title: Reproductive rights

text: This divide between first world versus third world women established as feminists focused on women’s issues (from the first world largely promoting sexual liberation) versus women focused on political issues (from the third world often opposing dictatorships and policies). In Latin America, this is complicated as feminists tend to align with first world ideals of feminism (sexual/reproductive rights, violence against women, domestic violence) and reject religious institutions such as the Catholic Church and Evangelicals, which attempt to control women’s reproduction. On the other side, human rights advocates are often aligned with religious institutions that are specifically combating political violence, instead of focusing on issues of individual bodily autonomy.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The debate regarding whether women should have complete autonomous control over their bodies has been espoused by the United Nations and individual countries, but many of those same countries fail to implement these human rights for their female citizens. This shortfall may be partly due to the delay of including women-specific issues in the human rights framework. However, multiple human rights documents and declarations specifically proclaim reproductive rights of women, including the ability to make their own reproductive healthcare decisions regarding family planning, including: the UN Declaration of Human Rights (1948), The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1979), the U.N.’s Millennium Development Goals, and the new Sustainable Development Goals, which are focused on integrating universal reproductive healthcare access into national family planning programs. Unfortunately, the 2007 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, did not address indigenous women’s reproductive or maternal healthcare rights or access.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Since most existing legally binding international human rights instruments do not explicitly mention sexual and reproductive rights, a broad coalition of NGOs, civil servants, and experts working in international organizations have been promoting a reinterpretation of those instruments to link the realization of the already internationally recognized human rights with the realization of reproductive rights. An example of this linkage is provided by the 1994 Cairo Programme of Action:


title: Reproductive rights

text: Reproductive rights embrace certain human rights that are already recognized in national laws, international human rights documents and other relevant United Nations consensus documents. These rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. It also includes the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence as expressed in human rights documents. In the exercise of this right, they should take into account the needs of their living and future children and their responsibilities towards the community.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Similarly, Amnesty International has argued that the realisation of reproductive rights is linked with the realisation of a series of recognised human rights, including the right to health, the right to freedom from discrimination, the right to privacy, and the right not to be subjected to torture or ill-treatment.


title: Reproductive rights

text: However, not all states have accepted the inclusion of reproductive rights in the body of internationally recognized human rights. At the Cairo Conference, several states made formal reservations either to the concept of reproductive rights or to its specific content. Ecuador, for instance, stated that:


title: Reproductive rights

text: With regard to the Programme of Action of the Cairo International Conference on Population and Development and in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution and laws of Ecuador and the norms of international law, the delegation of Ecuador reaffirms, inter alia, the following principles embodied in its Constitution: the inviolability of life, the protection of children from the moment of conception, freedom of conscience and religion, the protection of the family as the fundamental unit of society, responsible paternity, the right of parents to bring up their children and the formulation of population and development plans by the Government in accordance with the principles of respect for sovereignty. Accordingly, the delegation of Ecuador enters a reservation with respect to all terms such as "regulation of fertility", "interruption of pregnancy", "reproductive health", "reproductive rights" and "unwanted children", which in one way or another, within the context of the Programme of Action, could involve abortion.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Similar reservations were made by Argentina, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Honduras, Malta, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru and the Holy See. Islamic Countries, such as Brunei, Djibouti, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Libya, Syria, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen made broad reservations against any element of the programme that could be interpreted as contrary to the Sharia. Guatemala even questioned whether the conference could legally proclaim new human rights.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the World Health Organization (WHO) advocate for reproductive rights with a primary emphasis on women's rights. In this respect the UN and WHO focus on a range of issues from access to family planning services, sex education, menopause, and the reduction of obstetric fistula, to the relationship between reproductive health and economic status.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The reproductive rights of women are advanced in the context of the right to freedom from discrimination and the social and economic status of women. The group Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) explained the link in the following statement:


title: Reproductive rights

text: Control over reproduction is a basic need and a basic right for all women. Linked as it is to women's health and social status, as well as the powerful social structures of religion, state control and administrative inertia, and private profit, it is from the perspective of poor women that this right can best be understood and affirmed. Women know that childbearing is a social, not a purely personal, phenomenon; nor do we deny that world population trends are likely to exert considerable pressure on resources and institutions by the end of this century. But our bodies have become a pawn in the struggles among states, religions, male heads of households, and private corporations. Programs that do not take the interests of women into account are unlikely to succeed...


title: Reproductive rights

text: "The only ray of hope I can see – and it's not much – is that wherever women are put in control of their lives, both politically and socially; where medical facilities allow them to deal with birth control and where their husbands allow them to make those decisions, birth rate falls. Women don't want to have 12 kids of whom nine will die." "David Attenborough


title: Reproductive rights

text: According to OHCHR: "Women’s sexual and reproductive health is related to multiple human rights, including the right to life, the right to be free from torture, the right to health, the right to privacy, the right to education, and the prohibition of discrimination".


title: Reproductive rights

text: Attempts have been made to analyse the socioeconomic conditions that affect the realisation of a woman's reproductive rights. The term reproductive justice has been used to describe these broader social and economic issues. Proponents of reproductive justice argue that while the right to legalized abortion and contraception applies to everyone, these choices are only meaningful to those with resources and that there is a growing gap between access and affordability.


title: Reproductive rights

text: This more nuanced framework of reproductive justice that recognizes that even with the necessary access to reproductive health, there are other influences beyond choice that determine a women's ability to control her bodily autonomy is discussed in "Battles Over Abortion and Reproductive Rights" (2017) by Suzanne Staggenborg and Marie B. Skoczylas. They define this concept as detailed below.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Reproductive Justice: interrelationships among issues, linking reproductive health and rights to other social issues (broader human rights framework)


title: Reproductive rights

text: Men's reproductive rights have been claimed by various organizations, both for issues of reproductive health, and other rights related to sexual reproduction. Three international issues in men's reproductive health are sexually transmitted diseases, cancer, and exposure to toxins.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Recently men's reproductive right with regards to paternity have become subject of debate in the U.S. The term "male abortion" was coined by Melanie McCulley, a South Carolina attorney, in a 1998 article. The theory begins with the premise that when a woman becomes pregnant she has the option of abortion, adoption, or parenthood. A man, however, has none of those options, but will still be affected by the woman's decision. It argues, in the context of legally recognized gender equality, that in the earliest stages of pregnancy the putative (alleged) father should have the right to relinquish all future parental rights and financial responsibility, leaving the informed mother with the same three options. This concept has been supported by a former president of the feminist organization National Organization for Women, attorney Karen DeCrow. The feminist argument for male reproductive choice contends that the uneven ability to choose experienced by men and women in regards to parenthood is evidence of a state-enforced coercion favoring traditional sex roles.


title: Reproductive rights

text: In 2006, the National Center for Men brought a case in the US, "Dubay v. Wells" (dubbed by some ""Roe v. Wade" for men"), that argued that in the event of an unplanned pregnancy, when an unmarried woman informs a man that she is pregnant by him, he should have an opportunity to give up all paternity rights and responsibilities. Supporters argue that this would allow the woman time to make an informed decision and give men the same reproductive rights as women. In its dismissal of the case, the U.S. Court of Appeals (Sixth Circuit) stated that "the Fourteenth Amendment does not deny to [the] State the power to treat different classes of persons in different ways."


title: Reproductive rights

text: The opportunity to give men the right for a paper abortion is heavily discussed. Sperm theft is another related issue.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Intersex, in humans and other animals, is a variation in sex characteristics including chromosomes, gonads, or genitals that do not allow an individual to be distinctly identified as male or female. Such variation may involve genital ambiguity, and combinations of chromosomal genotype and sexual phenotype other than XY-male and XX-female. Intersex persons are often subjected to involuntary "sex normalizing" surgical and hormonal treatments in infancy and childhood, often also including sterilization.


title: Reproductive rights

text: UN agencies have begun to take note. On 1 February 2013, Juan E Mendés, the UN Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, issued a statement condemning non-consensual surgical intervention on intersex people. His report stated, "Children who are born with atypical sex characteristics are often subject to irreversible sex assignment, involuntary sterilization, involuntary genital normalizing surgery, performed without their informed consent, or that of their parents, "in an attempt to fix their sex", leaving them with permanent, irreversible infertility and causing severe mental suffering". In May 2014, the World Health Organization issued a joint statement on "Eliminating forced, coercive and otherwise involuntary sterilization, An interagency statement" with the OHCHR, UN Women, UNAIDS, UNDP, UNFPA and UNICEF. The report references the involuntary surgical "sex-normalising or other procedures" on "intersex persons". It questions the medical necessity of such treatments, patients' ability to consent, and a weak evidence base. The report recommends a range of guiding principles to prevent compulsory sterilization in medical treatment, including ensuring patient autonomy in decision-making, ensuring non-discrimination, accountability and access to remedies.


