title: Dendrochronology

text: The rings are more visible in trees which have grown in temperate zones, where the seasons differ more markedly. The inner portion of a growth ring forms early in the growing season, when growth is comparatively rapid (hence the wood is less dense) and is known as "early wood" (or "spring wood", or "late-spring wood"); the outer portion is the "late wood" (sometimes termed "summer wood", often being produced in the summer, though sometimes in the autumn) and is denser.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Many trees in temperate zones produce one growth-ring each year, with the newest adjacent to the bark. Hence, for the entire period of a tree's life, a year-by-year record or ring pattern builds up that reflects the age of the tree and the climatic conditions in which the tree grew. Adequate moisture and a long growing season result in a wide ring, while a drought year may result in a very narrow one.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Direct reading of tree ring chronologies is a complex science, for several reasons. First, contrary to the single-ring-per-year paradigm, alternating poor and favorable conditions, such as mid-summer droughts, can result in several rings forming in a given year. In addition, particular tree species may present "missing rings", and this influences the selection of trees for study of long time-spans. For instance, missing rings are rare in oak and elm trees.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Critical to the science, trees from the same region tend to develop the same patterns of ring widths for a given period of chronological study. Researchers can compare and match these patterns ring-for-ring with patterns from trees which have grown at the same time in the same geographical zone (and therefore under similar climatic conditions). When one can match these tree-ring patterns across successive trees in the same locale, in overlapping fashion, chronologies can be built up—both for entire geographical regions and for sub-regions. Moreover, wood from ancient structures with known chronologies can be matched to the tree-ring data (a technique called "cross-dating"), and the age of the wood can thereby be determined precisely. Dendrochronologists originally carried out cross-dating by visual inspection; more recently, they have harnessed computers to do the task, applying statistical techniques to assess the matching. To eliminate individual variations in tree-ring growth, dendrochronologists take the smoothed average of the tree-ring widths of multiple tree-samples to build up a ring history, a process termed replication. A tree-ring history whose beginning- and end-dates are not known is called a "floating chronology". It can be anchored by cross-matching a section against another chronology (tree-ring history) whose dates are known.


title: Dendrochronology

text: A fully anchored and cross-matched chronology for oak and pine in central Europe extends back 12,460 years, and an oak chronology goes back 7,429 years in Ireland and 6,939 years in England. Comparison of radiocarbon and dendrochronological ages supports the consistency of these two independent dendrochronological sequences. Another fully anchored chronology that extends back 8,500 years exists for the bristlecone pine in the Southwest US (White Mountains of California).


title: Dendrochronology

text: The dendrochronological equation defines the law of growth of tree rings. The equation was proposed by Russian biophysicist Alexandr N. Tetearing in his work "Theory of populations" in the form:


title: Dendrochronology

text: where Δ"L" is width of annual ring, "t" is time (in years), "ρ" is density of wood, "k" is some coefficient, "M"("t") is function of mass growth of the tree.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Ignoring the natural sinusoidal oscillations in tree mass, the formula for the changes in the annual ring width is:


title: Dendrochronology

text: The formula is useful for correct approximation of samples data before data normalization procedure. The typical forms of the function Δ"L"("t") of annual growth of wood ring are shown in the figures.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Dendrochronology allows specimens of once-living material to be accurately dated to a specific year. Dates are often represented as estimated calendar years B.P., for before present, where "present" refers to 1 January 1950.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Timber core samples are sampled and used to measure the width of annual growth rings; by taking samples from different sites within a particular region, researchers can build a comprehensive historical sequence. The techniques of dendrochronology are more consistent in areas where trees grew in marginal conditions such as aridity or semi-aridity where the ring growth is more sensitive to the environment, rather than in humid areas where tree-ring growth is more uniform (complacent). In addition, some genera of trees are more suitable than others for this type of analysis. For instance, the bristlecone pine is exceptionally long-lived and slow growing, and has been used extensively for chronologies; still-living and dead specimens of this species provide tree-ring patterns going back thousands of years, in some regions more than 10,000 years. Currently, the maximum span for fully anchored chronology is a little over 11,000 years B.P.


title: Dendrochronology

text: IntCal20 is the 2020 "Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve", which provides a calibrated carbon 14 dated sequence going back 55,000 years. The most recent part, going back 13,900 years, is based on tree rings.


title: Dendrochronology

text: European chronologies derived from wooden structures initially found it difficult to bridge the gap in the fourteenth century when there was a building hiatus, which coincided with the Black Death. However, there do exist unbroken chronologies dating back to prehistoric times, for example the Danish chronology dating back to 352 BC.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Given a sample of wood, the variation of the tree-ring growths not only provides a match by year, but can also match location because climate varies from place to place. This makes it possible to determine the source of ships as well as smaller artifacts made from wood, but which were transported long distances, such as panels for paintings and ship timbers.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Solar storms of known date, such as the ones in 774-775 and 993-994, can provide a fixed reference point in an unknown sequence as they cause a spike in carbon 14 in tree rings for that year all round the world. For example, wooden houses in the Viking site at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland were dated by finding the layer with the 993 spike, which showed that the wood is from a tree felled in 1021.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Dates from dendrochronology can be used as a calibration and check of radiocarbon dating. This can be done by checking radiocarbon dates against long master sequences, with Californian bristle-cone pines in Arizona being used to develop this method of calibration as the longevity of the trees (up to c.4900 years) in addition to the use of dead samples meant a long, unbroken tree ring sequence could be developed (dating back to c.6700 BC). Additional studies of European oak trees, such as the master sequence in Germany that dates back to c.8500 BC, can also be used to back up and further calibrate radiocarbon dates.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees primarily from the properties of the annual tree rings. Other properties of the annual rings, such as maximum latewood density (MXD) have been shown to be better proxies than simple ring width. Using tree rings, scientists have estimated many local climates for hundreds to thousands of years previous.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Dendrochronology has become important to art historians in the dating of panel paintings. However, unlike analysis of samples from buildings, which are typically sent to a laboratory, wooden supports for paintings usually have to be measured in a museum conservation department, which places limitations on the techniques that can be used.


title: Dendrochronology

text: In addition to dating, dendrochronology can also provide information as to the source of the panel. Many Early Netherlandish paintings have turned out to be painted on panels of "Baltic oak" shipped from the Vistula region via ports of the Hanseatic League. Oak panels were used in a number of northern countries such as England, France and Germany. Wooden supports other than oak were rarely used by Netherlandish painters.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Since panels of seasoned wood were used, an uncertain number of years has to be allowed for seasoning when estimating dates. Panels were trimmed of the outer rings, and often each panel only uses a small part of the radius of the trunk. Consequently, dating studies usually result in a "terminus post quem" (earliest possible) date, and a tentative date for the arrival of a seasoned raw panel using assumptions as to these factors. As a result of establishing numerous sequences, it was possible to date 85–90% of the 250 paintings from the fourteenth to seventeenth century analysed between 1971 and 1982; by now a much greater number have been analysed.


title: Dendrochronology

text: A portrait of Mary, Queen of Scots in the National Portrait Gallery, London was believed to be an eighteenth-century copy. However, dendrochronology revealed that the wood dated from the second half of the sixteenth century. It is now regarded as an original sixteenth-century painting by an unknown artist.


title: Dendrochronology

text: On the other hand, dendrochronology was applied to four paintings depicting the same subject, that of Christ expelling the money-lenders from the Temple. The results showed that the age of the wood was too late for any of them to have been painted by Hieronymus Bosch.


title: Dendrochronology

text: While dendrochronology has become an important tool for dating oak panels, it is not effective in dating the poplar panels often used by Italian painters because of the erratic growth rings in poplar.


title: Dendrochronology

text: The sixteenth century saw a gradual replacement of wooden panels by canvas as the support for paintings, which means the technique is less often applicable to later paintings. In addition, many panel paintings were transferred onto canvas or other supports during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.


title: Dendrochronology

text: The dating of buildings with wooden structures and components is also done by dendrochronology; dendroarchaeology is the term for the application of dendrochronology in archaeology. While archaeologists can date wood and when it was felled, it may be difficult to definitively determine the age of a building or structure in which the wood was used; the wood could have been reused from an older structure, may have been felled and left for many years before use, or could have been used to replace a damaged piece of wood. The dating of building via dendrochronology thus requires knowledge of the history of building technology. Many prehistoric forms of buildings used "posts" that were whole young tree trunks; where the bottom of the post has survived in the ground these can be especially useful for dating.


title: Dendrochronology

text: There are many different file formats used to store tree ring width data. Effort for standardisation was made with the development of TRiDaS. Further development led to the database software Tellervo, which is based on the new standard format whilst being able to import lots of different data formats. The desktop application can be attached to measurement devices and works with the database server that is installed separately.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Herbchronology is the analysis of annual growth rings (or simply annual rings) in the secondary root xylem of perennial herbaceous plants. Similar seasonal patterns also occur in ice cores and in varves (layers of sediment deposition in a lake, river, or sea bed). The deposition pattern in the core will vary for a frozen-over lake versus an ice-free lake, and with the fineness of the sediment. Sclerochronology is the study of algae deposits.


title: Dendrochronology

text: Some columnar cacti also exhibit similar seasonal patterns in the isotopes of carbon and oxygen in their spines (acanthochronology). These are used for dating in a manner similar to dendrochronology, and such techniques are used in combination with dendrochronology, to plug gaps and to extend the range of the seasonal data available to archaeologists and paleoclimatologists.


title: Dendrochronology

text: A similar technique is used to estimate the age of fish stocks through the analysis of growth rings in the otolith bones.


title: Hyperventilation

text: Hyperventilation is irregular breathing that occurs when the rate or tidal volume of breathing eliminates more carbon dioxide than the body can produce. This leads to hypocapnia, a reduced concentration of carbon dioxide dissolved in the blood. The body normally attempts to compensate for this homeostatically, but if this fails or is overridden, the blood pH will rise, leading to respiratory alkalosis. The symptoms of respiratory alkalosis include: dizziness, tingling in the lips, hands or feet, headache, weakness, fainting, and seizures. In extreme cases it may cause carpopedal spasms, a flapping and contraction of the hands and feet.


