title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Transponder codes are four-digit numbers transmitted by an aircraft transponder in response to a secondary surveillance radar interrogation signal to assist air traffic controllers with traffic separation. A discrete transponder code (often called a squawk code) is assigned by air traffic controllers to identify an aircraft uniquely in a flight information region (FIR). This allows easy identification of aircraft on radar.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Codes are made of four octal digits; the dials on a transponder read from zero to seven, inclusive. Four octal digits can represent up to 4096 different codes, which is why such transponders are sometimes described as "4096 code transponders."


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: The use of the word "squawk" comes from the system's origin in the World War II identification friend or foe (IFF) system, which was code-named "Parrot".


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Some codes can be selected by the pilot if and when the situation requires or allows it, without permission from air traffic control (ATC). Such codes are referred to as "conspicuity codes" in the UK. Other codes are generally assigned by ATC units.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: For flights on instrument flight rules (IFR), the squawk code is typically assigned as part of the departure clearance and stays the same throughout the flight.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Flights on visual flight rules (VFR), when in uncontrolled airspace, will "squawk VFR" (1200 in the US and Canada, 7000 in Europe). Upon contact with an ATC unit, they will be told to squawk a certain code. When changing frequency, for instance because the VFR flight leaves controlled airspace or changes to another ATC unit, the VFR flight will be told to "squawk VFR" again.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: In order to avoid confusion over assigned squawk codes, ATC units will typically be allocated blocks of squawk codes, not overlapping with the blocks of nearby ATC units, to assign at their discretion.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Not all ATC units will use radar to identify aircraft, but they assign squawk codes nevertheless. As an example, London Information—the flight information service station that covers the lower half of the UK—does not have access to radar images, but does assign squawk code 1177 to all aircraft that receive a flight information service (FIS) from them. This tells other radar-equipped ATC units that a specific aircraft is listening on the London Information radio frequency, in case they need to contact that aircraft.


title: Tong (organization)

text: A tong () is a type of organization found among Chinese immigrants predominantly living in the United States, with smaller numbers in Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. In Chinese, the word "tong" means "hall" or "gathering place". These organizations are described as secret societies or sworn brotherhoods and are often tied to criminal activity. In the 1990s, in most American Chinatowns, clearly marked "tong" halls could easily be found, many of which have had affiliations with Chinese organized crime.


title: Tong (organization)

text: These associations often provide services for Chinatown communities such as immigrant counseling, Chinese schools, and English classes for adults. "Tongs" follow the pattern of secret societies common to southern China and many are connected to a secret society called the "Tiandihui", which follows this pattern. Other groups worldwide that follow this pattern and are connected with the "Tiandihui" are known as "hui", "Hongmen", and triads.


title: Tong (organization)

text: Tongs first appeared in China in 1644 when the Ming dynasty was overthrown by the Qing dynasty. One of the first tongs was established by the secret society Chee Kung Tong, which aimed to restore the power of the Ming dynasty by removing the new Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty. These Zhigongtang tongs were located in the province of Guangdong, which was home to many of the first Chinese migrants heading to the United States—some of whom would take with them the notion of a tong as an organization to set up there.


title: Tong (organization)

text: After the 17th century, large numbers of Chinese, particularly from the Fujian and Canton areas, left China to seek their fortunes in Southeast Asia and Taiwan. These Chinese immigrants quickly formed a trader and merchant class in many societies in various Asian countries such as the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia.


title: Tong (organization)

text: Before the 1840s, very few Chinese had emigrated to the United States, Canada, or Australia. However, by the mid-19th-century Chinese immigrant numbers dramatically increased. Beginning with a few hundred immigrants, their numbers increased to an estimated hundreds of thousands of Chinese immigrants.


title: Tong (organization)

text: Former Taiping Heavenly Kingdom military commander Yang Fuqing is alleged to have fled to the United States following the rebel state's defeat and started a secret society in Los Angeles.


title: Tong (organization)

text: After settling in San Francisco and other California cities, Chinese workers faced hostility from their American peers who felt threatened by their willingness to work for lower wages. As labor unions and angered workers became more aggressive, many Chinese felt pressure to leave and go east, where they heard life would be less dangerous. As a result, many Chinese immigrants moved to cities such as New York, Philadelphia, and Boston. Today these cities still have ethnic Chinese communities large enough to have developed Chinatowns. They have also been joined by new immigrants of the late 20th and early 21st centuries.


title: Tong (organization)

text: Many Chinese soon organized voluntary benevolent associations for support and protection. These are usually formed by people originating in their district in China, family name, or depending on what native dialect, for example in the case of Hakka speakers, or sworn brotherhoods. The "tongs" provided services for immigrants such as employment and housing opportunities. They also helped resolve individual and group disputes within the community. Many of these volunteer societies did not have the financial ability to fund community events or look after their members, and those that did tended to focus inward and provide help only to their own members. As a result, many tongs with little or no hereditary financial value had to either disband or operate criminal activities such as gambling houses and prostitution. This transformed them from benevolent associations to providers of illegal services. The term "tong" became unfavorably associated with the secret brotherhoods in Chinatowns, and they often battled with other associations in that area. "Tongs" were usually composed of young men, some with criminal backgrounds, or outcasts who had been expelled from their associations. Notably, many of the traditional "tong" activities, such as gambling, were legal in China, but not in North America.


title: Tong (organization)

text: Early Chinese populations in the United States and Canada were overwhelmingly male, especially after sex-restrictive immigration laws were passed in 1882 in the U.S. and 1923 in Canada, respectively (see Chinese Exclusion Act and Chinese Immigration Act, 1923). For this reason tongs participated heavily in importing women from China for both marriage and prostitution. Many of these women did not come to America by choice, and some were deceived and forced into prostitution by procurers. Tongs associated with importing women to America fought over territories and profits. This became known as the "Tong Wars", which were a series of violent attacks between two branches of the Tong Gang, the Hip Sing Tong and On Leong Tong. The reasons for this conflict vary, from struggles over territory to assassinations of members. The "Tong Wars" of the 19th and early 20th centuries were often based on control of these women. In the early years the "tongs" employed "hatchet men" or "boo how doy" (), also called "highbinders", as hired killers to fight the street battles that ensued over turf, business and women.


