title: Brandon Boston Jr.

text: Boston originally attended Norcross High School in Norcross, Georgia before transferring to Sierra Canyon School in the Los Angeles neighborhood of Chatsworth in 2019. He played alongside LeBron James' son Bronny James and Dwyane Wade's son Zaire Wade. In his final season at Norcross, he averaged 18.4 points and 5.4 rebounds per game.


title: Brandon Boston Jr.

text: He was selected to play in the 2020 McDonald's All-American Boys Game. He was also selected to play in the 2020 Jordan Brand Classic.


title: Brandon Boston Jr.

text: In his college debut on November 25, 2020, Boston posted 15 points and seven rebounds in an 81–45 win over Morehead State. He scored 21 points in the season finale win against South Carolina. As a freshman, he averaged 11.5 points and 4.5 rebounds per game. On March 20, 2021, Boston declared for the 2021 NBA draft, forgoing his remaining college eligibility.


title: Brandon Boston Jr.

text: Boston was selected in the second round of the 2021 NBA draft with the 51st pick by the Memphis Grizzlies, then traded to the Los Angeles Clippers via the New Orleans Pelicans.


title: Brandon Boston Jr.

text: Boston was assigned to the Clippers' NBA G League affiliate, the Agua Caliente Clippers, for their G League season opener.


title: Brandon Boston Jr.

text: After a workout with Kentucky teammate Terrence Clarke on April 22, 2021, Clarke was involved in a car crash in Los Angeles, California. Clarke, driving by himself, was killed while Boston, in the car behind of Clarke, witnessed the crash with his father and Clarke's mother .


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Timaeus (; , ) is one of Plato's dialogues, mostly in the form of long monologues given by Critias and Timaeus, written 360 BC. The work puts forward reasoning on the possible nature of the physical world and human beings and is followed by the dialogue "Critias".


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Participants in the dialogue include Socrates, Timaeus, Hermocrates, and Critias. Some scholars believe that it is not the Critias of the Thirty Tyrants who appears in this dialogue, but his grandfather, who is also named Critias. It has been suggested from some traditions (Diogenes Laertius (VIII 85) from Hermippus of Smyrna (3rd century BC) and Timon of Phlius ( 320 – 235 BC)) that "Timaeus" was influenced by a book about Pythagoras, written by Philolaus, although this assertion is generally considered false.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The dialogue takes place the day after Socrates described his ideal state. In Plato's works, such a discussion occurs in the "Republic". Socrates feels that his description of the ideal state wasn't sufficient for the purposes of entertainment and that "I would be glad to hear some account of it engaging in transactions with other states" (19b).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Hermocrates wishes to oblige Socrates and mentions that Critias knows just the account (20b) to do so. Critias proceeds to tell the story of Solon's journey to Egypt where he hears the story of Atlantis, and how Athens used to be an ideal state that subsequently waged war against Atlantis (25a). Critias believes that he is getting ahead of himself, and mentions that Timaeus will tell part of the account from the origin of the universe to man.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Critias also cites the Egyptian priest in Sais about long-term factors on the fate of mankind:There have been, and will be again, many destructions of mankind arising out of many causes; the greatest have been brought about by the agencies of fire and water, and other lesser ones by innumerable other causes. There is a story that even you [Greeks] have preserved, that once upon a time, Phaethon, the son of Helios, having yoked the steeds in his father's chariot, because he was not able to drive them in the path of his father, burnt up all that was upon the earth, and was himself destroyed by a thunderbolt. Now this has the form of a myth, but really signifies a declination of the bodies moving in the heavens around the earth, and a great conflagration of things upon the earth, which recurs after long intervals.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The history of Atlantis is postponed to "Critias". The main content of the dialogue, the exposition by Timaeus, follows.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Timaeus begins with a distinction between the physical world, and the eternal world. The physical one is the world which changes and perishes: therefore it is the object of opinion and unreasoned sensation. The eternal one never changes: therefore it is apprehended by reason (28a).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The speeches about the two worlds are conditioned by the different nature of their objects. Indeed, "a description of what is changeless, fixed and clearly intelligible will be changeless and fixed," (29b), while a description of what changes and is likely, will also change and be just likely. "As being is to becoming, so is truth to belief" (29c). Therefore, in a description of the physical world, one "should not look for anything more than a likely story" (29d).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Timaeus suggests that since nothing "becomes or changes" without cause, then the cause of the universe must be a demiurge or a god, a figure Timaeus refers to as the father and maker of the universe. And since the universe is fair, the demiurge must have looked to the eternal model to make it, and not to the perishable one (29a). Hence, using the eternal and perfect world of "forms" or ideals as a template, he set about creating our world, which formerly only existed in a state of disorder.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Timaeus continues with an explanation of the creation of the universe, which he ascribes to the handiwork of a divine craftsman. The demiurge, being good, wanted there to be as much good as was the world. The demiurge is said to bring order out of substance by imitating an unchanging and eternal model (paradigm). The "ananke", often translated as 'necessity', was the only other co-existent element or presence in Plato's cosmogony. Later Platonists clarified that the eternal model existed in the mind of the demiurge.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Timaeus describes the substance as a lack of homogeneity or balance, in which the four elements (earth, air, fire and water) were shapeless, mixed and in constant motion. Considering that order is favourable over disorder, the essential act of the creator was to bring order and clarity to this substance. Therefore, all the properties of the world are to be explained by the demiurge's choice of what is fair and good; or, the idea of a dichotomy between good and evil.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: First of all, the world is a "living creature". Since the unintelligent creatures are in their appearance less fair than intelligent creatures, and since intelligence needs to be settled in a soul, the demiurge "put intelligence in soul, and soul in body" in order to make a living and intelligent whole. "Wherefore, using the language of probability, we may say that the world became a living creature truly endowed with soul and intelligence by the providence of God" (30a-b).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Then, since the part is imperfect compared to the whole, the world had to be one and only. Therefore, the demiurge did not create several worlds, but a single unique world (31b). Additionally, because the demiurge wanted his creation to be a perfect imitation of the Eternal "One" (the source of all other emanations), there was no need to create more than one world.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The creator decided also to make the perceptible body of the universe by four elements, in order to render it "proportioned". Indeed, in addition to fire and earth, which make bodies visible and solid, a third element was required as a mean: "two things cannot be rightly put together without a third; there must be some bond of union between them". Moreover, since the world is not a surface but a solid, a fourth mean was needed to reach harmony: therefore, the creator placed water and air between fire and earth. "And for these reasons, and out of such elements which are in number four, the body of the world was created, and it was harmonised by proportion" (31-33).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: As for the figure, the demiurge created the world in the geometric form of a "globe". Indeed, the round figure is the most perfect one, because it comprehends or averages all the other figures and it is the most omnimorphic of all figures: "he [the demiurge] considered that the like is infinitely fairer than the unlike" (33b).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The creator assigned then to the world a rotatory or "circular movement", which is the "most appropriate to mind and intelligence" on account of its being the most uniform (34a).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Finally, he created the soul of the world, placed that soul in the center of the world's body and diffused it in every direction. Having thus been created as a perfect, self-sufficient and intelligent being, the world is a "god" (34b).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Timaeus then explains how the soul of the world was created (Plato's following discussion is obscure, and almost certainly intended to be read in light of the "Sophist"). The demiurge combined three elements: two varieties of "Sameness" (one indivisible and another divisible), two varieties of "Difference" (again, one indivisible and another divisible), and two types of "Being" (or "Existence," once more, one indivisible and another divisible). From this emerged three compound substances, intermediate (or mixed) Being, intermediate Sameness, and intermediate Difference. From this compound one final substance resulted, the world-soul. He then divided following precise mathematical proportions, cutting the compound lengthways, fixed the resulting two bands in their middle, like in the letter Χ (chi), and connected them at their ends, to have two crossing circles. The demiurge imparted on them a circular movement on their axis: the outer circle was assigned Sameness and turned horizontally to the right, while the inner circle was assigned to Difference and turned diagonally and to the left (34c-36c).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The demiurge gave the primacy to the motion of Sameness and left it undivided; but he divided the motion of Difference in six parts, to have seven unequal circles. He prescribed these circles to move in opposite directions, three of them with equal speeds, the others with unequal speeds, but always in proportion. These circles are the orbits of the heavenly bodies: the three moving at equal speeds are the Sun, Venus and Mercury, while the four moving at unequal speeds are the Moon, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn (36c-d). The complicated pattern of these movements is bound to be repeated again after a period called a 'complete' or 'perfect' year (39d).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Then, the demiurge connected the body and the soul of the universe: he diffused the soul from the center of the body to its extremities in every direction, allowing the invisible soul to envelop the visible body. The soul began to rotate and this was the beginning of its eternal and rational life (36e).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Therefore, having been composed by Sameness, Difference and Existence (their mean), and formed in right proportions, the soul declares the sameness or difference of every object it meets: when it is a sensible object, the inner circle of the Diverse transmit its movement to the soul, where opinions arise, but when it is an intellectual object, the circle of the Same turns perfectly round and true knowledge arises (37a-c).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Timaeus claims that the minute particle of each element had a special geometric shape: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth).