title: Hyperventilation

text: Factors that may induce or sustain hyperventilation include: physiological stress, anxiety or panic disorder, high altitude, head injury, stroke, respiratory disorders such as asthma, pneumonia, or hyperventilation syndrome, cardiovascular problems such as pulmonary embolisms, anemia, an incorrectly calibrated medical respirator, and adverse reactions to certain drugs.


title: Hyperventilation

text: Hyperventilation can also be induced intentionally to achieve an altered state of consciousness such as in the choking game, during breathwork, or in an attempt to extend a breath-hold dive.


title: Rekha (South Indian actress)

text: Sumathi Josephine, better known by her stage name Rekha is an Indian actress who predominantly works in Tamil and Malayalam films. She also starred in few Telugu and Kannada films.She was one of the contestant of Bigg Boss Tamil Season 4.


title: Rekha (South Indian actress)

text: She was introduced to the Tamil cinema with the film, "Kadalora Kavithaigal" (1986) directed by Bharathiraja with Sathyaraj in the lead role.


title: Rekha (South Indian actress)

text: Her notable works include "Punnagai Mannan" (1986), "Enga Ooru Pattukaran" (1987), "En Bommukutty Ammavukku" (1988), "Puriyaadha Pudhir" (1990) and "Gunaa" (1991). In Malayalam, "Ramji Rao Speaking" (1989), "Aey Auto" (1990) and "In Harihar Nagar" (1990) were also successful.


title: Rekha (South Indian actress)

text: After few roles as a heroine, she started to act in character roles, such as sister in law and mother.


title: Rekha (South Indian actress)

text: Sumathi Josephine born and brought up in Eramalloor, Alappuzha Kerala. She married Harris Kottadath, a Malayali seafood exporter, in 1996. They have a daughter.


title: MLOps

text: MLOps or ML Ops is a set of practices that aims to deploy and maintain machine learning models in production reliably and efficiently. The word is a compound of "machine learning" and the continuous development practice of DevOps in the software field. Machine learning models are tested and developed in isolated experimental systems. When an algorithm is ready to be launched, MLOps is practiced between Data Scientists, DevOps, and Machine Learning engineers to transition the algorithm to production systems. Similar to DevOps or DataOps approaches, MLOps seeks to increase automation and improve the quality of production models, while also focusing on business and regulatory requirements. While MLOps started as a set of best practices, it is slowly evolving into an independent approach to ML lifecycle management. MLOps applies to the entire lifecycle - from integrating with model generation (software development lifecycle, continuous integration/continuous delivery), orchestration, and deployment, to health, diagnostics, governance, and business metrics. According to Gartner, MLOps is a subset of ModelOps. MLOps is focused on the operationalization of ML models, while ModelOps covers the operationalization of all types of AI models.


title: MLOps

text: The challenges of the ongoing use of machine learning in applications were highlighted in a 2015 paper.


title: MLOps

text: The predicted growth in machine learning included an estimated doubling of ML pilots and implementations from 2017 to 2018, and again from 2018 to 2020.


title: MLOps

text: Reports show a majority (up to 88%) of corporate AI initiatives are struggling to move beyond test stages. However, those organizations that actually put AI and machine learning into production saw a 3-15% profit margin increases.


title: MLOps

text: The MLOps market was estimated at $23.2billion in 2019 and is projected to reach $126 billion by 2025 due to rapid adoption.


title: MLOps

text: Machine Learning systems can be categorized in eight different categories: data collection, data processing, feature engineering, data labelling, model design, model training and optimization, endpoint deployment, and endpoint monitoring. Each step in the machine learning lifecycle is built in their own system, but requires interconnection. These are the minimum systems that enterprises need to scale machine learning within their organization.


title: MLOps

text: There are a number of goals enterprises want to achieve through MLOps systems successfully implementing ML across the enterprise, including:


title: MLOps

text: A standard practice, such as MLOps, takes into account each of the aforementioned areas, which can help enterprises optimize workflows and avoid issues during implementation.


title: MLOps

text: A common architecture of an MLOps system would include data science platforms where models are constructed and the analytical engines where computations are performed, with the MLOps tool orchestrating the movement of machine learning models, data and outcomes between the systems.


title: Nyakim Gatwech

text: Nyakim Gatwech (born January 27, 1993) is an Ethiopian-born American model of South Sudanese descent. She has attracted attention for her dark skin color and has achieved significant popularity on Instagram.


title: Nyakim Gatwech

text: Nyakim Gatwech's parents lived in Maiwut, South Sudan, before they fled the Second Sudanese civil war to Gambela, Ethiopia where Nyakim was born. From there, they migrated to Kenya where they lived in refugee camps, until they finally migrated to the US, when she was 14 years old. Originally settling in Buffalo, New York, Nyakim later moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota. She has stated that, while she has never been to South Sudan, she considers herself South Sudanese. She considered a modeling career after taking part in a fashion show at St. Cloud State University. She has appeared in promotional posters for the 2017 film "Jigsaw".


title: Nyakim Gatwech

text: Gatwech is known for her naturally dark skin color and has been nicknamed the Queen of the Dark. Gatwech has faced self-esteem issues and comments from people who promote bleaching to lighten skin color. She has over 985,000 followers on Instagram.


title: Ross Stewart (footballer, born 1996)

text: Ross Cameron Stewart (born 11 July 1996) is a Scottish footballer who plays as a striker for EFL Championship club Sunderland and the Scotland national football team.


title: Ross Stewart (footballer, born 1996)

text: After spells with the youth systems of professional clubs, Stewart started his career in the Scottish Juniors with Ardeer Thistle and Kilwinning Rangers, before making the step-up to senior football with Albion Rovers in July 2016. The part-time Coatbridge club were unable to pay the £1,500 transfer fee, with the funds instead provided by their supporters' club members and by Stewart's father.


title: Ross Stewart (footballer, born 1996)

text: After just one season with Albion Rovers, Stewart signed for Scottish Championship club St Mirren on a two-year full-time contract (a goalkeeper with the same name also joined at the time). Stewart scored on his debut for the Paisley club in a Scottish League Cup win versus Stranraer but failed to break into the first-team and was loaned out to Scottish League One club Alloa Athletic in December 2017, for the remainder of the season.


title: Ross Stewart (footballer, born 1996)

text: On 10 August 2018, Stewart signed for Ross County. He made his debut for the club in a 2–1 victory in the Scottish Challenge Cup against Heart of Midlothian Colts. Stewart scored his first goal for the club in the next round of the cup in a win against Montrose. He finished his first season at Ross County with 11 goals, three of them coming against County's Rivals Inverness Caledonian Thistle as Ross County were promoted to the Scottish Premiership.


title: Ross Stewart (footballer, born 1996)

text: On 31 January 2021 Stewart joined English side Sunderland for an undisclosed fee. Stewart scored on his Sunderland debut after coming on as a substitute against Accrington Stanley in a 2–0 away win on 17 March 2021. He was later given the nickname 'Loch Ness Drogba' by Sunderland supporters in reference to his Scottish heritage and comparisons with prolific former Chelsea striker Didier Drogba.


title: Ross Stewart (footballer, born 1996)

text: On 21 May 2022, Stewart scored the second goal in the 2022 EFL League One play-off Final as Sunderland defeated Wycombe Wanderers 2–0 to gain promotion back to the EFL Championship. He finished the season as the league's joint top goalscorer with 26 goals and was later voted the PFA Fans' Player of the Year for League One.


title: Ross Stewart (footballer, born 1996)

text: Stewart received his first call-up to the senior Scotland squad in March 2022 whilst playing for Sunderland AFC. He made his international debut on 8 June 2022, appearing as a substitute in a Nations League game against Armenia.


title: Granulation tissue

text: Granulation tissue is new connective tissue and microscopic blood vessels that form on the surfaces of a wound during the healing process. Granulation tissue typically grows from the base of a wound and is able to fill wounds of almost any size. Examples of granulation tissue can be seen in pyogenic granulomas and pulp polyps. Its histological appearance is characterized by proliferation of fibroblasts and new thin-walled, delicate capillaries (angiogenesis), infiltrated inflammatory cells in a loose extracellular matrix.


title: Granulation tissue

text: Granulation tissue is composed of tissue matrix supporting a variety of cell types, most of which can be associated with one of the following functions:


title: Granulation tissue

text: The extracellular matrix of granulation tissue is created and modified by fibroblasts. Initially, it consists of a network of type-III collagen, a weaker form of the structural protein that can be produced rapidly. This is later replaced by the stronger, long-stranded type-I collagen, as evidenced in scar tissue.


title: Granulation tissue

text: The main immune cells active in the tissue are macrophages and neutrophils, although other leukocytes are also present. These work to phagocytize old or damaged tissue, and protect the healing tissue from pathogenic infection. This is necessary both to aid the healing process and to protect against invading pathogens, as the wound often does not have an effective skin barrier to act as a first line of defense.


title: Granulation tissue

text: It is necessary for a network of blood vessels to be established as soon as possible to provide the growing tissue with nutrients, to take away cellular wastes, and transport new leukocytes to the area. Fibroblasts, the main cells that deposit granulation tissue, depend on oxygen to proliferate and lay down the new extracellular matrix.


title: Granulation tissue

text: In vascularisation, also called angiogenesis, endothelial cells quickly grow into the tissue from older, intact blood vessels. These branch out in a systematic way, forming anastomoses with other vessels.


title: Dying Fetus

text: Dying Fetus is an American death metal band originally from Greater Upper Marlboro, Maryland. Formed in 1991, the group is known for their consistently hook-laden song structures, characterized by blast beats, complex riffing, slam riffs and heavy breakdowns. Additionally, their reality-based lyrics characterized by political/modern themes are notable in death metal. Various line-up changes throughout the years have left John Gallagher as the sole remaining original member, as well as the band's driving force. According to Gallagher, the band name was chosen while the members were of adolescent ages and was intended to be offensive. To date, Dying Fetus has released eight studio albums.