title: Reproductive rights

text: In many jurisdictions minors require parental consent or parental notification in order to access various reproductive services, such as contraception, abortion, gynecological consultations, testing for STDs etc. The requirement that minors have parental consent/notification for testing for HIV/AIDS is especially controversial, particularly in areas where the disease is endemic, and it is a sensitive subject. Balancing minors' rights versus parental rights is considered an ethical problem in medicine and law, and there have been many court cases on this issue in the US. An important concept recognized since 1989 by the Convention on the Rights of the Child is that of the evolving capacities of a minor, namely that minors should, in accordance with their maturity and level of understanding, be involved in decisions that affect them.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Youth are often denied equal access to reproductive health services because health workers view adolescent sexual activity as unacceptable, or see sex education as the responsibility of parents. Providers of reproductive health have little accountability to youth clients, a primary factor in denying youth access to reproductive health care. In many countries, regardless of legislation, minors are denied even the most basic reproductive care, if they are not accompanied by parents: in India, for instance, in 2017, a 17-year-old girl who was rejected by her family due to her pregnancy, was also rejected by hospitals and gave birth in the street. In recent years the lack of reproductive rights for adolescents has been a concern of international organizations, such as UNFPA.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Mandatory involvement of parents in cases where the minor has sufficient maturity to understand their situation is considered by health organization as a violation of minor's rights and detrimental to their health. The World Health Organization has criticized parental consent/notification laws:


title: Reproductive rights

text: Discrimination in health care settings takes many forms and is often manifested when an individual or group is denied access to health care services that are otherwise available to others. It can also occur through denial of services that are only needed by certain groups, such as women. Examples include specific individuals or groups being subjected to physical and verbal abuse or violence; involuntary treatment; breaches of confidentiality and/or denial of autonomous decision-making, such as the requirement of consent to treatment by parents, spouses or guardians; and lack of free and informed consent. ... Laws and policies must respect the principles of autonomy in health care decision-making; guarantee free and informed consent, privacy and confidentiality; prohibit mandatory HIV testing; prohibit screening procedures that are not of benefit to the individual or the public; and ban involuntary treatment and mandatory third-party authorization and notification requirements.


title: Reproductive rights

text: to inform parents and obtain their consent becomes a significant barrier with consequences for adolescents’ lives and for public health in general." One specific issue which is seen as a form of hypocrisy of legislators is that of having a higher age of medical consent for the purpose of reproductive and sexual health than the age of sexual consent – in such cases the law allows youth to engage in sexual activity, but does not allow them to consent to medical procedures that may arise from being sexually active; UNICEF states that "On sexual and reproductive health matters, the minimum age of medical consent should never be higher than the age of sexual consent."


title: Reproductive rights

text: Many unintended pregnancies stem from traditional contraceptive methods or no contraceptive measures.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Youth sexual education in Uganda is relatively low. Comprehensive sex education is not generally taught in schools; even if it was, the majority of young people do not stay in school after the age of fifteen, so information would be limited regardless.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Africa experiences high rates of unintended pregnancy, along with high rates of HIV/AIDS. Young women aged 15–24 are eight times more likely to have HIV/AIDS than young men. Sub-Saharan Africa is the world region most affected by HIV/AIDS, with approximately 25 million people living with HIV in 2015. Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for two-thirds of the global total of new HIV infections.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Attempted abortions and unsafe abortions are a risk for youth in Africa. On average, there are 2.4 million unsafe abortions in East Africa, 1.8 million in Western Africa, over 900,000 in Middle Africa, and over 100,000 in Southern Africa each year.


title: Reproductive rights

text: In Uganda, abortion is illegal except to save the mother's life. However, 78% of teenagers report knowing someone who has had an abortion and the police do not always prosecute everyone who has an abortion. An estimated 22% of all maternal deaths in the area stem from illegal, unsafe abortions.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Over 85% of European women (all ages) have used some form of birth control in their lives. Europeans as an aggregate report using the pill and condoms as the most commonly used contraceptives.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Sweden has the highest percentage of lifetime contraceptive use, with 96% of its inhabitants claiming to have used birth control at some point in their life. Sweden also has a high self-reported rate of postcoital pill use. A 2007 anonymous survey of Swedish 18-year-olds showed that three out of four youth were sexually active, with 5% reporting having had an abortion and 4% reporting the contraction of an STI.


title: Reproductive rights

text: In the European Union, reproductive rights are protected through the European Convention on Human Rights and its jurisprudence, as well as the Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence (the Istanbul Convention).


title: Reproductive rights

text: In fact, some countries criminalize medical staff, have stricter regulations than the international norm or exclude legal abortion and contraception from public health insurance.


title: Reproductive rights

text: A study conducted by Policy Departments, at the request of the European Parliament Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, recommends the EU to strengthen the legal framework on equal access to sexual and reproductive health goods and services.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Latin America has come to international attention due to its harsh anti-abortion laws. Latin America is home to some of the few countries of the world with a complete ban on abortion, without an exception for saving maternal life. In some of these countries, particularity in Central America, the enforcement of such laws is very aggressive: El Salvador and Nicaragua have drawn international attention for strong enforcement of their complete bans on abortion. In 2017, Chile relaxed its total ban, allowing abortion to be performed when the woman’s life is in danger, when a fetus is unviable, or in cases of rape.


title: Reproductive rights

text: In Ecuador, education and class play a large role in the definition of which young women become pregnant and which do not – 50% of young women who are illiterate get pregnant, compared to 11% of girls with secondary education. The same is true for poorer individuals – 28% become impregnated while only 11% of young women in wealthier households do. Furthermore, access to reproductive rights, including contraceptives, are limited, due to age and the perception of female morality. Health care providers often discuss contraception theoretically, not as a device to be used on a regular basis. Decisions concerning sexual activity often involve secrecy and taboos, as well as a lack of access to accurate information. Even more telling, young women have much easier access to maternal healthcare than they do to contraceptive help, which helps explain high pregnancy rates in the region.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Among sexually experienced teenagers, 78% of teenage females and 85% of teenage males used contraception the first time they had sex; 86% and 93% of these same females and males, respectively, reported using contraception the last time they had sex. The male condom is the most commonly used method during first sex, although 54% of young women in the United States rely upon the pill.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Young people in the U.S. are no more sexually active than individuals in other developed countries, but they are significantly less knowledgeable about contraception and safe sex practices. As of 2006, only twenty states required sex education in schools – of these, only ten required information about contraception. On the whole, less than 10% of American students receive sex education that includes topical coverage of abortion, homosexuality, relationships, pregnancy, and STI prevention. Abstinence-only education was used throughout much of the United States in the 1990s and early 2000s. Based upon the moral principle that sex outside of marriage is unacceptable, the programs often misled students about their rights to have sex, the consequences, and prevention of pregnancy and STIs.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Abortion in the United States is legal since the United States Supreme Court decision "Roe v. Wade" which decriminalised abortion nationwide in 1973, and established a minimal period during which abortion is legal (with more or fewer restrictions throughout the pregnancy). That basic framework, modified in "Planned Parenthood v. Casey" (1992), remains nominally in place, although the effective availability of abortion varies significantly from state to state, as many counties have no abortion providers. "Planned Parenthood v. Casey" held that a law cannot place legal restrictions imposing an undue burden for "the purpose or effect of placing a substantial obstacle in the path of a woman seeking an abortion of a nonviable fetus." Abortion is a controversial political issue, and regular attempts to restrict it occur in most states. One such case, originating in Texas, led to the Supreme Court case of "Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt" (2016) in which several Texas restrictions were struck down.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Since these times reproductive rights restrictions that contradict Roe v. Wade have been made in the U.S. An example of these restrictions is the new bill in Texas known as ‘The Senate Bill 8’. This ban restricts patients from getting an abortion if a heartbeat is heard which is typically 6 weeks after the patient’s last period.


title: Reproductive rights

text: One of the reasons why reproductive rights are poor in many places, is that the vast majority of the population does not know what the law is. Not only are ordinary people uninformed, but so are medical doctors. A study in Brazil on medical doctors found considerable ignorance and misunderstanding of the law on abortion (which is severely restricted, but not completely illegal). In Ghana, abortion, while restricted, is permitted on several grounds, but only 3% of pregnant women and 6% of those seeking an abortion were aware of the legal status of abortion. In Nepal, abortion was legalized in 2002, but a study in 2009 found that only half of women knew that abortion was legalized. Many people also do not understand the laws on sexual violence: in Hungary, where marital rape was made illegal in 1997, in a study in 2006, 62% of people did not know that marital rape was a crime. The United Nations Development Programme states that, in order to advance gender justice, "Women must know their rights and be able to access legal systems", and the 1993 UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women states at Art. 4 (d) [...] "States should also inform women of their rights in seeking redress through such mechanisms".


title: Reproductive rights

text: Addressing issues of gender-based violence is crucial for attaining reproductive rights. The United Nations Population Fund refers to "Equality and equity for men and women, to enable individuals to make free and informed choices in all spheres of life, free from discrimination based on gender" and "Sexual and reproductive security, including freedom from sexual violence and coercion, and the right to privacy," as part of achieving reproductive rights, and states that the right to liberty and security of the person which is fundamental to reproductive rights obliges states to:


title: Reproductive rights

text: One key issue for achieving reproductive rights is criminalization of sexual violence. If a woman is not protected from forced sexual intercourse, she is not protected from forced pregnancy, namely pregnancy from rape. In order for a woman to be able to have reproductive rights, she must have the right to choose with whom and when to reproduce; and first of all, decide whether, when, and under what circumstances to be sexually active. In many countries, these rights of women are not respected, because women do not have a choice in regard to their partner, with forced marriage and child marriage being common in parts of the world; and neither do they have any rights in regard to sexual activity, as many countries do not allow women to refuse to engage in sexual intercourse when they do not want to (because marital rape is not criminalized in those countries) or to engage in consensual sexual intercourse if they want to (because sex outside marriage is illegal in those countries). In addition to legal barriers, there are also social barriers, because in many countries a complete sexual subordination of a woman to her husband is expected (for instance, in one survey 74% of women in Mali said that a husband is justified to beat his wife if she refuses to have sex with him), while sexual/romantic relations disapproved by family members, or generally sex outside marriage, can result in serious violence, such as honor killings.