title: Tong (organization)

text: San Francisco was the home of the first Tong in the United States; it formed in reaction to the hostility that Chinese immigrants faced from American workers upon their arrival to America. In Bill Lee's memoirs in "The Chinese Playground", which recalls the activities of the Tong Gang in San Francisco, he states that the oppression Chinese immigrants faced led them to turn to the Tong for protection. While it is true that the Tong offered protection, it is unclear if this protection was forced as a means to gain control of territory for the distribution of the group's illicit activities. During the plague outbreak in Chinatown of San Francisco in the 1900s, the Chinese Six Companies recommended the vaccination plan to their members and the tongs. Doubting the effectiveness of vaccinations, many Chinese residents of Chinatown refused inoculations. Several tongs went so far as to threaten harm to those who did get vaccinated, as well as the Chinese leadership that endorsed doing so.


title: Tong (organization)

text: Tongs in North America showed many similarities to the triads of Hong Kong and British colonies in Southeast Asia. These included similar initiation ceremonies and paying respect to the same deities. This is because both are similar organizations that follow the patterns of southern Chinese secret societies and sworn brotherhoods. The triad societies were underground organizations in British colonies that also existed for self-help of members, but spoke of the overthrow of the Qing dynasty. Ko-lin Chin outlined that most tongs have similar organization and have a headquarters where one can find a president, a vice president, a secretary, a treasurer, an auditor, and several elders and public relations administrators. Today their main aims are to care for their members and their respective communities.


title: Anganwadi

text: An Anganwadi is a type of rural child care centre in India. They were started by the Indian government in 1975 as part of the Integrated Child Development Services program to combat child hunger and malnutrition. "Anganwadi" in Hindi means "courtyard shelter" in English.


title: Anganwadi

text: A typical Anganwadi center provides basic health care in a village. It is a part of the Indian public health care system. Basic health care activities include contraceptive counseling and supply, nutrition education and supplementation, as well as pre-school activities. The centres may be used as depots for oral rehydration salts, basic medicines and contraceptives.


title: Anganwadi

text: , as many as 13.3 lakh (a lakh is 100,000) Anganwadi and mini-Anganwadi centres (AWCs/mini-AWCs) are operational out of 13.7 lakh sanctioned AWCs/mini-AWCs. These centres provide supplementary nutrition, non-formal pre-school education, nutrition, and health education, immunization, health check-up and referral services of which the last three are provided in convergence with public health systems.


title: Anganwadi

text: While as of latest 31 March 2021, 13.87 lakh Anganwadi and mini-Anganwadi centres (AWCs/mini-AWCs) are operational out of 13.99 lakh sanctioned AWC/mini-AWCs with the following categorization in the quarterly report :


title: Anganwadi

text: Despite decades of impressive growth, India has an acute shortage of doctors. The doctor population ratio in 2019-20 was 1:1456; against the WHO recommended level of 1:1000. Through the Anganwadi system, the country is trying to meet its goal of providing affordable and accessible healthcare to local populations.


title: Anganwadi

text: Anganwadi workers have the advantage over the physicians living in the same rural area, which gives them insight into the state of health in the locality and assists in identifying the cause of problems and in countering them. They also have better social skills and can therefore more easily interact with the local people. As locals, they know and are comfortable with the local language and ways, are acquainted with the people, and are trusted.


title: Anganwadi

text: Public policy discussions have taken place over whether to make Anganwadis universally available to all eligible children and mothers who want their children there. This would require significant increases in budgetary allocation and a rise in the number of Anganwadis to over 16 lakh.


title: Anganwadi

text: The officers and their helpers who staff Anganwadis are typically women from poor families. The workers do not have permanent jobs with comprehensive retirement benefits like other government staff. Worker protests (by the All India Anganwadi Workers Federation) and public debates on this topic are ongoing. There are periodic reports of corruption and crimes against women in some Anganwadi centers. There are legal and societal issues when Anganwadi-serviced children fall sick or die.


title: Anganwadi

text: In announcing the 2022 budget, then Indian Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman stated that salaries would be increased for Anganwadi workers to ₹20,105 per month and for helpers to ₹10,000 per month. But with minuscule increment in the overall umbrella budget of just 0.7%. It has been allocated ₹20,263 crore for the next fiscal, as compared to last year’s allocation of ₹20,105 crore. As compared to revised estimate of ₹199999.55 crore there is a 1.3% increase.


title: Anganwadi

text: In March 2008 there was debate about whether packaged foods (such as biscuits) should become part of the food served. Detractors, including Nobel Prize winner Amartya Sen, argued against it, saying that it will become the only food consumed by the children. Options for increasing partnerships with the private sector are continuing.


title: Anganwadi

text: In a major initiative, the work of Anganwadis is being digitized, starting with the 27 most economically disadvantaged districts in Uttar Pradesh: Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. In March 2021, Anganwadis' workers were provided with a smartphone app to record data that will be integrated with the health ministry, which is involved in carrying out immunization, health check-ups, and nutrition education under Integrated Child Development Services. They were informed that failure to


title: Anganwadi

text: upload digitally-entered records could result in salary and food suspension. Difficulties emerged with this smartphone app's reportedly being hard to use, being written in only English, and demanding more memory than cheap smartphones have. Anganwadi employees, mostly women who earn less than $150 a month, if they even have smartphones, experienced repeated crashes of this app or found that they do not understand enough English to use it. Many lack phone reception and electricity in their villages and ask why meticulously written ledgers, used for years, no longer suffice.


title: Anganwadi

text: In order to ensure growth monitoring of children and home visits, an incentive of Rs. 500 and Rs. 250 is provided per month to Anganwadi Workers (AWWs) and Anganwadi Helpers (AWHs).


title: Anganwadi

text: The Integrated Child Development Services scheme did not have provision for the construction of AWC buildings as this was envisaged to be provided by the community except for the North Eastern States. For them, financial support was provided for construction of AWC buildings since 2001-02 at a unit cost of ₹175,000.