title: Dying Fetus

text: Dying Fetus was founded in 1991 in Upper Marlboro, Maryland, by John Gallagher (guitar, vocals) and Jason Netherton (bass, vocals). The band began in earnest when the pair met up with guitarist/vocalist Nick Speleos in 1992. It was decided then that Gallagher would fill in on drums until a proper drummer was found. The writing of this period resulted in the 1993 demo "Bathe In Entrails" In late 1993, the band found drummer Rob Belton, as well as guitarist Brian Latta, who replaced the departing Nick Speleos (which also thrust John Gallagher back into the role of guitarist and vocalist). Together the new four-piece lineup recorded the "Infatuation with Malevolence" demo in early 1994, later released together with the first demo in 1995 as a compilation on California Indie label Wild Rags Records. Songs included all tracks from both demos as one CD.


title: Dying Fetus

text: In 1996, the band released their first album, "Purification through Violence", on short-lived Illinois label Pulverizer Records. The album marked a further refinement of the band's developing sound of death metal riffing, combined with heavy slams, over seven original songs, and one Napalm Death cover, "Scum". Drummer Rob Belton left and the band was joined briefly in 1995 for a year by drummer Casey Buckler, with whom they performed live, yet never recorded with. Casey was asked to leave the band as they agreed he would play drums for a tour they had that year.


title: Dying Fetus

text: Relying on self-promotion, the band toured sporadically for 4 years straight starting in summer 1996 with their first full US tour alongside Kataklysm and Monstrosity, with the first appearance of future drummer Erik Sayenga as drummer replacing Casey Buckler. However, by spring 1997, Erik Sayenga left the band, and during a short Texas tour in May 1997, drummer Kevin Talley was located and subsequently joined full-time by the summer of 1997. At this point, the band caught the attention of German indie label Morbid Records, who signed them early in 1998 for a one-album deal. Almost immediately afterwards, the band released their second album, "Killing on Adrenaline".


title: Dying Fetus

text: Morbid Records supplied the band with modest promotion in the death metal underground by releasing the album in Europe (while the band released it on their own label 'Blunt Force Records' in North America). Subsequently, they rose to prominence with notable live performances, such as appearances at Milwaukee metalfest (1998-2000) and tours in the US and Canada in 1998 (with Deeds of Flesh) and in Europe (with Deranged). However, guitarist Brian Latta left the band in late 1998, ushering in new guitarist "Sparky" Voyles, and in 1999 the band embarked on their first headlining tour of the US, over three weeks dubbed the "Underground Terrorism" tour. The tour was followed shortly thereafter by the "Grotesque Impalement" EP, which the band again released on their own Blunt Force Records label imprint.


title: Dying Fetus

text: By 2000, Dying Fetus caught the attention of another underground metal label, the indie company Relapse Records, who subsequently signed the band.


title: Dying Fetus

text: Once more returning to Steve Carr's Hit and Run Studios in Maryland (where each previous Dying Fetus album was recorded), Dying Fetus recorded in the spring of 2000 their Relapse debut (and overall third full-length album), "Destroy the Opposition". This album featured even stronger political themes, and songwriting that was to highly influence the "deathcore" scene in subsequent years. The album was included in "Decibel"s Top 100 Albums of the decade list for the 2000s (Decibel Magazine Special Edition, December 2009), as well as to Decibel's "Hall of Fame" (#89, July 2012).


title: Dying Fetus

text: However, following the release of "Destroy the Opposition", original member Jason Netherton left the band for personal reasons, and thereafter guitarist Voyles and drummer Talley left the band only months after the album's release (they since went on to form the band Misery Index). Gallagher recruited guitarist Mike Kimball, singer Vince Matthews, bassist/backup vocalist Sean Beasley, and the returning Eric Sayenga on drums.


title: Dying Fetus

text: With the new lineup, the band released their 4th album, "Stop at Nothing", in 2003, another album featuring Carr's production and strong political themes. A promotional video was shot for the track "One Shot, One Kill".


title: Dying Fetus

text: Dying Fetus toured extensively for "Stop at Nothing", and got airplay for the music video for "One Shot, One Kill" on Headbanger's Ball. Another tool that led to exposure of the band was more mainstream metal attention of Relapse Records (with acts such as Mastodon gaining popularity), as well as a full North American tour with GWAR in 2005. However, the "Stop at Nothing" lineup dissolved slightly in the years that followed as drummer Erik Sayenga parted yet again, and singer Vince Matthews went on to form Criminal Element. However, Dying Fetus came back yet again, bassist Beasley took over on vocals, and drummer Duane Timlin (ex-Divine Empire/Broken Hope) joined the ranks in 2006.


title: Dying Fetus

text: That lineup then recorded "War of Attrition", which was released in March 2007. Themes include attacking reality TV, the war on terrorism, racial ignorance, and the flaws in the criminal justice system. Songs include "Homicidal Retribution", "Raping the System", and "Parasites of Catastrophe". Dying Fetus' second music video was made for "Homicidal Retribution".


title: Dying Fetus

text: Yet another lineup change occurred on the Dying Fetus front in July 2007: drummer Duane Timlin was fired due to incompatibilities. The newest drummer for the band is Trey Williams, from the local Baltimore band Severed Head. Mike Kimball also left the band and they've remained a trio since.


title: Dying Fetus

text: On September 15, 2009, Dying Fetus released their sixth album, "Descend into Depravity" on Relapse Records. Three years later, their follow-up to this record "Reign Supreme", would be released on June 19, 2012. The band released the first single from the album, "Subjected to a Beating", on April 2, 2012.


title: Dying Fetus

text: Dying Fetus headlined a US tour being supported by Exhumed, Abiotic and Waking the Cadaver. Devourment was intended to be on the bill to play the tour, but dropped off a month beforehand. Rivers of Nihil appeared in select spots of the tour.


title: Dying Fetus

text: On November 4, 2013, after Avenged Sevenfold were announced as a headliner for Download Festival 2014, a fan of the band claimed that other bands were more deserving of a headline spot at the festival, and said "Everyone is going on about that this is good to give new blood a chance, then why not Machine Head, Lamb of God, Testament, Dying Fetus or Carcass? Give them a chance". Due to the smaller size of the band's fanbase, this sparked a mock internet campaign with the hashtag "#WhyNotDyingFetus?" trending worldwide. On November 6, 2013, Andy Copping announced on his Twitter feed that due to the internet campaign, Dying Fetus had been confirmed to be playing at the festival. The band were the first to play the main stage on the Saturday.


title: Dying Fetus

text: By June 2016, Dying Fetus had been working on their eighth studio album, which was expected to be released in the summer of 2017.


title: Dying Fetus

text: By mid-April 2017, both the band and Relapse Records had announced via social media the release of their eighth studio album, entitled "Wrong One to Fuck With", which was released on June 23, 2017, and included a promotional video for Gallagher, Williams, Beasley, and Associates – Death Metal Attorney's at Law.


