five charter directors for Platinum X Pictures; other notable directors included Jewel De'Nyle, Michael Stefano and Ferrara.


title: Steve Holmes (actor)

text: In 2004, Holmes received the XRCO Award for Unsung Swordsman. He also received the AVN Award for Male Foreign Performer of the Year for two consecutive years in 2005 and 2006. In 2006, Holmes signed a directing deal with Mach 2 Entertainment to direct one film a month. In late 2007, he performed in his first scene featuring bondage for Kink.com. He developed the site "Public Disgrace" with fellow performer Princess Donna. In May 2020, Holmes launched his own website, which features an archive of over 3,000 scenes he's performed in throughout his career.


title: Steve Holmes (actor)

text: In 2017, Holmes and his wife celebrated 26 years of marriage. He currently resides in California. He is close friends with directors Greg Lansky and Mike Adriano.


title: Steve Holmes (actor)

text: While shooting a scene for "Public Disgrace" in Barcelona, Holmes and Princess Donna were arrested by local authorities. The two were released shortly after.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: One-alarm fires, two-alarm fires, three-alarm fires, etc., are categories classifying the seriousness of fires, commonly used in the United States and in Canada, particularly indicating the level of response by local authorities. The term multiple-alarm is a quick way of indicating that a fire is severe and is difficult to contain. This system of classification is used by both fire departments and news agencies.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: The most widely used formula for multi-alarm designation is based on the number of units, (for example firetrucks, tankers, rescue vehicles and command vehicles) and firefighters responding to a fire; the more vehicles and firefighters responding, the higher the alarm designation.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: In terms of understanding the relative severity of an incident, the government of Rochester, New Hampshire has reported in a statement that a "typical fire in a small structure will usually require only one or two alarms". In contrast, however, a "large-scale fire in a commercial building would require three alarms or more."


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: When identifying the unit/firefighter alarm designation, the initial dispatch is referred to as a "first alarm" and is typically the largest. Subsequent alarms are calls for additional units, usually because the fire has grown and additional resources are needed to combat it, or because the incident is persisting long enough that firefighters on scene need to be relieved.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: Requests for units and firefighters from outside jurisdictions do not normally occur in multi-firehouse urban areas until elevated alarms are reached (alarm three and above), but will depend on the location of the incident and the condition of the authority having jurisdiction at the time of the incident.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: A common misconception is that a "three-alarm fire", for example, means that three firehouses responded to the fire. This is not the rule behind the naming convention, although some cities may use the number of firehouses responding for multi-alarm designations because that is the simplest way to determine an alarm number.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: The list is a basic example of how alarm levels are categorized in a fire department, how many fire apparatus or fire units respond to each alarm level, etc. In New York, however, additional special alarm levels are utilized, aside from the conventional first alarm fire, second alarm fire, third alarm fire, etc. Examples of such alarm levels are the signal 10-75 assignment, the signals 10-76 and 10-77 assignments, and the signal 10-60 assignment. A 10-75 is a working fire (i.e., there is fire visible from a building), the 10-76/10-77 assignments are the alarm levels separate from the first alarm, second alarm, third alarms, etc. that are the standard fire department responses to fires in high-rise buildings. The signal 10-60 is a separate response to major disasters. Engine companies, ladder companies, rescue companies, etc. respond to these disasters. Some units can act as Firefighter Assist and Search Team (FAST) units. Chief units who respond to these incidents include division chief units, deputy chief units, battalion chief units (safety, SOC, field communications), air recon chief units, etc.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: The list demonstrates how alarm levels are categorized in order per protocol. Each apparatus count is in an addition on each alarm (a five alarm fire assignment has 21 engine companies total). Each total is the total number of units on scene.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: If the incident commander decides that the incident does not require a higher alarm level to be requested, they can specially request an additional unit to the scene without requesting a full alarm level assignment. For example, at a working fire, there are four engine companies, three ladder companies, one squad company, one rescue company, two battalion chief units, and one division chief unit operating at the scene. If the fire is not large enough to require a 2nd alarm, but there is a need for more equipment and manpower, the commanding chief can request additional units to respond "specially called" to the scene.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: Thus, at the scene of a 5th alarm fire in New York, there are a total of 21 engine companies, 11 ladder companies, one squad company, one rescue company, six battalion chief units, one division chief unit, one deputy chief unit, one assistant chief unit, and the chief of operations, as well as multiple specialized units and or specially called units operating on the scene.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: All of these companies come from many firehouses to the scene. Some companies, however, are quartered together at the same firehouse. So, it is not a matter of how many firehouses respond to a fire as popularly believed, but rather how many companies/units and how many firefighters are operating on scene.


title: Multiple-alarm fire

text: The system of classification comes from the old tradition of using pull stations to alert the local departments to a fire in their area. The "box" would send a message to all local stations by telegraph that there was a fire, indicating the intensity by number. A firefighter could consult a codebook and use a system like Morse code to send messages back requesting for more help. For example, a code commonly used throughout the US was four rings, a pause, and another four rings (known to fire alarm specialists as "Code 4-4" or simply "4-4") to indicate a particularly intense fire, giving rise to the phrase "four alarm fire".


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium (U) is a naturally occurring radioactive element that has no stable isotope. It has two primordial isotopes, uranium-238 and uranium-235, that have long half-lives and are found in appreciable quantity in the Earth's crust. The decay product uranium-234 is also found. Other isotopes such as uranium-233 have been produced in breeder reactors. In addition to isotopes found in nature or nuclear reactors, many isotopes with far shorter half-lives have been produced, ranging from U to U (with the exceptions of U and U). The standard atomic weight of natural uranium is .


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Naturally occurring uranium is composed of three major isotopes, uranium-238 (99.2739–99.2752% natural abundance), uranium-235 (0.7198–0.7202%), and uranium-234 (0.0050–0.0059%). All three isotopes are radioactive (i.e., they are radioisotopes), and the most abundant and stable is uranium-238, with a half-life of (close to the age of the Earth).


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-238 is an alpha emitter, decaying through the 18-member uranium series into lead-206. The decay series of uranium-235 (historically called actino-uranium) has 15 members and ends in lead-207. The constant rates of decay in these series makes comparison of the ratios of parent-to-daughter elements useful in radiometric dating. Uranium-233 is made from thorium-232 by neutron bombardment.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-235 is important for both nuclear reactors (energy production) and nuclear weapons because it is the only isotope existing in nature to any appreciable extent that is fissile in response to thermal neutrons, i.e., thermal neutron capture has a high probability of inducing fission. A chain reaction can be sustained with a sufficiently large (critical) mass of uranium-235. Uranium-238 is also important because it is fertile: it absorbs neutrons to produce a radioactive isotope that subsequently decays to the isotope plutonium-239, which also is fissile.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-214 is the lightest known isotope of uranium. It was discovered in 2021 at the Spectrometer for Heavy Atoms and Nuclear Structure (SHANS) at the Heavy Ion Research Facility in Lanzhou, China in 2021, produced by firing argon-36 at tungsten-182. It undergoes alpha decay with a half-life of .