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Timaeus makes conjectures on the composition of the four elements which some ancient Greeks thought constituted the physical universe: earth, water, air, and fire. Timaeus links each of these elements to a certain Platonic solid: the element of earth would be a cube, of air an octahedron, of water an icosahedron, and of fire a tetrahedron. Each of these perfect polyhedra would be in turn composed of triangular faces the 30-60-90 and the 45-45-90 triangles. The faces of each element could be broken down into its component right-angled triangles, either isosceles or scalene, which could then be put together to form all of physical matter. Particular characteristics of matter, such as water's capacity to extinguish fire, was then related to shape and size of the constituent triangles. The fifth element (i.e. Platonic solid) was the dodecahedron, whose faces are not triangular, and which was taken to represent the shape of the Universe as a whole, possibly because of all the elements it most approximates a sphere, which Timaeus has already noted was the shape into which God had formed the Universe.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The extensive final part of the dialogue addresses the creation of humans, including the soul, anatomy, perception, and transmigration of the soul. Plato also discusses the creation of the body, as well as the causes of bodily and psychic diseases.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The "Timaeus" was translated into Latin first by Marcus Tullius Cicero around 45 BC (sections 27d–47b), and later by Calcidius in the 4th century AD (up to section 53c). Cicero's fragmentary translation was highly influential in late antiquity, especially on Latin-speaking Church Fathers such as Saint Augustine who did not appear to have access to the original Greek dialogue. The manuscript production and preservation of Cicero's "Timaeus" (among many other Latin philosophical works) is largely due to the works of monastic scholars, especially at Corbie in North-East France during the Carolingian Period.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: Calcidius' more extensive translation of the "Timaeus" had a strong influence on medieval Neoplatonic cosmology and was commented on particularly by 12th century Christian philosophers of the Chartres School, such as Thierry of Chartres and William of Conches, who, interpreting it in the light of the Christian faith, understood the dialogue to refer to a creatio ex nihilo. Calcidius himself never explicitly linked the Platonic creation myth in the "Timaeus" with the Old Testament creation story in Genesis in his commentary on the dialogue.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: The dialogue was also highly influential in Arabic-speaking regions beginning in the 10th century AD The "Catalogue" (fihrist) of Ibn al-Nadīm provides some evidence for an early translation by Ibn al-Bitriq (Al-Kindī’s circle). It is believed that the Syrian Nestorian Christian Ңunayn ibn Ishāq (809–873 AD) corrected this translation or translated the entire work himself. However, only the circulation of many exegeses of "Timaeus" is confirmed. There is also evidence of Galen's commentary on the dialogue being highly influential in the Arabic-speaking world, with Galen's "Synopsis" being preserved in a medieval Arabic translation.


title: Timaeus (dialogue)

text: In his introduction to Plato's "Dialogues", 19th-century translator Benjamin Jowett argues that "Of all the writings of Plato, the Timaeus is the most obscure and repulsive to the modern reader."


title: Drink can

text: A drink can (or beverage can) is a metal container designed to hold a fixed portion of liquid such as carbonated soft drinks, alcoholic drinks, fruit juices, teas, herbal teas, energy drinks, etc. Drink cans are made of aluminum (75% of worldwide production) or tin-plated steel (25% worldwide production). Worldwide production for all drink cans is approximately 370 billion cans per year.


title: Drink can

text: The first commercial beer available in cans began in 1935 in Richmond, Virginia. Not long after that, sodas, with their higher acidity and somewhat higher pressures, were available in cans. The key development for storing drinks in cans was the interior liner, typically plastic or sometimes a waxy substance, that helped to keep the product's flavor from being ruined by a chemical reaction with the metal. Another major factor for the timing was the repeal of Prohibition in the United States at the end of 1933.


title: Drink can

text: In 1935, the Felinfoel Brewery at Felinfoel in Wales was the first brewery outside the US to commercially can beer. Prior to this time, beer had been available only in barrels or in glass bottles. From this time, lightweight tin cans could be used. Felinfoel was a major supplier to British armed forces abroad in the Second World War. Cans saved a great deal of space and weight for wartime exports compared to glass bottles, and did not have to be returned for refilling. These early cans did not have a pull tab, being equipped instead with a crown cork (beer bottle top). All modern UK canned beer is descended from these small, early cans which helped change the drinking and beer-buying habits of the British public. From the 18th century until the early 20th century Wales dominated world tinplate production, peaking in the early 1890s when 80% of the world's tinplate was produced in south Wales.


title: Drink can

text: Canned drinks were factory-sealed and required a special opener tool in order to consume the contents. Cans were typically formed as cylinders, having a flat top and bottom. They required a can piercer, colloquially known as a "church key", that latched onto the top rim for leverage; lifting the handle would force the sharp tip through the top of the can, cutting a triangular hole. A smaller second hole was usually punched at the opposite side of the top to admit air while pouring, allowing the liquid to flow freely.


title: Drink can

text: In the mid-1930s, some cans were developed with caps so that they could be opened and poured more like a bottle. These were called "cone tops", as their tops had a conical taper up to the smaller diameter of the cap. Cone top cans were sealed by the same crimped caps that were put on bottles, and could be opened with the same bottle-opener tool. There were three types of conetops: "high profile", "low profile", and "j-spout". The low profile and j-spout were the earliest, dating from about 1935. The "crowntainer" was a different type of can that was drawn steel with a bottom cap. These were developed by Crown Cork & Seal (now known as Crown Holdings, Inc.), a leading drink packaging and drink can producer. Various breweries used crowntainers and conetops until the late 1950s, but many breweries kept using the simple cylindrical cans.


title: Drink can

text: The popularity of canned drinks was slow to catch on, as the metallic taste was difficult to overcome with the interior liner not perfected, especially with more acidic sodas. Cans had two advantages over glass bottles. First for the distributors, flat-top cans were more compact for transportation and storage and weighed less than bottles. Second for consumers, they did not require the deposit typically paid for bottles, as they were discarded after use. Glass-bottle deposits were reimbursed when consumers took the empties back to the store.


title: Drink can

text: By the time the United States entered World War II, cans had gained only about ten percent of the drink container market; this was drastically reduced during the war to accommodate strategic needs for metal.


title: Drink can

text: In 1959, the recyclable aluminum can was introduced to the market in a 7 oz. size by the Adolph Coors Company.


title: Drink can

text: In 2008, an aluminum version of the crowntainer design was adopted for packaging Coca-Cola's Caribou Coffee drink. In 2004, Anheuser-Busch adopted an aluminum bottle for use with Budweiser and Bud Light beers.


title: Drink can

text: In Australia the standard can size for alcoholic and soft drinks is 375 ml. Energy drinks are commonly served in 250 ml and 500 ml sizes.


title: Drink can

text: Can dimensions may be cited in metric or imperial units; imperial dimensions for can making are written as inches+sixteenths of an inch (e.g. "202" = 2 inches + 2 sixteenths).


title: Drink can

text: In Europe the standard can is 330 ml, but since the 1990s 250 ml has slowly become common, along with 500 ml. It's often used for beer, cider and energy drinks.


title: Drink can

text: In Hong Kong most cans are 330 ml – in the past they were usually 355 or 350 ml. 200 ml has also become available. Some beers and coffees are, respectively, sold with 500-ml and 250-ml cans.


title: Drink can

text: Indonesia introduced 320 ml cans for domestically produced beer in 2018. Carbonated soft drink cans are typically 330 ml.


title: Drink can

text: 250 ml cans are the most common for soft drinks, but when accompanying take-out food (such as pizza or chicken), a short 245-ml can is standard. Recently, some 355-ml cans which are similar to North American cans are increasingly available, but are limited mostly to Coca-Cola and Dr Pepper, and beer cans are available in 500 ml.


title: Drink can

text: In Malaysia, beer cans are 320 ml. For soft drinks in both Malaysia and Singapore, the most commonly found cans are 300 ml for non-carbonated drinks and 325 ml for carbonated drinks. Larger 330 ml/350 ml cans are limited to imported drinks which usually cost a lot more than local ones.


title: Drink can

text: In New Zealand the standard can size is 355 ml, although Coca-Cola Amatil changed some of its canned drinks to 330 ml in 2017.


title: Drink can

text: In North America, the standard can size is . The US standard can is high, in diameter at the lid, and in diameter at the widest point of the body. Also available are cans (known as tallboys or, referring to the weight, "pounders"), and .


title: Drink can

text: In Mexico, the standard size is 355 ml, although smaller 235 ml cans have gained popularity in the late 2010's and early 2020's.


title: Drink can

text: In Canada, the standard size was previously 12 Imperial fluid ounces (341 ml), later redefined and labelled as 341 ml in 1980. This size was commonly used with steel drink cans in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, the US standard 355 ml can size was standardized in the 1980s and 1990s upon the conversion from steel to aluminum. Some drinks, such as Nestea, are sold in 341 ml cans.


title: Drink can

text: In Quebec, a new standard for carbonated drinks has been added, as some grocery stores now only sell cans of all major carbonated drinks in six-packs of 222 ml cans. Many convenience stores also began selling "slim cans" with a 310ml capacity in 2015.


title: Drink can

text: South African standard cans are 330 ml (reduced in the early 2000s from the up-until-then ubiquitous 340 ml) and the promotional size is 440 ml. There is also the 500 ml can. A smaller 200 ml can is used for "mixers" such as tonic or soda water. It has a smaller diameter than the other cans. In September 2018, a 300 ml can was introduced as an alternative to the 330 ml can in a continued effort to reduce the amount of sugar consumed in soft drinks.


title: Drink can

text: Most metal drink cans manufactured in the United States are made of aluminum, whereas in some parts of Europe and Asia approximately 55 percent are made of steel and 45 percent are aluminum alloy. Steel cans often have a top made of aluminum. Beverage containers are made of two different aluminum alloys. The body is made of the 3004 alloy that can be drawn easily and the top is made of the harder 5182 alloy


title: Drink can

text: An empty aluminum can weighs approximately . There are 34 empty 12 ounce aluminum cans to a pound or 70 to a kilogram.


title: Drink can

text: In many parts of the world a deposit can be recovered by turning in empty plastic, glass, and aluminum containers. Scrap metal dealers often purchase aluminum cans in bulk, even when deposits are not offered. Aluminum is one of the most cost-effective materials to recycle. When recycled without other metals being mixed in, the can–lid combination is perfect for producing new stock for the main part of the can—the loss of magnesium during melting is made up for by the high magnesium content of the lid. Also, reducing ores such as bauxite into aluminum requires large amounts of electricity, making recycling cheaper than producing new metal.