title: Anganwadi

text: As part of the strengthening and restructuring the ICDS scheme, the government approved a provision of construction of 200,000 Anganwadi centre buildings at a cost of ₹450,000 per unit during XII Plan period in a phased manner with a cost-sharing ratio of 75:25 between centre and states (other than the NER, where it will be at 90:10).


title: Anganwadi

text: Further, construction of AWC has been notified as a permissible activity under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA). The construction of AWC buildings can be taken up in convergence with MNREGA.


title: Anganwadi

text: Planned renaming of few schemes under new umbrella term i.e. Saksham Anganwadi and Poshan 2.0 includes anganwadi services, Poshan Abhiyan, scheme for adolescent girls, and national creche scheme.


title: Anganwadi

text: UNICEF and the UN Millennium Development Goals of reducing infant mortality and improving maternal care are the impetus for increasing focus on the Anganwadis. Workers and helpers are expected to be trained per WHO standards.


title: Inhaler

text: An inhaler (also known as a puffer, pump or allergy spray) is a medical device used for delivering medicines into the lungs through the work of a person's breathing. This allows medicines to be delivered to and absorbed in the lungs, which provides the ability for targeted medical treatment to this specific region of the body, as well as a reduction in the side effects of oral medications. There are a wide variety of inhalers, and they are commonly used to treat numerous medical conditions with asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) being among the most notable.


title: Inhaler

text: Some of the common types of inhalers include metered-dose inhalers, dry powder inhalers, soft mist inhalers, and nebulizers. Each device has advantages and disadvantages and can be selected based on individually specific patient needs, as well as age, pathological conditions, coordination, and lung function. Proper education on inhaler use is important to ensure that inhaled medication creates its proper effects in the lungs.


title: Inhaler

text: Inhalers are designed to deliver medication directly to the lungs through a person's own breathing. This may benefit a patient by providing medicines directly to areas of disease, allowing medication to take a greater effect on its intended target, and limit side effects of medications when administered locally. Inhalers are used in a variety of different medical conditions with diseases of the lungs and respiratory system being among the most common. Individuals with these diseases/conditions need medications designed to decrease airway inflammation and obstruction to allow for easier and comfortable breathing. Antibiotic medications have even been developed for inhalers to allow for direct delivery to areas of infection within the lungs. Two of the most common conditions that warrant inhaler therapy are asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.


title: Inhaler

text: Asthma is a condition of intermittent airway obstruction due to inflammatory processes in the lungs. Inhaled medications are used to calm down the inflammation present in the lungs and allow for relief of the airway obstruction. Common inhaled medications used for treatment of asthma are bronchodilators such as salbutamol, corticosteroids, and salmeterol. These medications allow for patients to have relief of airway obstruction symptoms and reduced inflammation. If some people are unable to use inhalers, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may be used, but with caution since they may cause immunological hypersensitivity to NSAIDs, resulting in respiratory-related symptoms such as bronchospasms, acute asthma exacerbation, and severe asthma morbidity.


title: Inhaler

text: COPD is an obstructive lung disease due to long-term damage to the airways of the lungs. The long-term damage leads to the inability of the airways to open properly, causing airway obstruction. Inhaled medications allow patients to see improvement in symptoms and better function of daily living. Some commonly used inhaled medications in patient's with COPD are ipratroprium, salmeterol, and corticosteroids.


title: Inhaler

text: The most common type of inhaler is the pressurized metered-dose inhaler (MDI) which is made up of 3 standard components- a metal canister, plastic actuator, and a metering valve. The medication is typically stored in solution in a pressurized canister that contains a propellant or suspension. The MDI canister is attached to a plastic, hand-operated actuator. On activation, the metered-dose inhaler releases a fixed dose of medication in aerosol form through the actuator and into a patient's lungs. These devices require significant coordination as a person must discharge the medication at or near the same time that they inhale in order for the medication to be effective.


title: Inhaler

text: Dry powder inhalers release a metered or device-measured dose of powdered medication that is inhaled through a DPI device. This device usually contains a chamber in which the powdered medication is deposited prior to each dosage. The powder can then be inhaled with a quick breath. This allows for medication to be delivered to the lungs without the need for use of propellant/suspension.


title: Inhaler

text: Soft mist inhalers release a light mist containing medication without the need for a propellant/suspension. Upon pressing a button, the inhaler creates a mist of medication, allowing for inhalation into the lungs. SMIs suspend inhaled medications for roughly 1.2 seconds, which is longer than the average MDI inhaler suspension time period. This requires less coordination when using and may be helpful for young patients or patients that find the MDI inhalers difficult to use.


title: Inhaler

text: Nebulizers are designed to deliver medications over an extended period of time over multiple breaths through a mouthpiece or face mask. They generate a continuous mist with aerosolized medication, allowing a patient to breathe normally and receive medications. They are commonly used in infants and toddlers requiring inhaled medications or in patients in the hospital who require inhaled medications.


title: Inhaler

text: The smart-inhaler is an inhaler that will automatically update an app with information that includes the time of day, air quality, and how many times it has been used through sensor technology on the device. The first smart-inhaler was approved in 2019 by the FDA, its purpose is to track patient use of the device and some other circumstantial factors that could affect the effectiveness of the dosage. This information is sent via Bluetooth to a mobile device app, and is later shared with their physician to determine what kind of things can trigger issues with asthma and other problems. This technology presents a great way to cut down on medical costs associated with asthma and also help patients better manage their condition with fewer emergencies.


title: Inhaler

text: The Teva ProAir Digihaler was the first FDA approved smart inhaler. It shows how effective the device is at aiding patients in using the proper dose amount for their asthma. In a study published by the European Respiratory Journal, the ProAir Digihaler accurately identified when patients were using their inhalers and whether they were effectively administering the dose in a 370 patient trial with the device. This study further gives an overview on the technology regarding applications and devices that help aid in the tracking and medication management for asthma and other lung conditions. Another study showed that smart inhalers accurately recorded all doses administered by patients with their technology, which signifies their importance in providing accurate dosage information to patients and their physicians.


title: Inhaler

text: In 2009, the FDA banned the use of inhalers that use chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) as propellants. In their place, inhalers now use hydrofluoroalkane (HFA). HFA is not environmentally inert as it is a greenhouse gas but it does not affect the ozone layer. While some people with asthma and advocacy groups contend that HFA inhalers are not as effective, published clinical studies indicate CFC and HFA inhalers are equally effective in controlling asthma.