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-232 has a half-life of 68.9 years and is a side product in the thorium cycle. It has been cited as an obstacle to nuclear proliferation using U as the fissile material, because the intense gamma radiation emitted by Tl (a daughter of U, produced relatively quickly) makes the U contaminated with it more difficult to handle. Uranium-232 is a rare example of an even-even isotope that is fissile with both thermal and fast neutrons.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-233 is a fissile isotope of uranium that is bred from thorium-232 as part of the thorium fuel cycle. Uranium-233 was investigated for use in nuclear weapons and as a reactor fuel. It was occasionally tested but never deployed in nuclear weapons and has not been used commercially as a nuclear fuel. It has been used successfully in experimental nuclear reactors and has been proposed for much wider use as a nuclear fuel. It has a half-life of around 160,000 years.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-233 is produced by the neutron irradiation of thorium-232. When thorium-232 absorbs a neutron, it becomes thorium-233, which has a half-life of only 22 minutes. Thorium-233 decays into protactinium-233 through beta decay. Protactinium-233 has a half-life of 27 days and beta decays into uranium-233; some proposed molten salt reactor designs attempt to physically isolate the protactinium from further neutron capture before beta decay can occur.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-233 usually fissions on neutron absorption but sometimes retains the neutron, becoming uranium-234. The capture-to-fission ratio is smaller than the other two major fissile fuels uranium-235 and plutonium-239; it is also lower than that of short-lived plutonium-241, but bested by very difficult-to-produce neptunium-236.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-234 is an isotope of uranium. In natural uranium and in uranium ore, U occurs as an indirect decay product of uranium-238, but it makes up only 0.0055% (55 parts per million) of the raw uranium because its half-life of just 245,500 years is only about 1/18,000 as long as that of U. The path of production of U via nuclear decay is as follows: U nuclei emit an alpha particle to become thorium-234. Next, with a short half-life, a Th nucleus emits a beta particle to become protactinium-234. Finally, Pa nuclei each emit another beta particle to become U nuclei.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: U nuclei usually last for hundreds of thousands of years, but then they decay by alpha emission to thorium-230, except for the small percentage of nuclei that undergo spontaneous fission.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Extraction of rather small amounts of U from natural uranium would be feasible using isotope separation, similar to that used for regular uranium-enrichment. However, there is no real demand in chemistry, physics, or engineering for isolating U. Very small pure samples of U can be extracted via the chemical ion-exchange process—from samples of plutonium-238 that have been aged somewhat to allow some decay to U via alpha emission.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Enriched uranium contains more U than natural uranium as a byproduct of the uranium enrichment process aimed at obtaining uranium-235, which concentrates lighter isotopes even more strongly than it does U. The increased percentage of U in enriched natural uranium is acceptable in current nuclear reactors, but (re-enriched) reprocessed uranium might contain even higher fractions of U, which is undesirable. This is because U is not fissile, and tends to absorb slow neutrons in a nuclear reactor—becoming U.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: U has a neutron capture cross section of about 100 barns for thermal neutrons, and about 700 barns for its resonance integral—the average over neutrons having various intermediate energies. In a nuclear reactor, non-fissile isotopes capture a neutron breeding fissile isotopes. U is converted to U more easily and therefore at a greater rate than uranium-238 is to plutonium-239 (via neptunium-239), because U has a much smaller neutron-capture cross section of just 2.7 barns.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium making up about 0.72% of natural uranium. Unlike the predominant isotope uranium-238, it is fissile, i.e., it can sustain a fission chain reaction. It is the only fissile isotope that is a primordial nuclide or found in significant quantity in nature.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-235 has a half-life of 703.8 million years. It was discovered in 1935 by Arthur Jeffrey Dempster. Its (fission) nuclear cross section for slow thermal neutron is about 504.81 barns. For fast neutrons it is on the order of 1 barn. At thermal energy levels, about 5 of 6 neutron absorptions result in fission and 1 of 6 result in neutron capture forming uranium-236. The fission-to-capture ratio improves for faster neutrons.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-236 is an isotope of uranium with a half-life of about 23 million years that is neither fissile with thermal neutrons, nor very good fertile material, but is generally considered a nuisance and long-lived radioactive waste. It is found in spent nuclear fuel and in the reprocessed uranium made from spent nuclear fuel.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-237 is an isotope of uranium. It has a half life of about 6.75(1) days. It decays into neptunium-237 by beta decay.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-238 (U or U-238) is the most common isotope of uranium found in nature. It is not fissile, but is a fertile material: it can capture a slow neutron and after two beta decays become fissile plutonium-239. Uranium-238 is fissionable by fast neutrons, but cannot support a chain reaction because inelastic scattering reduces neutron energy below the range where fast fission of one or more next-generation nuclei is probable. Doppler broadening of U's neutron absorption resonances, increasing absorption as fuel temperature increases, is also an essential negative feedback mechanism for reactor control.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Around 99.284% of natural uranium is uranium-238, which has a half-life of 1.41×10 seconds (4.468×10 years, or 4.468 billion years). Depleted uranium has an even higher concentration of the U isotope, and even low-enriched uranium (LEU), while having a higher proportion of the uranium-235 isotope (in comparison to depleted uranium), is still mostly U. Reprocessed uranium is also mainly U, with about as much uranium-235 as natural uranium, a comparable proportion of uranium-236, and much smaller amounts of other isotopes of uranium such as uranium-234, uranium-233, and uranium-232.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Uranium-239 is an isotope of uranium. It is usually produced by exposing U to neutron radiation in a nuclear reactor. U has a half-life of about 23.45 minutes and decays into neptunium-239 through beta decay, with a total decay energy of about 1.29 MeV. The most common gamma decay at 74.660 keV accounts for the difference in the two major channels of beta emission energy, at 1.28 and 1.21 MeV.


title: Isotopes of uranium

text: Np further decays to plutonium-239 also through beta decay (Np has a half-life of about 2.356 days), in a second important step that ultimately produces fissile Pu (used in weapons and for nuclear power), from U in reactors.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Naraka (), also called Yamaloka, is the Hindu equivalent of Hell, where sinners are tormented after death. It is also the abode of Yama, the god of Death. It is described as located in the south of the universe and beneath the earth.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The number and names of hells, as well as the type of sinners sent to a particular hell, varies from text to text; however, many scriptures describe 28 hells. After death, messengers of Yama called "Yamadutas" bring all beings to the court of Yama, where he weighs the virtues and the vices of the being and passes a judgement, sending the virtuous to Svarga (heaven) and the sinners to one of the hells. The stay in Svarga or Naraka is generally described as temporary. After the quantum of punishment is over, the souls are reborn as lower or higher beings as per their merits (the exception being Hindu philosopher Madhvacharya, who believes in eternal damnation of the Tamo-yogyas in Andhantamas).


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The "Bhagavata Purana" describes Naraka as beneath the earth: between the seven realms of the underworld (Patala) and the Garbhodaka Ocean, which is the bottom of the universe. It is located in the South of the universe. Pitrloka, where the dead ancestors (Pitrs) headed by Agniṣvāttā reside, is also located in this region. Yama, the Lord of Naraka, resides in this realm with his assistants. The "Devi Bhagavata Purana" mentions that Naraka is the southern part of universe, below the earth but above Patala. The "Vishnu Purana" mentions that it is located below the cosmic waters at the bottom of the universe. The Hindu epics too agree that Naraka is located in the South, the direction which is governed by Yama and is often associated with Death. Pitrloka is considered as the capital of Yama, from where Yama delivers his justice.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The god of Death, Yama, employs Yama-dutas (messengers of Yama) or Yama-purushas, who bring souls of all beings to Yama for judgement. Generally, all living beings, including humans and beasts, go to Yama's abode upon death where they are judged. However, very virtuous beings are taken directly to Svarga (heaven). People devoted to charity, especially donors of food, and eternal truth speakers are spared the justice of Yama's court. War-heroes who sacrifice their life and people dying in holy places like Kurukshetra are also described as avoiding Yama. Those who get moksha (salvation) also escape from the clutches of yamadutas. Those who are generous and ascetics are given preferential treatment when entering Naraka for judgement. The way is lighted for those who donated lamps, while those who underwent religious fasting are carried by peacocks and geese.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Yama, as Lord of Justice, is called Dharma-raja. Yama sends the virtuous to Svarga to enjoy the luxuries of paradise. He also assesses the vices of the dead and accords judgement, assigning them to appropriate hells as punishment commensurate with the severity and nature of their sins. A person is not freed of samsara (the cycle of birth-death-rebirth) and must take birth again after his prescribed pleasure in Svarga or punishment in Naraka is over.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Yama is aided by his minister Chitragupta, who maintains a record of all good and evil actions of every living being. Yama-dhutas are also assigned the job of executing the punishments on sinners in the various hells.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Naraka, as a whole, is known by many names conveying that it is the realm of Yama. Yamālaya, Yamaloka, Yamasādana and Yamalokāya mean the abode of Yama. Yamakṣaya (the "akṣaya" of Yama) and its equivalents like Vaivasvatakṣaya use pun for the word "kṣaya", which can be mean abode or destruction. It is also called Saṃyamanī, "where only truth is spoken, and the weak torment the strong", Mṛtyulokāya – the world of Death or of the dead and the "city of the king of ghosts", Pretarājapura.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The "Agni Purana" mentions only 4 hells. Some texts mention 7 hells: Put ("childless", for the childless), Avichi ("waveless", for those waiting for reincarnation), Samhata ("abandoned", for evil beings), Tamisra ("darkness", where darkness of hells begin), Rijisha ("expelled", where torments of hell begin), Kudmala ("leprous", the worst hell for those who are going to be reincarnated) and Kakola ("black poison", the bottomless pit, for those who are eternally condemned to hell and have no chance of reincarnation).