title: Drink can

text: Aluminum cans are coated internally to protect the aluminum from oxidizing. Despite this coating, trace amounts of aluminum can be degraded into the liquid, the amount depending on factors such as storage temperature and liquid composition.<ref name="doi10.1016/S0308-81469700236-7"></ref><ref name="doi10.1016/S0048-96970101122-6"></ref> Chemical compounds used in the internal coating of the can include types of epoxy resin.


title: Drink can

text: Modern cans are generally produced through a mechanical cold forming process that starts with punching a flat blank from very stiff cold-rolled sheet. This sheet is typically alloy 3104-H19 or 3004-H19, which is aluminum with about 1% manganese and 1% magnesium to give it strength and formability. The flat blank is first formed into a cup about three inches in diameter. This cup is then pushed through a different forming process called "ironing" which forms the can. The bottom of the can is also shaped at this time. The malleable metal deforms into the shape of an open-top can. With the sophisticated technology of the dies and the forming machines, the side of the can is thinner than either the top and bottom areas, where stiffness is required.


title: Drink can

text: Plain lids (known as shells) are stamped from a coil of aluminum, typically alloy 5182-H48, and transferred to another press that converts them to easy-open ends. This press is known as a conversion press which forms an integral rivet button in the lid and scores the opening, while concurrently forming the tabs in another die from a separate strip of aluminum.


title: Drink can

text: Cans are filled before the top is crimped on by seamers. To speed up the production process filling and sealing operations need to be extremely precise. The filling head centers the can using gas pressure, purges the air, and lets the drink flow down the sides of the can. The lid is placed on the can, and then crimped in two operations. A seaming head engages the lid from above while a seaming roller to the side curls the edge of the lid around the edge of the can body. The head and roller spin the can in a complete circle to seal all the way around. Then a pressure roller with a different profile drives the two edges together under pressure to make a gas-tight seal. Filled cans usually have pressurized gas inside, which makes them stiff enough for easy handling. Without the riveted tab the scored section of the can's end would be impossible to lift from the can.


title: Drink can

text: Can filling lines come in different line speeds from 15,000 cans per hour (cph) up to 120,000 cph or more, all with different levels of automation. For example lid feeding alone starts with manual debagging onto a simple v-chute connected to the seamer up to fully automated processes with automatic debagging and lid feeding of lids combined with automatic roll depalletizers for filling debaggers by robots.


title: Drink can

text: Early metal drink cans had no tabs; they were opened by a can-piercer or churchkey, a device resembling a bottle opener with a sharp point. The can was opened by punching two triangular holes in the lid—a large one for drinking, and a second smaller one to admit air.


title: Drink can

text: As early as 1922, inventors were applying for patents on cans with tab tops, but the technology of the time made these inventions impractical. Later advancements saw the ends of the can made out of aluminum instead of steel.


title: Drink can

text: In 1959, Ermal Fraze devised a can-opening method that would come to dominate the canned drink market. His invention was the "pull-tab". This eliminated the need for a separate opener tool by attaching an aluminum pull-ring lever with a rivet to a pre-scored wedge-shaped tab section of the can top. The ring was riveted to the center of the top, which created an elongated opening large enough that one hole simultaneously served to let the drink flow out while air flowed in.


title: Drink can

text: Previously, while on a family picnic, Mr. Fraze had forgotten to bring a can opener and was forced to use a car bumper to open a can of beer. Thinking there must be an easier way, he stayed up all night until he came up with the pull tab. Pull-tab cans, or the discarded tabs from them, were colloquially called "pop-tops".


title: Drink can

text: Into the 1970s the pull-tab was widely popular, but its popularity came with the problem of people frequently simply discarding the pull-tabs on the ground, creating a potential injury risk especially to the feet or fingers.


title: Drink can

text: The problem of the discarded tops was addressed by the invention of the "push-tab". Used primarily on Coors Beer cans in the mid-1970s, the push-tab was a raised circular scored area used in place of the pull-tab. It needed no ring to pull up; instead, the raised aluminum blister was pushed down into the can using one finger. A small unscored section of the tab prevented it from detaching and falling into the can after being pushed in. Push-tabs never gained wide popularity because while they had solved the litter problem of the pull-tab, they created a safety hazard where the person's finger upon pushing the tab into the can was immediately exposed to the sharp edges of the opening. A feature of the push-tab Coors Beer cans was that they had a second, smaller, push-tab at the top as an airflow vent. "Push-tabs" were introduced into Australia from around 1977 and were locally known as "pop-tops", before being replaced later by the Stay-on-tab. The safety and litter problems were eventually solved later in the 1970s with Daniel F. Cudzik's invention of the non-removing "Stay-Tab". The pull-ring was replaced with an aluminum lever, and the removable tab was replaced with a pre-scored oval tab that functioned similarly to the push-tab, but the raised blister was no longer needed, as the riveted lever would now do the job of pushing the tab open and into the interior of the can.


title: Drink can

text: Cans are usually in sealed paperboard cartons, corrugated fiberboard boxes, or trays covered with plastic film. The entire distribution system and packaging need to be controlled to ensure freshness.


title: Drink can

text: Mikolaj Kondakow and James Wong of Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada invented the pull tab version for bottles in or before 1951 (Canadian patent 476789). In 1962, Ermal Cleon Fraze (1913–1989) of Dayton, Ohio, United States, invented the similar integral rivet and pull-tab version (also known as ring pull in British English), which had a ring attached at the rivet for pulling, and which would come off completely to be discarded. He received US Patent No. 3,349,949 for his pull-top can design in 1963 and licensed his invention to Alcoa and Pittsburgh Brewing Company, the latter of which first introduced the design on Iron City Beer cans. The first soft drinks to be sold in all-aluminum cans were R.C. Cola and Diet-Rite Cola, both made by the Royal Crown Cola company, in 1964.


title: Drink can

text: The early pull-tabs detached easily. In 1976, the "Journal of the American Medical Association" noted cases of children ingesting pull-tabs that had broken off and dropped into the can.


title: Drink can

text: Full-top pull-tabs were also used in some oil cans and are currently used in some soup, pet food, tennis ball, nuts, and other cans.


title: Drink can

text: In 1975, Daniel F. Cudzik, an engineer with Reynolds Metals, filed a design patent application for an "End closure for a container". This later became known as a "Sta-Tab". When the Sta-Tab launched in 1975, on Falls City beer and, quickly, other drinks, there was an initial period of consumer testing and education. Cudzik later received patents for this "Easy Open Wall" ( ). The validity of these patents was upheld in subsequent litigation.


title: Drink can

text: The similarly designed "Easy-open ecology end" was invented by Ermal Fraze and Omar Brown. Its patent application was also filed in 1975. This design, like Cudzik's, uses a separate tab attached to the upper surface as a lever to depress a scored part of the lid, which folds underneath the top of the can and out of the way of the resulting opening, thus reducing injuries and roadside litter caused by removable tabs.


title: Drink can

text: Such "retained ring-pull" cans supplanted pull-off tabs in the United Kingdom in 1989 for soft drinks and 1990 for alcoholic drinks.


title: Drink can

text: One of the more recent modifications to can design was the introduction of the "wide mouth" can in the late 1990s. The American Can Company, now a part of Rexam, and Coors Brewing Company have owned wide mouth design patent (number D385,192) since 1997. Other companies have similar designs for the wide mouth. Ball Corporation's from 2008 has a vent tube to allow direct airflow into the can reducing the amount of gulps during the pour.


title: Drink can

text: One variation was the press button can, which featured two pre-cut buttons—one small and one large—in the top of the can sealed with a plastic membrane. These buttons were held closed by the outward pressure of the carbonated drink. The consumer would open the can by depressing both buttons, which would result in two holes. The small hole would act as a vent to relieve internal pressure so the larger button could then be pressed down to create the hole used for consuming the drink. Consumers could also easily cut themselves on the edges of the holes or get their fingers stuck.


title: Drink can

text: Press button cans were used by Pepsi in Canada from the 1970s to 1980s and Coors in the 1970s. They have since been replaced with pull tabs. Used in Australia, locally known as "pop-tops", for soft drinks from 1977 to the early 1980s. However, Heineken Brewery did bring back press- or push button cans on the market in Europe as a short lived marketing strategy in the 1990s.


title: Drink can

text: Another variation on the drink can is the "full aperture end", where the entire lid can be removed – turning an aluminum can into a cup. Crown Holdings first designed the "360 End" for use by SABMiller at the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. It has been used by Anheuser-Busch InBev in China and Brazil and by the Sly Fox Brewing Company in the United States.


title: Drink can

text: Another variation on the drink can is to have a resealable lid. A version patented by Cogito Can in France has been used by Groupe Casino, the French grocery chain for its private label energy drink.


title: Drink can

text: The beverage can can be recycled and clean aluminum has residual market value, but recycled cans still need to be diluted by up to 50% virgin aluminum because the sides and tops of the can are of different alloys. The acronym UBC, for used beverage container, is employed by such companies as Apple, Inc for reference to the material of its portable laptop cases.


title: Drink can

text: Most large companies serve their beverages in printed cans, where designs are printed on the aluminum and then crafted into a can. Alternatively, cans can be wrapped with a plastic design, mimicking the printed can but allowing for more flexibility than printed cans. A modern-day trend in craft alcohol is to design stickers to put on cans, allowing for smaller batches and quick changes for new flavors.


title: Drink can

text: Beer can collecting was a minor fad in the late 1970s and 1990s. However, the hobby waned rapidly in popularity. The Beer Can Collectors of America (BCCA), founded in 1970, was an organization supporting the hobby, but has now renamed itself Brewery Collectibles Club of America to be more modern.