title: Inhaler

text: While the impact of CFCs from inhalers on the ozone layer had been minuscule (dwarfed by industrial processes using CFCs), the FDA in its interpretation of the Montreal Protocol mandated the switch in propellants. Patients expressed concern about the high price of the HFA inhalers as there are no generic versions, whereas generic CFC inhalers had been available.


title: Inhaler

text: It is important to use proper technique when administering inhalers to self or others. Improper use of inhalers is very common, can lead to distribution of the medicine into the mouth or throat where it cannot create its desired effect and may cause harm. Education on the correct use of inhalers for delivery of medications is a commonly cited topic in medical studies and a great deal of thought has been put into how best to help people learn to use their inhalers effectively. Below is a description of proper inhaler technique for each different type of inhaler as well as a helpful video explaining what the text states.


title: Inhaler

text: 2. The inhaler is gripped with mouthpiece on the bottom and canister on top. A finger is placed on the canister to allow for delivery of medicine.


title: Inhaler

text: 5. Slow deep breathing is continued and breath is held for 5–10 seconds, keeping the medicine in the lungs and preventing escape of aerosolized form of the medicine.


title: Inhaler

text: 6. Complete exhalation is done again. If multiple puffs of the medicine have to be taken, steps 1–5 are repeated after waiting for 15–30 seconds.


title: Inhaler

text: Spacer is placed at the mouthpiece of a meter-dosed inhaler while keeping mouth at the end of the spacer. Deep breathing is done to be ready for the delivery of the medicine to the lungs, and then the canister is pressed down. This minimizes need for coordination of breathing with inhaler activation.


title: Inhaler

text: 1. Inhaler medication chamber is prepared (this will be different based on the type of inhaler but will involve preparing and opening the chamber with the medication)


title: Inhaler

text: 2. The inhaler is held with the chamber pointing towards the patient and complete exhalation is done with their head turned away from the inhaler.


title: Inhaler

text: 3. Mouth is placed over the chamber and a quick, deep breath is taken allowing medication to dispense in the lungs.


title: Inhaler

text: 1. The inhaler is primed by loading the cartridge and discharging the inhaler until a fine mist is visible ().


title: Inhaler

text: 2. Once complete exhalation is done, mouth is placed around the mouthpiece while leaving space for the small holes on the side of the mouthpiece.


title: Inhaler

text: 5. Slow exhalation is done and steps 1-4 are repeated if another dose of medication is required after waiting for a few minutes.


title: Inhaler

text: If inhaler is used everyday, the inhaler usually has to be primed the first time using a new cartridge, but it may need to be primed again if it has not been used in multiple days.


title: Inhaler

text: If using inhaled corticosteroids, rinse mouth out directly after use of inhaler. This helps to prevent infection.


title: Inhaler

text: The idea of directly delivering medication into the lungs was based on ancient traditional cures that involved the use of aromatic and medicinal vapors. These did not involve any special devices beyond the apparatus used for burning or heating to produce fumes. Early inhalation devices included one devised by John Mudge in 1778. It had a pewter mug with a hole allowing attachment of a flexible tube. Mudge used it for the treatment of coughs using opium. These devices evolved with modifications by Wolfe, Mackenzie (1872) and better mouth attachments such as by Beigel in 1866. Many of these early inhalers needed heat to vaporize the active chemical ingredient. The benefits of forced expiration and inspiration to treat asthma were noted by J. S. Monell in 1865. Chemicals used in inhalers included ammonia, chlorine, iodine, tar, balsams, turpentine camphor and numerous others in combinations. Julius Mount Bleyer used a variation in 1890 in New York.


title: Inhaler

text: In 1968, Robert Wexler of Abbott Laboratories developed the Analgizer, a disposable inhaler that allowed the self-administration of methoxyflurane vapor in air for analgesia. The Analgizer consisted of a polyethylene cylinder 5 inches long and 1 inch in diameter with a 1 inch long mouthpiece. The device contained a rolled wick of polypropylene felt which held 15 milliliters of methoxyflurane.


title: Inhaler

text: Because of the simplicity of the Analgizer and the pharmacological characteristics of methoxyflurane, it was easy for patients to self-administer the drug and rapidly achieve a level of conscious analgesia which could be maintained and adjusted as necessary over a period of time lasting from a few minutes to several hours. The 15 milliliter supply of methoxyflurane would typically last for two to three hours, during which time the user would often be partly amnesic to the sense of pain; the device could be refilled if necessary.


title: Inhaler

text: The Analgizer was found to be safe, effective, and simple to administer in obstetric patients during childbirth, as well as for patients with bone fractures and joint dislocations, and for dressing changes on burn patients. When used for labor analgesia, the Analgizer allows labor to progress normally and with no apparent adverse effect on Apgar scores. All vital signs remain normal in obstetric patients, newborns, and injured patients. The Analgizer was widely utilized for analgesia and sedation until the early 1970s, in a manner that foreshadowed the patient-controlled analgesia infusion pumps of today. The Analgizer inhaler was withdrawn in 1974, but use of methoxyflurane as a sedative and analgesic continues in Australia and New Zealand in the form of the Penthrox inhaler.


title: Viking ships

text: Viking ships were marine vessels of unique structure, used in Scandinavia from the Viking Age throughout the Middle Ages.


title: Viking ships

text: The boat-types were quite varied, depending on what the ship was intended for, but they were generally characterized as being slender and flexible boats, with symmetrical ends with true keel. They were clinker built, which is the overlapping of planks riveted together. Some might have had a dragon's head or other circular object protruding from the bow and stern for design, although this is only inferred from historical sources. Viking ships were used both for military purposes and for long-distance trade, exploration and colonization.


title: Viking ships

text: In the literature, Viking ships are usually seen divided into two broad categories: merchant ships and warships, the latter resembling narrow "war canoes" with less load capacity, but higher speed. However, these categories are overlapping; some transport ships would also form part of war fleets. As a rule, ship lanes in Scandinavia followed coastal waters, hence a majority of vessels were of a lighter design, while a few types, such as the "knarr", could navigate the open ocean. The Viking ships ranged from the Baltic Sea to far from the Scandinavian homelands, to Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Newfoundland, the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and Africa.