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The "Manu Smriti" mentions 21 hells: Tamisra, Andhatamisra, Maharaurava, Raurava, Kalasutra, Mahanaraka, Samjivana, Mahavichi, Tapana, Sampratapana, Samhata, Sakakola, Kudmala, Putimrittika, Lohasanku, Rijisha, Pathana, Vaitarani, Salmali, Asipatravana and Lohadaraka.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The "Yajnavalkya Smriti" also lists twenty-one: Tamisra, Lohasanku, Mahaniraya, Salamali, Raurava, Kudmala, Putimrittika, Kalasutraka, Sanghata, Lohitoda, Savisha, Sampratapana, Mahanaraka, Kakola, Sanjivana, Mahapatha, Avichi, Andhatamisra, Kumbhipaka, Asipatravana and Tapana.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The "Bhagavata Purana", the "Vishnu Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" enlist and describe 28 hells; however, they end the description by stating that there are hundreds and thousands of hells. The "Bhagavata Purana" enumerates the following 28: Tamisra, Andhatamisra, Raurava, Maharaurava, Kumbhipaka, Kalasutra, Asipatravana, Sukaramukha, Andhakupa, Krimibhojana, Samdamsa, Taptasurmi, Vajrakantaka-salmali, Vaitarani, Puyoda, Pranarodha, Visasana, Lalabhaksa, Sarameyadana, Avichi, Ayahpana, Ksharakardama, Raksogana-bhojana, Sulaprota, Dandasuka, Avata-nirodhana, Paryavartana and Suchimukha. The "Devi Bhagavata Purana" agrees with the "Bhagavata Purana" in most of names; however, a few names are slightly different. Taptasurmi, Ayahpana, Raksogana-bhojana, Avata-nirodhana, Paryavartana are replaced by Taptamurti, Apahpana, Raksogana-sambhoja, Avatarodha, Paryavartanataka respectively. The "Vishnu Purana" mentions the 28 in the following order: Raurava, Shukara, Rodha, Tala, Visasana, Mahajwala, Taptakumbha, Lavana, Vimohana, Rudhirandha, Vaitaraní, Krimiśa, Krimibhojana, Asipatravana, Krishna, Lalabhaksa, Dáruńa, Púyaváha, Pápa, Vahnijwála, Adhośiras, Sandansa, Kalasutra, Tamas, Avichi, Śwabhojana, Apratisht́ha, and another Avichi.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Early texts like the "Rigveda" do not have a detailed description of Naraka. It is simply a place of evil and a dark bottomless pit. The "Atharvaveda" describes a realm of darkness, where murderers are confined after death.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The "Shatapatha Brahmana" is the first text to mention the pain and suffering of Naraka in detail, while the "Manu Smriti" begins naming the multiple hells. The epics also describe Hell in general terms as a dense jungle without shade, where there is no water and no rest. The Yamadutas torment souls on the orders of their master.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The names of many of hells is common in Hindu texts; however, the nature of sinners tormented in particular hells varies from text to text.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The summary of twenty-eight hells described in the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" are as follows:


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Tamisra (darkness): It is intended for a person who grabs another's wealth, wife or children. In this dark realm, he is bound with ropes and starved without food or water. He is beaten and reproached by Yamadutas till he faints.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Andhatamisra (blind-darkness): Here, a man – who deceives another man and enjoys his wife or children – is tormented to the extent he loses his intelligence and sight. The torture is described as cutting the tree at its roots.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Raurava (fearful or hell of "ruru"s): As per the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana", it is assigned for a person who cares about his own and his family's good, but harms other living beings and is always envious of others. The living beings hurt by such a man take the form of savage serpent-like beasts called "ruru"s and torture this person. The "Vishnu Purana" deems this hell fit for a false witness or one who lies.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Maharaurava (great-fearful): A person who indulges at the expense of other beings is afflicted with pain by fierce "ruru"s called "kravyada"s, who eat his flesh.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Kumbhipaka (cooked in a pot): A person who cooks beasts and birds alive is cooked alive in boiling oil by Yamadutas here, for as many years as there were hairs on the bodies of their animal victims.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Kalasutra (thread of Time/Death): The "Bhagavata Purana" assigns this hell to a murderer of a brahmin, while the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" allocates it for a person who disrespects his parents, elders, ancestors or brahmins. This realm is made entirely of copper and extremely hot, heated by fire from below and the red hot sun from above. Here, the sinner burns from within by hunger and thirst and the smouldering heat outside, whether he sleeps, sits, stands or runs.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Asipatravana/Asipatrakanana (forest of sword leaves): The "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" reserve this hell for a person who digresses from the religious teachings of the Vedas and indulges in heresy. The "Vishnu Purana" states that wanton tree-felling leads to this hell. Yamadutas beat them with whips as they try to run away in the forest where palm trees have swords as leaves. Afflicted with injury of whips and swords, they faint and cry out for help in vain.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Shukaramukha (hog's mouth): It houses kings or government officials who punish the innocent or grant corporal punishment to a Brahmin. Yamadutas crush him as sugar cane is crushed to extract juice. He will yell and scream in agony, just as the guiltless suffered.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Andhakupa (well with its mouth hidden): It is the hell where a person who harms others with the intention of malice and harms insects is confined. He is attacked by birds, mammals, reptiles, mosquitoes, lice, worms, flies and others, who deprive him of rest and compel him to run hither and thither.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Krimibhojana/Krimibhaksha (worm-food): As per the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana", it is where a person who does not share his food with guests, elders, children or the gods, and selfishly eats it alone, and he who eats without performing the five yajnas ("panchayajna") is chastised. The "Vishnu Purana" states that one who loathes his father, Brahmins or the gods and who destroys jewels is punished here. This hell is a 100,000 yojana lake filled with worms. The sinful person is reduced to a worm, who feeds on other worms, who in turn devour his body for 100,000 years.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Sandansa/Sandamsa (hell of pincers): The "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" state that a person who robs a Brahmin or steals jewels or gold from someone, when not in dire need, is confined to this hell. However, the "Vishnu Purana" tells the violators of vows or rules endure pain here. His body is torn by red-hot iron balls and tongs.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Taptasurmi/Taptamurti (red-hot iron statue): A man or woman who indulges in illicit sexual relations with a woman or man is beaten by whips and forced to embrace red-hot iron figurines of the opposite sex.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Vajrakantaka-salmali (the silk-cotton tree with thorns like thunderbolts/vajras): A person who has sexual intercourse with non-humans or who has excessive coitus is tied to the Vajrakantaka-salmali tree and pulled by Yamadutas so that the thorns tear his body.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Vaitarni/Vaitarna (to be crossed): It is a river that is believed to lie between Naraka and the earth. This river, which forms the boundary of Naraka, is filled with excreta, urine, pus, blood, hair, nails, bones, marrow, flesh and fat, where fierce aquatic beings eat the person's flesh. As per the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana", a person born in a respectable family – kshatriya (warrior-caste), royal family or government official – who neglects his duty is thrown into this river of hell. The "Vishnu Purana" assigns it to the destroyer of a bee-hive or a town.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Puyoda (water of pus): Shudras (workmen-caste) and husbands or sexual partners of lowly women and prostitutes – who live like beasts devoid of cleanliness and good behaviour – fall in Puyoda, the ocean of pus, excreta, urine, mucus, saliva and other repugnant things. Here, they are forced to eat these disgusting things.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Pranarodha (obstruction to life): Some Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas (merchant caste) indulge in the sport of hunting with their dogs and donkeys in the forest, resulting in wanton killing of beasts. Yamadutas play archery sport with them as the targets in this hell.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Visashana (murderous): The "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" mention that Yamadutas whip a person, who has pride of his rank and wealth and sacrifices beasts as a status symbol, and finally kill him. The "Vishnu Purana" associates it with the maker of spears, swords, and other weapons.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Lalabhaksa (saliva as food): As per the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana", a Brahmin, a Kshatriya or a Vaishya husband, who forces his wife to drink his semen out of lust and to enforce his control, is thrown in a river of semen, which he is forced to drink. The "Vishnu Purana" disagrees stating that one who eats before offering food to the gods, the ancestors or guests is brought to this hell.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Sarameyadana (hell of the sons of Sarama): Plunderers who burn houses and poison people for wealth, and kings and other government officials who grab money of merchants, mass murder or ruin the nation, are cast into this hell. Seven hundred and twenty ferocious dogs, the sons of Sarama, with razor-sharp teeth, prey on them at the behest of Yamadutas.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Avici/Avicimat (waterless/waveless): A person, who lies on oath or in business, is repeatedly thrown head-first from a 100 yojana high mountain whose sides are stone waves, but without water. His body is continuously broken, but it is made sure that he does not die.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Ayahpana (iron-drink): Anybody else under oath or a Brahmin who drinks alcohol is punished here. Yamadutas stand on their chests and force them to drink molten-iron.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Ksarakardama (acidic/saline mud/filth): One who in false pride, does not honour a person higher than him by birth, austerity, knowledge, behaviour, caste or spiritual order, is tortured in this hell. Yamadutas throw him head-first and torment him.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Raksogana-bhojana (food of Rakshasas): Those who practise human-sacrifice and cannibalism are condemned to this hell. Their victims, in the form of Rakshasas, cut them with sharp knives and swords. The Rakshasas feast on their blood and sing and dance in joy, just as the sinners slaughtered their victims.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Shulaprota (pierced by sharp pointed spear/dart): Some people give shelter to birds or animals pretending to be their saviours, but then harass them poking with threads, needles or using them like lifeless toys. Also, some people behave the same way to humans, winning their confidence and then killing them with sharp tridents or lances. The bodies of such sinners, fatigued with hunger and thirst, are pierced with sharp, needle-like spears. Ferocious carnivorous birds like vultures and herons tear and gorge their flesh.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Dandasuka (snakes): Filled with envy and fury, some people harm others like snakes. These are destined to be devoured by five or seven hooded serpents in this hell.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Avata-nirodhana (confined in a hole): People who imprison others in dark wells, crannies or mountain caves are pushed into this hell, a dark well engulfed with poisonous fumes and smoke that suffocates them.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Paryavartana (returning): A householder who welcomes guests with cruel glances and abuses them is restrained in this hell. Hard-eyed vultures, herons, crows and similar birds gaze on them and suddenly fly and pluck his eyes.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Sucimukha (needle-face): An ever-suspicious man is always wary of people trying to grab his wealth. Proud of his money, he sins to gain and to retain it. Yamadutas stitch thread through his whole body in this hell.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Though the "Vishnu Purana" mentions 28 hells, it gives information only about sinners condemned in 21 hells and does not give details about the punishments. The hells described in the "Vishnu Purana", but not in the "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" are as follows:


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Rodha (obstruction): A causer of abortion, a murderer of a cow, a plunderer or one who strangles a man is cast here.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Sukara (hog): A murderer of a Brahmin, a stealer of gold or an alcoholic and those all associated with them fall into this hell.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Tala (padlock): Murder of a Kshatriya or a Vaishya and adultery with wife of a religious leader leads here.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Taptakumbha (hot pots): Incest with sister and murderer of an ambassador results in torment in this hell.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Vimohana (the place of bewildering): A thief or those who despise prescribed observances are tormented here.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Adhomukha (head-inverted): He who takes bribes, an astrologer and he who worships improper objects is cast here.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Púyaváha (where matter falls): A Brahmin who sells lac, meat, alcohol, salt; he who commits violence and he who eats sweets without sharing falls in this hell.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Rudhirándha (wells of blood): Wrestlers or boxers who commit violence for entertainment, fishermen, followers of bastards, arsonists, poisoners, informants, fortune-tellers, traitors, those who have coitus on sacred taboo days and those who live off their wives' prostitution are cast here.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: Shwabhojana (food of dogs): A religious student who sleeps in the day and one who does not have spiritual knowledge and learns it from children are damned here.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The Hindu religion regards Hell not as a place of lasting permanence, but as an alternate domain from which an individual can return to the present world after crimes in the previous life have been compensated for. These crimes are eventually nullified through an equal punishment in the next life. The concept of Hell has provided many different opportunities for the Hindu religion including narrative, social and economic functions.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: A narrative rationale for the concept of Hell can be found in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. This narrative ends with Yudhishthira's visit to hell after being offered acceptance into heaven. This journey creates a scene for the audience that helps illustrate the importance of understanding hell as well as heaven before accepting either extreme. This idea provides an essential lesson regarding Dharma, a primary theme within the Mahabharata. Dharma is not a black and white concept, and all people are not entirely good or entirely evil. As such, tolerance is essential in order to truly understand the "right way of living". We all must understand the worst to truly understand and appreciate the best just as we must experience the best before we can experience the worst. This narrative utilizes the Hindu religion in order to teach lessons on tolerance and acceptance of one another's faults as well as virtues.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: A social rationale for the Hindu concept of rebirth in Hell is evident in the metric work of the Manusmrti: a written discourse focused on the "law of the social classes". A large portion of it is designed to help people of the Hindu faith understand evil deeds (pātaka) and their karmic consequences in various hellish rebirths. The Manusmrti, however, does not go into explicit detail of each hell. For this we turn to the Bhagavata Purana. The Manusmrti lists multiple levels of hell in which a person can be reborn into. The punishments in each of these consecutive hells is directly related to the crimes (pātaka) of the current life and how these deeds will affect the next reincarnation during the cycle of Saṃsāra This concept provides structure to society in which crimes have exacting consequences. An opposite social facet to these hellish rebirths is the precise way in which a person can redeem himself/herself from a particular crime through a series of vows (such as fasting, water purification rituals, chanting, and even sacrifices). These vows must take place during the same life cycle that the crimes were committed in. These religious lessons assist the societal structure by defining approved and unapproved social behavior.


title: Naraka (Hinduism)

text: The last Hindu function for Hell-based reincarnations is the text Preta khanda in the Garuda Purana used by Hindu priests during Śrāddha rituals. During these rituals, the soul of a dying or deceased individual is given safe passage into the next life. This ritual is directly related to the economic prosperity of Hindu priests and their ability to save the dying soul from a hellish reincarnation through gifts given on behalf of the deceased to the priest performing the ritual. With each gift given, crimes committed during the deceased's life are forgiven and the next life is progressively improved.


title: Slat armor

text: Slat armor (or slat armour in British English), also known as bar armor, cage armor, and standoff armor, is a type of vehicle armor designed to protect against high-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) attacks, as used by anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) and rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs).


title: Slat armor

text: Slat armor takes the form of a rigid slatted metal grid fitted around key sections of the vehicle, which disrupts the shaped charge of the warhead by either crushing it, preventing optimal detonation from occurring, or by damaging the fuzing mechanism, preventing detonation outright. Although slat armor is effective against incoming missiles, it does not offer complete protection – as many as 50% of missile impacts are unimpeded by the slat design. Slat armor is more likely to be effective if the cage spacing is less than the diameter of the incoming RPG round, which is commonly 85 mm.


title: Slat armor

text: The German Wehrmacht was the first employer of cage armor during World War II, using "Drahtgeflecht-Schürzen" (English: "wire mesh skirts") to fortify its tanks against shell fire. It was found to be just as effective as the steel plate "Schürzen" also being utilized. In March 1943, Adolf Hitler ordered all new Sturmgeschütz, Panzer III, IV, and Panthers be outfitted with "Schürzen" of either the wire mesh or steel plate type. However, the wire mesh was not as easy to mass-produce as steel plate "Schürzen" or armored skirts. Soviet Red Army tanks, faced with the new and highly effective German Panzerfaust, were similarly outfitted with "bedspring" armor made from expanded metal mesh grating panels.


title: Slat armor

text: However, Schürzen were designed to stop Soviet PTRD-41 anti-tank rifles, and proved ineffective against Bazooka and Panzerschreck anti-tank rockets in US and German tests.


title: Slat armor

text: In the Vietnam War, slat armor was commonly used on the sides of American patrol barges and boats. The CCB-18 is a surviving example of the Mobile Riverine Force which used such armor. Wire fencing was also placed on vehicles such as the M113 to defeat Vietcong RPGs. The Swedish Stridsvagn 103 of the same era employed a much heavier front-mounted metal grid to protect against incoming projectiles.


title: Slat armor

text: In modern times, slat armor has seen use on the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) Caterpillar D9R armored bulldozer, the Force Protection Buffalo MPV MRAP vehicle, the General Dynamics Stryker, Ukrainian BTR-4, the Warrior infantry fighting vehicle, the M113 APC, the British Challenger 2, the Leopard 2A6 main battle tank, and Russian T-62 tanks. Slat armor is favored over traditional plate armor not only due to its effectiveness against shaped-charge warheads, but also due to its much lighter weight, which improves vehicle maneuverability.


title: Slat armor

text: Slat armor was first used on the Israeli IDF Caterpillar D9R armored bulldozer in 2005, and was installed in large numbers in 2006. Around the same time in 2005, slat armor was first proposed for the Stryker by a team of experts from the Army Research Laboratory (ARL), the Developmental Test Command, and the Aberdeen Test Center (ATC) to protect the vehicle from RPGs. Within seven days, the ARL and ATC designed and produced the first prototype, which was later mass produced at the Lima Army Tank Plant in Ohio and implemented in different variants of the Stryker. The design of the slat armor has the cage placed 50 cm ahead around the vehicle, allowing an RPG warhead to explode at a safe distance. Also, the slat armor on the Stryker vehicles is reportedly effective against HEAT rounds.


title: Slat armor

text: In 2007, BAE Systems developed a very lightweight aluminum slat armor system named "LROD", which was initially used on the Buffalo MPV, and which was claimed to weigh half the amount of comparable steel designs. BAE later equipped several US Army RG-31s with a variant of the LROD system, and also developed the system for its RG-33 vehicles, the Caiman and the JERRV. Slat armor is also fielded on the American M1 Abrams as part of the Tank Urban Survival Kit (TUSK) urban warfare series. In the Syrian Civil War, Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS), the Free Syrian Army and Syrian Army equipped their armored vehicles with homemade slat armor to protect them from RPG impact.


title: Slat armor

text: In August 2016, Russia introduced bar-slat armor developed by NII Stali and Uralvagonzavod to increase protection of Russian armored vehicles against RPG and recoilless rifle HEAT rounds by 55-60%. The armor can be integrated with a variety of old-Soviet and Russian vehicles including the BTR-50, BTR-60, BTR-70, BTR-80/82, BTR-90, BMP-1, BMP-2, BMP-3, BRDM-2, BRDM-3, and T-14 Armata, with the full kit adding of weight.


title: Slat armor

text: In 2021, various Russian tanks were observed with top-mounted improvised slat armor made from steel grilles; these were nicknamed "kozyrek ot solntsa" (, lit. "sun visors") by Russian tank crews, and the Russian Ministry of Defense stated in mid-2021 that they were intended to enhance protection against "various weapons". In December 2021, the Ukrainian Army released video of a military exercise in which an armored fighting vehicle (apparently a BTR fitted with a T-64-like turret) carrying such equipment was destroyed by a Javelin missile. These implementations add weight to the tank, increase its visual profile, and make it more difficult for the crew to enter and exit the vehicle. In 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine where they saw combat usage, they were pejoratively termed "cope cages" by English-language online communities, Western military analysts, and British defence secretary, Ben Wallace, expressing scepticism over their real-world effectiveness, based on the assumption by these analysts that the armor was most likely designed in an attempt to mitigate the threat of top-down anti-tank missiles such as the FGM-148 Javelin, and other top-attack munitions.