title: Drink can

text: As of late 2009, membership in the Brewery Collectibles Club of America was 3,570, down from a peak of 11,954 in 1978. Just 19 of the members were under the age of 30, and the members' average age had increased to 59.


title: Kshanam

text: Kshanam () is a 2016 Indian Telugu-language mystery thriller film directed by Ravikanth Perepu. The film features Adivi Sesh (who also served as a co-writer of the film) and Adah Sharma in lead roles while Anasuya Bharadwaj, Vennela Kishore, Satyam Rajesh, Satyadev Kancharana, and Ravi Varma in supporting roles with the music is by Sricharan Pakala and cinematography by Shaneil Deo. In the film, Rishi arrives in India where he begins to search for a missing child of his ex-girlfriend Shwetha.


title: Kshanam

text: The film was released on 26 February 2016 where it received positive reviews from critics and audience, where it was remade in Tamil as "Sathya" (2017), in Hindi as "Baaghi 2" (2018) and Kannada as "Aadyaa" (2020).


title: Kshanam

text: Rishi, a San Francisco-based investment banker, gets a voice call from his ex-girlfriend Sweta after a long gap. They studied medicine in the same college and wanted to marry, but her father arranged an alliance with an entrepreneur named Karthik. In the present, Rishi, who still loves Sweta, leaves for India on the pretense of attending a relative's marriage. He hires a car from Babu Khan, a travel agent, takes a SIM card on his sister's address and stays at Hotel Marriott. Rishi meets Sweta at a restaurant and learns her five-year-old daughter Riya is missing. She laments that no one else, including Karthik, believes that Riya actually exists. Rishi also learns about Karthik's brother Bobby, a drug addict who regularly visits her home.


title: Kshanam

text: Rishi begins an informal investigation which fails many times, also inviting the ire of two African-American gangsters in the city. Babu, who helps them in transporting drugs, saves Rishi on humanitarian grounds. Posing as Vasanth Khanna, a police officer, Rishi meets Karthik and learns that the couple was childless. Karthik recalls Sweta being attacked by two masked men before a school to steal her car. He added that Sweta went into a coma and post-recovery started claiming that she had a five-year-old daughter named Riya. Perplexed, Rishi later watches a closed-circuit television video footage of the masked men attacking Sweta on the day when Riya went missing. Unfortunately, Riya is seen nowhere in the footage, which makes Rishi doubt Sweta's mental condition.


title: Kshanam

text: Rishi confronts Sweta, who refuses to acknowledge that Riya is imaginary. Rishi sees height markings of a child on a wall, and before he could react, Sweta commits suicide in his presence. ACP Jaya and Inspector Ravi Chowdary investigate the suicide case. Khanna is killed in Marriott, and Babu confesses to Rishi that he saw Bobby kidnapping Riya. They meet Jaya and Chowdary and get Bobby arrested. In custody, Bobby is killed by Jaya in an act of self-defense. The same night, Khanna's murderers attack Babu and Rishi, and Babu is killed in the process of shooting the murderers to death. Rishi watches a MMS in the murderers' phone sent by Jaya instructing to kill him. Rishi meets Jaya at her farmhouse, where Riya is hidden.


title: Kshanam

text: Jaya reveals that Karthik wanted to kill Riya and arranged the attack on Sweta, after which Jaya found Riya in Bobby's custody. After meeting Riya, Jaya conspires to raise the girl as her daughter because she had lost her own husband and unborn daughter in a car accident. Jaya wanted to name her daughter Riya, so when she saw Sweta's daughter, she convinced herself that her daughter has come back. Thus, Jaya made a deal with Karthik; Karthik wanted Sweta to suffer so according to Jaya's plan, he convinced his friends and family to pretend that Riya never existed, saying Sweta cannot bear the shock of her daughter's death. Before Jaya can kill Rishi, Chowdary shoots her after listening to the conversation on his way to the farmhouse with his subordinates. Karthik is arrested and reveals that Riya is not his daughter, as a medical report confirmed him sterile in the past. Rishi remembers his last meeting with Sweta; she visited him to invite him to her wedding, and they made love. Rishi now realises Riya is his biological child. As he approaches Riya, he sees a reflection of Sweta smiling at him.


title: Kshanam

text: The film's concept was inspired by an incident in actor and filmmaker Adivi Sesh life when he felt scared for a four-year-old girl and her friends at a school in Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad. Sesh wanted to make a thriller film with the missing of a three-year-old being the backdrop. Prasad V Potluri of PVP Cinema agreed to bankroll the film and Sesh's friend Ravikanth Perepu was chosen to direct the film; it marked the latter's debut in Telugu cinema. Sesh and Perepu worked on the screenplay for ten months. Pre-production phase began three months after the scripting work commenced. Sesh and Perepu chose to work with a low budget to make the project a feasible one, considering the genre's appeal. The film's crew consisted of 20 members; two of Perepu's twelfth grade friends were the associate directors.


title: Kshanam

text: While writing the script, Sesh and Perepu discussed possibilities for every situation and discarded the first one as it would be a predictable one. Shaneil Deo was the film's director of photography. Sricharan Pakala composed the film's soundtrack and score. Perepu edited the film with Arjun Shastri; Sesh and the associate directors did get involved in the process. Sesh played Rishi, an investment banker who searches for his ex-girlfriend's missing child on her request. He stated that Rishi was modelled on his real self in terms of sensibilities except for the fact that the character is an alcoholic.


title: Kshanam

text: The music was composed by Sricharan Pakala and released by Junglee Music. The background score of the film was much appreciated with the songs "Cheliya" and "Ee Kshanam" topping the charts.


title: Kshanam

text: "Kshanam" was released on 26 February 2016 across Telangana and Andhra Pradesh and received critical acclaim and received positive response from the first show.


title: Kshanam

text: Pranita Jonnalagedda of "The Times Of India" gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Kshanam is a film you most definitely shouldn’t miss; afterall it’s not every day that you get to experience something meaningful yet exciting in Telugu cinema". Suresh Kavirayani of "Deccan Chronicle" gave the film 3.5/5 and wrote "For this kind of genre bgm is very important and Sricharan Pakala hit's the bulls eye.The Cinematography is good and visuals are thrilling but there are some logical flaws".


title: Kshanam

text: "123 Telugu" gave the film 3.25/5 and wrote "Kshanam ends up as an intense and enjoyable thriller which will not disappoint you at all". "Idlebrain" gave the film 3.25/5 and wrote "Kshanam is a decent and engaging suspense thriller despite of a couple of unconvincing points". Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of "The Hindu" stated "Kshanam has a taut screenplay, brings to fore underrated actors and marks a terrific directorial debut".


title: Kshanam

text: In 10 days since its release, "Kshanam" grossed about ₹ 4.8 crores at the Telugu (AP and Telangana) Box office. It collected $65,679 (₹ 44.83 lakh) from 27 screens at the US box office in the first weekend. In its second weekend, it collected $28,889 from 20 screens at the US box office and its 10-day total US collection stands at $111,037 (₹ 74.68 lakh).


title: Kshanam

text: The film was remade in Tamil as "Sathya" (2017) directed by Pradeep Krishnamoorty, in Hindi as "Baaghi 2" directed by Ahmed Khan and starring Tiger Shroff and Disha Patani, and in Kannada as "Aadyaa" directed by K. M. Chaitanya.


title: Da Vinci Surgical System

text: The Da Vinci Surgical System is a robotic surgical system that uses a minimally invasive surgical approach. The system is manufactured by the company Intuitive Surgical. The system is used for prostatectomies, and increasingly for cardiac valve repair, and for renal and gynecologic surgical procedures. It was used in an estimated 200,000 surgeries in 2012, most commonly for hysterectomies and prostate removals. The system is called "Da Vinci" in part because Leonardo da Vinci's study of human anatomy eventually led to the design of the first known robot in history.


title: Da Vinci Surgical System

text: The Da Vinci System consists of a surgeon's console that is typically in the same room as the patient, and a patient-side cart with three to four interactive robotic arms (depending on the model) controlled from the console. The arms hold objects, and can act as scalpels, scissors, bovies, or graspers. The final arm controls the 3D cameras. The surgeon uses the controls of the console to manoeuvre the patient-side cart's robotic arms. The system always requires a human operator.


title: Da Vinci Surgical System

text: The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) cleared the da Vinci Surgical System in 2000 for adult and pediatric use in urologic surgical procedures, general laparoscopic surgical procedures, gynecologic laparoscopic surgical procedures, general non-cardiovascular thoracoscopic surgical procedures, and thoracoscopically assisted cardiotomy procedures.


title: Da Vinci Surgical System

text: While the use of robotic surgery has become an item in the advertisement of medical services, there is a lack of studies that indicate long-term results are superior to results following laparoscopic surgery. Critics of robotic surgery assert that it is difficult for users to learn. The Da Vinci system uses proprietary software, which cannot be modified by physicians, thereby limiting the freedom to modify the operating system. The system has a cost of $2 million which places it beyond the reach of many institutions.


title: Da Vinci Surgical System

text: The manufacturer of the system, Intuitive Surgical, has been criticized for short-cutting FDA approval by a process known as premarket notification, and instead of entering the market through the 510(k) process. The company has also been accused of providing inadequate training and encouraging healthcare providers to reduce the number of supervised procedures required before a doctor is allowed to use the system without supervision.


title: Da Vinci Surgical System

text: There have also been claims of patient injuries caused by stray electrical currents released from inappropriate parts of the surgical tips used by the system. Intuitive Surgical counter this argument by saying the same type of stray currents can occur in non-robotic laparoscopic procedures. A study published in the "Journal of the American Medical Association" found that side effects and blood loss in robotically-performed hysterectomies are no better than those performed by traditional surgery, despite the significantly greater cost of the system. As of 2013, the FDA was investigating problems with the Da Vinci robot, including deaths during surgeries that used the device; a number of related lawsuits were also underway.