title: Reproductive rights

text: According to the CDC, "HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus. It weakens a person’s immune system by destroying important cells that fight disease and infection. No effective cure exists for HIV. But with proper medical care, HIV can be controlled." HIV amelioration is an important aspect of reproductive rights because the virus can be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy or birth, or via breast milk.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The WHO states that: "All women, including those with HIV, have the right "to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children and to have access to the information, education and means to enable them to exercise these rights"". The reproductive rights of people living with HIV, and their health, are very important. The link between HIV and reproductive rights exists in regard to four main issues:


title: Reproductive rights

text: The WHO states that the reproductive rights and health of girls in child marriages are negatively affected.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The UNPF calls child marriage a "human rights violation" and states that in developing countries, one in every three girls is married before reaching age 18, and one in nine is married under age 15. A forced marriage is a marriage in which one or more of the parties is married without his or her consent or against his or her will. The Istanbul convention, the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women and domestic violence, requires countries which ratify it to prohibit forced marriage (Article 37) and to ensure that forced marriages can be easily voided without further victimization (Article 32).


title: Reproductive rights

text: Sexual violence in armed conflict is sexual violence committed by combatants during armed conflict, war, or military occupation often as spoils of war; but sometimes, particularly in ethnic conflict, the phenomenon has broader sociological motives. It often includes gang rape. Rape is often used as a tactic of war and a threat to international security. Sexual violence in armed conflict is a violation of reproductive rights, and often leads to forced pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. Such sexual violations affect mostly women and girls, but rape of men can also occur, such as in Democratic Republic of the Congo.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Maternal death is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes." It is estimated that in 2015, about 303,000 women died during and following pregnancy and childbirth, and 99% of such deaths occur in developing countries.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Birth control, also known as contraception and fertility control, is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy. Birth control has been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods of birth control only became available in the 20th century. Planning, making available, and using birth control is called family planning. Some cultures limit or discourage access to birth control because they consider it to be morally, religiously, or politically undesirable.


title: Reproductive rights

text: All birth control methods meet opposition, especially religious opposition, in some parts of the world. Opposition does not only target modern methods, but also 'traditional' ones; for example, the Quiverfull movement, a conservative Christian ideology, encourages the maximization of procreation, and opposes all forms of birth control, including natural family planning.


title: Reproductive rights

text: According to a study by WHO and the Guttmacher Institute worldwide, 25 million unsafe abortions (45% of all abortions) occurred every year between 2010 and 2014. 97% of unsafe abortions occur in developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. By contrast, most abortions that take place in Western and Northern Europe and North America are safe.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women considers the criminalization of abortion a "violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights" and a form of "gender-based violence"; paragraph 18 of its "General recommendation No. 35 on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19" states that: "Violations of women's sexual and reproductive health and rights, such as forced sterilizations, forced abortion, forced pregnancy, criminalisation of abortion, denial or delay of safe abortion and post-abortion care, forced continuation of pregnancy, abuse and mistreatment of women and girls seeking sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, are forms of gender based violence that, depending on the circumstances, may amount to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment." The same "General Recommendation" also urges countries at paragraph 31 to [...] "In particular, repeal:


title: Reproductive rights

text: a) Provisions that allow, tolerate or condone forms of gender-based violence against women, including [...] legislation that criminalises abortion."


title: Reproductive rights

text: An article from the World Health Organization calls safe, legal abortion a "fundamental right of women, irrespective of where they live" and unsafe abortion a "silent pandemic". The article states "ending the silent pandemic of unsafe abortion is an urgent public-health and human-rights imperative." It also states "access to safe abortion improves women's health, and vice versa, as documented in Romania during the regime of President Nicolae Ceaușescu" and "legalisation of abortion on request is a necessary but insufficient step toward improving women's health" citing that in some countries, such as India where abortion has been legal for decades, access to competent care remains restricted because of other barriers. WHO's Global Strategy on Reproductive Health, adopted by the World Health Assembly in May 2004, noted: "As a preventable cause of maternal mortality and morbidity, unsafe abortion must be dealt with as part of the MDG on improving maternal health and other international development goals and targets." The WHO's Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction (HRP), whose research concerns people's sexual and reproductive health and lives, has an overall strategy to combat unsafe abortion that comprises four inter-related activities:


title: Reproductive rights

text: The UN has estimated in 2017 that repealing anti-abortion laws would save the lives of nearly 50,000 women a year. 209,519 abortions take place in England and Wales alone. Unsafe abortions take place primarily in countries where abortion is illegal, but also occur in countries where it is legal. Despite its legal status, an abortion is "de facto" hardly optional for women due to most doctors being conscientious objectors. Other reasons include the lack of knowledge that abortions are legal, lower socioeconomic backgrounds and spatial disparities. Concerns have been raised about these practical considerations; the UN in its 2017 resolution on "Intensification of efforts to prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls: domestic violence" urged states to guarantee access to "safe abortion where such services are permitted by national law". In 2008, Human Rights Watch stated that "In fact, even where abortion is permitted by law, women often have severely limited access to safe abortion services because of lack of proper regulation, health services, or political will" and estimated that "Approximately 13 percent of maternal deaths worldwide are attributable to unsafe abortion—between 68,000 and 78,000 deaths annually."


title: Reproductive rights

text: The Maputo Protocol, which was adopted by the African Union in the form of a protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, states at Article 14 (Health and Reproductive Rights) that: "(2). States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to: [...] c) protect the reproductive rights of women by authorising medical abortion in cases of sexual assault, rape, incest, and where the continued pregnancy endangers the mental and physical health of the mother or the life of the mother or the foetus." The Maputo Protocol is the first international treaty to recognize abortion, under certain conditions, as a woman's human right.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The "General comment No. 36 (2018) on article 6 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, on the right to life", adopted by the Human Rights Committee in 2018, defines, for the first time ever, a human right to abortion – in certain circumstances (however these UN general comments are considered soft law, and, as such, not legally binding).


title: Reproductive rights

text: Although States parties may adopt measures designed to regulate voluntary terminations of pregnancy, such measures must not result in violation of the right to life of a pregnant woman or girl, or her other rights under the Covenant. Thus, restrictions on the ability of women or girls to seek abortion must not, inter alia, jeopardize their lives, subject them to physical or mental pain or suffering which violates article 7, discriminate against them or arbitrarily interfere with their privacy. "States parties must provide safe, legal and effective access to abortion where the life and health of the pregnant woman or girl is at risk, and where carrying a pregnancy to term would cause the pregnant woman or girl substantial pain or suffering, most notably where the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest or is not viable." In addition, States parties may not regulate pregnancy or abortion in all other cases in a manner that runs contrary to their duty to ensure that women and girls do not have to undertake unsafe abortions, and they should revise their abortion laws accordingly. For example, they should not take measures such as criminalizing pregnancies by unmarried women or apply criminal sanctions against women and girls undergoing abortion or against medical service providers assisting them in doing so, since taking such measures compel women and girls to resort to unsafe abortion. States parties should not introduce new barriers and should remove existing barriers that deny effective access by women and girls to safe and legal abortion, including barriers caused as a result of the exercise of conscientious objection by individual medical providers.


title: Reproductive rights

text: When negotiating the Cairo Programme of Action at the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), the issue was so contentious that delegates eventually decided to omit any recommendation to legalize abortion, instead advising governments to provide proper post-abortion care and to invest in programs that will decrease the number of unwanted pregnancies.


title: Reproductive rights

text: On 18 April 2008 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, a group comprising members from 47 European countries, adopted a resolution calling for the decriminalization of abortion within reasonable gestational limits and guaranteed access to safe abortion procedures. The nonbinding resolution was passed on 16 April by a vote of 102 to 69.


title: Reproductive rights

text: During and after the ICPD, some interested parties attempted to interpret the term "reproductive health" in the sense that it implies abortion as a means of family planning or, indeed, a right to abortion. These interpretations, however, do not reflect the consensus reached at the Conference.


title: Reproductive rights

text: For the European Union, where legislation on abortion is certainly less restrictive than elsewhere, the Council Presidency has clearly stated that the Council's commitment to promote "reproductive health" did not include the promotion of abortion. Likewise, the European Commission, in response to a question from a Member of the European Parliament, clarified:


title: Reproductive rights

text: The term reproductive health was defined by the United Nations (UN) in 1994 at the Cairo International Conference on Population and Development. All Member States of the Union endorsed the Programme of Action adopted at Cairo. The Union has never adopted an alternative definition of 'reproductive health' to that given in the Programme of Action, which makes no reference to abortion.