title: Slat armor

text: Other analysts have proposed that they may instead be used as a countermeasure against HEAT warheads from weapons such as RPG-7s fired from above during urban combat, loitering munitions, or against drone attacks, as a response to lessons learned from the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and First Chechen War. The lack of uniformity between the makeshift cage variants made from different meshes and iron fences suggest that they are largely improvised by the tank crews, and are not standard issue. In May 2022, it was reported in Russian media interviews with Russian tankers who have returned from Ukraine that their crews eventually removed the cages, as they obstructed the use of machine guns and radios, and prevented timely evacuation if the tank caught fire.


title: Better than Us

text: Better Than Us (, literally "Better than Humans") is a 2018 Russian science fiction television series created by Andrey Junkovsky, about an advanced empathic android named Arisa. It stars Paulina Andreeva and Russian-Estonian actor Kirill Käro, as well as Aleksandr Ustyugov. It was produced by Yellow, Black and White in cooperation with Sputnik Vostok Production for the Russian state channel C1R.


title: Better than Us

text: Netflix purchased it under the English title "Better than Us", and it is the first Russian series presented as a Netflix original series. On 16 August 2019, the first season of sixteen episodes became available to stream in Netflix markets outside of Russia and China. A second season of ten episodes is planned to begin filming in Moscow and Beijing in the third quarter of 2021.


title: Better than Us

text: The story takes place in 2029, in a world where androids serve humans in various positions, even replacing them in many menial jobs. An advanced robot named Arisa is imported to Russia from China discreetly, within the CRONOS corporation. Arisa accidentally kills a man who tries to use her as a sex robot, and then flees. Her ability to kill humans shows she does not abide by Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics. Instead, she is designed to protect her family (which includes herself) by all means possible. She encounters a little girl (Sonia) and automatically bonds with her, making herself the child's guardian.


title: Better than Us

text: By the end, it is revealed that China's one-child policy has led to a critical shortage of marriageable women, so an engineer designed Arisa; she is programmed to be a wife to a man and mother to adopted children. However, her creator dies and Arisa is sold to the Russian robotics firm CRONOS.


title: Aichi D3A

text: The Aichi D3A Type 99 Carrier Bomber (Allied reporting name "Val") is a World War II carrier-borne dive bomber. It was the primary dive bomber of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and was involved in almost all IJN actions, including the attack on Pearl Harbor.


title: Aichi D3A

text: The Aichi D3A was the first Japanese aircraft to bomb American targets in the war, commencing with Pearl Harbor and U.S. bases in the Philippines, such as Clark Air Force Base. They sank more Allied warships than any other Axis aircraft.


title: Aichi D3A

text: In mid-1936, the Japanese Navy issued the 11-Shi specification for a monoplane carrier-based dive bomber to replace the existing D1A biplane then in service. Aichi, Nakajima, and Mitsubishi all submitted designs, with the former two subsequently being asked for two prototypes each.


title: Aichi D3A

text: The Aichi design started with low-mounted elliptical wings inspired by the Heinkel He 70 "Blitz". It flew slowly enough that the drag from the landing gear was not a serious issue, so the fixed gear was used for simplicity. The aircraft was to be powered by the Nakajima Hikari 1 nine-cylinder radial engine.


title: Aichi D3A

text: The first prototype was completed in December 1937, and flight trials began a month later, after which it was designated as D3A1. Initial tests were disappointing. The aircraft was underpowered and suffered from directional instability in wide turns, and in tighter turns it tended to snap roll. The dive brakes vibrated heavily when extended at their design speed of , and the Navy was already asking for a faster diving speed of


title: Aichi D3A

text: The second aircraft was extensively modified before delivery to try to address the problems. Power was increased by replacing the Hikari with the Mitsubishi Kinsei 3 in a redesigned cowling, and the vertical tail was enlarged to help with the directional instability. The wings were slightly larger in span and the outer sections of the leading edges had wash-out to combat the snap rolls, and strengthened dive brakes were fitted. These changes cured all of the problems except the directional instability, and it was enough for the D3A1 to win over the Nakajima D3N1.


title: Aichi D3A

text: In December 1939, the Navy ordered the aircraft as the Navy Type 99 Carrier Bomber Model 11 ("kanjō bakugekiki", usually abbreviated to 艦爆 "".). The production models featured slightly smaller wings and increased power in the form of the Kinsei 43 or Kinsei 44. The directional instability problem was finally cured with the fitting of a long dorsal fin-strake which started midway down the rear fuselage, and the aircraft actually became highly maneuverable.


title: Aichi D3A

text: In June 1942, an improved version of D3A1, powered by a Kinsei 54, was tested and designated as D3A2 or the Model 12. The extra power reduced range, so the design was further modified with additional fuel tanks to bring the total tankage to , giving it the range needed to fight effectively over the Solomon Islands. Known to the Navy as the Model 22, it began to replace the Model 11 in front-line units in the autumn of 1942, and most Model 11s were then sent to training units. While some late production models of D3A1 were fitted with a propeller spinner, it became a standard with D3A2.


title: Aichi D3A

text: The pilot position was equipped with a Type 95 telescopic gunsight in the earlier models and a Type 99 in the later models, which were used for aiming the bomb during the dive. The observer/navigator position was equipped with a Type 97 Mk1 drift sight, which was a long vertical tube located in the front-left of the observer's seat. In addition, the observer position was equipped with a drift meter that was mounted on the floor in the front-right of the observer's seat. The observer also operated a Type 96 Mk2 radio set that was mounted in front of the observer's seat and behind the pilot's seat. On top of the radio set was a Type 3 reflector compass for precise navigation.


title: Aichi D3A

text: Armament was two fixed forward-firing Type 97 machine guns, and one flexible 7.7 mm (.303 in) Type 92 machine gun at the rear end of cockpit, which was operated by the observer. Normal bomb load was a single 250 kg bomb (e.g., Type 99 No 25 semi-AP or Type 98 No 25 land bomb) carried under the fuselage, swung out under the propeller on release by a trapeze. Two additional 60 kg bombs (e.g., Type 99 No 6 semi-AP or Type 2 No 6 land bomb) could be carried on wing racks located under each wing outboard of the dive brakes.


title: Aichi D3A

text: Initially, D3A dive bombers were painted in silver. During the summer of 1941, the paint finish changed to light olive grey. The color changed again in early 1942 to dark green.


title: Aichi D3A

text: An individual D3A dive bomber was commanded by the senior ranking crew member aboard, which could be the observer rather than the pilot. This was in contrast to US Navy, where the pilot was almost always the commander of a dive bomber. For example, Petty Officer First Class Kiyoto Furuta was serving as a pilot to Lieutenant Takehiko Chihaya during the Attack on Pearl Harbor, and later on to Lieutenant Keiichi Arima during the two carrier battles of the Solomon Islands campaign, both of whom were observers.


title: Aichi D3A

text: The D3A1 first saw combat operation in November 1939, one month prior to its official acceptance as the Navy Type 99 dive bomber. Nakajima sent several examples to the 14th Air group operating at Haikou on Hainan island in South China. These D3A1s were commanded by Lieutenant Sadamu Takahashi and supported the Imperial Japanese Army in the capture of Nanning, which was intended to cut the supplies coming from French Indochina. After the capture of Nanning, they continued to be operated in the area in 1940. In May 1940, 12th Air Group became the second front-line unit to be equipped with the new D3A1 dive bombers. They first participated in the capture of Yichang and conducted anti-shipping operations on Yangtze river, west of Yichang, in order to cut the Chinese supplies coming from Chongqing. In September, D3A1 from the 12th Air Group started to fly missions against Chongqing, which was the Chinese capital at the time. After the invasion of Indochina in autumn 1940, 14th Air Group operated at Hanoi and flew missions against Kunming and Burma Road.


title: Aichi D3A

text: The D3A1 commenced carrier qualification trials aboard the aircraft carriers and during 1940, while a small number of aircraft made their combat debut from land bases over China. Starting with the attack on Pearl Harbor, the D3A1 took part in all major Japanese carrier operations in the first 10 months of the war. They achieved their first major success against the Royal Navy during their Indian Ocean raid in April 1942. D3A1 dive bombers scored over 80% hits with their bombs during attacks on two heavy cruisers and an aircraft carrier during the operation.


title: Aichi D3A

text: Before the Indian Ocean raid, the established doctrine regarding attacks against ships was to arm all D3A1 dive bombers with semi-AP bombs. On 5 April 1942, an IJN carrier force attacked Colombo on Ceylon with half of its complement, while the other half was kept in reserve for strikes against ships. Since a second strike against Colombo was deemed necessary, the dive bombers of the reserve force were rearmed from semi-AP bombs to land bombs. When British heavy cruisers were spotted soon afterwards, the reserve force was sent with a portion of D3A1 dive bombers armed with land bombs. In the subsequent attack, land bombs unintentionally proved very effective in suppressing the anti-aircraft fire from the ships. As a result, the doctrine was modified in order to intentionally equip the first few D3A1 dive bombers with land bombs. This new method was already implemented for the attack that sank just four days later, and continued to be used from then on.