title: Viking ships

text: One particular advantage of the Viking ship is the comparatively low weight, making land transport and portage routine, as in crossing Jutland instead of rounding Skagen to enter or exit the Baltic Sea, and travel on the river networks of Eastern Europe.


title: Viking ships

text: The ship has been functioning as the centerpiece of Scandinavian culture for millennia, serving both pragmatic and religious purposes, and its importance was already deeply rooted in the Scandinavian culture when the Viking Age began. Scandinavia is a region with relatively high inland mountain ranges, dense forests and easy access to the sea with many natural ports. Consequently, trade routes were primarily operated via shipping, as inland travel was both more hazardous and cumbersome. Many stone engravings from the Nordic Stone Age and in particular the Nordic Bronze Age, depict ships in various situations and valuable ships were sacrificed as part of ceremonial votive offerings since at least the Nordic Iron Age, as evidenced by the Hjortspring and Nydam boats.


title: Viking ships

text: The Viking Age saw the first local developments of trading ports into forts and coastal towns, all of which were deeply dependent on the North Sea and the Baltic Sea for survival and growth. Control of the waterways was of great economical and political importance, and consequently, ships were in high demand. Because of their overwhelming importance, ships became a mainstay of the Viking religion, as they evolved into symbols of power and prowess. The Hedeby coins, among the earliest known Danish currency, have impressions of ships as emblems, showing the importance of naval vessels in the area. Through such cultural and practical significance, the Viking ship progressed into the most powerful, advanced naval vessel in Viking Age Europe.


title: Viking ships

text: A faering is an open rowboat with two pairs of oars, commonly found in most boat-building traditions in Western and Northern Scandinavia, dating back to the Viking Age. Forerunners of the færing boat type were found both in the Gokstad and the Tune ship burials. As with the Viking ships, such auxiliary vessels are built so light that the full complement of rowers is sufficient to transport the boat over land.


title: Viking ships

text: Knarr is the Norse term for ships that were built for cargo transport. A length of about and a beam of are not untypical, and the hull could be capable of carrying up to 24 tons. Overall displacement: 50 tons. This is shorter than the Gokstad type of longships, but knarrs are sturdier by design and they depended mostly on sail-power, only putting oars to use as auxiliaries if there was no wind on the open water. Because of this, the knarr was used for longer voyages, ocean-going transports and more hazardous trips than the Gokstad type. It was capable of sailing in one day, and held a crew of about 20–30. Knarrs routinely crossed the North Atlantic in the Viking Age, carrying livestock and goods to and from Greenland and the North Atlantic islands. The design of the knarr later influenced the design of the cog, used in the Baltic Sea by the Hanseatic League. Examples of Viking Age knarr are Skuldelev 1, which was excavated in Denmark in 1962 and is believed to be from about 1030 AD, and the , which was found in Sweden in 1933 and is believed to be from about 930 AD.


title: Viking ships

text: Longships were naval vessels made and used by the Vikings from Scandinavia and Iceland for trade, commerce, exploration, and warfare during the Viking Age. The longship's design evolved over many years, as seen in the Nydam and Kvalsund ships. The character and appearance of these ships have been reflected in Scandinavian boat-building traditions until today. The average speed of Viking ships varied from ship to ship but lay in the range of , and the maximum speed of a longship under favorable conditions was around .


title: Viking ships

text: The long-ship is as a graceful, long, narrow, light, wooden boat with a shallow draft hull designed for speed. The ship's shallow draft allowed navigation in waters only one meter deep and permitted beach landings, while its light weight enabled it to be carried over portages. Longships were also double-ended, the symmetrical bow and stern allowing the ship to reverse direction quickly without having to turn around. Longships were fitted with oars along almost the entire length of the boat itself. Later versions sported a rectangular sail on a single mast which was used to replace or augment the effort of the rowers, particularly during long journeys.


title: Viking ships

text: Longships can be classified into a number of different types, depending on size, construction details, and prestige. The most common way to classify longships is by the number of rowing positions on board. Types ranged from the Karvi, with 13 rowing benches, to the Busse, one of which has been found with an estimated 34 rowing positions.


title: Viking ships

text: Longships were the epitome of Scandinavian naval power at the time and were highly valued possessions. They were owned by coastal farmers and assembled by the king to form the leidang in times of conflict, in order to have a powerful naval force at his disposal. While longships were deployed by the Norse in warfare, there are no descriptions of naval tactics such as ramming, etc. Instead, the ships would sometimes be lashed together in battle to form a steady platform for infantry warfare. Longships were called dragonships ("drakuskippan") by the Franks because they had a dragon-shaped prow.


title: Viking ships

text: The Karve was a small type of Viking longship, with a broad hull somewhat similar to the knarr. They were used for both war and ordinary transport, carrying people, cargo or livestock. Because they were able to navigate in very shallow water, they were also used for coasting. Karves typically had broad beams of approximately .


title: Viking ships

text: Viking ships varied from other contemporary ships, being generally more seaworthy and lighter. This was achieved through use of clinker (lapstrake) construction. The planks on Viking vessels were rived (split) from large, old-growth trees — especially oak. A ship's hull could be as thin as one inch (2.5 cm), as a rived plank is stronger than a sawed plank found in later craft, resulting in a strong yet supple hull.


title: Viking ships

text: Working up from a stout oaken keel and ribs, the shipwrights would rivet on the planks using wrought iron rivets and roves, reinforced with added support ribs and thwarts. Each tier of planks overlapped the one below, and a caulking of tarred cow's hair was used between planks to create a waterproof hull.


title: Viking ships

text: Remarkably large vessels could be constructed using traditional clinker construction. Dragon-ships carrying 100 warriors were not uncommon.


title: Viking ships

text: Furthermore, during the early Viking Age, oar ports replaced rowlocks, allowing oars to be stored while the ship was at sail and to provide better angles for rowing. The largest ships of the era could travel five to six knots using oar power and up to ten knots under sail.