title: Reproductive rights

text: With regard to the U.S., only a few days prior to the Cairo Conference, the head of the U.S. delegation, Vice President Al Gore, had stated for the record:


title: Reproductive rights

text: Let us get a false issue off the table: the US does not seek to establish a new international right to abortion, and we do not believe that abortion should be encouraged as a method of family planning.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Some years later, the position of the U.S. Administration in this debate was reconfirmed by U.S. Ambassador to the UN, Ellen Sauerbrey, when she stated at a meeting of the UN Commission on the Status of Women that: "nongovernmental organizations are attempting to assert that Beijing in some way creates or contributes to the creation of an internationally recognized fundamental right to abortion". She added: "There is no fundamental right to abortion. And yet it keeps coming up largely driven by NGOs trying to hijack the term and trying to make it into a definition".


title: Reproductive rights

text: Collaborative research from the Institute of Development Studies states that "access to safe abortion is a matter of human rights, democracy and public health, and the denial of such access is a major cause of death and impairment, with significant costs to [international] development". The research highlights the inequities of access to safe abortion both globally and nationally and emphasises the importance of global and national movements for reform to address this. The shift by campaigners of reproductive rights from an issue-based agenda (the right to abortion), to safe, legal abortion not only as a human right, but bound up with democratic and citizenship rights, has been an important way of reframing the abortion debate and reproductive justice agenda.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Meanwhile, the European Court of Human Rights complicated the question even more through a landmark judgment (case of "A. B. and C. v. Ireland"), in which it is stated that the denial of abortion for health and/or well-being reasons is an interference with an individual's right to respect for private and family life under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, an interference which in some cases can be justified.


title: Reproductive rights

text: A desire to achieve certain population targets has resulted throughout history in severely abusive practices, in cases where governments ignored human rights and enacted aggressive demographic policies. In the 20th century, several authoritarian governments have sought either to increase or to decrease the births rates, often through forceful intervention. One of the most notorious natalist policies is that which occurred in communist Romania in the period of 1967–1990 during communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu, who adopted a very aggressive natalist policy which included outlawing abortion and contraception, routine pregnancy tests for women, taxes on childlessness, and legal discrimination against childless people. Ceaușescu's policy resulted in over 9,000 women who died due to illegal abortions, large numbers of children put into Romanian orphanages by parents who could not cope with raising them, street children in the 1990s (when many orphanages were closed and the children ended on the streets), and overcrowding in homes and schools. The irony of Ceaușescu's aggressive natalist policy was a generation that may not have been born would eventually lead the Romanian Revolution which would overthrow and have him executed.


title: Reproductive rights

text: In stark opposition with Ceaușescu's natalist policy was China's one-child policy, in effect from 1978 to 2015, which included abuses such as forced abortions. This policy has also been deemed responsible for the common practice of sex selective abortion which led to an imbalanced sex ratio in the country.


title: Reproductive rights

text: From the 1970s to 1980s, tension grew between women's health activists who advance women's reproductive rights as part of a human rights-based approach on the one hand, and population control advocates on the other. At the 1984 UN World Population Conference in Mexico City population control policies came under attack from women's health advocates who argued that the policies' narrow focus led to coercion and decreased quality of care, and that these policies ignored the varied social and cultural contexts in which family planning was provided in developing countries. In the 1980s the HIV/AIDS epidemic forced a broader discussion of sex into the public discourse in many countries, leading to more emphasis on reproductive health issues beyond reducing fertility. The growing opposition to the narrow population control focus led to a significant departure in the early 1990s from past population control policies. In the United States, abortion opponents have begun to foment conspiracy theories about reproductive rights advocates, accusing them of advancing a racist agenda of eugenics, and of trying to reduce the African American birth rate in the U.S.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Female genital mutilation (FGM) is defined as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons." The procedure has no health benefits, and can cause severe bleeding and problems urinating, cysts, infections, and complications in childbirth and increased risk of newborn deaths. It is performed for traditional, cultural or religious reasons in many parts of the world, especially in Africa, and in some parts of Asia, such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Iraqi Kurdistan, and Yemen. The Istanbul Convention prohibits FGM (Article 38). It is estimated that 200 million women worldwide had undergone FGM, including at least 500,000 immigrant women in Europe. Infibulation, also referred to as Type 3 FGM, is the most extreme form of FGM, and is practiced mainly in northeastern Africa, particularly in Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Bride kidnapping or marriage by abduction, is the practice whereby a woman or girl is abducted for the purpose of a forced marriage. Bride kidnapping has been practiced historically in many parts of the world, and it continues to occur today in some places, especially in Central Asia and the Caucasus, in countries such as Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Armenia, as well as in Ethiopia. Bride kidnapping is often preceded or followed by rape (which may result in pregnancy), in order to force the marriage – a practice also supported by "marry-your-rapist law" (laws regarding sexual violence, abduction or similar acts, whereby the perpetrator avoids prosecution or punishment if he marries the victim). Abducting of women may happen on an individual scale or on a mass scale. Raptio is a Latin term referring to the large-scale abduction of women, usually for marriage or sexual slavery, particularly during wartime.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Bride price, also called bridewealth, is money, property, or other form of wealth paid by a groom or his family to the parents of the woman he marries. The practice of bride price sometimes leads to parents selling young daughters into marriage and to trafficking. Bride price is common across Africa. Such forced marriages often lead to sexual violence, and forced pregnancy. In northern Ghana, for example, the payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women using birth control are at risks of threats and coercion.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery defines "institutions and practices similar to slavery" to include:


title: Reproductive rights

text: Laws in many countries and states require sperm donors to be either anonymous or known to the recipient, or the laws restrict the number of children each donor may father. Although many donors choose to remain anonymous, new technologies such as the Internet and DNA technology have opened up new avenues for those wishing to know more about the biological father, siblings and half-siblings.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Ethnic minority women have often been victims of forced sterilization programs, such as Amerindian women in parts of Latin America of Roma women.


title: Reproductive rights

text: In Peru, President Alberto Fujimori (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of genocide and crimes against humanity as a result of the "Programa Nacional de Población", a sterilization program put in place by his administration. During his presidency, Fujimori put in place a program of forced sterilizations against indigenous people (mainly the Quechuas and the Aymaras), in the name of a "public health plan", presented on 28 July 1995.


title: Reproductive rights

text: During the 20th century, forced sterilization of Roma women in European countries, especially in former Communist countries, was practiced, and there are allegations that these practices continue unofficially in some countries, such as Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania. In "V. C. vs. Slovakia", the European Court for Human Rights ruled in favor of a Roma woman who was the victim of forced sterilization in a state hospital in Slovakia in 2000.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Forced sterilization in the United States was practiced starting with the 19th century. The United States during the Progressive era, ca. 1890 to 1920, was the first country to concertedly undertake compulsory sterilization programs for the purpose of eugenics. Thomas C. Leonard, professor at Princeton University, describes American eugenics and sterilization as ultimately rooted in economic arguments and further as a central element of Progressivism alongside wage controls, restricted immigration, and the introduction of pension programs. The heads of the programs were avid proponents of eugenics and frequently argued for their programs, which achieved some success nationwide, mainly in the first half of the 20th century.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Compulsory sterilization has been practiced historically in parts of Canada. Two Canadian provinces (Alberta and British Columbia) performed compulsory sterilization programs in the 20th century with eugenic aims. Canadian compulsory sterilization operated via the same overall mechanisms of institutionalization, judgment, and surgery as the American system. However, one notable difference is in the treatment of non-insane criminals. Canadian legislation never allowed for punitive sterilization of inmates.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The "Sexual Sterilization Act" of Alberta was enacted in 1928 and repealed in 1972. In 1995, Leilani Muir sued the Province of Alberta for forcing her to be sterilized against her will and without her permission in 1959. Since Muir’s case, the Alberta government has apologized for the forced sterilization of over 2,800 people. Nearly 850 Albertans who were sterilized under the "Sexual Sterilization Act" were awarded million in damages.


title: Reproductive rights

text: The Catholic Church is opposed to artificial contraception, abortion, and sexual intercourse outside marriage. This belief dates back to the first centuries of Christianity. While Roman Catholicism is not the only religion with such views, its religious doctrine is very powerful in influencing countries where most of the population is Catholic, and the few countries of the world with complete bans on abortion are mostly Catholic-majority countries, and in Europe strict restrictions on abortion exist in the Catholic majority countries of Malta (complete ban), Andorra, San Marino, Liechtenstein and to a lesser extent Poland and Monaco.


title: Reproductive rights

text: In France, a country with a Roman Catholic tradition, abortionist Marie-Louise Giraud was guillotined on 30 July 1943 under the authoritarian Vichy regime.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Some of the countries of Central America, notably El Salvador, have also come to international attention due to very forceful enforcement of the anti-abortion laws. El Salvador has received repeated criticism from the UN. The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) named the law "one of the most draconian abortion laws in the world", and urged liberalization, and Zeid bin Ra'ad, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, stated that he was "appalled that as a result of El Salvador’s absolute prohibition on abortion, women are being punished for apparent miscarriages and other obstetric emergencies, accused and convicted of having induced termination of pregnancy".


title: Reproductive rights

text: Criticism surrounds certain forms of anti-abortion activism. Anti-abortion violence is a serious issue in some parts of the world, especially in North America. It is recognized as single-issue terrorism. Numerous organizations have also recognized anti-abortion extremism as a form of Christian terrorism.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Incidents include vandalism, arson, and bombings of abortion clinics, such as those committed by Eric Rudolph (199698), and murders or attempted murders of physicians and clinic staff, as committed by James Kopp (1998), Paul Jennings Hill (1994), Scott Roeder (2009), Michael F. Griffin (1993), and Peter James Knight (2001).


title: Reproductive rights

text: Since 1978, in the US, anti-abortion violence includes at least 11 murders of medical staff, 26 attempted murders, 42 bombings, and 187 arsons.


title: Reproductive rights

text: Some opponents of legalized abortion view the term "reproductive rights" as a euphemism to sway emotions in favor of abortion. National Right to Life has referred to "reproductive rights" as a "fudge term" and "the code word for "abortion" rights."