title: Susan Mikula

text: Susan Mikula (born March 7, 1958) is an American artist and photographer. After years working in the art industry and serving on an art jury, Mikula had her first solo photography exhibition in 1998. She uses older technology to produce her photographs, including pinhole cameras and Polaroid cameras. Mikula is the longtime partner of political commentator Rachel Maddow.


title: Susan Mikula

text: Susan Mikula was born in New Jersey before relocating to New Hampshire at a young age. She taught herself photography at an early age. She attended Hampshire College in Amherst, Massachusetts.


title: Susan Mikula

text: Mikula spent several years in the art industry, including a stint on an art jury. In 1998, she landed her first solo exhibition. Her published landscape photography collections have been displayed in both solo and group exhibitions in New York City, Miami, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Mikula exhibited "large-scale digital Duraflex prints" at the New York State House in 2007. In 2008, she opened her first show in New York. Mikula had an exhibition in 2009 at the TJ Walton Gallery in Provincetown with Rachel Maddow and Suzanne Westenhoefer attending. In 2010, Mikula had her first photography show, "American Device Recent Photographs," in San Francisco. A year later, Mikula released a three part industrial landscape series titled "American Bond". These American vistas spanned images of America from Texas to California to Massachusetts. Her 2013 series, "u.X", were inspired by the Lascaux cave paintings. In 2015, Mikula released a series of psychologically enigmatic pigment prints titled "Photo Book". Mikula's more Pittsfield focused photograph galleries were also on display at the Ferrin Gallery. Since 2017, Mikula has been a part of the Art in Embassies program for United States Consulate in Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, doing site specific works for the organization. Some of Mikula's works were purchased by the United States Embassy Art in Embassies (Nuevo Laredo Mexico) for their Permanent Collections.


title: Susan Mikula

text: Mikula is interested in the movement of light and time. She uses older technology to produce her photographs. Among her tools are pinhole cameras and Polaroid cameras.


title: Susan Mikula

text: Mikula finds inspiration from painters. In an interview with "The Advocate", she listed the following artists specifically: Julian Schnabel, Joan Mitchell, Cy Twombly, Gerhard Richter, Agnes Martin. Some of her local influences include Maggie Mailer, Charlie Hunter, TJ Walton, and Ward Schumaker.


title: Susan Mikula

text: Mikula is the longtime partner of current MSNBC commentator Rachel Maddow. They met in 1999 while Maddow was working on her doctoral dissertation. Mikula hired Maddow to work on her yard and they went on to date. Their first date was at the "Ladies Day on the Range" event hosted by the National Rifle Association. They reside in a pre-Civil War farmhouse in Western Massachusetts and an apartment in the West Village, Manhattan.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown () is a town and the county seat of Morris County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. Morristown has been called "the military capital of the American Revolution" because of its strategic role in the war for independence from Great Britain. Today this history is visible in a variety of locations throughout the town that collectively make up Morristown National Historical Park.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: According to British colonial records, the first permanent settlement at Morristown occurred in 1715, when a settlement was founded as "New Hanover" by colonists from New York and Connecticut. Morris County was created on March 15, 1739, from portions of Hunterdon County. The county, and ultimately Morristown itself, was named for the popular Governor of the Province, Lewis Morris, who championed land ownership rights for colonists.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown was incorporated as a town by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 6, 1865, within Morris Township, and it was formally set off from the township in 1895. As of the 2010 U.S. census, the town's population was 18,411, reflecting a decline of 133 (−0.7%) from the 18,544 counted in the 2000 census, which had in turn increased by 2,355 (+14.5%) from the 16,189 counted in the 1990 census.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The area was inhabited by the Lenni Lenape Native Americans for up to 6,000 years prior to exploration of Europeans. The first European settlements in this portion of New Jersey were established by the Swedes and Dutch in the early 17th century, when a significant trade in furs existed between the natives and the Europeans at temporary posts. It became part of the Dutch colony of "New Netherland", but the English seized control of the region in 1664, which was granted to Sir George Carteret and John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton, as the "Province of New Jersey".


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown was settled around 1715 by English Presbyterians from Southold, New York on Long Island and New Haven, Connecticut as the village of New Hanover. The town's central location and road connections led to its selection as the seat of the new Morris County shortly after its separation from Hunterdon County on March 15, 1739. The village and county were named for Lewis Morris, the first and then sitting royal governor of a united colony of New Jersey.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: By the middle of the 18th century, Morristown had 250 residents, with two churches, a courthouse, two taverns, two schools, several stores, and numerous mills and farms nearby.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: George Washington first came to Morristown in May 1773, two years before the Revolutionary War broke out, and traveled from there to New York City together with John Parke Custis (his stepson) and Lord Stirling.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In 1777, General George Washington and the Continental Army marched from the victories at Trenton and Princeton to encamp near Morristown from January to May. Washington had his headquarters during that first encampment at Jacob Arnold's Tavern, located at the Morristown Green in the center of the town. Morristown was selected for its extremely strategic location. It was between Philadelphia and New York and near New England while being protected by the Watchung Mountains from the bulk of continental British forces camped in New York City. It also was chosen for the skills and trades of the residents, local industries and natural resources to provide arms, and what was thought to be the ability of the community to provide enough food to support the army.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The churches were used for inoculations for smallpox. That first headquarters, Arnold's Tavern, was eventually moved south of the green onto Mount Kemble Avenue to become All Souls' Hospital in the late 19th century. It suffered a fire in 1918, and the original structure was demolished, but new buildings for the hospital were built directly across the street.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: From December 1779 to June 1780 the Continental Army's second encampment at Morristown was at Jockey Hollow. Then, Washington's headquarters in Morristown was located at the Ford Mansion, a large mansion near what was then the edge of town. Ford's widow and children shared the house with Martha Washington and officers of the Continental Army.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The winter of 1780 was the worst winter of the Revolutionary War. The starvation was complicated by extreme inflation of money and lack of pay for the army. The entire Pennsylvania contingent successfully mutinied and later, 200 New Jersey soldiers attempted to emulate them (unsuccessfully). Many soldiers died, due to weak health.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: During Washington's second stay, in March 1780, he declared St. Patrick's Day a holiday to honor his many Irish troops. Martha Washington traveled from Virginia and remained with her husband each winter throughout the war. The Marquis de Lafayette came to Washington in Morristown to inform him that France would be sending ships and trained soldiers to aid the Continental Army.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Ford Mansion, Jockey Hollow, and Fort Nonsense are all preserved as part of Morristown National Historical Park managed by the National Park Service, which has the distinction among historic preservationists of being the first National Historical Park established in the United States.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: During Washington's stay, Benedict Arnold was court-martialed at Dickerson's Tavern, on Spring Street, for charges related to profiteering from military supplies at Philadelphia. His admonishment was made public, but Washington quietly promised the hero, Arnold, to make it up to him.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Alexander Hamilton courted and wed Elizabeth Schuyler at a residence where Washington's personal physician was billeted. Locally known as the Schuyler-Hamilton House, the Dr. Jabez Campfield House is listed on both the New Jersey and National Register of Historic Places.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Morristown Green has a statue commemorating the meeting of George Washington, the young Marquis de LaFayette, and young Alexander Hamilton depicting them discussing forthcoming aid of French tall ships and troops being sent by King Louis XVI of France to aid the Continental Army.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown's Burnham Park has a statue of the "Father of the American Revolution", Thomas Paine, who wrote the pamphlet "Common Sense", which urged a complete break from British rule. The bronze statue, by sculptor Georg J. Lober, shows Paine in 1776 (using a drum as a table during the withdrawal of the army across New Jersey) composing "Crisis 1". He wrote, "These are the times that try men's souls..." The statue was dedicated on July 4, 1950.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The idea for constructing the Morris Canal is credited to Morristown businessman George P. Macculloch, who in 1822 convened a group to discuss his concept for a canal. The group included Governor of New Jersey Isaac Halstead Williamson, which led to approval of the proposal by the New Jersey Legislature later that year. The canal was used for a century.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In July 1825 during his 15 month return tour of the United States, the Marquis de Lafayette returned to Morristown, where a ball was held in his honor at the 1807 Sansay House on DeHart Street (the edifice still stands as of 2011).