title: Aichi D3A

text: During 1942, dive bombing attacks by carrier-based D3A1 and D3A2 bombers significantly contributed to sinking of three US fleet carriers: "Lexington" at the Battle of the Coral Sea, "Yorktown" at the Battle of Midway and "Hornet" at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. In addition, they damaged the carrier "Enterprise" both at the Battle of the Eastern Solomons and at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. Besides carrier-based units, D3A dive bombers also operated from land bases during the Solomon Islands campaign, where they participated in the Guadalcanal Campaign, Operation I-Go, Operation SE and Operation RO, and during the New Guinea campaign, where they participated in the Battle of Milne Bay and Battle of Buna–Gona. The main land-based unit to operate D3A dive bombers during these campaigns and battles was the 2nd/582nd Air Group.


title: Aichi D3A

text: During the course of the war, D3A dive bombers often combined their attacks upon enemy warships with the IJN Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bomber; consequently enemy vessels were often sunk by a combination strike of bombs and torpedoes. However, there were occasions when just the D3A's would make the attacks, or at least score the sinking hits. Discounting the Pearl Harbor strike, which also used the B5N for level bombing and torpedo attacks, D3A dive bombers were credited with sinking the following Allied warships:


title: Aichi D3A

text: As the war progressed, there were instances when the dive bombers were pressed into duty as fighters in the interceptor role, their maneuverability being enough to allow them to survive in this role. When the Yokosuka D4Y "Suisei" became available, the D3A2s ended up with land-based units or operating from the smaller carriers, which were too small to handle the fast-landing "Suisei". When American forces recaptured the Philippines in 1944, land-based D3A2s took part in the fighting, but were hopelessly outdated and losses were heavy. By then, many D3A1s and D3A2s were operated by training units in Japan, and several were modified with dual controls as Navy Type 99 Bomber Trainer Model 12s (D3A2-K). During the last year of the war, the D3A2s were pressed back into combat for "kamikaze" missions.


title: Aichi D3A

text: There are two unrestored D3As on display at the National Museum of the Pacific War in Fredericksburg, Texas. In 2022, the Pearl Harbor Aviation Museum began acquiring the remains of a D3A from Papua New Guinea for eventual exhibit.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: The Muslim conquest of the Levant (), also known as the Rashidun conquest of Syria, occurred in the first half of the 7th century, shortly after the rise of Islam. As part of the larger military campaign known as the early Muslim conquests, the Levant was brought under the rule of the Rashidun Caliphate and developed into the provincial region of Bilad al-Sham. The presence of Arab Muslim troops on the southern Levantine borders of the Byzantine Empire had occurred during the lifetime of Muhammad, with the Battle of Muʿtah in 629 formally marking the start of the Arab–Byzantine wars. However, the actual conquest did not begin until 634, two years after Muhammad's death. It was led by the first two Rashidun caliphs who succeeded Muhammad: Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab. During this time, Khalid ibn al-Walid was the most important leader of the Rashidun army.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to the Arab Muslim conquest and had been invaded by the Sassanid Persians on a number of occasions during the 3rd, 6th and 7th centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanids' Arab allies, the Lakhmids. During the Roman period, beginning after the fall of Jerusalem in the year 70, the entire region (Judea, Samaria, and the Galilee) was renamed "Palaestina", subdivided into Diocese I and II. The Romans also renamed an area of land including the Negev, Sinai, and the west coast of the Arabian Peninsula as "Palaestina Salutaris", sometimes called "Palaestina III" or "Palaestina Tertia". Part of the area was ruled by the Arab vassal state of the Ghassanids' "symmachos".


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: During the last of the Roman-Persian Wars, beginning in 603, the Persians under Khosrau II had succeeded in occupying Syria, Palestine and Egypt for over a decade before being forced by the victories of Heraclius to conclude the peace of 628. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans (or Byzantines as modern Western historians conventionally refer to Romans of this period) were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years. Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces: Syria proper stretched from Antioch and Aleppo in the north to the top of the Dead Sea. To the west and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of Palestine.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Syria was mostly made up of Aramaic and Greek speakers with a partly Arab population, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The Arabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful Ghassanid tribe from Yemen to Syria, who converted to Christianity and thereafter ruled a semi-autonomous state with their own king under Roman vassalage. The Ghassanid Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassanid king ruling over the Arabs in Jordan and Southern Syria from his capital at Bosra. The last of the Ghassanid kings, who ruled at the time of the Muslim invasion, was Jabalah ibn al-Aiham.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, after re-capturing Syria from the Sassanians, set up new defense lines from Gaza to the south end of the Dead Sea. These lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits, and the bulk of the Byzantine defenses were concentrated in Northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. The drawback of this defense line was that it enabled the Muslims, advancing from the desert in the south, to reach as far north as Gaza before meeting regular Byzantine troops.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: The 7th century was a time of rapid military change in the Byzantine Empire. The empire was certainly not in a state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from Arabia after being exhausted by recent Roman–Persian Wars, but utterly failed to tackle the challenge effectively.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Prior to the Muslim conquest, the demographic structure of the Levant was made up of a population base which included Jews, Samaritans, Aramaeans, Arabs and Greeks. During the 2nd century AD, Aramaic started to replace the previously spoken Semitic languages throughout the region, incorporating local features from previous local languages such as Phoenician and Akkadian. Koine Greek was spoken in the Hellenized urban centers and coastal cities, while Latin was fully spoken as a language only in Roman Beirut. Arabic was also spoken inland and Arabs formed a significant portion of the populations in Petra, Bosra and Hauran in the south, Palmyra and Emesa in the center and Qinnasrin and Aleppo in the north.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Military confrontations with the Byzantine Empire began during the lifetime of Muhammad. The Battle of Mu'tah was fought in September 629 near the village of Mu'tah, east of the Jordan River and Karak in Karak Governorate, between the forces of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and of the Byzantine Empire and their Arab Christian Ghassanid vassals. In Islamic historical sources, the battle is usually described as the Muslims' attempt to take retribution against the Ghassanids after a Ghassanid official executed Muhammad's emissary who was en route to Bosra. During the battle the Muslim army was routed. After three Muslim leaders were killed, the command was given to Khalid ibn al-Walid and he succeeded in saving the rest of the forces. The surviving Muslim forces retreated to Medina.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: After the Farewell Pilgrimage in 632, the Muhammad appointed Usama ibn Zayd as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade the region of Balqa in the Byzantine Empire. This expedition was known as the Expedition of Usama bin Zayd and its stated aim was to avenge the Muslim losses at the Battle of Mu'tah, in which Usama's father and Muhammad's former adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah, had been killed. Usama's expedition in May/June 632 was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade and raid Byzantine territory.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Muhammad died in June 632, and Abu Bakr was appointed Caliph and political successor at Medina. Soon after Abu Bakr's succession, several Arab tribes revolted against him in the "Ridda wars" (Arabic for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on 18 March 633, with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history, starting with a confrontation with the Persian Empire under the general Khalid ibn al-Walid.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: After successful campaigns against the Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of Iraq, Khalid established his stronghold in Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, he also confronted the Ghassanids, Arab clients of the Byzantines. Medina soon recruited tribal contingents from all over the Arabian peninsula. Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until 636, when Caliph Umar fell short of manpower for the Battle of Yarmouk and the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Not knowing the precise position of the Byzantine army, Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could render assistance if the Byzantines were able to concentrate their army in any operational sector. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu Ubaidah was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside Medina. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr, each a day's march from the other.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words which he repeated to each of the corps commanders, were as follows:


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Moving to their assigned target beyond Tabouk, Yazid's corps made contact with a small Christian Arab force that was retreating after a skirmish with the Muslim advance guard, after which Yazid made for the Valley of Arabah where it meets the southern end of the Dead Sea.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: As the main Byzantine defence line started from the coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at the Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached Elat. The two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps, respectively, into Palestine, were easily defeated by them, though they did prevent the Rashidun forces from reaching their assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil, on the other hand, continued their march, and by early May 634 they reached the region between Bosra and Jabiya. The Emperor Heraclius, having received intelligence of the movements of the Muslim armies from his Arab clients, began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraclius' orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in the north started moving to gather at Ayjnadyn. From here they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of the rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of the Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates, was about 100,000. Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in the third week of May 634. Because Abu Ubaida didn't have experience as a commander of military forces in such major operations, especially against the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to assume command. According to early Muslim chronicles, Abu Bakr said, "By Allah, I shall destroy the Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid Ibn Al Walid."