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: "Show Me Love" is a song officially credited as being performed by American singer Robin S. and written by Allen George and Fred McFarlane, originally released in 1990 by Champion Records in the United Kingdom. In 1992, it was remixed by Swedish house music production duo StoneBridge and Nick Nice, and re-released in many European countries as well as the United States and Japan. It became one of the most well known house anthems in the United Kingdom, and Robin's biggest hit to date. It helped to make house more mainstream. In 1993, it was included on Robin S.'s debut album of the same name. Confusion arose with the 1997 hit "Show Me Love" by Swedish singer Robyn, due to the similar name and same title.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: In the US, "Show Me Love" reached number five on the "Billboard" Hot 100, number seven on the R&B chart, and number one on the dance club chart. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and sold 600,000 copies domestically. Additionally, the song went to number six on the UK Singles Chart in April 1993.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: The original version of "Show Me Love", released in 1990 on British label Champion Records, is officially credited as being written by Allen George and Fred McFarlane and performed by Robin S. Initially reluctant to sign on due to its fast tempo given her prior background in solely R&B and pop, Robin struggled through the recording process as heard in the hoarseness and frustration on the final track as she was recovering from the flu. Despite asking Allen for publishing credits for what she claimed to be her own ad-libbed additions to the original demo for years, Robin never received them.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: In 1992, Swedish DJ and producer StoneBridge contacted Champion, looking for songs to remix; they suggested "Show Me Love". After they rejected several remixes, StoneBridge created a new mix after hearing contributing musician Richard Tomlinson's demo using the "organ" preset on the Korg M1 synthesiser to create the distorted bassline. A few days later, he listened to the remix again; he thought it was "pretty bad", but he was persuaded by his girlfriend to submit it. StoneBridge recalls this process:


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: StoneBridge only learned his remix was a global hit months after its release during a visit to London when he turned on the weekly TV show "Top of the Pops". He also regretted never being given writing credits for the remix he went on to describe as "basically compos[ing] a new track" as the "world of remixes" at that time also tended towards "work for hire" which he felt in his situation was eventually "forgiven" as he got a "lot of work" afterwards.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: Following an ASCAP panel in 2011 with musician Andrea Martin, initial reporting indicated that Andrea had claimed that during her time as a then "very popular" demo session vocalist, her entire melody and vocal sent for the track to Rondo Publishing in the UK was used for the official recording in place of Robin S. but neither was ever credited.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: Following her death in 2021, longtime songwriting partner to Andrea, Ivan Matias, clarified to "Billboard" in 2022 that her comments at that panel had been widely misinterpreted for years and that while Andrea had written the entire melody and vocal arrangement as well as sung the demo, it was in fact Robin's vocal on the final recording. Record executive Joey Carvello, who had licensed the remix from Champion for Atlantic Records at the time, substantiated Matias' comments to the same outlet. For the demo Andrea took a one-time $300 fee for her contribution rather than asking for writing credits which would have entitled her to publishing income, a decision they said she regretted for years and blamed on her naivete of the then-common industry practice.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: AllMusic editor Alex Henderson noted that Robin S. is "greatly influenced by Evelyn "Champagne" King but obviously her own person" and added further that "the success of her sleek yet gritty hits "Show Me Love" and "Back It Up" led many to think of Robin as a dance-floor diva." Larry Flick from "Billboard" wrote, "Here's a bit of diva-house with a slight twist. Robin's big, finger-wavin' performance is laid atop an understated arrangement of icy cool electro beats." M.R. Martinez from "Cash Box" stated that "Show Me Love" "will become a testament to any dance floor DJ." A writer for "Complex" deemed it as "pure" and "powerful". Anderson Jones from "Entertainment Weekly" described it as a "techno-tinged house tune." Joe Muggs from "Fact" wrote that "for all its poppiness, this is a dark, fierce, attitude-filled beast of a record." Howard Cohen from "Knight-Ridder Newspapers" stated, "Distinctive, burbling keyboard pattern and rich singing infuse this house classic. A must." Pan-European magazine "Music & Media" noted that "buzzing synth bass lines and synthesised xylophone are the spine of this American dance prima donna's two hit singles."


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: Alan Jones from "Music Week" stated on the 1997 re-release, that the track "is widely recognised as one of the classic dance tracks of the Nineties and the original can't be improved on, but our old friend "public demand" has apparently forced a re-release." He added, "Reserve a place in the upper echelons of the chart." A reviewer from "The Orlando Sentinel" viewed it as "hard-driving". Jeremy Helligar from "People Magazine" remarked that the singer "sounded so caught up in the rapture of the rhythm that listeners couldn't help following suit." Popdust noted "that gorgeous, glorious riff", adding that Robin S. "sounds shell-shocked and devastated, like she's pleading for her guy to show her love, because she just doesn't know if she can take another crushing disappointment. It's very dark, and could have been overwhelmingly dour, if not for the snare-and-hi-hate shuffle that keeps propelling the song forward." TMZ described it as "infectious", praising the singer as "a singing icon in the '90s club scene."


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: In the United States, the 1992 remix of the track peaked at number five on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on June 12, 1993. And on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart, it peaked at number one, on May 8, 1993. "Show Me Love" also peaked at number seven on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and sold 600,000 copies domestically. In Canada, the single peaked at number two on the "RPM" Dance/Urban chart.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: In Europe, in the United Kingdom, the song debuted at number 66 on the UK Singles Chart, and peaked at number six on April 4, 7 weeks later. It also reached number two in Spain, number nine in Belgium and Switzerland, as well as number ten in Sweden. It was a top 20 hit in Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, and the Netherlands. On the European Hot 100 Singles, "Show Me Love" reached number 26 on September 25. Outside Europe, the song peaked at number six in Zimbabwe, number 13 in Israel, and in 1994, number 78 in Australia.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: A music video was produced to promote the single, which sees Robin S. performing in a club. It was directed by American music video, television, and film director Millicent Shelton. It starts with a young woman arriving at a nightclub in which Robin S. begins to sing on a stage in front of a crowd. She is backed up by a male dancer. The woman goes to the bar where she meets a young man who buys her a drink. When the chorus comes, some drag queens in the club are lip syncing to it. People are dancing everywhere, while the two are enjoying themselves at the bar. Then they are interrupted by an elderly man trying to talk to the woman. She is not interested and in the scuffle, her pearl band breaks. All the pearls roll down on the floor, while she runs from the bar. The young man picks up some of the pearls and goes out to the woman. Then he puts them in her hand and kisses her. While Robin S. sings the last stanzas of the song, they leave the nightclub together. The video was later published on YouTube in June 2010. It had amassed more than 52.6 million views as of October 2021.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: The song made it to the top five on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the United States, a rare feat for a house song at the time. According to "The Guardian", "Show Me Love" has influenced contemporary house songs such as Kiesza's "Hideaway" (2014) and Disclosure's "White Noise" (2013), and artists such as Clean Bandit and Felix Jaehn. In 2000, VH1 placed "Show Me Love" at number 73 in its list of 100 Greatest Dance Songs.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: In 2014, "Complex" included the song in their "Songs Every Dance Music Fan Should Know, Vol. 1", stating that "it's a perfect track." They wrote,


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: The song was also prominently sampled in Beyoncé's 2022 single "Break My Soul". As a direct result, various record labels, corporations, and other artists inquired about licensing the song's master recordings for various purposes. Robin S. further praised Beyoncé for acknowledging and appreciating her music, calling it "one of the highest compliments ever."