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In 1827, St. Peter's Episcopal Church was founded at the behest of Bishop George Washington Doane and many prominent Morristown Families, including George P. Macculloch, of the Morris Canal. When the Church was rebuilt by the then-internationally famous architectural firm, McKim, Mead and White, beginning in 1889, the congregation erected one of the United States finest church buildings –a stone, English-gothic church complete with fined stained glass, and a long, decorated interior.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Antoine le Blanc, a French immigrant laborer, murdered the Sayre family and their servant (or possibly slave), Phoebe. He was tried and convicted of murder of the Sayres (but not of Phoebe) on August 13, 1833. On September 6, 1833, Le Blanc became the last person hanged on the Morristown Green. Until late 2006, the house where the murders were committed was known as "Jimmy's Haunt," which is purported to be haunted by Phoebe's ghost because her murder never saw justice. Jimmy's Haunt was torn down to make way for a bank in 2007.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Samuel F. B. Morse and Alfred Vail built the first telegraph at the Speedwell Ironworks in Morristown on January 6, 1838. The first telegraph message was "A patient waiter is no loser". The first public demonstration of the invention occurred five days later as an early step toward the information age.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Jacob Arnold's Tavern, the first headquarters for Washington in Morristown and site of Benedict Arnold's 1780 trial, was purchased by Morristown historian Julia Keese Nelson Colles (1840-1913) to save it from demolition in 1886. It was moved by horse-power in the winter of 1887 from "the green" (after being stuck on Bank Street for about six weeks) to a site south on Mount Kemble Avenue at what is now a parking lot for the Atlantic RIMM Rehabilitation Hospital. It became a boarding house for four years until it was converted by the Grey Nuns from Montreal into All Souls' Hospital, the first general hospital in Morris County. George and Martha Washington's second floor ballroom became a chapel and the first floor tavern became a ward for patients. In 1910, the late Augustus Lefebvre Revere (brother of hospital founder Paul Revere) willed the Hospital $10,000 to be used for the erection of a new building. This fund was used 8 years later when the original Arnold's Tavern building was lost to a fire. The entire organization, nurses, doctors, and patients of All Souls' Hospital were then moved across Mount Kemble Avenue, U.S. Route 202, to the newly built brick hospital building. All Souls' was set to close because of financial difficulties in the late 1960s. In 1973, it became Community Medical Center. In 1977, the center became bankrupt and was purchased by the then new and larger Morristown Memorial Hospital, which is now the Morristown Medical Center.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: On December 18, 1843, the Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church was incorporated. This was the first congregation established by blacks in Morris County. It is still active. The first site of the Church was located at 13 Spring Street and served as the only schoolhouse for colored children until 1870. The Church relocated to its present site at 59 Spring Street in 1874.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The first Jews moved to Morristown in the 1850s, but much larger numbers of Ashkenazi Jews migrated to the region from Eastern Europe in the 1890s, which led to the incorporation of the Morristown Jewish Center in 1899. Today there are several Jewish synagogues in Morristown reflecting the diversity of the community.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the 1880s, the town's residents were primarily farmers. The small amount of stores in the Morristown Green town center were only open during the evening to accomodate farmers who did not leave their work during the daytime. There were only a few stores in town, including Adams & Fairchild grocers and P. H. Hoffman & Son clothiers, both located in the Arnold's Tavern on the Morristown Green.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Starting in the mid-1800s, Morristown became a popular summer retreat for some of New York City's wealthiest residents. From the 1870s onwards, immense estates were built up along once rural thoroughfares; Madison Avenue, which runs along Morristown and Madison, New Jersey became known as "the street of the 100 millionaires" due to the sheer extravagance of the houses that were constructed.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Between 1880 and 1929, the Gilded Age of Morristown occurred, when dozens of "millionaires with large fortunes built their estates" in Morristown and Morris Township. In the1880 United States census, the town had 5,418 residents, which grew to 8,156 in 1890. The Morris Township history states,By 1896, an estimated 54 millionaires lived in the Morristown area, with a total wealth of $289,000,000, which [circa 2009] would be worth billions of dollars. Six years later in 1902, there were at least 91 millionaires.This included New York warehouse & grain broker Charles Grant Foster, who bought Union general Joseph Warren Revere's farm estate and mansion in 1881. This became Fosterfields, a Jersey cow farm. It was later managed by Caroline Rose Foster, though most of its herd was sold in a 1927 auction. In 1979 it was donated to the Morris County Park Commission. The site currently houses a living history museum and Revere's historic house.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In 1889, Christian charity organization Market Street Mission was established on 9 Market Street beside the Morristown Green. As of 2022, the organization continues to operate a homeless shelter, meals, and emergency services, along with men's drug addiction recovery groups, community counseling, a chapel, and a thrift store.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Gilded Age of Morristown ended in 1929, due to the "high cost of maintaining the estates, increasing income taxes, and the stock market crash" that led to the Great Depression. The Morris Township reports, "Many of the mansions were closed or sold, and some burned."


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Since 1929, more than 16,000 guide dogs for the blind from The Seeing Eye, Inc., the oldest such school in the U.S., have been trained on the streets of Morristown.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: On January 5, 2009, five red lights were spotted in the Morristown area night skies, who gained significant press coverage and 9-1-1 calls. On April 1, 2009, the perpetrators revealed their hoax by publicizing footage of its creation, which consisted of helium balloons and flares. The event became nationally known as the Morristown UFO hoax.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, Morristown town had a total area of 3.01 square miles (7.79 km), including 2.91 square miles (7.53 km) of land and 0.10 square miles (0.25 km) of water (3.26%).


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown is completely surrounded by Morris Township, making it part of 21 pairs of "doughnut towns" in the state, where one municipality entirely surrounds another.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The downtown shopping and business district of Morristown is centered around a square park, known as the Morristown Green. It is a former market square from Morristown's colonial days.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa/Dfb) with hot, humid summers and moderately cold winters.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $64,279 (with a margin of error of +/− $5,628) and the median family income was $66,070 (+/− $3,638). Males had a median income of $51,242 (+/− $6,106) versus $44,315 (+/− $5,443) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $37,573 (+/− $2,286). About 10.2% of families and 9.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.1% of those under age 18 and 8.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: As of the 2000 United States census there were 18,544 people, 7,252 households, and 3,698 families residing in the town. The population density was 6,303.9 people per square mile (2,435.3/km). There were 7,615 housing units at an average density of 2,588.7 per square mile (1,000.1/km). The racial makeup of the town was 67.63% White, 16.95% Black or black, 0.22% Native American, 3.77% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 8.48% from other races, and 3.36% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 27.15% of the population.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: 9.8% of Morristown residents identified themselves as being of Colombian American ancestry in the 2000 Census, the eighth- highest percentage of the population of any municipality in the United States. 4.5% of Morristown residents identified themselves as being of Honduran American ancestry in the 2000 Census, the sixth-highest percentage of the population of any municipality in the United States.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: There were 7,252 households, out of which 22.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.4% were married couples living together, 12.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 49.0% were non-families. 38.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 3.19.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the town, the population was spread out, with 18.4% under the age of 18, 8.8% from 18 to 24, 40.4% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 99.7 males.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The median income for a household in the town was $57,563, and the median income for a family was $66,419. Males had a median income of $42,363 versus $37,045 for females. The per capita income for the town was $30,086. About 7.1% of families and 11.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.5% of those under age 18 and 14.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Companies based in Morristown include Capsugel, Covanta Energy, Louis Berger Group, Schindler Group and the Morristown & Erie Railway, a local short-line freight railway and Honeywell.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown Medical Center, with 5,500 employees, is Morristown's largest employer. In a ruling issued in June 2015, Tax Court Judge Vito Bianco ruled that the hospital would be required to pay property taxes on nearly all of its campus in the town.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The New Jersey Stampede (formerly the Minutemen) are a professional inline hockey team that competes in the Professional Inline Hockey Association.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The United States Equestrian Team, the international equestrian team for the United States, was founded in 1950 at the Coates estate on van Beuren Road in Morristown.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Morristown 1776 Association Football Club is a soccer club that competes in the North Jersey Soccer League and MCSSA.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown is governed within the Faulkner Act, formally known as the Optional Municipal Charter Law, under a Plan F Mayor-Council system of New Jersey municipal government, which went into effect on January 1, 1974. The town is one of 71 municipalities (of the 564) statewide that use this form of government. The Morristown Town Council is comprised of seven members, of which three members are elected at-large representing the entire town and one representative is chosen from each of the town's four wards. Members are elected on a partisan basis to four-year terms of office on a staggered basis in odd-numbered years as part of the November general election, with the four ward seats up for vote together and the at-large and mayoral seats up for vote together two years later. As the legislative arm of the government, the council is responsible for making and setting policy for the town.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: , the Mayor of Morristown is Democrat Timothy Dougherty, whose term of office ends December 31, 2025. Members of the Morristown Town Council are Council President Stefan Armington (D, Ward III, 2023), Council Vice President Toshiba Foster (D; At Large, 2025), Tawanna Cotten (D, Ward II, 2023), Robert Iannaccone (I, Ward I, 2023), Sandi Mayer (D; Ward IV, 2023), David Silva (D; At Large, 2025) and Nathan Umbriac (D; At Large, 2025).


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In 2019, Mary Dougherty, wife of Mayor Tim Dougherty was criminally charged with accepting bribe money from Attorney Matt O'Donnell. Mary had been running for a seat on the Morris County Board of Chosen Freeholders in 2018 when O'Donnell offered her $10,000, presumably to help him get awarded more contracts from the county for legal work. In a plea agreement, Mary pled guilty in February 2021 to a reduced charge of falsifying a campaign finance report in exchange for dropping the bribery charge; she would face probation and a fine of $10,000.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown is located in the 11th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 25th state legislative district.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morris County is governed by a Board of County Commissioners comprised of seven members who are elected at-large in partisan elections to three-year terms on a staggered basis, with either one or three seats up for election each year as part of the November general election. Actual day-to-day operation of departments is supervised by County Administrator, John Bonanni. , Morris County's Commissioners are


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Commissioner Director Tayfun Selen (R, Chatham Township, term as commissioner ends December 31, 2023; term as director ends 2022),


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Commissioner Deputy Director John Krickus (R, Washington Township, term as commissioner ends 2024; term as deputy director ends 2022),


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The county's constitutional officers are the County Clerk and County Surrogate (both elected for five-year terms of office) and the County Sheriff (elected for a three-year term). , they are