title: Dying Fetus

text: Their sound is noted for its "vicious" blast beats as well as the guttural vocal style of frontman John Gallagher.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: The Tattooist of Auschwitz is a 2018 Holocaust novel by New Zealand novelist Heather Morris. The book tells the story of how Slovakian Jew Lale Sokolov, who was imprisoned at Auschwitz in 1942, fell in love with a girl he was tattooing at the concentration camp. The story is based on the real lives of Sokolov and his wife, Gita Furman. There has been mixed criticism towards the book, with some complimenting the novel’s compelling story based on real-life events, while claims of factual inaccuracies that bring into question miseducation around historical events has been critiqued by the Auschwitz Memorial Research Center.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: As of October 2019, the novel has sold more than three million copies around the world. 61,391 copies of "The Tattooist of Auschwitz" were sold in 2018 in Ireland. In 2018, it was the #1 New York Times Bestseller and #1 International Bestseller.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: The book, which was Morris’ debut novel, was originally written as a screenplay. Morris was proposed the idea of telling the story of Lale Sokolov by a mutual friend of hers and Lale’s son, after Lale’s wife Gita died. Morris met with Lale for three years until his death in 2006, to hear his story about his time with Gita in Auschwitz and take notes for her screenplay. During those meetings with Lale, he told Morris about the trauma, pain and survivor guilt he experienced.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Six years after the first meeting with Lale, Morris’ sister-in-law suggested writing the story as a book.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Told from the perspective of Lale Sokolov, the story follows his journey as a prisoner of Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. After being forcibly transported on a long journey on a livestock train with other Jewish prisoners, Lale arrives at Auschwitz II-Birkenau work camp where, within his first night, he witnesses two men killed by the SS.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Lale adjusts to his new life as a Jewish prisoner, which involves witnessing gassings of fellow prisoners and becoming ill with typhus. While Lale is ill, the current tattooist of the camp, Pepan, takes interest in him and arranges for him to become his apprentice. Lale endures the labour of tattooing new prisoners to enable his further survival.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Lale briefly meets a beautiful, young woman while tattooing her arm upon her entry to the camp, and he experiences love at first sight. Lale becomes the main tattooist after Pepan disappears. Lale asks the SS officer in charge of him, Baretksi, for an assistant, just as Pepan had asked that he be his assistant. Baretski picks out a young prisoner named Leon.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Lale uses his relationship with Baretski to gain increased privileges within the camp, including the ability to communicate with the beautiful woman he met earlier, Gita. Gita works in one of the camp warehouses that houses the confiscated belongings of prisoners and often sneaks valuable items to Lale. Lale then risks his own life to exchange jewels and money with a sympathetic German worker for who comes to the camp each day for medicine and items of clothing to help prisoners who are suffering or gain favours with the SS. For example, while Gita is ill with typhus, Lale brings her medicine and promises to one day start a family with her once she is well again.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: The SS officers begin acting nervous and impulsive upon news that the Russian army is advancing. Camp documents are destroyed. Many prisoners are transferred out of Auschwitz, including Gita who in the rush tells Lale her surname is Furman. Lale is transferred to Mauthausen in Austria and then soon to another camp near Vienna. Lale escapes from the camp through a hole in the fence and, upon being found by Russian soldiers, is forced to work at a chalet that serves as headquarters for Russian soldiers due to his ability to speak both German and Russian. Every day he is escorted to town by a Russian soldier to procure young, attractive German women to come to parties at the chalet in the evening. He pays them with money and jewels. One day he is told that his escort is no longer necessary and he can take the car into town alone. Once there, he escapes and makes his way to his hometown to find his sister alive, that his parents are still missing and that his older brother has died.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Meanwhile, Gita has escaped her transport with three Polish women before making her way to Bratislava, Slovakia.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Lale then heads to Bratislava to find Gita, knowing that many Slovakian prisoners are being sent there. He waits two weeks at a train station and then spots her in a street. The pair kneel down and tell each other they love each other. Lale asks if Gita will marry him and she agrees.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: The narrator of the book is 25-year-old Slovakian Jew from Krompachy Lale (Lali) Sokolov, who meets a young woman while serving as the "Tätowierer" in Auschwitz II-Birkenau from 1942 until 1945. He falls in love with the woman, Gita, during his years of imprisonment, and vows to marry and start a family with her once they are free. Lale consistently puts himself in danger to help his friends and himself survive while in Auschwitz-Birkenau labour camp.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Gita is a young Jewish woman from Slovakia who meets Lale in Auschwitz II-Birkenau. She meets Lale as he tattoos her identification number on her arm. She and Lale meet with each other regularly and eventually agree they will remain together once they are free from imprisonment. Gita falls ill with typhus and is hidden from guards by her friends to save her from being sent to the gas chambers. Gita's friends, Ivana and Dana, and Lale keeps Gita alive using various tactics.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Cilka is Gita’s friend who she meets while working in the Birkenau administration building. Unlike most other prisoners, Cilka is not made to shave her head. She is also forced to be a mistress to Lagerführer (later Schutzhaftlagerführer), Johann Schwarzhuber, the commandant of Auschwitz, and is regularly raped. The only favour Cilka ever asks of Schwarzhuber is to transfer Lale out of Block 31 where he was being tortured. This dangerous act saves Lale’s life.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Pepan is the main tattooist at Auschwitz before Lale takes over, and aids Lale in regaining his health after seeing Aron plead with an officer to take Lale off the cart of dying prisoners. He believes Lale to be an extraordinary person and worthy of saving. He takes in Lale as his assistant tattooist and teaches him how to deal with and bargain with the officers to survive. It is suggested that when Pepan disappears he is being taken to be murdered.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Jakub is an American-Jew who while visiting family in Poland was captured and taken to Auschwitz II-Birkenau. He meets Lale while being tattooed on his forearm, and signals he is starving. Lale is able to sneak Jakub rations of food. Later on, when Lale is taken to be tortured, and finds that Jakub is his delegated torturer, Jakub is able to return the favour and save Lale’s life.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Baretski is the Nazi SS Officer in charge of Lale. Their relationship grows with increased trust throughout the novel, with Baretski even giving Lale advice on how to stay safe. They share tips between each other on their own relationships with women, and risk their own lives to help each other on multiple occasions. Despite this relationship, Lale still deems Baretski a risk due to his random acts of murder and torture to other prisoners.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Aron is Lale’s bunkmate, whom he met while being transported to Auschwitz II-Birkenau. Aron helped save Lale’s life by pulling him from the cart of dying prisoners while Lale was sick with Typhus. Because of his selfless act in saving Lale’s life and lying to SS officers, he is taken away and never seen again.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Josef Mengele is the Doctor at Auschwitz who conducts torturous experiments on its prisoners. Mengele also castrated Leon, and often chose who was sent to the gas chambers.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Victor is a paid labourer from Poland who gives Lale rations of food in exchange for valuables while visiting Auschwitz II-Birkenau to build crematoriums.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Leon works with Lale as the assistant tattooer and is at one point taken by Doctor Mengele to be castrated. Leon was like a brother to Lale.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: "The Tattooist of Auschwitz" fits into the genre of Holocaust fiction. Morris writes using simple, short sentences from a third-person point of view where Lale is the omniscient narrator and protagonist of the story.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: According to Steve Walker, Morris "welds the historical events – and real people – on to a fictional frame."


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: The novel utilises many elements of the Romantic genre, specifically through the key plot line of Lale and Gita's love story.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: "The Tattooist of Auschwitz" also fits into the Biographical genre. The novel is based on events in the real Lale Sokolov's life and represents the circumstances Lale and other characters in the story lived through.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Timonthy Niedermann, writing in "The New York Journal of Books," calls the novel “at once sobering and poignant, both weighted with unspeakable horrors and uplifted by the unique hope of love”. He felt that while the book lacks physical descriptions, and Morris is “vague about the specifics of the extermination process”, her depiction of humanity in the characters is a strength.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Wanda Witek-Malicka from the Auschwitz Memorial Research Center, writing in "Memoria," offered historical criticism, questioning the novel’s factual inaccuracies and stating that the entire image of reality at Auschwitz displayed in the book is built on “exaggerations, misinterpretations and understatements”. She warns that those who read the Czech translation of the book may take its stories as fact, which the Memorial Center believe is "dangerous and disrespectful to history".


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: A key concern for the Auschwitz Memorial Research Center was Morris' claim that Gita's identification number tattooed on her arm was 34902, stating "we do not find any surviving documents with her personal data or relating to number 34902 issued in the women's series" and that a prisoner arriving at Auschwitz at the time Gita did could not have received such a high number. Witek-Malicka states that according to Gita's own testimony, her identification number was 4562. Witek-Malicka also rejects Morris' claim that Doctor Mengele conducted sterilisation tests on men in Auschwitz, and that in 1942 Lale gave Gita penicillin for her typhoid fever, because this antibiotic was not widely available until after the war.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: Hirsh, Láníček, Mitschke & Shields, writing in the "Australian Journal of Jewish Studies", state that creative license is common, but that “Heather Morris’ steadfast reliance on conversations she shared with Lale Sokolov towards the end of his life have contributed to a simplification that narrows understanding of the reality of Auschwitz”. They note the flattening of the experiences of the character, Gita Furman, as an example of this simplification.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: The Creative Director of Synchronicity Films, Claire Mundell secured the rights to The Tattooist of Auschwitz after making a deal with Bonnier Books UK in 2018. The novel was set to be turned into a multi-part television series to be tentatively released in January 2020. However, there have been no further reports of this deal going ahead since September 2018.


title: The Tattooist of Auschwitz

text: By November 2018, the book had been translated into 17 languages. By September 2019, official translations of the book had been published in 47 languages. One of these translations is in Slovak, Lale's native language. Morris celebrated the launch of the Slovak version of the book in Krompachy in Eastern Slovakia, which is where Lale was born.


title: Roman Charity

text: Roman Charity (; ) is the exemplary story of a woman, Pero, who secretly breastfeeds her father, Cimon, after he is incarcerated and sentenced to death by starvation.


title: Roman Charity

text: The story is recorded in "Factorum ac dictorum memorabilium" (Nine Books of Memorable Acts and Sayings of the Ancient Romans) by the ancient Roman historian Valerius Maximus, and was presented as a great act of "pietas" (i.e., filial piety) and Roman honour. A painting in the Temple of Pietas depicted the scene. Additionally, wall paintings and terracotta statues from the first century excavated in Pompeii suggest that visual representations of Pero and Cimon were common, however it is difficult to say whether these existed in response to Maximus's anecdote or preceded – inspired – his story. Among Romans, the theme had mythological echoes in Juno's breastfeeding of the adult Hercules, an Etruscan myth.


title: Roman Charity

text: The story of Cimon is accompanied by an almost identical story recorded by Roman historian Valerius Maximus, later retold by Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79), of a jailed plebeian woman who was nursed by her daughter. Reporting this to the judicial authorities the mother's sentence is remitted. While the guard does hesitate and wonder if perhaps what he saw was against nature (an act of lesbianism), he concludes that in fact it is an example of the first law of nature, which is to love one's own parents.


title: Roman Charity

text: The motif appeared in both its mother-daughter and father-daughter variety, although the cross-gendered version was ultimately more popular. The earliest modern depictions of Pero and Cimon emerged independently of each other in Southern Germany and Northern Italy around 1525, in a wide range of media including bronze medals, frescoes, engravings, drawings, oil paintings, ceramics, inlaid wood decorations, and statues.


title: Roman Charity

text: In Germany, the brothers Barthel Beham (1502–40) and Sebald Beham (1500–50) produced between them six different renderings of Pero and Cimon. Barthel's first rendering of the theme in 1525 is usually brought in connection with a brief jail term that he, his brother Sebald, and their common friend Georg Pencz served for charges of atheism earlier that year. Barthel's brother Sebald would reissue this print in reverse in 1544, this time with two inscriptions informing the viewer of the father's identity (“Czinmon”) and of the meaning of this act: “I live off the breast of my daughter.” Sebald himself would revisit the motif twice in his youth between 1526 and 1530, and again in 1540. The print from 1540 is almost ten times bigger than most of the Beham brothers’ other art works (ca. 40 x 25 cm) and openly pornographic. Cimon's arms tied are behind his back and his shoulders and lower body are covered in a jacket-like piece of cloth, however his muscular chest and erect nipples are on full display. Pero stands between Cimon's knees, completely naked, her hair is undone and her pubic region and stomach are shaved. She offers him her left breast with a V-hold. An inscription made to look like a scratching into the wall reads: Whither does Piety not penetrate, what does she not devise?


title: Roman Charity

text: Later in the sixteenth century German artists began depicting the scene in oil paintings, often choosing the classicizing half-length format, thereby drawing of formal analogies between Pero and ancient heroines and including Pero within the genre of the ‘strong woman,’ similar to Lucretia, Dido, and Cleopatra or Judith, Salome, and Dalila. Examples of these works include Georg Pencz’s version from 1538, Erhard Schwetzer’s depiction from the same year, Pencz’s version (housed in Stockholm) from 1546, and one by the so-called Master with the Griffin’s Head executed as well in 1546.