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: In 2008, following the successful sample of the Mobin Master cover mashup with their song, "Be", Swedish DJ and producer Steve Angello and Filipino-Dutch DJ Laidback Luke used the parts to reconstruct their mashup. Robin S. is featured re-recording her vocals, engineered and co-produced by Mobin Master, which was initially recorded for his version. Also featured are additional vocals from Hal Ritson (co-producer) and Yolanda Quartey. It was originally released through the Happy Music label on December 12, and has had multiple re-releases since. "Show Me Love" is one of Angello's and Luke's best known singles, especially in the United Kingdom where it topped the UK Dance Chart in 2009.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: The song was also an international breakthrough for Dutch DJ Hardwell. The song is based on his illegal bootleg mashup of Mobin Master's cover of "Show Me Love", with vocalist Karina Chavez and the instrumental track "Be" by Steve Angello & Laidback Luke.


title: Show Me Love (Robin S. song)

text: In 2015, the song was remade by producer Sam Feldt featuring vocals from Kimberly Anne. It was released as a digital download on 16 February 2015 through Spinnin' Records. Several remixes were released on 21 June 2015, including EDX's Indian Summer Remix, which became most popular.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: Paulo Dino Gazzaniga (born 2 January 1992) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Spanish La Liga club Girona, on loan from English Premier League club Fulham.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: Gazzaniga was born in Murphy, Santa Fe, the same small town in Argentina where his future Southampton and Tottenham manager Mauricio Pochettino was also born. His father is Daniel Gazzaniga, a footballer, as is his brother Gianfranco who plays as a goalkeeper for Racing de Ferrol. Gazzaniga studied in the only public school and a secondary college in Murphy. He played for the football team of Centro Recreativo Unión y Cultura in Murphy as a goalkeeper.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: In 2007, when he was 15, Gazzaniga left his hometown side Unión y Cultura with his brother and father for Spain, where he joined the Spanish club Valencia's youth setup. However, he failed to make a first team appearance for "Los Che", and was subsequently released in May 2011.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: In July 2011, Gazzaniga signed a two-year contract with League Two club Gillingham, to challenge Ross Flitney for the number one spot. Gazzaniga was recommended to Gillingham manager Andy Hessenthaler by Gary Penrice, Wigan Athletic's European scout, following his release from Valencia. He made his professional debut for the club on 4 October, in a 3–1 home defeat to Barnet in the Football League Trophy.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: On 20 July 2012, Gazzaniga signed a four-year deal with newly promoted Premier League side Southampton, with Tommy Forecast going to Gillingham on loan as part of the deal. He described it as "a crazy situation" but said it was like "a dream".


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: Gazzaniga made his debut on 28 August in a 4–1 victory against Stevenage in the second round of the League Cup. He made his league debut almost a month later, on 22 September in a 4–1 win against Aston Villa.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: Gazzaniga was used as cover for first choice keepers Kelvin Davis, Artur Boruc and Fraser Forster, making only two appearances in 2014–15.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: He made two Premier League appearances in the 2015–16 season, in the 1–0 defeat away to Crystal Palace and a home 2–0 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur, both in December 2015. He signed a new four-year deal with Southampton on 11 September 2015.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: On 29 July 2016, Gazzaniga joined Segunda División club Rayo Vallecano on loan for the 2016–17 season.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: On 23 August 2017, Gazzaniga signed for fellow Premier League club Tottenham Hotspur on a five-year contract. He reunited with his compatriot and former Southampton manager, Mauricio Pochettino. He made his Premier League debut for the club on 5 November 2017, playing in a 1–0 victory against Crystal Palace. Pochettino said that Gazzaniga performed "fantastically well" on his debut.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: In 2018–19 after starting for Tottenham in the Premier League against Brighton & Hove Albion and Huddersfield Town, in the EFL Cup against Watford and West Ham United and in the UEFA Champions League home fixture against PSV, he earned his first Argentina national team call-up. He became effectively the number two goalkeeper for Tottenham this season, having started in more games than Michel Vorm when Hugo Lloris was not available.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: In the 2019–20 season, following Lloris' elbow injury in the opening ten minutes of a loss at Brighton & Hove Albion on 5 October 2019, Gazzaniga enjoyed an extended run as Spurs' first-choice goalkeeper.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: On 1 February 2021, Gazzaniga joined Spanish side Elche on loan for the remainder of the 2020–21 season.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: On 27 May 2021, Tottenham announced the departure of Gazzaniga at the end of the campaign following the conclusion of his contract.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: On 24 July 2021, Gazzaniga joined EFL Championship club Fulham on a two-year contract. Having been pushed to third choice keeper with the arrival of Bernd Leno in August 2022, Gazzaniga joined Girona on loan for the 2022–23 season.


title: Paulo Gazzaniga

text: Gazzaniga made his first international appearance on 20 November 2018, coming off the bench to replace Gerónimo Rulli in the 59th minute in a friendly match against Mexico, and helped keep a clean sheet in a 2–0 win for Argentina.


title: Hawqala

text: The Ḥawqala () or the La Hawla () is an Arabic term referring to the Arabic statement ("") which is usually translated as "There is no power nor strength except by God."


title: Hawqala

text: This expression is mentioned by a Muslim when seized by a calamity or in a situation beyond their control, usually when being oppressed or forcefully put through suffering. The word "Ḥawqala" is a portmanteau (or "naḥt") of the words "ḥawla" and "quwwata".


title: Hawqala

text: A longer version is (""), meaning "There is no power nor strength except by Allah the Lofty, the Great".


title: Active Denial System

text: The Active Denial System (ADS) is a non-lethal directed-energy weapon developed by the U.S. military, designed for area denial, perimeter security and crowd control. Informally, the weapon is also called the heat ray since it works by heating the surface of targets, such as the skin of targeted human beings. Raytheon had marketed a reduced-range version of this technology. The ADS was deployed in 2010 with the United States military in the Afghanistan War, but was withdrawn without seeing combat. On August 20, 2010, the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department announced its intent to use this technology to control incarcerated people in the Pitchess Detention Center in Los Angeles, stating its intent to use it in "operational evaluation" in situations such as breaking up prisoner fights. As of 2014, the ADS was only a vehicle-mounted weapon, though U.S. Marines and police were both working on portable versions. ADS was developed under the sponsorship of the Department of Defense Non-Lethal Weapons Program with the Air Force Research Laboratory as the lead agency. There are reports that Russia and China are developing their own versions of the Active Denial System.


title: Active Denial System

text: The ADS works by firing a high-powered (100 kW output power) beam of 95 GHz waves at a target, which corresponds to a wavelength of 3.2 mm. The ADS millimeter wave energy works on a principle similar to a microwave oven, exciting the water and fat molecules in the skin, and instantly heating them via dielectric heating. One significant difference is that a microwave oven uses the much lower frequency (and longer wavelength) of 2.45 GHz. The short millimeter waves used in ADS only penetrate the top layers of skin, with most of the energy being absorbed within 0.4 mm ( inch), whereas microwaves will penetrate into human tissue about 17 mm (0.67 inch).


title: Active Denial System

text: The ADS's effect of repelling humans occurs at slightly higher than 44 °C (111 °F), though first-degree burns occur at about 51 °C (124 °F), and second-degree burns occur at about 58 °C (136 °F). In testing, pea-sized blisters have been observed in less than 0.1% of ADS exposures, indicating that second degree surface burns have been caused by the device. The radiation burns caused are similar to microwave burns, but only on the skin surface due to the decreased penetration of shorter millimeter waves. The surface temperature of a target will continue to rise so long as the beam is applied, at a rate dictated by the target's material and distance from the transmitter, along with the beam's frequency and power level set by the operator. Most human test subjects reached their pain threshold within 3 seconds, and none could endure more than 5 seconds.


title: Active Denial System

text: A spokesman for the Air Force Research Laboratory described his experience as a test subject for the system: For the first millisecond, it just felt like the skin was warming up. Then it got warmer and warmer and you felt like it was on fire. ... As soon as you're away from that beam your skin returns to normal and there is no pain.


title: Active Denial System

text: Like all focused energy, the beam will irradiate all matter in the targeted area, including everything beyond/behind it that is not shielded, with no possible discrimination between individuals, objects or materials. Anyone incapable of leaving the target area (e.g., physically handicapped, infants, incapacitated, trapped, etc.) would continue to receive radiation until the operator turned off the beam. Reflective materials such as aluminum cooking foil should reflect this radiation and could be used to make clothing that would be protective against this radiation.


title: Active Denial System

text: Following approximately ten thousand test exposures of volunteers to ADS beams, a Penn State Human Effects Advisory Panel (HEAP) concluded that ADS is a non-lethal weapon that has a high probability of effectiveness with a low probability of injury:


title: Active Denial System

text: In April 2007, one airman in an ADS test was overdosed and received second-degree burns on both legs, and was treated in a hospital for two days. There was also one laboratory accident in 1999 that resulted in a small second-degree burn.


title: Active Denial System

text: Many possible long-term effects have been studied, with the conclusion that no long-term effects are likely at the exposure levels studied. However, overexposures of either operators or targets may cause thermal injury. According to an official military assessment, "In the event of an overexposure to a power density sufficient to produce thermal injury, there is an extremely low probability that scars derived from such injury might later become cancerous. Proper wound management further decreases this probability, as well as the probability of hypertrophic scarring or keloid formation."


title: Active Denial System

text: ADS operators would be exposed to more than the standard maximum permissible exposure (MPE) limits for RF energy, and military use requires an exception to these exposure limits.


title: Active Denial System

text: Two Active Denial Systems were developed under a Defense Department "Advanced Concept Technology Demonstration" Program (now known as Joint Concept Technology Demonstration Program) from 2002 to 2007. Unlike typical weapons development programs in the Defense Department, ACTDs/JCTDs are not focused on optimizing the technology; rather they are focused on rapidly assembling the technology in a configuration suitable for user evaluation.


title: Active Denial System

text: On September 22, 2004, Raytheon was granted an FCC license to demonstrate the technology to "law enforcement, military and security organizations."


title: Active Denial System

text: On October 4, 2004, the United States Department of Defense published the following contract information:


title: Active Denial System

text: The military has made the ADS available to the media for demonstrations on a number of occasions. A fully operational and mounted version of the system was demonstrated on January 24, 2007, at Moody Air Force Base in Georgia. A Reuters correspondent who volunteered to be shot with the beam during the demonstration described it as "similar to a blast from a very hot oven – too painful to bear without diving for cover." An Associated Press reporter who volunteered to be engaged stated "They certainly convinced me that the system could help save the lives of innocent civilians and our young service members". A CBS News correspondent did an in-depth story on ADS in March 2008. A demonstration was conducted for the media on March 9, 2012, at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia.