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: As of June 4, 2019, a total of 11,330 voters were registered in Morristown, of which 5,087 (44.9%) were Democrats, 2,208 (19.5%) Republicans, and 4,035 (35.6%) were registered as Unaffiliated.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the 2016 presidential election, Democrat Hillary Clinton received 67.4% of the vote (4,984 votes), ahead of Republican Donald Trump with 27.5% (2,033 votes), and other candidates with 5.1% (294 votes), among the 7,470 ballots cast by the town's 11,060 voters, for a turnout of 67.5%.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 67.1% of the vote (4,485 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 31.7% (2,117 votes), and other candidates with 1.2% (79 votes), among the 6,727 ballots cast by the town's 10,212 registered voters (46 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 65.9%.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 68.1% of the vote (4,738 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 30.0% (2,084 votes) and other candidates with 1.0% (67 votes), among the 6,953 ballots cast by the town's 9,741 registered voters, for a turnout of 71.4%.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 62.8% of the vote (4,138 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 35.9% (2,370 votes) and other candidates with 0.5% (53 votes), among the 6,593 ballots cast by the town's 9,890 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 66.7.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the 2017 gubernatorial election, Democrat Phil Murphy received 68.44% of the vote (2,758 votes), ahead of Republican Kim Guadagno with 29.6% (1,194 votes), and other candidates with 1.9% (78 votes), among the 4,164 ballots cast by the town's 10,901 voters, for a turnout of 38.2%.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 52.7% of the vote (1,871 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 45.2% (1,602 votes), and other candidates with 2.1% (75 votes), among the 3,780 ballots cast by the town's 10,124 registered voters (232 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 37.3%.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 52.1% of the vote (2,263 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 37.4% (1,623 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 8.1% (350 votes) and other candidates with 0.4% (16 votes), among the 4,340 ballots cast by the town's 9,393 registered voters, yielding a 46.2% turnout.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Morris School District is a regional public school district that serves students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade from the communities of Morristown and Morris Township, and high school students (grades 9–12) from Morris Plains who attend the high school as part of a sending/receiving relationship with the Morris Plains Schools. As of the 2018–19 school year, the district, comprised of 10 schools, had an enrollment of 5,216 students and 441.4 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.8:1. Schools in the district (with 2018–19 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown High School (1,860; 9–12). The nine elected seats on the board of education are allocated based on the population of the constituent municipalities, with four seats assigned to Morristown.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: In addition to a public school system, Morristown has several private schools. Primary and elementary schools include The Red Oaks School, an independent private school founded in 1965 and serving pre-kindergarten through eighth grade, that offers both Montessori and International Baccalaureate programs. Assumption Roman Catholic is a grade school (K–8) that operates under the auspices of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Paterson and was one of 11 schools in the state recognized in 2014 by the United States Department of Education's National Blue Ribbon Schools Program. The Peck School, a private day school which serves approximately 300 students in kindergarten through grade eight, dates back to 1893 when it was originally established as Miss Sutphen's School. The Delbarton School is an all-boys Roman Catholic school with approximately 540 students in grades seven through twelve, that began serving resident students in 1939 after having previously served as a seminary. The Morristown-Beard School, a private co-ed school formed from the merger of two previously existing institutions, Morristown Preparatory School and Miss Beard's School, serves grades 6 through 12. In addition, Villa Walsh Academy, a private Catholic college preparatory school conducted by the Religious Teachers Filippini, is located in Morristown.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Academy of Saint Elizabeth was founded at Morristown in 1860 by the Sisters of Charity, however when municipal boundaries were redrawn in 1895, the Academy found itself in the Convent Station section of the adjacent Morris Township.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Rabbinical College of America, one of the largest Chabad Lubavitch Chasidic yeshivas in the world is located in Morristown. The Rabbinical College of America has a Baal Teshuva yeshiva for students of diverse Jewish backgrounds, named Yeshiva Tiferes Bachurim. The New Jersey Regional Headquarters for the worldwide Chabad Lubavitch movement is located on the campus.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: , the town had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Morris County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Interstate 287 is the main highway providing access to Morristown. Two interchanges, Exit 35 and Exit 36, are located within the town. Other significant roads serving Morristown include U.S. Route 202, New Jersey Route 124 and County Route 510.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown has attempted to implement transit-oriented development. Morristown was designated in 1999 as of one of New Jersey's first five "transit villages". In 1999, Morristown changed its zoning code to designate the area around the train station as a "Transit Village Core" for mixed-use. The designation was at least partly responsible for development plans for several mixed-use condominium developments.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: NJ Transit offers rail service at the Morristown station which offers service on the Morristown Line to Newark Broad Street, Secaucus Junction, New York Penn Station and Hoboken Terminal. The town benefited from shortened commuting times to New York City due to the "Midtown Direct" service New Jersey Transit instituted in the 1990s.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: NJ Transit local bus service is offered from the Morristown rail station, Morristown Medical Center and Headquarters Plaza on the 871, 872, 873, 874, 875 and 880 bus routes, replacing service that had been offered on the MCM1, MCM2, MCM3, MCM4, MCM8 and MCM10 routes until 2010, when subsidies to the local provider were eliminated as part of budget cuts.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The town's Department of Public Works operates "Colonial Coach", which provides free transportation within Morristown.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: The Whippany Line of the Morristown and Erie Railway, a small freight line, traverses the township. Established in 1895, the line runs from Morristown and runs through East Hanover Township and Hanover Township to Roseland.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Morristown Municipal Airport is the closest public airport. While owned by the town, the airport is physically located in nearby Hanover Township, 3 miles east of Morristown proper.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark / Elizabeth is the closest airport with scheduled passenger service. It is approximately 20 minutes away via Route 24 and Interstate 78.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: Due to its proximity to New York City and Newark, daily newspapers serving the community are "The New York Times", "The Wall Street Journal", and "The Star-Ledger".


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: WMTR is an AM radio station at 1250 kHz is licensed to Morristown. The station features an oldies format.


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: WJSV radio (90.5 FM) is the nonprofit radio station of Morristown High School, which also has a television show, "Colonial Corner".


title: Morristown, New Jersey

text: "Hometown Tales", a public-access television show and podcast chronicling stories and urban legends from around the world, is loosely based in Morristown.


title: Uranium mining

text: Uranium mining is the process of extraction of uranium ore from the ground. Over 50 thousand tons of uranium were produced in 2019. Kazakhstan, Canada, and Australia were the top three uranium producers, respectively, and together account for 68% of world production. Other countries producing more than 1,000 tons per year included Namibia, Niger, Russia, Uzbekistan, the United States, and China. Nearly all of the world's mined uranium is used to power nuclear power plants. Historically uranium was also used in applications such as uranium glass or ferrouranium but those applications have declined due to the radioactivity of uranium and are nowadays mostly supplied with a plentiful cheap supply of depleted uranium which is also used in uranium ammunition. In addition to being cheaper, depleted uranium is also less radioactive due to a lower content of short-lived and than natural uranium.


title: Uranium mining

text: Uranium is mined by in-situ leaching (57% of world production) or by conventional underground or open-pit mining of ores (43% of production). During in-situ mining, a leaching solution is pumped down drill holes into the uranium ore deposit where it dissolves the ore minerals. The uranium-rich fluid is then pumped back to the surface and processed to extract the uranium compounds from solution. In conventional mining, ores are processed by grinding the ore materials to a uniform particle size and then treating the ore to extract the uranium by chemical leaching. The milling process commonly yields dry powder-form material consisting of natural uranium, "yellowcake," which is nowadays commonly sold on the uranium market as UO. While some nuclear power plants - most notably heavy water reactors like the CANDU - can operate with natural uranium (usually in the form of uranium dioxide), the vast majority of commercial nuclear power plants and many research reactors require uranium enrichment, which raises the content of from the natural 0.72% to 3-5% (for use in light water reactors) or even higher, depending on the application. Enrichment requires conversion of the yellowcake into uranium hexafluoride and production of the fuel (again usually uranium dioxide, but sometimes uranium carbide, uranium hydride or uranium nitride) from that feedstock.


title: Uranium mining

text: Uranium minerals were noticed by miners for a long time prior to the discovery of uranium in 1789. The uranium mineral pitchblende, also known as uraninite, was reported from the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains), Saxony, as early as 1565. Other early reports of pitchblende date from 1727 in Jáchymov and 1763 in Schwarzwald. The suffix "-blende" applied by Ore Mountain miners to the mineral long before the discovery of the element uranium indicates a mineral that "looks" like it contains some usable metal but (according to then available knowledge) doesn't. Terms for minerals later identified to contain cobalt (c.f. "Kobold" the modern standard German word for goblin) nickel or "Wolfram" (the standard German term for tungsten) were similarly derived from superstitious belief that some sort of "mountain gnome" had somehow "hexed" the minerals to trick (c.f. The German use of the term "blenden" cognate of "blind" for "tricking") the miners. Thus examining old documents about the presence of "worthless" -blende type minerals allowed easier exploration, once the true nature of these ores had been discovered.


title: Uranium mining

text: In the early 19th century, uranium ore was recovered as a byproduct of mining in Saxony, Bohemia, and Cornwall. The first deliberate mining of radioactive ores took place in Joachimsthal, a silver-mining city now in the Czech Republic and origin of the word T(h)aler and from there dollar. Marie Skłodowska-Curie used pitchblende ore from Joachimsthal to isolate the element radium, a decay product of uranium. This discovery earned her her first Nobel Prize and represents an important step in the history of nuclear physics. Until World War II, uranium was mined primarily for its radium content; some carnotite deposits were mined primarily for the vanadium content. Sources for radium, contained in the uranium ore, were sought for use as luminous paint for watch dials and other instruments, as well as for health-related applications, some of which in retrospect were certainly harmful and some of which must be regarded as nuclear quackery even from a contemporary standpoint. Given that the half life of is almost 2.8 million times longer than that of , tons of uranium had to be processed to derive a few grams of radium, leaving large amounts of uranium with little economic uses. The byproduct uranium was used mostly as a yellow pigment. Ferrouranium started to be used by the Central Powers of World War I as a substitute for materials they could no longer import due to the British naval blockade. At the time both sides of the Ore Mountains were contained in territory controlled by the Central Powers, as the northern flank belonged to the German Empire whereas the southern flank belonged to Austria-Hungary. Given that uranium was mostly seen as a "waste product" in radium-mining at the time, a plentiful supply was available even without scaling up mining. While radium has legitimate evidence based applications in nuclear medicine, the availability of other radionuclides with more desirable properties has all but eliminated the market for radium.