title: Roman Charity

text: Italian oil paintings of the motif existed as early as 1523, when a notary described a painting in possession of the recently deceased Pietro Luna, as “a large canvas in a gilded frame with a woman who nurses an old man.” A similar painting is described by a notary for the house of Benedetti di Franciscis in 1538. Still another painting is listed, correctly identified as a daughter nursing her father, by a notary in the estate of miniaturist Gasparo Segizzi. Unfortunately, none of these paintings are still extant.


title: Roman Charity

text: In 1606/1607, the early Baroque artist Caravaggio featured the scene in his altarpiece, The Seven Works of Mercy, commissioned by the confraternity of Pio Monte della Misericordia in Naples. With regards to his choice of iconography, Caravaggio may have been inspired by his predecessor Perino del Vaga, whose fresco of Roman Charity he could have seen during his stay in Genoa in 1605. Following Caravaggio's altarpiece, the veritable craze for gallery paintings of Pero and Cimon started in 1610–12, and spread through Italy, France, the Southern Netherlands, and Utrecht, even drawing traction among Spanish painters such as Jusepe de Ribera and, later, Bartolomé Esteban Murillo. Given the fact that no gallery painting pre-dates 1610, Caravaggio's altarpiece must have inspired a fad that would last another two centuries. Despite this, the subject matter as one favored by many Caravaggisti has historically been overlooked. Utrecht Caravaggisti, Gerrit van Honthorst, and Abraham Bloemaert both painted versions of the scene, as did Manfredi. Additionally, nine examples of Roman Charity were apparently produced by Caravaggio's noted and outspoken foe, Guido Reni (1575 – 1625) and his workshop.


title: Roman Charity

text: Peter Paul Rubens and his followers are known to have painted at least three versions. Followers of Ruben's tended to copy his 1630 version (housed in Amsterdam) but began introducing a sleeping child at Pero's feet, a detail the original legend does not mention. This element was introduced in the 17th century in order to prevent an interpretation that there was something incestuous about the deed – although the existence of a child is implicit in any case, since the woman is lactating. At the same time, the inclusion of the infant added a new level of meaning to the story as the three figures would represent the three generations and could therefore also be interpreted as an allegory of the three ages of man. Many examples of paintings, prints, and sculptures of Roman Charity include a baby or pre-school-age child (perhaps in the vein of the boy included in Poussin's "The Gathering of the Manna"), by artists such as Niccolò̀ Tornioli (1598–1651), Cecco Bravo (1607–61), Artus Quellinus the Elder (1609–1668), Louis Boullogne (1609–74), Jean Cornu (1650-1710), Johann Carl Loth (1632–98), Carlo Cignani (1628–1719), Adrian van der Werff (1659–1722), Gregorio Lazzarini (1657–1730), Francesco Migliori (1684–1734), and Johann Peter Weber (1737-1804).


title: Roman Charity

text: A small annex to the Belfry of Ghent dating from 1741, including a sculpture of Roman Charity poised high above the front doorway. It is referred to as 'mammelokker', which translates from Dutch as 'breast sucker'.


title: Roman Charity

text: During this period of prolific engagement with the imagery of Pero and Cimon, Nicolas Poussin (1594–1665) stands out because of his rendering of the breastfeeding mother-daughter couple in The Gathering of the Manna (1639). Poussin's choice of subject matter demonstrated his knowledge of Maximus's other example of filial piety, as well as earlier French renderings of the theme. It is possible that Poussin was familiar with the print by Étienne Delaune (1518/19–88) and/or, perhaps, the “Histoire Rommaine” printed in Lyon in 1548, in which a mother begs her daughter to let her nurse at her breast – a request the daughter rebukes, challenging her mother to display greater dignity in her suffering, before ultimately succumbing and allowing her mother to suckle.


title: Roman Charity

text: Similar to later depictions of Pero and Cimon, which contain the addition of Pero's child in order to dissuade any incestuous or salacious readings, Poussin includes the daughter's son, who competes with his grandmother for his mother's milk. In doing so, and in adding an observer whose reaction belays the correct reading of the scene as one of filial piety, Poussin preempts the potential reading of the scene as lesbian – harkening back to the debate Maximus proposes between the onlooking guards. Despite the fact that Poussin positioned himself as the opposite of Caravaggio, he, like his rival, integrated Maximus's story into a complex religious painting.


title: Roman Charity

text: While the choice to depict the mother-daughter scene as opposed to that of Pero and Cimon was unique at the time that Poussin was painting, the same-sex version enjoyed wider popularity than the father-daughter scene during the Middle Ages and into the early modern period. The medieval work Girard de Rossillon, by an anonymous, tells the story of the imprisoned mother, nursed by her daughter but embellishes it, inventing a name for the daughter – bone Berte – and a noble lineage for the family. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, writers Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–75) and Christine de Pizan (1364-1430) both used the story of the Roman daughter as a story of reciprocal kinship relations. In the sixteenth century Hans Sachs produced an eroticized work on the scene.


title: Roman Charity

text: Few works depicting the mother-daughter version were made between the seventeenth and late eighteenth century. A poem by Sibylla Schwarz(1612–38) on egalitarian relationships among women uses the anecdote. A few years after Poussin's painting of The Gathering of the Manna, Guercino produced an intimate portrait of the mother and daughter (before 1661). This is the last known depiction of the scene before its brief resurgence in the late eighteenth century when three paintings by Jean-Charles Nicaise Perrin (1791, lost), Angelika Kauffmann (1794, lost), and Etienne-Barthélemy Garnier (1801, lost) were made depicting the scene. Perhaps this brief resurgence of interest can be explained by a French Revolutionary theme of political equality which found resonance in the reciprocity within kinship relations that the mother-daughter version displayed. The reversal of patriarchal relations that Pero and Cimon could be seen as symbolizing, while meaningful under the ancient regime, was now passé.


title: Roman Charity

text: In the 20th century, a fictional account of Roman Charity was presented in John Steinbeck's "The Grapes of Wrath" (1939). At the end of the novel, Rosasharn (Rose of Sharon) nurses a sick and starving man in the corner of a barn. The 1969 painting "Partisan Ballad" by Mai Dantsig also echoes Roman Charity.


title: Roman Charity

text: The 1973 surrealist film "O Lucky Man!" also contains a scene of Roman Charity when the protagonist is starving and a vicar's wife nurses him rather than let him plunder the food gathered for an offering.


title: Secretary of State for Health and Social Care

text: The secretary of state for health and social care, also referred to as the health secretary, is a secretary of state in the Government of the United Kingdom, responsible for the work of the Department of Health and Social Care. The incumbent is a member of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom.


text: The position can trace its roots back to the nineteenth century, and has been a secretary of state position since 1968. For 30 years, from 1988 to 2018, the position was titled Secretary of State for Health, before Prime Minister Theresa May added "and Social Care" to the designation in the 2018 British cabinet reshuffle.


text: The office holder works alongside the other health and social care ministers. The corresponding shadow minister is the shadow secretary of state for health and social care, and the secretary of state is also scrutinised by the Health and Social Care Select Committee.


text: Corresponding to what is generally known as a health minister in many other countries, the health secretary's remit includes the following:


text: The first Boards of Health were created by Orders in Council dated 21 June, 14 November and 21 November 1831. In 1848, a General Board of Health was created with lay members as its leadership and the first commissioner of woods and forests as its president. In 1854, this board was reconstituted and the president appointed separately. However, the board was abolished in 1858 and its function of overseeing the local boards was transferred to a new Local Government Act Office within the Home Office. From 1871, that function was transferred to the new Local Government Board.


text: The Ministry of Health was created in by the Ministry of Health Act 1919 as a reconstruction of the Local Government Board. Local government functions were eventually transferred to the minister of housing and local government, leaving the Health Ministry in charge of Health proper.


text: From 1968, it was amalgamated with the Ministry of Social Security under the secretary of state for social services, until a de-merger of the Department of Health and Social Security on 25 July 1988.


text: Since devolution in 1999, the position holder's responsibility for the NHS is mainly restricted to the health service in England, with the holder's counterparts in Scotland and Wales responsible for the NHS in Scotland and Wales. Prior to devolution, the secretaries of state for Scotland and Wales had those respective responsibilities, but the Department of Health had a larger role than now in the co-ordination of health policy across Great Britain. Health services in Northern Ireland have always had separate arrangements from the rest of the UK, and are currently the responsibility of the health minister in the Northern Ireland Executive.