title: Active Denial System

text: On June 21, 2010, Lt. Col. John Dorrian, a spokesman for the NATO forces commander General Stanley McChrystal, confirmed in an e-mail to "Wired" reporter Noah Shachtman that the ADS was deployed in Afghanistan. The spokesman added however that the system had not yet been used operationally.


title: Active Denial System

text: The ADS has been removed from service in Afghanistan as of July 25, 2010. A former Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense noted that the recall of ADS from Afghanistan was an "opportunity missed" and "the non-lethality of the ADS system could prove useful in a counterinsurgency operation where avoidance of civilian casualties is essential to mission success."


title: Active Denial System

text: In September 2020 it was revealed that federal officials had explored the use of the device and the Long Range Acoustic Device to disperse civilians protesting outside the White House in June of that year, but had been advised that the National Guard was not currently in possession of either device.


title: Active Denial System

text: There have been speculations in open literature for why the ADS has not been used in a theater of operations. Some of the claimed problems expressed have included: (1) that a potential unreliability in certain environmental conditions, because precipitation (rain/snow/fog/mist) commonly dissipates RF energy, which may moderate the ADS's sensation to "warm and comfortable"; (2) that ADS may only work successfully against exposed skin, implying that heavier clothing may reduce its effectiveness and that its tactical usefulness may potentially be limited in striking specific personnel hiding in crowds of civilians, because this 'hiding' situation has not been seen in all recent theaters of operation (was reportedly observed in Somalia and Iraq, but reportedly not in Afghanistan). What the actual performance of ADS is relative to these concerns is not presently known to be published in open literature.


title: Active Denial System

text: Following the development of two prototype systems for the ACTD, interest remains in the technology by the military as a means to minimize collateral damage and increase force protection. Research continues on technology that will make it smaller, more reliable, and able to be used on the move, for example, in protection of convoys.


title: Active Denial System

text: ADS was developed as a non-lethal weapon. According to Department of Defense policy, non-lethal weapons "are explicitly designed and primarily employed so as to incapacitate personnel or material, while minimizing fatalities, permanent injury to personnel, and undesired damage to property and the environment." ADS has applications for crowd control and perimeter defense, and filling "the gap between shouting and shooting." Other crowd control methods – including pepper spray, tear gas, water cannons, slippery foam and rubber bullets – carry implicit dangers of temporary or permanent injury or accidental death, and often leave residue or residual material. Combinations of acoustic and optical system platforms with ADS can be used to effectively communicate to, warn of escalation of force, introduce optical and auditory deterrents and step function the escalation of transmitted force from relatively benign to ultimately forced dispersal of a crowd, or to deny them from an area or access to an area. A group of people can theoretically be dispersed or induced to leave an area in a manner unlikely to damage personnel, non-involved civilians (no stray bullets), or to nearby buildings or the environment.


title: Active Denial System

text: Non-lethal weapons are intended to provide options to U.S. troops, for example, "to stop suspicious vehicles without killing the drivers". Although the ADS millimeter wave frequency does not affect a car's electronic components, it can be used to deter a driver in an approaching vehicle. In a broader strategic context, non-lethal weapons such as ADS have the potential to offer "precision, accuracy, and effective duration that can help save military and civilian lives, break the cycle of violence by offering a more graduated response, and even prevent violence from occurring if the opportunity for early or preclusionary engagement arises."


title: Active Denial System

text: The Council on Foreign Relations noted that "wider integration of existing types of nonlethal weapons (NLW) into the U.S. Army and Marine Corps could have helped to reduce the damage done by widespread looting and sabotage after the cessation of major conflict in Iraq."


title: Active Denial System

text: In Afghanistan, the need to minimize civilian casualties has led to restrictive rules of engagement on the use of lethal force by US troops. A National Public Radio correspondent in Afghanistan "witnessed troops grappling with the dilemma of whether to shoot." Non-lethal weapons such as ADS provide an option for US forces in those situations.


title: Active Denial System

text: The effects of this radio frequency on humans have been studied by the military for years, and much, but not all of the research has been published openly in peer-reviewed journals.


title: Active Denial System

text: A news article criticized the sheer amount of time it is taking to field this system, citing the potential it had to avert a great deal of pain and suffering in volatile areas around the world.


title: Active Denial System

text: While it is claimed not to cause burns under "ordinary use", it is also described as being similar to that of an incandescent light bulb being pressed against the skin, which can cause severe burns in just a few seconds. The beam can be focused up to 700 meters away, and is said to penetrate thick clothing although not walls. At 95 GHz, the frequency is much higher than the 2.45 GHz of a microwave oven. This frequency was chosen because it penetrates less than 1/64 of an inch (0.4 mm), in most humans, except for eyelids and the thinner skin of avoids the second skin layer (the dermis) where critical structures are found such as nerve endings and blood vessels.


title: Active Denial System

text: The early methodology of testing, in which volunteers were asked to remove glasses, contact lenses and metallic objects that could cause hot spots, raised concerns as to whether the device would remain true to its purpose of non-lethal temporary incapacitation if used in the field where safety precautions would not be taken. However, these tests were early in the program and part of a thorough and methodical process to demonstrate the safety and effectiveness of the technology, which has now involved more than 600 volunteer subjects and some 10,200 exposures. As safety was demonstrated in each step of the process, restrictions were removed, and now, according to ADS proponents, there are no restrictions or precautions necessary for volunteers experiencing the effect. Long-term exposure to the beam may cause more serious damage, especially to sensitive tissues, such as those of the eyes. Two people have received second degree burns after exposure to the device.


title: Active Denial System

text: Critics cite that, although the stated intent of the ADS is to be a non-lethal device designed to temporarily incapacitate, modifications or incorrect use by the operator could turn the ADS into a more damaging weapon that could violate international conventions on warfare (although at this time, ADS has gone through numerous treaty compliance reviews and legal reviews by AF/JAO, and in all cases complies with every treaty and law).


title: Active Denial System

text: Some have focused on the lower threshold of use which may lead those who use them to become "trigger-happy", especially in dealing with peaceful protesters. Others have focused on concerns that weapons whose operative principle is that of inflicting pain (though "non-lethal") might be useful for such purposes as torture, as they leave no evidence of use, but undoubtedly have the capacity to inflict horrific pain on a restrained subject. According to "Wired", the ADS has been rejected for fielding in Iraq due to Pentagon fears that it would be regarded as an instrument of torture.


title: Active Denial System

text: Defense contractor Raytheon has developed a smaller version of the ADS, the Silent Guardian. This stripped-down model is primarily marketed for use by law enforcement agencies, the military and other security providers. The system is operated and aimed with a joystick and aiming screen. The device can be used for targets over away, and the beam has a power of 30 kilowatts.


title: Active Denial System

text: The Los Angeles County Jail installed the smaller-sized unit, under the name "Assault Intervention Device", on the ceiling of the Pitchess Detention Center in 2014.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán or Manann, also known as Manannán mac Lir ("son of the sea"), is a warrior and king of the Otherworld in Irish mythology who is associated with the sea and often interpreted as a sea god, usually as a member of the Tuatha Dé Danann.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: He is seen as the ruler and guardian of the Otherworld, and his dominion is referred by such names as Emain Ablach, Mag Mell (Plain of Delights), or Tír Tairngire (Land of Promise). He is described as over-king of the surviving Tuatha Dé after the advent of humans (Milesians), and uses the mist of invisibility ("féth fíada") to cloak the whereabouts of his home as well as the sidh dwellings of the others.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In modern tales, he is said to own a self-navigating boat named "Sguaba Tuinne" ("Wave-sweeper"), a horse Aonbharr which can course over water as well as land, and a deadly strength-sapping sword named Fragarach, though the list does not end there.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán appears also in Scottish and Manx legend, where he is known as "Manannan mac y Leir" ("little Mannan, son of the sea"). The Isle of Man ("Mannin") is named after him, while others say he is named after the island. He is cognate with the Welsh figure Manawydan fab Llŷr.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán is given several names, bynames, epithets and surnames. His name is spelt "Manandán" in Old Irish, "Manannán" in modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic, and "Mannan" in Manx Gaelic.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: According to some, his name is derived from the Isle of Man with the -an suffix indicating "one from the Isle of Man". This itself may come from a Celtic word for "mountain" or "rise", as the Isle of Man rises from the sea on the horizon. Alternatively, it may come from an earlier Indo-European word for water or wetness.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In medieval Irish tradition, it appears that Manannán came to be considered eponymous of the island (rather than vice versa).


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: The most common epithets for Manannán reinforce his association with war and the sea. "Mac Lir" means "son of the sea" or "son of Ler".