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Khalid immediately set out for Syria from Al-Hirah, in Iraq, in early June, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong. There were two routes towards Syria from Iraq: one was via Daumat-ul-Jandal, and the other was through Mesopotamia, passing through Raqqa. The Muslim armies in Syria were in need of urgent reinforcement, so Khalid avoided the conventional route to Syria via Daumat ul Jandal, as it was the longer route, and would take weeks to reach Syria. Khalid avoided the Mesopotamian route because of the presence of Roman garrisons there and in Northern Syria. To engage them at a time when Muslim armies were being outflanked in Syria was not a wise idea. Khalid selected a shorter route to Syria, an unconventional route passing through the Syrian Desert. It is recorded that his soldiers marched for two days without a single drop of water, before reaching a predetermined water source at an oasis. Khalid thus entered Northern Syria and caught the Byzantines on their right flank. According to modern historians, this ingenious strategic maneuver unhinged the Byzantine defences in Syria.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Ain Tamer, Quraqir, Suwa, Arak, and the historical city of Tadmur were first to fall to Khalid. Sukhnah, al-Qaryatayn and Hawarin were captured after the Battle of al-Qaryatayn and the Battle of Hawarin. After dealing with all these cities, Khalid moved towards Damascus through a mountain pass which is now known as Sanita-al-Uqab (Uqab Pass) after the name of Khalid's army standard. From here he moved away from Damascus, towards Bosra, the capital of the Ghassanids. He ordered other Muslim commanders to concentrate their armies, still near the Syrian-Arabian border, at Bosra. At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a Ghassanid army in a quick battle, called the Battle of Marj-al-Rahit. Meanwhile, Abu Ubaida ibn al-Jarrah, the supreme commander of the Muslim armies in Syria, had ordered Shurhabil ibn Hasana to attack Bosra. The latter laid siege to Bosra with his small army of 4000. The Roman and Ghassanid Arab garrison, realizing that this might be the advance guard of the larger Muslim army to come, sallied out of the fortified city and attacked Shurhabil, surrounding him from all sides; however, Khalid reached the arena with his cavalry and saved Shurhabil. The combined forces of Khalid, Shurhabil, and Abu Ubaidah then resumed the siege of Bosra, which surrendered some time in mid-July 634 CE, effectively ending the Ghassanid Dynasty.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Here Khalid took over the command of the Muslim armies in Syria from Abu Ubaidah, according to the instructions of the Caliph. Massive Byzantine armies were concentrating at Ajnadayn to push the invading armies back to the desert. Early Muslim sources claim the Byzantine strength to have been 90,000, although most modern historians doubt the figures, yet consider this battle to be the key to breaking Byzantine power in Syria. On Khalid's instructions, all Muslim corps concentrated at Ajnadayn, where they won a decisive battle against the Byzantines on 30 July.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: This defeat left Syria vulnerable to the Muslim invaders. Khalid decided to capture Damascus, the Byzantine stronghold. At Damascus, Thomas, son-in-law of Emperor Heraclius, was in charge. Having received intelligence of Khalid's march towards Damascus, he prepared for its defence, writing to Emperor Heraclius in Emesa for reinforcements. Moreover, Thomas, in order to get more time for preparation of a siege, sent armies to delay or, if possible, halt Khalid's march to Damascus. One of these armies was defeated at the Battle of Yaqusa in mid-August near Lake Tiberias, 145 kilometres (90 mi) from Damascus. Another was defeated in the Battle of Maraj as Saffer on 19 August. These engagements had the desired effect, delaying Khalid long enough to prepare for a siege. However, by the time Heraclius' reinforcements had reached the city Khalid had begun his siege, having reached Damascus on 20 August. To isolate the city from the rest of the region Khalid placed detachments south on the road to Palestine and in the north at the Damascus-Emesa route, and several other smaller detachments on routes towards Damascus. Heraclius' reinforcements were intercepted and routed at the Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab, 30 kilometres (20 mi) from Damascus. Khalid's forces withstood three Roman sallies that tried to break the siege. Khalid finally attacked and conquered Damascus on 18 September after 30 days, although, according to some sources, the siege had in fact lasted for four or six months. Heraclius, having received the news of the fall of Damascus, left for Antioch from Emesa. The citizens were granted peace on the promise of annual tribute and the Byzantine army was given three days to go as far as they could. After three days, Khalid took a cavalry force, caught up to the Romans using an unknown shortcut, and attacked them at the Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj, north of Damascus.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: On 22 August, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, died, having made Umar his successor. Umar's first move was to relieve Khalid from command and appoint Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah as the new commander-in-chief of the Islamic army. Abu Ubaidah got the letter memorializing this during the siege, but he delayed the announcement until the city had been conquered. Later on, Khalid pledged his loyalty to the new Caliph and continued to serve as an ordinary commander under Abu Ubaidah. He is reported to have said, "If Abu Bakr is dead and Umar is Caliph, then we listen and obey."


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Abu Ubaidah moved more slowly and steadily, which had a concomitant effect on military operations in Syria. Abu Ubaidah, being an admirer of Khalid, made him commander of the cavalry and relied heavily on his advice during the whole campaign.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Soon after the appointment of Abu-Ubaidah as commander in chief, he sent a small detachment to the annual fair held at Abu-al-Quds, modern day Ablah, near Zahlé east of Beirut. There was a Byzantine and Christian Arab garrison nearby, but the size of the garrison was miscalculated by the Muslim informants. The garrison quickly encircled the small Muslim detachment, but before it was completely destroyed, Khalid came to the rescue of the Muslim army. Abu Ubaidah, having received new intelligence, had sent Khalid. Khalid reached the battlefield and defeated the garrison on 15 October and returned with tons of looted booty from the fair and hundreds of Roman prisoners.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: By capturing central Syria, the Muslims had given a decisive blow to the Byzantines. The communication between Northern Syria and Palestine was now cut off. Abu Ubaidah decided to march to Fahl, which is about 150 metres (500 ft) below sea level, where a strong Byzantine garrison and survivors of the Battle of Ajnadayn were present. The region was crucial because from here the Byzantine army could strike eastwards and cut Muslim communications with Arabia. Moreover, with this large garrison at their rear Palestine could not be invaded.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Khalid, commanding the advance guard, reached Fahl first and found that the Byzantines had flooded the plains by blocking the River Jordan. The Byzantine army was eventually defeated at the Battle of Fahl on 23 January 635.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Next, the Muslim armies consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper into Palestine. Bet She'an surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of Tiberias in February. Umar, after having learned of the position and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to his corps commanders there and ordered Yazid to capture the Mediterranean coast. Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison and defeated them in the Second Battle of Ajnadyn. The two corps then separated, with Amr moving to capture Nablus, Amawas, Jaffa, Haifa, Gaza and Yubna in order to complete the conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil moved against the coastal towns of Acre and Tyre. Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of Sidon, Arqa, Byblos and Beirut. By 635 CE, Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of Jerusalem and Caesarea, were in Muslim hands. On the orders of Umar, Yazid next besieged Caesarea, which, barring a suspension around the time of the Battle of Yarmouk, lasted until the port fell in 640.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: According to lexicographer David ben Abraham al-Fasi (died before 1026 CE), the Muslim conquest of Palestine brought relief to the country's Jewish citizens, who had previously been barred by the Byzantines from praying on the Temple Mount.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: After the battle, which proved to be the key to Palestine and Jordan, the Muslim armies split up. Shurhabil and Amr's corps moved south to capture Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, with a relatively larger corps, moved north to conquer Northern Syria.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: While the Muslims were occupied at Fahl, Heraclius, sensing an opportunity, quickly sent an army under General Theodras to recapture Damascus, where a small Muslim garrison was left. Shortly thereafter, the Muslims, having just won the Battle of Fahl, were on their way to Emesa. In the meantime, the Byzantine army split in two, one deployed at Maraj al Rome (Beqaa Valley) led by Schinos; the other, commanded by Theodras, stationed to the west of Damascus (Al-Sabboura region).