title: Viking ships

text: With such technological improvements, the Vikings began to make more and more ocean voyages, as their ships were more seaworthy. However, in order to sail in ocean waters, the Vikings needed to develop methods of relatively precise navigation. Most commonly, a ship's pilot drew on traditional knowledge to set the ship's course. Essentially, the Vikings simply used prior familiarity with tides, sailing times, and landmarks in order to route courses. For example, scholars contend that the sighting of a whale allowed the Vikings to determine the direction of a ship. Because whales feed in highly nutritious waters, commonly found in regions where landmasses have pushed deep-water currents towards shallower areas, the sighting of a whale functioned as a signal that land was near.


title: Viking ships

text: On the other hand, some academics have proposed that the Vikings also developed more advanced aids to navigation, such as the use of a sun compass. A wooden half-disc found on the shores of Narsarsuaq, Greenland initially seemed to support this hypothesis. However, further investigation of the object revealed that the slits inscribed in the disc are disproportionately spaced, and so the object could not in fact function as an accurate compass. Rather it has been suggested that the instrument is instead a “confession disc” used by priests to count the number of confessions in their parish. Similarly, researchers and historians continually debate the use of the sunstone in Viking navigation. Because a sunstone is able to polarize light, it is a plausible method for determining direction. By showing which direction light waves are oscillating, the sunstone has the potential to show the sun's position even when the sun is obscured by clouds. The stone changes to a certain color, based on the direction of the waves, but only when the object is held in an area with direct sunlight. Thus, most scholars debate the reliability and the plausibility of using a navigational tool that can only determine direction in such limited conditions.


title: Viking ships

text: Viking sagas routinely tell of voyages where Vikings suffered from being "hafvilla" (bewildered)—voyages beset by fog or bad weather, where they completely lost their sense of direction. This description suggests they did not use a sunstone when the sun was obscured. Moreover, the fact that this same bewilderment could arise when the winds died suggests that the Vikings relied on prevailing winds to navigate, as expected if their skills depended principally on traditional knowledge.


title: Viking ships

text: Prominent men or women in Norse society sometimes received a ship burial. The body of the deceased would be prepared and dressed in fine clothes and then be transported to the burial-place in a wagon drawn by horses. The deceased would be placed on the ship, along with many prized possessions. Horses, dogs and occasionally thralls and households might also be sacrificially killed and buried with the deceased. The origin and meaning of these customs remain unknown. Several examples of Viking ship burials have been excavated, e.g. the Oseberg ship in Norway, containing the remains of two women, the Gokstad ship in Norway, and the Ladby ship in Denmark.


title: Viking ships

text: There are literary sources such as the Norse "Skjoldunga Saga" and the "Ynglinga Saga" which describe more literal "ship burials" in which the deceased and goods are placed on a boat in the water and the vessel is launched into the sea, sometimes being shot with burning arrows and vanishing into the night, ablaze. Nothcotte Toller, however, states:


title: Viking ships

text: Burial of ships is an ancient tradition in Scandinavia, stretching back to at least the Nordic Iron Age, as evidenced by the Hjortspring boat (400–300 BC) or the Nydam boats (200–450 AD), for example. Ships and bodies of water have held major spiritual importance in the Norse cultures since at least the Nordic Bronze Age.


title: Viking ships

text: Several original Viking ships have been found through the ages, but only a few have been relatively intact. The most notable of these few ships include:


title: Viking ships

text: Examples of other Viking ships, including some that are relatively well-preserved and some where only very small parts remain:


title: Viking ships

text: Viking ship replicas are one of the more common types of ship replica. "Viking", the very first Viking ship replica, was built by the Rødsverven shipyard in Sandefjord, Norway. In 1893 it sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to Chicago for the World's Columbian Exposition. There are a considerable number of modern reconstructions of Viking Age ships in service around Northern Europe and North America. The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde, Denmark, has been particularly prolific in building accurate reconstructions of archaeological finds in its collection.


title: Little Men

text: Little Men, or Life at Plumfield with Jo's Boys, is a children's novel by American author Louisa May Alcott (1832–1888), which was first published in 1871 by Roberts Brothers. The book reprises characters from her 1868–69 two-volume novel "Little Women", and acts as a sequel, or as the second book in an unofficial "Little Women" trilogy. The trilogy ends with Alcott's 1886 novel "Jo's Boys, and How They Turned Out: A Sequel to" Little Men. Alcott's story recounts the life of Jo Bhaer, her husband, and the various children at Plumfield Estate School. Alcott's classic novel has been adapted to a 1934 film, a 1940 film, a 1998 film, a television series, and a .


title: Little Men

text: Alcott's novel narrates six months in the life of the students at Plumfield, a school run by German Professor Friedrich and his wife, Mrs. Josephine Bhaer (née March). The idea of the school is first suggested at the very end of Little Women, Part Two, when Jo inherits Plumfield Estate from her late Aunt March.


title: Little Men

text: Alcott’s first inspiration for bringing educational ideals into the home and the development of a home-like model into the classroom, stems from her father, Amos Bronson Alcott, “an educational reformer and prominent Transcendentalist.” As a “Transcendentalist visionary,” her father was considered unconventional even among his reform contemporaries. Educational theorists such as Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, also provided the inspiration for Alcott’s educational methodologies and “stressed the need for the school to be as homelike as possible."


title: Little Men

text: As an educational reformer, Alcott's father believed education, “should simply turn the child’s mind inward to recognize that divinity.” Alcott's father also “believed that the theatrical performance of moral allegories by children would train them in the self-restraint that was the basis of domestic harmony and happiness."


title: Little Men

text: Bronson Alcott’s appeal to children’s imagination “was part of an effort to harness the child’s imaginative powers to the pursuit of the passionless life.” Alcott incorporates family dramatizations for the children of Plumfield to teach children "how to control every aspect of their self-expression.”


title: Little Men

text: One of the main models for Friedrich was Henry David Thoreau (in fact he appears in multiple disguises in all of LMA´s novels). Louisa attended Concord Academy where Henry and his brother John were teachers. Some of the elements in Friedrich´s character that come from Henry in Little Men, include Friedrich using phrases such as "gods garden". Friedrich has given all children their own little garden spots, which is something that Henry did as well. In the same way as Jo and Friedrich, Henry and Louisa often went to long walks together. Henry was a naturalist and his interest in the natural world can be seen in Little Men in Dan Kean´s character.