text: According to Jeremy Hunt the department receives more letters than any other government department and there are 50 officials in the correspondence unit.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In German-speaking states during the early modern era, the term "Jäger" came to denote light infantrymen whose civilian occupations (mostly hunters and foresters) made them well-suited to patrolling and skirmishing, on an individual and independent basis, rather than as part of a large-scale military unit or traditional line infantry. As a consequence, "Jäger" was used to describe skirmishers, scouts, sharpshooters and runners.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The word's usage and derivatives broadened over time. For instance, was the name given by the Prussian Army to scouts and runners. Conversely, in the modern German army (), is the name given to military police.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: According to a popular theory, the earliest known "Jäger" unit was a company formed in about 1631 in Hesse-Kassel, under William V, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. Wilhelm supposedly formed an elite light infantry unit for the Hessian Army, around a core drawn from his personal staff of gamekeepers ("Revierjäger"; "game preserve hunter"), forest rangers and professional hunters.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: However, it was not until the first half of the 18th century that the widespread recruitment began in various German states of gamekeepers, huntsmen and foresters employed on crown estates or those of noble landowners, for specialized units of riflemen and skirmishers.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: By the early 19th century, because of their civilian occupations, "Jäger" were usually familiar with the first true rifles, rather than the muskets used by regular infantry. While early long rifles took longer to load than the smoothbore musket of the line infantry, they also had greater range and accuracy. The men were drawn from a "well-esteemed class". The "Jäger" became primarily used for reconnaissance, skirmishing or screening bodies of heavier troops.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Prussia, Hesse, Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire and many smaller states raised "Jäger"-type small units during the Seven Years' War and thereafter. Initially these specialist units were formed for the duration of a particular campaign and thereafter disbanded. However, Russia maintained its "Jäger" companies on a permanent basis for frontier service against the Ottoman Empire, and His Majesty's Lifeguard Jäger Regiment continued in service until 1917.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The Prussian "Jäger" corps of Frederick the Great dated back to a mounted detachment raised in November 1740 and quickly expanded to two squadrons. Employed in wartime as guides and scouts, they eventually proved a useful frontier guard tasked with catching deserters and seizing contraband. After 1744, they were joined by an infantry branch of foot "Jägers", initially divided into independent companies and then brought together as a full regiment by 1784.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: For fighting at close quarters the "Jäger" carried a straight-bladed hunting dagger ("Hirschfänger"), a short sabre or a falchion.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: While the English term "ranger" is older, emerging during the 17th century to describe highly-mobile ("ranging") foot and mounted infantry units in British North America, it became strongly associated with "Jäger" during the late 18th century, when German-speaking Hessian regiments served as part of the British Army in North America.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Interest in light infantry tactics increased across Europe after the Battle of Valmy, where the Prussian line infantry proved unable to break through the French sharpshooters. Initially soldiers were drawn directly from the line infantry to fight as skirmishers instead, but in time many German-speaking states adopted "Jäger" to fulfill this role. In theory the "Jäger" operated in pairs to protect each other while reloading, and remained within 100–200 yards of close-order infantry on which they could fall back if they were endangered by cavalry or driven off by infantry. However, it was admitted that, due to the difficulty of controlling troops spread out in open-order and in the thick of battle, these guidelines might not always be followed. "Jäger" were allowed to act with a certain amount of initiative on the battlefield, unlike line infantry who were rigidly drilled and kept under tight control by their officers. For this reason, it was the most energetic and daring soldiers who were selected to become a "Jäger".


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The Prussians in particular developed their light infantry tactics both in theory and in practice during the early Napoleonic era. There was much disagreement over how much emphasis should be placed on "Jägers", though, and reform was for the most part at the regimental level by more energetic commanders such as Yorck. It was not until the reorganization of the army led by Scharnhorst that the "Jäger" corps was strengthened on a national level. Having suffered crippling defeats at Jena and Lübeck, the Prussian army undertook major reforms, in many ways following the example of the French Revolutionary Army, becoming a nationalized force. Foreign mercenaries were removed, corporal punishment became rare (and was abolished for "Jäger" troops), and promotions were based on merit rather than nobility. New volunteers from a bourgeois background were organized to resist Napoleon's invasion and occupation of Central Europe. Continuing the earlier traditions, in Prussia these "Jäger" were patriotic volunteers, bearing the cost of their weapons and uniforms at their own expense or with the help of contributions from friends and neighbours, and often organizing themselves into clubs and leagues. As one of the early adopters of skirmisher tactics, Yorck became inspector-general of the light infantry in Prussia and oversaw the increase and improvement of the new "Jäger" troops during the years of peace after the Treaty of Tilsit. The most famous of the Prussian "Jäger" were the volunteers of the Lützow Free Corps.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The Prussian army gained experience as an auxiliary force in the French invasion of Russia, where the "Jäger" were often used on the strategic level to provide support and cover for the rest of the army. They managed to escape the fate of Napoleon's French soldiers after Yorck negotiated a battlefield truce with Russia when, during a rear-guard action, the French withdrew and left Yorck's troops isolated. In the War of the Sixth Coalition that immediately followed, the "Jäger" of the various armies performed well against Napoleon's forces, and Prussian "Jäger" played a significant role in the battles of the Waterloo campaign, holding off Grouchy's corps at the Battle of Wavre.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The resistance against Napoleon exacted a high toll of military casualties, officers in particular. This in combination with a shift towards a meritocratic officer corps led to many promotions within the ranks. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, many of the junior officers in the Germanic states' armies were former "Jäger" soldiers who had been promoted through the ranks.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: By the early twentieth century, "Jäger" units were part of the Imperial German, Austro-Hungarian, Swedish, Dutch and Norwegian armies. They corresponded to the rifles, light infantry, "chasseurs à pied" or "bersaglieri" units of the British, French, Italian and other armies. While such units still enjoyed considerable prestige and high "esprit de corps", their training, equipment and tactical roles had for the most part become aligned with those of the line infantry of their respective armies.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: "Jäger" was in Austria and Germany until 1918 the lowest rank of the Jäger regiments, equivalent to private or soldier.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Other follows Gemeiner private ranks - "Musketier" (musketeer), "Grenadier", "Füsilier" (fusilier), "Infanterist" (infantryman), "Dragoner" (en: dragoon), "Husar" (hussar), "Ulan" (uhlan), "Kanonier", (gunner), "Pionier" (pioneer), "Sanitäter" (combat medic), "Trainsoldat" (trainman)


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Best known were the German "Jäger" units who were distinguished by their peace-time wear of dark green tunics and shakos (in contrast to the dark blue tunics and spiked helmets of most German infantry).


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In the peacetime Prussian Army, the main component of the Imperial German Army, there were one Imperial Guard Jäger battalion, the "Garde-Jäger-Bataillon", and twelve "Jäger" battalions of the line. One "Jäger" battalion, the "Großherzoglich Mecklenburgisches Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 14", was from the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Another, "Westfälisches Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 7", known as the "Bückeburg Jägers", was raised in the Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, whose capital was Bückeburg. The other ten were from Prussian lands. In addition, another Prussian Guard unit, the Guards Rifles Battalion, though not designated "Jäger", was a "Jäger" formation. Its origins were in a French "chasseur" battalion of the Napoleonic era, and its troops wore the shako and green tunic of the "Jäger" battalions.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The army of the Kingdom of Saxony added two "Jäger" battalions, which were included in the Imperial German Army order of battle as "Kgl. Sächsisches 1. Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 12" and "Kgl. Sächsisches 2. Jäger-Bataillon Nr. 13". The Saxon "Jäger" had a number of dress distinctions – notably tunics of a darker green than the Prussian colour, black facings instead of red and a black buffalo-hair plume buckled to the side of the shako. The autonomous Royal Bavarian Army provided a further two "Jäger" battalions, "Kgl. Bayerisches 1. Jäger-Bataillon" and "Kgl. Bayerisches 2. Jäger-Bataillon", who wore the light blue of Bavarian infantry with green facings.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: On mobilization in August 1914, each of these Prussian, Saxon and Bavarian "Jäger" battalions raised a reserve "Jäger" battalion. In September 1914, an additional twelve reserve "Jäger" battalions were raised (ten Prussian and two Saxon). In May 1915, the German Army began joining the "Jäger" battalions to form "Jäger" regiments, and in late 1917, the "Deutsche Jäger-Division" was formed.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: During the early stages of World War I, the German "Jäger" maintained their traditional role as skirmishers and scouts, often in conjunction with cavalry units. With the advent of trench warfare, they were committed to an ordinary infantry role, integrated into divisions and lost their status as independent units. Cyclist "Jäger" served in the Balkan and Russian theatres of war, while Württemberg and Bavaria raised Ski-"Jäger" during the winter of 1914–15. Another specialist formation was the "Jäger" Storm Companies, serving as trench raiders during 1917–1918.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In 1897, existing dispatch rider units within the Prussian Army were converted to "Detachments Jäger' zu Pferde". Further mounted "Jäger" squadrons were subsequently raised, including short-lived Bavarian and Saxon detachments. After 1901, the original dispatch carrying role of the mounted "Jäger" were discontinued. Five newly raised squadrons were brought together to form a combined Mounted "Jäger" Regiment the same year. The experiment proved a successful one and between 1905 and 1913 a further 13 mounted "Jäger" regiments were created.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The Austro-Hungarian Army in 1914 included four regiments of "Tiroler Kaiserjäger", descended from a unit first raised in 1801. There were also 29 battalions of "Feldjäger" recruited from different regions across the Empire (including 7 Hungarian, 5 Bohemian and 4 Galician battalions) and one Bosnian-Herzegovinian "Feldjäger" Battalion ("Bosnisch-hercegovinisches Feldjägerbataillon"). All wore pike grey uniforms faced in green, with a form of bowler hat carrying a distinctive plume of dark green feathers. The exception was the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Feldjäger Battalion which wore the fez. Later, an additional three Feldjäger battalions and seven Bosnian-Herzegovinian Feldjäger Battalions were formed.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: After the First World War, the "Jäger" units of the Imperial German Army were disbanded, but their traditions were carried by infantry regiments of the 100,000-man Reichswehr of the Weimar Republic. After the Nazis came to power in 1933 and the rearmament of Germany began, the new Wehrmacht revived the name "Jäger" for various types of units:


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: "Jäger" (short: Jg; English: hunter) is the lowest soldier rank of enlisted men of the modern day's German Bundeswehr for soldiers belonging to the light infantry, paratroopers and mountain troops. It is grouped as OR1) in NATO, and might be comparable to Private (rank) in the United States Army as well as British Army, or to other Anglophone armed forces.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Reflecting military tradition, in German speaking armed forces there are a number of OR1-rank descriptions – including "Jäger" – used as the lowest rank of an individual soldier. These may vary according to the service branch (Heer, Luftwaffe, Bundeswehr, medical service etc.). Other examples are Grenadier for mechanized infantrymen and "Kanonier" for artillerymen.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The German "Bundeswehr" rejected the term "Feldgendarmerie" and instead kept the term "Feldjäger" for its military police units. To emphasize the traditional connection with the Prussian "Reitendes Feldjägerkorps", rather than the "Wehrmacht" military police units, the "Feldjäger" of the "Bundeswehr" wear a red beret with star badge (the "Gardestern") of the Order of the Black Eagle, Prussia's highest chivalric order. The "Reitendes Feldjägerkorps" had been granted the right to wear the "Gardestern" in 1847.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In addition, at certain periods, light infantry units of the "Bundeswehr" were designated as "Jäger", and wore a green beret with a beret badge patterned after the "Jäger" sleeve patch of the "Wehrmacht" "Jäger" units. Each battalion of "Jäger", "Fallschirmjäger" and "Gebirgsjäger", has a "heavy company" of Wiesel weapon-carriers equipped with 20 mm cannon, TOW launchers or 120 mm mortars.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: With a former restructuring of the German Army, only one new air-mobile regiment, "Jägerregiment" 1 (JgRgt 1), two battalions, "Jägerbataillon" 291 (JgBtl 291) and "Jägerbataillon" 292 (JgBtl 292) (both battalions are part of the Franco-German Brigade) and two other new bataillons of the mechanised brigades are the only regular "Jäger" retained. On the other hand, "Fallschirmjäger" has become the most important infantry type, due to its versatility and the nature of modern-day peacekeeping missions abroad.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: With the last restructuring of the German Army, Jägerregiment 1 was reduced to Jägerbataillon 1 (JgBtl 1), not air-mobile any longer. Two new battalions were established: Jägerbataillon 91 and Jägerbataillon 413.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In the Austrian "Bundesheer", ″"Jäger"″ is the official military technical term for infantry units (contrary to mechanized infantry being designated as "Panzergrenadiers" similar to corresponding German "Bundeswehr" and Swiss Armed Forces units). In addition, the Austrian Army's Special Forces unit which was established in 1963 is called ″"Jagdkommando"″.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In present-day Lithuania the Vytautas the Great Jäger Battalion ("Lithianian: Vytauto Didžiojo jėgerių batalionas") forms part of the Lithuanian Special Operations Force.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: "Jääkäri" / "jägare" (Finnish / Swedish word for ""Jäger"") is the lowest rank (Private) in peacetime infantry formations (in wartime Finnish Army all Jägers serve in the operative forces while 'regular' infantry typically consisting of older reservists is split between regional and local forces) of the Finnish Army and in the Marines of the Uusimaa Brigade (part of the Finnish Navy). In the Finnish Border Guards, the private rank is called "rajajääkäri" ("Border Jäger").


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The rank pays homage to the role of the World War I era "Jäger" Movement in securing Finnish Independence.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Besides riflemen, specialists such as drivers, medics, military police and mortar squad members in the above-mentioned infantry formations usually hold the rank of "Jäger" (the rank-and-file mortar crew members in regional and local forces hold the rank of Private as mortar crews are seen as part of infantry rather than artillery, they also use the green background of infantry/jägers on their unit insignia while the forward observers directing their fire, though also viewed as part of infantry, use the red of artillery). In units other than infantry, equivalent ranks such as "tykkimies" ("Gunner") or "viestimies" ("Signalist") are used (see Finnish military ranks). Additionally, in all other Navy units except the Uusimaa Brigade, the private rank is "matruusi" ("Sailor").


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The old infantry rank of "sotamies" ("private", lit. "soldier") is no longer used in peacetime training units, but remains reserved for war-time regular infantry usage as opposed to "Jääkäri" used by light and/or specialized infantry.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: The word Jäger is also used to indicate a) in general the best trained & equipped combat arms troops of the Defence Forces and b) specifically for the following troops.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In addition to the above, some non-infantry units (such as "Jääkäritykistörykmentti" (JTR), "Jäger Artillery Regiment", formerly "Jääkäripatteristo" (JPsto), "Jäger Artillery Battalion" & the defunct "Hämeen Ratsujääkäripataljoona" (HämRjP), "Häme Mounted Jäger Battalion"-) use the word Jäger in their name to show direct lineage to the original Jäger Movement.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: "Jeger" is the general term indicating highly trained soldiers and operators capable of conducting military ISTAR (Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, Reconnaissance) operations independently behind enemy lines. There are several units using the "jeger" term, both conventional forces and special operation forces.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Within the Norwegian Armed Forces there are two special operations forces with the jeger name. The commando name refers to the Norwegian specialised forces from World War 2 like Norwegian Independent Company 1.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In the Norwegian Armed Forces, there are several jeger units of troop and company size, who fill the criteria as special operations, but are not designated as such by the Norwegian military. These units are a mix composed of professional soldiers and conscripts. The units also consists of JTAC operators.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Examples of the latter include the airborne rangers of Life Regiment Hussars (same regiment as "Fallskärmsjägarna"), the Swedish Air Force's outer-perimeter patrols "Flygbasjägarna" (lit. "airbase rangers") and the Military Police units for urban warfare from the Life Guards.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: Historically, the first units to be named "jägare" were infantry and cavalry units stationed in the sparsely populated border province of Jämtland: Jämtlands hästjägarkår in 1834 and Jämtlands fältjägarkår from 1853.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: After World War II, the Army Ranger School, later Lapplands jägarregemente, was formed in Kiruna. In the following years, the then cavalry regiments mainly developed into either ranger regiments (K 3 and K 4) or into tank regiments.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: After the Napoleonic period, the Jager Battalions were incorporated into the line infantry and disappeared as such (except for the Colonial Jager units destined for the West Indies). Their role was taken over by the flank companies of each battalion, one of every four battalions in an 'Afdeeling' or Regiment was designated a Flank Battalion (Light Infantry).


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In 1829, a new Royal Guard was raised, which included a Grenadier Regiment and a Jager Battalion. These were immediately sent into action during the Belgian Secession (1830–1832). During that war, voluntary units like Van Dams' Jagers and several Voluntary Student Companies, were dressed and equipped as Jagers, including a mounted Jager detachment; after the war, these voluntary units were disbanded.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In 1995, after a long history as separate units, the Guard Grenadiers and Jagers were united into the Grenadiers' and Rifles Guard Regiment.


title: Jäger (infantry)

text: In 1950, several Infantry Regiments were disbanded; their traditions were transferred to a new regiment, which was located and closely tied to Limburg Province. Since it took over the traditions of the Jager Contingent of the German Confederation, which was provided by Limburg Province, the Regiment was called the Limburgse Jagers and adopted the French horn in their emblem. Currently the active troops of this infantry regiment are located in Oirschot, just outside their home province in North Brabant, but close ties to the province remain.


title: Anseriformes

text: Anseriformes is an order of birds also known as waterfowl that comprises about 180 living species of birds in three families: Anhimidae (three species of screamers), Anseranatidae (the magpie goose), and Anatidae, the largest family, which includes over 170 species of waterfowl, among them the ducks, geese, and swans. Most modern species in the order are highly adapted for an aquatic existence at the water surface. With the exception of screamers, males have penises, a trait that has been lost in the Neoaves. Due to their aquatic nature, most species are web-footed.


title: Anseriformes

text: Anseriformes are one of only two types of modern bird to be confirmed present during the Mesozoic alongside the other dinosaurs, and in fact were among the very few birds to survive their extinction, along with their cousins the galliformes. These two groups only occupied two ecological niches during the Mesozoic, living in water and on the ground, while the toothed enantiornithes were the dominant birds that ruled the trees and air. The asteroid that ended the Mesozoic destroyed all trees as well as animals in the open, a condition that took centuries to recover from. The anseriformes and galliformes are thought to have survived in the cover of burrows and water, and not to have needed trees for food and reproduction.


title: Anseriformes

text: The earliest Cretaceous anseriform found so far is "Vegavis", a goose-like waterfowl thought to have lived as long as 66 million years ago. Some members apparently surviving the KT extinction event, including presbyornithids, thought to be the common ancestors of ducks, geese, swans, and screamers, the last group once thought to be galliformes, but now genetically confirmed to be closely related to geese. The first known duck fossils start to appear about 34 million years ago.


title: Anseriformes

text: Waterfowl are the best-known examples of sexually antagonistic genital coevolution in vertebrates, causing genital adaptations to coevolve in each sex to advance control over mating and fertilization. Sexually antagonistic coevolution (or SAC) occurs as a consequence of sexual conflict between males and females, resulting in coevolutionary process that reduce fit, or that functions to decrease ease of having sex.


title: Anseriformes

text: The Anseriformes and the Galliformes (pheasants, etc.) belong to a common group, the Galloanserae. They are the most primitive neognathous birds, and as such they should follow the palaeognathae (ratites and tinamous) in bird classification systems. Several unusual extinct families of birds like the albatross-like pseudotooth birds and the giant flightless gastornithids and mihirungs have been found to be stem-anseriforms based on common features found in the skull region, beak physiology and pelvic region. The genus "Vegavis" for a while was found to be the earliest member of the anseriform crown group but a recent 2017 paper has found it to be just outside the crown group in the family Vegaviidae.


title: Anseriformes

text: Anatidae systematics, especially regarding placement of some "odd" genera in the dabbling ducks or shelducks, is not fully resolved. See the Anatidae article for more information, and for alternate taxonomic approaches. Anatidae is traditionally divided into subfamilies Anatinae and Anserinae. The Anatinae consists of tribes Anatini, Aythyini, Mergini and Tadornini. The higher-order classification below follows a phylogenetic analysis performed by Mikko's Phylogeny Archive and John Boyd's website.


title: Anseriformes

text: In addition, a considerable number of mainly Late Cretaceous and Paleogene fossils have been described where it is uncertain whether or not they are anseriforms. This is because almost all orders of aquatic birds living today either originated or underwent a major radiation during that time, making it hard to decide whether some waterbird-like bone belongs into this family or is the product of parallel evolution in a different lineage due to adaptive pressures.


title: Anseriformes

text: Studies of the mitochondrial DNA suggest the existence of four branches – Anseranatidae, Dendrocygninae, Anserinae and Anatinae – with Dendrocygninae being a subfamily within the family Anatidae and Anseranatidae representing an


title: Frances Haugen

text: Frances Haugen (born 1983 or 1984) is an American data engineer and scientist, product manager, and whistleblower. She disclosed tens of thousands of Facebook's internal documents to the Securities and Exchange Commission and "The Wall Street Journal" in 2021.


title: Frances Haugen

text: Haugen was raised in Iowa City, Iowa, where she attended Horn Elementary and Northwest Junior High School, and graduated from Iowa City West High School in 2002. Her father was a doctor, and her mother became an Episcopalian priest after an academic career.