title: Uranium mining

text: In the United States, the first radium/uranium ore was discovered in 1871 in gold mines near Central City, Colorado. This district produced about 50 tons of high grade ore between 1871 and 1895. Most American uranium ore before World War II came from vanadium deposits on the Colorado Plateau of Utah and Colorado.


title: Uranium mining

text: In Cornwall, England, the South Terras Mine near St. Stephen opened for uranium production in 1873, and produced about 175 tons of ore before 1900. Other early uranium mining occurred in Autunois in France's Massif Central (whence the name Autunite for a uranium-bearing mineral once mined in the area), Oberpfalz in Bavaria, and Billingen in Sweden.


title: Uranium mining

text: The Shinkolobwe deposit in Katanga, Belgian Congo (now Shaba Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)), was discovered in 1913, and exploited by the Union Minière du Haut Katanga. Other important deposits mined early in the history of uranium mining include Port Radium, near Great Bear Lake, Canada, discovered in 1931; along with Beira Province, Portugal; Tyuya Muyun, Uzbekistan (whence Tyuyamunite); and Radium Hill, Australia.


title: Uranium mining

text: Because of the need for the uranium for bomb research during World War II, the Manhattan Project used a variety of sources for the element. The Manhattan Project initially purchased uranium ore from the Belgian Congo, through the Union Minière du Haut Katanga. Later the project contracted with vanadium mining companies in the American Southwest. Purchases were also made from the Eldorado Mining and Refining Limited company in Canada. This company had large stocks of uranium as waste from its radium refining activities.


title: Uranium mining

text: The smaller scale German nuclear program likewise tried to acquire uranium, putting the Berlin based Auergesellschaft, which had been taken from previous Jewish-German owners, in charge of acquisition. A substantial amount of uranium from the Belgian Congo (and thus the same source as the one used by the Americans) fell into German hands when the Wehrmacht conquered Belgium. Another important source was mining in the Ore Mountains (mostly on the Czech side, which had been annexed after the Munich treaty of 1938). While incompetence, bad luck, lack of resources and infighting kept the Germans from ever assembling enough uranium and neutron moderator in a single "pile" to achieve criticality, by the end of the war more than enough uranium had been in German hands to theoretically allow for the construction of a crude reactor on the scale of Chicago Pile-1 or the Soviet F-1 (nuclear reactor) if it had all been assembled in a single place. The Haigerloch research reactor () assembled months before the end of the war in Southwestern Germany was an extremely subcritical assembly which lacked both sufficient uranium and sufficient moderator to produce significant amounts of plutonium, let alone heat. A uranium cube thought to have belonged to Werner Heisenberg was analyzed decades later, confirming that the Germans were nowhere near plutonium production.


title: Uranium mining

text: American uranium ores mined in Colorado were mixed ores of vanadium and uranium, but because of wartime secrecy, the Manhattan Project would publicly admit only to purchasing the vanadium, and did not pay the uranium miners for the uranium content. In a much later lawsuit, many miners were able to reclaim lost profits from the U.S. government. American ores had much lower uranium concentrations than the ore from the Belgian Congo, but they were pursued vigorously to ensure nuclear self-sufficiency. Similar efforts were undertaken in the Soviet Union, which did not have native stocks of uranium when it started developing its own atomic weapons program.


title: Uranium mining

text: While the Soviet Republics of Kazakhstan and the RSFSR would later become some of the leading uranium producers in the world, immediately after the end of World War II the availability of large uranium deposits in the USSR wasn't yet known and thus the Soviets developed immense mining operations in their satellite states East Germany and Czechoslovakia which had known uranium deposits in the Ore Mountains. The deliberately opaquely named SDAG Wismut (the German term "Wismut" for Bismuth should give the illusion of prospection for a metal the Soviets definitely "weren't" after) became the biggest employer in the Saxon Ore Mountains and remote mining towns like Johanngeorgenstadt swelled to ten times their population in a few years. The mining cost immense amounts of money and miners were on the one hand subject to heavier repression and surveillance but on the other hand allowed more generous supply with consumer goods than other East Germans. While production was never able to compete with global uranium market prices, the dual use nature of the mined material as well as the possibility to pay miners in soft currency but sell uranium for hard currency or substitute imports which would've had to be paid for in hard currency tipped the scales in favor of continuing mining operations throughout the Cold War. After German reunification, mining was wound down and the arduous task of rehabilitating the land impacted by mining was begun. In the course of this, some remaining deposits had to be mined to reduce the potential harm from material leaching into groundwater, but this has since ceased as well, making the area in which uranium had been discovered two centuries prior entirely devoid of uranium mining.


title: Uranium mining

text: In the 20th century, the United States was the world's largest uranium producer. Grants Uranium District in northwestern New Mexico was the largest United States uranium producer. The Gas Hills Uranium District was the second largest uranium producer. The famous Lucky Mc Mine is located in the Gas Hills near Riverton, Wyoming. Canada has since surpassed the United States as the cumulative largest producer in the world. In 1990, 55% of world production came from underground mines, but this shrank to 33% by 1999. From 2000, new Canadian mines again increased the proportion of underground mining, and with Olympic Dam it is now 37%. In situ leach (ISL, or ISR) mining has been steadily increasing its share of the total, mainly due to Kazakhstan. Unlike with coal, particularly lignite, where the biggest producers tend to also be the biggest consumers, the biggest uranium producers, Kazakhstan, Australia and Canada contain only one nation – Canada – who derives a significant proportion of electricity from nuclear power. On the other hand, big users of nuclear power like France, South Korea, India or Japan import most or all of the uranium used in their power plants as they have no or negligible domestic uranium resources. India in particular has been interested in the Thorium fuel cycle for decades, as India has much larger thorium reserves than it does uranium reserves. France historically derived significant shares of its uranium needs from its African colonies and continues to be politically and economically active in those African countries to ensure its uranium supply.


title: Uranium mining

text: There are mainly three types of uranium deposits including unconformity-type deposits, namely paleoplacer deposits and sandstone-type also known as roll front type deposits.


title: Uranium mining

text: Uranium deposits are classified into 15 categories according to their geological setting and the type of rock in which they are found. This geological classification system is determined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).


title: Uranium mining

text: Uranium is also contained in seawater but at present prices on the uranium market, costs would have to be lowered by a factor of 3–6 to make its recovery economical.


title: Uranium mining

text: Precambrian unconformities (in Canada), phosphate, Precambrian quartz-pebble conglomerate, collapse breccia pipes (see Arizona breccia pipe uranium mineralization),


title: Uranium mining

text: Sandstone uranium deposits are generally of two types. "Roll-front" type deposits occur at the boundary between the up dip and oxidized part of a sandstone body and the deeper down dip reduced part of a sandstone body. "Peneconcordant" sandstone uranium deposits, also called "Colorado Plateau"-type deposits, most often occur within generally oxidized sandstone bodies, often in localized reduced zones, such as in association with carbonized wood in the sandstone.


title: Uranium mining

text: Precambrian quartz-pebble conglomerate-type uranium deposits occur only in rocks older than two billion years old. The conglomerates also contain pyrite. These deposits have been mined in the Blind River-Elliot Lake district of Ontario, Canada, and from the gold-bearing Witwatersrand conglomerates of South Africa.


title: Uranium mining

text: Unconformity-type deposits make up about 33% of the World Outside Centrally Planned Economies Areas (WOCA)'s uranium deposits.


title: Uranium mining

text: Hydrothermal uranium deposits encompass the vein-type uranium ores. Vein-type hydrothermal uranium deposits represent epigenetic concentrations of uranium minerals that typically fill breccias, fractures, and shear zones. Many studies have sought to identify the source of uranium with hydrothermal vein-type deposits and the potential sources still remains a mystery, but are thought to include preexisting rocks that have been broken down by weathering and force that come from areas of long-term sediment build up. The South Chine Block is an example of a region that has been relying on vein-type hydrothermal uranium deposit demand for the past half century. Igneous deposits include nepheline syenite intrusives at Ilimaussaq, Greenland; the disseminated uranium deposit at Rossing, Namibia; uranium-bearing pegmatites, and the Aurora crater lake deposit of the McDermitt Caldera in Oregon. Disseminated deposits are also found in the states of Washington and Alaska in the US.


title: Uranium mining

text: Breccia uranium deposits are found in rocks that have been broken due to tectonic fracturing, or weathering. Breccia uranium deposits are most common in India, Australia and the United States. A large mass of breccia is called a breccia pipe or chimney and is composed of the rock forming an irregular and almost cylinder like shape. The origin of breccia pipe is uncertain but it is thought that they form on intersections and faults.  When the formations are found solid in ground host rock called rock flour, it usually is often a site for copper or uranium mining. Copper Creek, Arizona is home to approximately 500 mineralized breccia pipes and Cripple Creek, Colorado also is a site that contains breccia pipe ore deposits that is associated with a volcanic pipe.


title: Uranium mining

text: Olympic Dam mine, the world's largest uranium deposit, was discovered by Western Mining Corporation in 1975 and is owned by BHP.


title: Uranium mining

text: Uranium prospecting is similar to other forms of mineral exploration with the exception of some specialized instruments for detecting the presence of radioactive isotopes.


title: Uranium mining

text: The Geiger counter was the original radiation detector, recording the total count rate from all energy levels of radiation. Ionization chambers and Geiger counters were first adapted for field use in the 1930s. The first transportable Geiger–Müller counter (weighing 25 kg) was constructed at the University of British Columbia in 1932. H.V. Ellsworth of the GSC built a lighter weight, more practical unit in 1934. Subsequent models were the principal instruments used for uranium prospecting for many years, until geiger counters were replaced by scintillation counters.