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: It has been suggested that his father Ler was a sea god whose role was taken over by Manannán. Manannán's other surname "Mac Alloit" or "Mac Alloid" means "son of the soil or land," so that Manannán is effectively son of the sea and land.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán appears in all of the four cycles of Irish mythology, although he only plays a prominent role in a limited number of tales.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In the Ulster Cycle tale "Serglige Con Culainn" ("The Sickbed of Cúchulainn"), Manannán's wife, Fand, has an ill-fated affair with the Irish warrior Cúchulainn. When Fand sees that Cúchulainn's jealous wife, Emer is worthy of him (and accompanied by a troop of armed women), she decides to return to Manannán, who then shakes his cloak () between Fand and Cúchulainn which causes them not be able to remember each other. Thus it is a cloak of forgetfulness that Manannán has in his possession.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán rode his chariot over the sea, meeting with Bran and his crew sailing by ship, in the tale "Imram Brain" ("Voyage of Bran"), considered an early work. In this story he told Bran that sea was not actually water to him but rather "I [Manannán] see in the Plain of Feats/red topped flowers without fault." He goes on to tell Bran about how he is heading to Ireland to have relations with Caintigern who would go on to bear Mongán.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In late sources, Manannán visits the land of the living, his movement is compared to the wind, a hawk or swallow, and sometimes takes the form of a thundering wheel rolling across the landscape, such as in the "Pursuit of the Gilla Decair", a 16th-century comic tale. There is also the local lore the Manannán moved like a wheel turning on his three legs, a tradition widespread on the Isle of Man (cf. triskelion), but also found in some eastern Counties of Leinster according to John O'Donovan, though this folklore was unfamiliar to Whitley Stokes.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán is lord and guardian of the Blessed Isles, Mag Mell, and Emhain Abhlach, the Isle of Apple Trees. Manannán sings a verse describing his sea as Mag Mell (Plain of Delights), in "The Voyage of Bran", stating that the steeds on the plain cannot be seen, thus alluding to his concealment of his dwelling using the shroud of invisibility ("féth fíada"). "Emain" was the place of origin of the magical silver apple branch brought to Bran mac Febail.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán is also said to dwell in the Land of Promise (Tír Tairngire), as in the tale "Echtra Cormaic".


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: An over-king's role for Manannán among the Tuatha Dé Danann is described in the narrative "Altram Tige Dá Medar" ("The Nourishment of the Houses of Two Milk-Vessels") in the 14th to the 15th century manuscript, the "Book of Fermoy". Máire MacNeill gave a summary of the work.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: After the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by Érimón of the Milesians (humans), Bodb Derg was chosen as king of the Tuatha Dé Danann, and Manannán as co-king or perhaps the king's overseer. In one passage Manannán declares he has assumed over-kingship above the petty kings of the Tuatha Dé Danann.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán was tasked with allotting which sídhe or fairy mounds the surviving members of the Tuatha Dé Danann were to be settled. Manannán's own dwelling was at Emain Ablach, in the city of Cruithin na Cuan, as the tale later reveals. Manannán ensured the welfare of the Tuatha Dé Danann by concealing in the "féth fíada" or a mist of invisibility, holding the Feast of Goibniu (Fleadh Goibhneann) which conferred eternal youth, and feeding them Manannan's Swine (Mucca Mhannanain) which gave an inexhaustible supply of food.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán in the tale "Echtra Cormaic" owned two magical items which he gave away to Cormac mac Airt, high king of Tara: a soothing musical silver branch with apples made of gold, and the Goblet of Truth.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán initially appeared in the guise of a warrior, and described without naming his homeland as a place where old age, sickness, death, decay, and falsehood were unknown. He eventually coaxed the king to arrive as guest to this Land of Promise (Tír Tairngire).


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán had other magical items according to the "Oidheadh Chloinne Tuireann", a romance that only survives in early modern Irish recensions.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: He had a self-navigating boat called "Manannán's currach (coracle)" aka Sguaba Tuinne (Scuab-tuinne) or "Wave-sweeper" was self-navigating, as well as a horse that could travel over land or sea called Aonbharr of Manannan, translated in popular re-telling as "Enbarr of the Flowing Mane". Both the horse and boat were on loan to Lugh Lamhfada, but the Sons of Tuireann managed to borrow the boat.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán also supplied Lugh with a full array of armor and weapon as the Tuatha Dé gathered their host to battle the Fomorians. Lugh rode Manannán's steed Aonbharr, and was girt with Manannán's sword Fragarach ("Retaliator" or "The Answerer"). Any wound this sword gave proved fatal, and its opponent was reduced to the weakness of a woman in childbirth.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Lug also wore Manannán's helmet Cathbarr, which O'Curry amends to Cennbhearr, which he regards as a common noun and not a proper name. This helm was set with two precious gems on the front and one in the rear. Manannán's "lúirech" or body armour and Manannán's "scabal" (neck-piece or breastplate) were also part of Lugh's panoply.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán was also the owner of the "crane-bag" () full of treasures, according to the Middle-Irish Fenian lay "The Crane-Bag" ("Duanaire Finn" Poem VIII) datable to the 13th century,


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: To Manannán was sent a woman transformed into the shape of a crane. She was Aoife, daughter of Dealbhaoth (), and mistress of Ilbhreac of many beauties (). Ilbhreac here may have been Ilbhreac son of Manannán. Aoife was transformed by the druidery of her jealous love-rival (Iuchra daughter of Ábartach), whose spell was to last 200 years.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: When Aoife died, Manannán crafted her crane's skin into a magical treasure bag, whose contents were only visible when flooded during full tide, and would seem empty when the tide had ebbed. The bag was in the possession of Lugh Lamhfada, then taken by Lugh's killers, the three sons of Cermait. Later Manannán endowed it to Conaire Mór the high king at Tara. The crane-bag was eventually owned by Cumhall mac Trénmhóir, as told at the outset of this lay."Macgnímartha Finn". This is assumed to be the "treasure-bag" that was lost to Cumhall's "servant-turned-traitor", Liath Luachra, who treacherously wounded Cumall in the Cath Cnucha, but recovered later by Cumhall's son, Finn when he grew up.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán also commissioned the craftsman Lucra (recté Luchta) to make him a shield to be made of wood, and this later passed on to Finn, according to the lay ("duan") "Shield of Fionn". The wood came from a withered hazel tree, on the fork which Lugh had set the severed head of Balor. The venom had penetrated this tree, killing or blinding workers trying uprooting or handling it. Various owners are named, such as Tadg mac Nuadat, but was given by Manannán to Crimall mac Trenmor, Finn's uncle, after the death of Finn's father.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán is furthermore identified with several trickster figures including the Gilla Decair and the "Bodach an Chóta Lachtna" ("the churl in the drab coat").


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: The similarity of Manannan's inexhaustible swine to Odin's boar Sæhrímnir in Scandinavian myth has been noticed. Mannanán also owned a speckled cow that he and Aengus retrieved from India along with a dun cow, two golden goblets, and two spancels of silk.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán's father is the sea-god "Ler" ("Sea; Ocean"; "Lir" is the genitive form), whose role he seems to take over. As Oirbsen, his father is named as "Elloth", son of Elatha. In the "Altram Tige Dá Medar" Manannán calls himself the foster-son of the Dagda.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: According to "Táin Bó Cúailnge" (the Cattle Raid of Cooley), his wife is the beautiful goddess, Fand ("Pearl of Beauty" or "A Tear" – later remembered as a "Fairy Queen", though earlier mentions point to her also being a sea deity). Other sources say his wife was the goddess Áine, though she is at other times said to be his daughter. Manannán had a daughter, whose name was Niamh of the Golden Hair. It is also probable that another daughter was Clíodhna, but sources treat this differently. Either way, she is a young woman from Manannán's lands, whose epithet is "of the Fair Hair". Manannán also had a yellow-haired daughter given the "baptized" name Curcog (meaning "beehive" or "bushy tuft") who was given up to be fostered by Aengus.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Another daughter of Manannán's was said to be Saint Athrachta; according to oral legend, she tried to build a causeway across Lough Gara by carrying large stones in her petticoat but was prevented by modesty. In another legend of Athractha, she was said to live at the bottom of Lough Gara and only emerged every seven years to visit her sister Cé (Ké). Athractha cured a woman, and once a dragon with the roar of a lion emerged from the sludge and was vanquished by the Holy Virgin. There is also folklore that Cé (or Céibh) the daughter of Manannan lost her beauty and wits due to an incantation, but recovered her beauty after Oísin provided her hospices after others all shunned her.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In "The Voyage of Bran", Manannán prophesied to Bran that a great warrior would be descended from him. Thus Mongán mac Fiachnai becomes a late addition to the mac Lir family tree. The historical Mongán was a son of Fiachnae mac Báetáin, born towards the end of the 6th century. According to legend Fiachnae, who was at war in Scotland, came home with a victory because of a bargain made with Manannán (either by him, or by his wife) to let Manannán have a child by his wife. This child, Mongán, was supposedly taken to the Otherworld when he was very young, to be raised there by Manannán. The 8th-century saga "Compert Mongáin" tells recounts the deeds of a legendary son, In the "Dinsenchas" Manannán is also described as the father of Ibel, after whose death Manannán cast draughts of grief from his heart that became Loch Ruidi, Loch Cuan, and Loch Dacaech.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manannán is often seen in the traditional role of foster father, raising a number of foster children including Lugh of the great hand and the children of Deirdre.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Two brothers of Manannán are named, after whom cleared plains were named - Bron, who it is implied was slain by Fergus and Ceite. Similarly, in Welsh folklore Brân the Blessed is the brother of Manawydan.