title: Frances Haugen

text: Haugen studied electrical and computer engineering in the founding class at the Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering and graduated in 2006. She later earned a Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School in 2011.


title: Frances Haugen

text: In 2006, after graduating from college, Haugen was hired by Google, and worked on Google Ads, Google Book Search, a class action litigation settlement related to Google publishing book content, as well as Google+. At Google, Haugen co-authored a patent for a method of adjusting the ranking of search results. During her career at Google, she completed her MBA, which was paid for by Google. While at Google, she was a technical co-founder of the desktop dating app Secret Agent Cupid, precursor to the mobile app Hinge.


title: Frances Haugen

text: In 2015, she began work as a data product manager at Yelp to improve search using image recognition, and after a year, moved to Pinterest.


title: Frances Haugen

text: In 2019, Haugen joined Facebook, because someone close to her was radicalized online and she "felt compelled to take an active role in creating a better, less toxic Facebook". When Facebook recruited her, she expressed interest in a role related to misinformation, and in 2019, she became a product manager in the Facebook civic integrity team. Following the 2020 American election Facebook dissolved its civic integrity team, and Haugen became disillusioned. While at Facebook, she decided it was important to become a whistleblower due to what she has since described as a pattern of Facebook prioritizing profit over public safety, and left her position at Facebook in May 2021. In the spring of 2021, she contacted John Tye, a founder of the nonprofit law firm Whistleblower Aid, for help, and Tye agreed to represent her and to help protect her anonymity. In the late summer of 2021, she began meeting with members of the United States Congress, including Senator Richard Blumenthal and Senator Marsha Blackburn.


title: Frances Haugen

text: Beginning in September 2021, "The Wall Street Journal" published "The Facebook Files: A Wall Street Journal Investigation", a series of news reports "based on a review of internal Facebook documents, including research reports, online employee discussions and drafts of presentations to senior management." The investigation is a multi-part series, with nine reports including an examination of exemptions for high-profile users, impacts on youth, the impacts of its 2018 algorithm changes, weaknesses in the response to human trafficking and drug cartels, vaccine misinformation, and a later article about Haugen, who gathered the documents that supported the investigative reports. After the articles about Facebook were published, the United States Senate Commerce Committee's Sub-Committee on Consumer Protection, Product Safety, and Data Security scheduled two hearings, beginning with Antigone Davis, the global head of safety for Facebook, on September 30, 2021, and the then-anonymous whistleblower on October 5, 2021.


title: Frances Haugen

text: Haugen disclosed her identity as the whistleblower when she appeared on "60 Minutes" on October 3, 2021. During the interview, Haugen discussed the Facebook program known as Civic Integrity, which was intended to curb misinformation and other threats to election security. The program was dissolved after the 2020 election, which Haugen said "really feels like a betrayal of democracy to me," and which she believed contributed to the 2021 United States Capitol attack. Haugen stated: "The thing I saw at Facebook over and over again was there were conflicts of interest between what was good for the public and what was good for Facebook. And Facebook, over and over again, chose to optimize for its own interests, like making more money."


title: Frances Haugen

text: Haugen shared documents with members of the U.S. Congress and offices of attorneys general, but not the Federal Trade Commission. Facebook's market capitalization dropped by $6 billion within 24 hours of Haugen's "60 Minutes" interview on October 3, 2021, and after the unrelated Facebook outage on October 4, 2021. Based on the leaked documents, Kevin Roose, writing for "The New York Times", suggested Facebook may be weaker than it appears.


title: Frances Haugen

text: After Haugen publicly disclosed her identity, Pierre Omidyar began to provide support to Haugen, including press and government relations in Europe through his philanthropic organization Luminate Group.


title: Frances Haugen

text: At least eight complaints have been filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) by Haugen's attorneys, covering topics reported by "The Wall Street Journal" and including how Facebook handles political misinformation, hate speech, teenage mental health, human trafficking, the promotion of ethnic violence, preferential treatment for certain users, and its communications with investors. In a SEC whistleblower complaint, Haugen alleged Facebook misled investors because they misrepresented the progress they had made in tackling hate, violence and misinformation on the platform. The documents provided by Haugen to the SEC are also related to Facebook management of election-related misinformation in the United States after the November 2020 election.


title: Frances Haugen

text: Haugen's complaint includes internal Facebook documents related to Facebook management of misinformation and hate speech in India. The complaint states many users and pages associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) promoted fear-mongering and anti-Muslim narratives with an intent to incite violence. She alleges Facebook is well aware of the incendiary anti-Muslim narratives promoted in India. She also said the lack of Hindi and Bengali classifiers meant action on problematic posts was often neglected.


title: Frances Haugen

text: Public statements by Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg are referenced in the SEC complaints filed by Haugen, along with her allegation that Zuckerberg is ultimately responsible due to his control of Facebook. Various public statements by Zuckerberg, including his 2020 testimony before the U.S. Congress, appear to be inconsistent with internal Facebook documents submitted by Haugen. In February 2022, Whistleblower Aid filed two complaints on behalf of Haugen with the SEC, alleging "material misrepresentations and omissions in statements to investors" by Facebook related to its efforts to address climate change misinformation and COVID misinformation, based on internal Facebook documents.


title: Frances Haugen

text: On October 5, 2021, Haugen testified before the United States Senate Commerce Committee's Sub-Committee on Consumer Protection, Product Safety, and Data Security. A written version of her opening statement to the U.S. Senate subcommittee was published on October 4, 2021. Haugen stated during the hearing, "The company's leadership knows how to make Facebook and Instagram safer, but won't make the necessary changes because they have put their astronomical profits before people. Congressional action is needed. They won’t solve this crisis without your help." Haugen further discussed Myanmar and Ethiopia, stating Facebook is "literally fanning ethnic violence" when engagement-based ranking is deployed without integrity and security systems. Haugen also indicated she is in communication with another U.S. congressional committee about issues related to espionage and disinformation, and a reason she has not shared documents with the Federal Trade Commission is because she believes Facebook systems will "continue to be dangerous even if they're broken up." After the hearing, Senator Richard Blumenthal, chair of the Commerce subcommittee, said Haugen "wants to fix Facebook, not burn it to the ground."


title: Frances Haugen

text: After Haugen's testimony, the response from Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg that day included "Many of the claims don't make any sense. I think most of us just don’t recognize the false picture of the company that is being painted", and "We're committed to doing the best work we can, but at some level the right body to assess trade-offs between social equities is our democratically elected Congress." A post-hearing statement from Lena Pietsch, Facebook's director of policy communications, included, "We agree on one thing. It's time to begin to create standard rules for the internet." Senator Blumenthal indicated he wants Zuckerberg to testify before Congress about the documents produced by Haugen, and that the subcommittee may issue a subpoena to Facebook for more records.


title: Frances Haugen

text: Documents disclosed by Haugen have been shared with state attorneys general offices in California, Massachusetts, Vermont, Nebraska and Tennessee. On October 13, 2021, in response to disclosures made by Haugen to "The Wall Street Journal", more than a dozen U.S. state attorneys general sent a letter to Facebook requesting information about the Facebook "XCheck system" that protects high-profile users and Facebook action against COVID-19 vaccine misinformation.


title: Frances Haugen

text: On November 12, 2021, Ohio Attorney General Dave Yost filed a lawsuit against Meta Platforms (formerly known as Facebook) on behalf of investors, alleging repeated false representations by executives, including chief executive Mark Zuckerberg, CFO David Wehner, and global affairs and communications executive Nick Clegg, about the safety of the platform, based on documents leaked by Haugen and documents collectively known as "The Facebook Papers". The lawsuit seeks over $100 billion in damages and for the company to implement reforms.


title: Frances Haugen

text: On November 18, 2021, a bipartisan group of state attorneys general announced a consumer protection investigation of Meta based on documents shared by Haugen. The investigation includes a focus on Instagram, how Meta promotes engagement, and possible harms to children and teenagers.


title: Frances Haugen

text: On October 6, 2021, Haugen's attorney John Tye said the legal team and Haugen are in communication with the Federal Trade Commission, as well as the European Parliament and the French Parliament. The United States Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs and the United States House Select Committee to Investigate the January 6th Attack on the United States Capitol have confirmed plans to meet with Haugen.


title: Frances Haugen

text: On October 11, 2021, Facebook's Oversight Board, an external review panel which rules on select content moderation decisions of the company, announced that it would be speaking with Haugen about her experiences with the company and its practices. On October 21, 2021, Haugen met with the U.S. House Judiciary antitrust subcommittee chair David Cicilline and ranking member Ken Buck.


title: Frances Haugen

text: On October 25, 2021, Haugen testified before the Parliament of the United Kingdom. During her testimony, she advocated for government regulation of Facebook, and for Facebook to make changes.


title: Frances Haugen

text: On November 8, 2021, she appeared before the European Parliament in a hearing organized by the Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection. In a nearly three-hour hearing, she urged the Parliament debating the Digital Services Act to mandate social media platforms to operate transparently and not to create loopholes that Big Tech could exploit. Haugen said the DSA has "the potential to be a global gold standard" and an inspiration for other countries on safeguarding democracy on social media. She emphasized how linguistically diverse Europe could force the platforms to take a systemic approach to safety, rather than focus only on content moderation and on major languages.


title: Frances Haugen

text: On May 18, 2022, after the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union had reached a political agreement on the Digital Services Act, Haugen reappeared before the Parliament. She congratulated the EU lawmakers for the result and called for the European Commission and the member states to put a lot of effort into enforcing the DSA, so that it will not be "a dead letter".


title: Frances Haugen

text: In June 2022, Politico reported that Haugen plans to establish a non-profit organization called "Beyond the Screen" to enhance awareness of the harms of social media. The new organization will focus on litigation and investor-based strategies in order to provide legal and economic incentives for mitigating harms.


title: Frances Haugen

text: In October 2022, Haugen joined the Council for Responsible Social Media project launched by Issue One to address the negative mental, civic, and public health impacts of social media in the United States co-chaired by former House Democratic Caucus Leader Dick Gephardt and former Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Kerry Healey.