title: Little Men

text: The story begins with the arrival of Nat Blake, a shy young orphan who is gifted at playing the violin and telling fibs. Nat narrates the story and introduces each character which features several cameo appearances from characters from the original Little Women novel. There are ten boys attending the school already. Then, Nat comes to Plumfield, followed by his friend Dan. After that, Nan arrives and becomes a companion for Daisy, the only girl. Jo's sons, Rob and Teddy, are younger than the others. Rob, Teddy, Daisy and Nan are not counted among the pupils.


title: Little Men

text: Plumfield is not run by conventional means. All the children have their own gardens and their own pets and are encouraged to experiment with running businesses. Pillow fights are permitted on Saturdays, subject to a time limit. Children are treated as individuals, with a strong emphasis on gently molding their characters.


title: Little Men

text: Daisy Brooke, Meg's daughter, attends Plumfield with her twin brother Demi, but she is somewhat isolated with no other girls her age, until Nan's arrival. Nan is even more of a willful tomboy than Jo was as a teenager, while Daisy is mainly interested in dolls and her own mini kitchen. Daisy’s mini kitchen includes a cast iron child-sized oven which was purchased by Jo's brother-in-law, Uncle Teddy, husband of her youngest sister Amy March. Near the end of the novel, Daisy's father, John, dies quietly one night.


title: Little Men

text: The other newcomer to Plumfield, Dan, is introduced by Nat. Dan originally decides the other boys are "molly-coddles" and leads them in experiments with boxing, fighting, drinking, smoking, profanity, and card games, which results in him being temporarily removed from the school. Dan eventually returns to Plumfield with an injured foot and redeems himself by standing up for Nat when Nat is falsely accused of theft by the other boys. He later becomes a curator of the school's natural history museum.


title: Little Men

text: Personal relationships are central to the school, and diversity is celebrated. Daisy is deeply attached to her twin brother, to shy Nat, and to tomboy Nan. Nan and Tommy are also close and intend to marry when they grow up. Dan, already friends with Nat, is unexpectedly drawn to the pious Demi and the toddler Teddy. While Franz, Emil, Daisy and John are all related to the Bhaers, they are not treated with favoritism and are encouraged to overcome their faults just the same as the other pupils.


title: Little Men

text: In the Introduction of Louisa May Alcott: A Biography, author Madeleine B. Stern states that “Louisa May Alcott was throughout her life a professional author skilled in creation and the re-creation implicit in revision.” Alcott's works borrowed “as source material episodes from her life, her observations, her travels, her experiences, [and] her reading.” Alcott’s legacy remains in her depiction of life and her devotion to family. Her overall work is considered, “neither of Hell nor of Heaven, but of a multitude of stories in a variety of literary genres, ranging from fairy tales to realistic war sketches, from sensation thrillers to domestic sagas.”


title: Little Men

text: Commentaries suggest that “even Little Women and its successors, "Little Men" and "Jo’s Boys", were not immune from critics in hot pursuit of gender relations, power struggles, and sexual politics.” According to Stern’s biography, “in the case of Louisa May Alcott, such interpretations are very tempting, since she herself provided such an intriguing arsenal of ammunition.”


title: Little Men

text: As an educational reformist, Alcott "proves to be attuned to what eventually, in the twentieth century, became a solution to this obstacle: differentiation, or the idea that all children need not learn the same things." As an example, Alcott’s use of performance and acting in the home creates a “fictional adaptation of her father’s allegorical nursery theater, [where] domestic drama is made an inextricable part of the moral struggles of everyday life.” The Alcott family theatrics “proved a means of establishing peace between them, as Louisa learned to use family theater to curb her frantic demands for personal freedom and bring herself into conformity with her father’s domestic ideal.” Through adaptations of family theater, the characters in "Little Men" “learn to view themselves as little garden plots growing large crops of patience, perseverance, and good temper.”


title: Little Men

text: In 1865, Alcott was first encouraged to write a book for girls, including memories of her childhood, and while she was employed as an editor at Merry Museum, a Boston children’s magazine, she began writing the Little Women trilogy which includes "Little Women", "Little Men", or Life at Plumfield with "Jo's Boys and How They Turned Out: A Sequel to Little Men". "Little Men" was originally published by Roberts Brothers in 1871, and the first edition included 376 pages and since its original publication, Alcott's work has been published in many formats, languages, and adapted for younger readers.


title: Little Men

text: The novel centers around "a diverse and challenging set of students—orphaned boys, the next generation of Marches, physically and mentally challenged children, a motherless girl, children of the merchant class—Alcott comments on the possibilities and limitations of science education for the masses."


title: Little Men

text: In the novel, Alcott “is able to devote her attention to the benefits and risks of science education on an individual basis rather than imagining students in the abstract.” "Little Men" discusses the gray area in-between where a teacher can “cover the whole ground of human culture—physical, intellectual, moral, spiritual, and practical.”


title: Little Men

text: Soon after the publication of "Little Men", educational advocates and reformers alike “embraced these theories too, arguing their applicability to all children but particularly of the poor, who, it was believed, most needed the moral education a homelike school could offer." "Little Men" addresses two ideals of learning which had previously been separated, home and school.


title: Little Men

text: Plumfield becomes an ideal model of a combined home and school, where Alcott's characters grow into adulthood, and their learning "outcomes are inflected not only by class and gender but also, most important, by the students' preexisting values and moral leanings."


title: Little Men

text: "Little Men" was first adapted into film in 1934 starring Erin O'Brien-Moore and Ralph Morgan. Another film followed in 1940 with Kay Francis. In 1998, a Canadian feature starring Mariel Hemingway and Chris Sarandon was released.