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: During the night, Theodras advanced to Damascus to launch a surprise attack. Khalid's spy informed him about the move and Khalid, having received permission from Abu Ubaidah, galloped towards Damascus with his mobile guard. While Abu Ubaidah fought and defeated the Roman army in the Battle of Marj ar-Rum, Khalid moved to Damascus with his cavalry and attacked and defeated Theodras there. A week later, Abu Ubaida himself moved towards Heliopolis, where the great Temple of Jupiter stood.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: In May 636, Heliopolis surrendered to the Muslims after little resistance and agreed to pay tribute. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid straight towards Emesa.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Emesa and Chalcis offered a peace treaty for a year. Abu Ubaidah accepted the offer and, rather than invading districts of Emesa and Chalcis, he consolidated his rule in conquered land and captured Hamah, and Maarrat al-Nu'man. Having mustered sizeable armies at Antioch, Heraclius sent them to reinforce strategically important areas of Northern Syria, like Emesa and Chalcis. The Byzantine reinforcement of Emesa violated the treaty, and Abu Ubaidah and Khalid accordingly marched there. A Byzantine army that halted Khalid's advance guard was defeated. The Muslims besieged Emesa which was finally conquered in March 636 CE after two months.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: After capturing Emesa, Khalid moved north to capture Northern Syria, using his cavalry as an advance guard and raiding force. At Shaizar, Khalid intercepted a convoy taking provisions for Chalcis. The prisoners were interrogated and informed him about Emperor Heraclius' ambitious plan to take back Syria with an army possibly two hundred thousand (200,000) strong. Khalid immediately ended the raid.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: After his past experiences, Heraclius now avoided pitched battle with the Muslim army. His plans were to send massive reinforcements to all the major cities, isolate the Muslim corps from each other, and then separately encircle and destroy the Muslim armies.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Part of his plan was to coordinate his attacks with those of Yazdgerd III, the Sassanid emperor. In 635 Yazdgerd III had sought an alliance with Heraclius, marrying the latter's daughter (or granddaughter, according to tradition) Manyanh. While Heraclius prepared for a major offense in the Levant, Yazdegerd was supposed to mount a well-coordinated counterattack on his front in Iraq, while Heraclius attacked in the Levant. However, it was not meant to be. Umar probably had intelligence of this alliance, and started peace negotiations with Yazdegerd III, apparently inviting him to join Islam. When Heraclius launched his offensive in May 636, Yazdegerd, probably owing to the exhaustion of his government, could not coordinate with the Heraclian offensive, frustrating the plan.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Five massive armies were launched in June to recapture Syria. Khalid, having grasped Heraclius' plan, feared that the Muslim armies would become isolated and then destroyed piecemeal. He thus suggested to Abu Ubaidah in a council of war that he consolidate all the Muslim armies at one place to force a decisive battle with the Byzantines. Abu Ubaidah agreed, and concentrated them at Jabiya. This maneuver delivered a decisive blow to Heraclius' plan, since the latter did not wish to engage his troops in open battle with the Muslim light cavalry. From Jabiya, again on Khalid's suggestion, Abu Ubaidah ordered the Muslim troops to withdraw to the Plain of the Yarmouk River, where the cavalry could be used effectively. While the Muslim armies were gathering at Yarmouk, Khalid intercepted and routed the Byzantine advance guard, ensuring a safe path of retreat.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: The Muslim armies reached the plain in July. A week or two later, around mid-July, the Byzantine army arrived. The Byzantine commander-in-chief, Vahan, sent Ghassanid forces, under their king, Jabala, to gauge the Muslim strength. Khalid's mobile guard defeated and routed them, the last action before the battle started. For one month negotiations continued between the two armies and Khalid went to meet Vahan in person at the Byzantine camp. Meanwhile, Muslim reinforcements arrived from Umar.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Abu Ubaidah, in another council of war, transferred field command of the Muslim army to Khalid. Finally, on 15 August, the Battle of Yarmouk was fought, lasting six days and ending in a major defeat for the Byzantines. This battle and subsequent clean-up engagements forever ended Byzantine domination of the Levant.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Meanwhile, Umar occupied Yazdegerd III in a grand deception. Yazdegerd III lost his army at the Battle of Qadisiyyah in November, three months after Yarmouk, ending Sassanid control west of Persia.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: With the Byzantine army routed, the Muslims quickly recaptured the territory they had conquered prior to Yarmouk. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high commanders, including Khalid, and decided to conquer Jerusalem. The Siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Umar personally. Amr-bin al-Aas suggested that Khalid should be sent to impersonate the caliph, due to his very strong resemblance. However, Khalid was recognized and Umar had to come himself to accept the surrender of Jerusalem in April 637.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Umar appointed his close advisor Ali to hold the lieutenancy of Medina. After Jerusalem, the Muslim armies broke up once again. Yazid's corps went to Damascus and then captured Beirut. Amr and Shurhabil's corps left to conquer the rest of Palestine, while Abu Ubaidah and Khalid, at the head of a 17,000-strong army, moved north to conquer Northern Syria.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: With Emesa already in hand, Abu Ubaidah and Khalid moved towards Chalcis, which was strategically the most significant Byzantine fort. Through Chalcis the Byzantines would be able to guard Anatolia, Heraclius' homeland of Armenia, and the regional capital, Antioch. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid with his mobile guard towards Chalcis. The virtually impregnable fort was guarded by Greek troops under Menas, reportedly second in prestige only to the Emperor himself. Menas, diverting from conventional Byzantine tactics, decided to face Khalid and destroy the leading elements of Muslim army before the main body could join them at Hazir 5 kilometres (3 mi) east of Chalcis. The resulting Battle of Hazir even reportedly forced Umar to praise Khalid's military genius, saying, "Khalid is truly the commander. May Allah have mercy upon Abu Bakr. He was a better judge of men than I have been."


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Abu Ubaidah soon joined Khalid at Chalcis, which surrendered some time in June. With this strategic victory, the territory north of Chalcis lay open to the Muslims. Khalid and Abu Ubaidah continued their march northward and laid siege to Aleppo, which was captured after fierce resistance from desperate Byzantine troops in October. Before marching towards Antioch, Khalid and Abu Ubaidah decided to isolate the city from Anatolia. They accordingly sent detachments north to eliminate all possible Byzantine forces and captured the garrison town of Azaz, 50 kilometres (30 mi) from Aleppo; from there Muslims attacked Antioch from the eastern side, resulting in the Battle of Iron bridge. The Byzantine army, composed of the survivors of Yarmouk and other Syrian campaigns, was defeated, retreating to Antioch, whereupon the Muslims besieged the city. Having little hope of help from the Emperor, Antioch surrendered on 30 October, on the condition that all Byzantine troops would be given safe passage to Constantinople. Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid towards the north and he himself marched to the south and captured Latakia, Jablah, Tartus, and the coastal areas west of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Khalid moved north and raided territory up to as far as Kızılırmak River in Anatolia. Emperor Heraclius had already left Antioch for Edessa before the Muslims arrived. He then arranged for the necessary defenses in Jazirah and Armenia and left for Constantinople. On the way, he had a narrow escape when Khalid, who had just captured Marash, was heading south towards Manbij. Heraclius hastily took the mountainous path and, on passing through the Cilician gates, is reported to have said, "Farewell, a long farewell to Syria, my fair province. Thou art an infidel's (enemy's) now. Peace be with you, O, Syria – what a beautiful land you will be for the enemy hands."


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: After the devastating defeat at Yarmouk, the remainder of the Byzantine empire was left vulnerable. With few military resources left, it was no longer in a position to attempt a military comeback in Syria. To gain time to prepare a defense of the rest of his empire, Heraclius needed the Muslims occupied in Syria. He thus sought help from the Christians (some of whom were Arabs) of Jazirah, mainly from Circesium and Hīt, who mustered a large army and marched against Emesa, Abu Ubaidah's headquarters. Abu Ubaidah withdrew all his forces from northern Syria to Emesa, and the Christians laid in a siege. Khalid was in favor of an open battle outside the fort, but Abu Ubaidah referred the matter to Umar, who sent a detachment from Iraq to invade Jazirah from three different routes. Another detachment was sent to Emesa from Iraq under Qa’qa ibn Amr, a veteran of Yarmouk, who had originally been sent to Iraq for the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. Umar himself marched from Medina with 1,000 men.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: In 638, Muslims attacked Hīt, which they found to be well fortified; thus, they left a fraction of the army to impose a siege on the city, while the rest went after Circesium. When the Christians received the news of the Muslim invasion of their homeland, they abandoned the siege and hastily withdrew there. At this point Khalid and his mobile guard came out of the fort and devastated their army by attacking them from the rear.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: On the orders of Umar, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, commander of the Muslim army in Iraq, sent an army under Iyad ibn Ghanm to conquer the region between the Tigris and the Euphrates up to Urfa. In 639–640, Raqqa fell into Muslim hands, followed by most of Jazirah, the last base of the Eastern Roman Empire in the region, which surrendered peacefully and agreed to pay Jizya.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: The conquest of Jazirah was completed by 640 CE, after which Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm (conqueror of Jazirah) to invade Byzantine territory north of there. They marched independently and captured Edessa, Amida, Melitene (Malatya) and the whole of Armenia up to Ararat and raided northern and central Anatolia. Heraclius had already abandoned all the forts between Antioch and Tartus to create a buffer zone between the Muslim controlled areas and Anatolia.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Umar then called a halt to the expedition and ordered Abu Ubaidah, now governor of Syria, to consolidate his rule there. This decision can be explained by the dismissal of Khalid from the army, which ended his military career, and a drought followed by a plague the year after.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: During the reign of Caliph Uthman, Constantine III decided to recapture the Levant, which had been lost to the Muslims during Umar's reign. A full-scale invasion was planned and a large force was sent to reconquer Syria. Muawiyah I, the governor of Syria, called for reinforcements and Uthman ordered the governor of Kufa to send a contingent, which, together with the local garrison, defeated the Byzantine army in Northern Syria.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: In 645–646, Sufyan bin Mujib Al-Azdi, appointed by Muawiyah, managed to seize Tripoli to eventually capture the last Byzantine stronghold on the Levantine coast.


title: Muslim conquest of the Levant

text: Uthman gave permission to Muawiyah to build a navy. From their base in Syria, the Muslims used this fleet to capture Cyprus in 649, Crete, and Rhodes. Annual raids into western Anatolia dissuaded the Byzantines from further attempts to recapture Syria. In 654–655, Uthman ordered the preparation of an expedition to capture Constantinople, but, due to unrest in the caliphate that resulted in his assassination in 655, the expedition was delayed for decades, only to be attempted unsuccessfully under the Ummayads.