title: Little Men

text: In 1993, an animated television series based on this novel ran in Japan, "", which has been dubbed into several different languages, though not English. A Canadian television series, "Little Men", aired in 1998 to 1999 for two seasons. The plot is somewhat altered and acts more as a continuation of the novel.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław IV Vasa or Ladislaus IV of Poland (9 June 1595 – 20 May 1648) was King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania and claimant of the thrones of Sweden and Russia. Władysław IV was the eldest son of Sigismund III Vasa and Sigismund's first wife, Anna of Austria.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Born into the House of Vasa, Władysław was elected Tsar of Russia by the Seven Boyars in 1610 when the Polish army captured Moscow, but did not assume the throne due to his father's position and a popular uprising. Nevertheless, until 1634 he used the titular title of Grand Duke of Muscovy, a principality centered around Moscow. Elected king of Poland in 1632, he was largely successful in defending the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth against foreign invasion, most notably in the Smolensk War of 1632–34, in which he participated personally.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: He supported religious tolerance and carried out military reforms, such as the founding of the Commonwealth Navy. Władysław was also a renowned patron of the arts and music. He failed, however, at reclaiming the Swedish throne, gaining fame by defeating the Ottoman Empire, strengthening royal power, and reforming the Commonwealth's political system. Despite these failures, his personal charisma and popularity among all segments of society contributed to relative internal calm in the Commonwealth.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: He died without a legitimate son and was succeeded to the Polish throne by his half-brother, John II Casimir Vasa. Władysław's death marked the end of relative stability in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as conflicts and tensions that had been growing over several decades came to a head with devastating consequences. The Khmelnytsky Uprising in the east (1648) and the subsequent Swedish invasion ("the Deluge", 1655–60) weakened the country and diminished Poland's status as a regional power. For this reason, Władysław's reign was seen in following decades as a bygone golden era of stability and prosperity.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław IV's father, Sigismund III Vasa, grandson of Sweden's King Gustav I, had succeeded his father to the Swedish throne in 1592, only to be deposed in 1599 by his uncle, subsequently King Charles IX. This resulted in a long-standing feud, with the Polish kings of the House of Vasa claiming the Swedish throne. This led to the Polish–Swedish War of 1600–29 and later to the Deluge of 1655.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: The marriage of Anne of Austria to Sigismund III was a traditional, politically motivated marriage, intended to tie the young House of Vasa to the prestigious Habsburgs. Władysław was born 9 June 1595 at the King's summer residence in Łobzów, near Kraków, a few months after the main Wawel Castle had been consumed by fire.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław's mother died on 10 February 1598, less than three years after giving birth to him. He was raised by one of her former ladies of the court, Urszula Meierin, who eventually became a powerful player at the royal court, with much influence.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław's Hofmeister was Michał Konarski, a Polish-Prussian noble. Around early 17th century Urszula lost much of her influence, as Władysław gained new teachers and mentors, including such priests


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: as Marek Łętkowski, Gabriel Prowancjusz, and Andrzej Szołdrski and in military matters by Zygmunt Kazanowski.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Much of his curriculum was likely designed by Father Piotr Skarga, much respected by Sigmismund III. Władysław studied for several years in the Kraków Academy, and for two years, in Rome.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: At the age of 10, he received his own prince court. He formed a friendship with brothers Adam and Stanisław Kazanowski. It was reported that young Władysław was interested in arts; later this led to him becoming an important patron of the arts. He spoke and wrote in German, Italian and Latin.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław was liked by the szlachta (Polish nobility), but his father's plans to secure him the throne of Poland ("vivente rege") were unpopular and eventually crushed in the Zebrzydowski Rebellion (rokosz).


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: With the intensification of the Polish intervention in Muscovy, in 1609, the royal family moved to their residence in Vilnius, capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, where he witnessed the fire of Vilnius, which required the royal family to evacuate from Vilnius Castle. Later that year, Władysław, aged 15, was elected Tsar by Muscovy's aristocracy council of "Seven boyars", who overthrew tsar Vasily Shuysky during the Polish-Muscovite War and Muscovy's Time of Troubles.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: His election was ruined by his father, Sigismund, who aimed to convert Muscovy's population from the Eastern Orthodox religion to Roman Catholicism. Sigismund refused to agree to the boyar's request to send prince Władysław to Moscow and his conversion to Orthodoxy. Instead, Sigismund proposed that he should reign as a regent in Muscovy instead. This unrealistic proposal led to a resumption of hostilities. In 1611-12, silver and gold coins (kopecks) were prematurely stuck in the Russian mints in Moscow and Novgorod with Władysław's titulary "Tsar and Grand Prince Vladislav Zigimontovych of all Russia".


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław tried to regain the tsar's throne himself, organizing a campaign in 1616. Despite some military victories, he was unable to capture Moscow. The Commonwealth gained some disputed territories in the Truce of Deulino, but Władysław was never able to reign in Russia; the throne during this time was instead held by tsar Michael Romanov. He held on to the title, without any real power, until 1634.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Likely, the failure of this campaign showed Władysław the limits of royal power in Poland, as major factors for the failure included significant autonomy of the military commanders, which did not see Władysław as their superior, and lack of funds for the army, as the Polish parliament (sejm) refused to subsidize the war.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Before he was elected king of the Commonwealth, Władysław fought in many campaigns, seeking personal glory. After his final campaign against Russians in 1617–18 (the end of Dymitriads), he went to Silesia in 1619 looking for an opportunity to aid the Habsburgs in their struggle against the Czech Hussites in the Thirty Years' War, an opportunity that never materialized.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In 1620, he took part in the second phase of the Polish–Ottoman War, a consequence of the long series of struggles between Poland and the Ottomans over Moldavia. In 1621, he was a Polish commander at Chocim. He reportedly he was stricken with illness but despite that proved a voice of reason, convincing other Polish commanders there to stay and fight. His advice was correct, and the battle eventually ended with a peace treaty that returned the status quo from before the Ottoman invasion. This peace treaty also gave Władysław an international reputation as a "defender of the Christian faith", and increased his popularity in the Commonwealth itself.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In 1623, while near Gdańsk (Danzig), he witnessed Gustavus Adolphus's Swedish Navy use its naval superiority to demand concessions from Gdańsk (the Commonwealth had no navy).


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In 1624, King Sigismund decided that the time had come for Władysław to travel, like many of his peers, to Western Europe. For security reasons, Władysław traveled under a fake name, Snopkowski (from Polish Snopek, meaning sheaf, as seen in the Vasa's coat of arms). On the long voyage (1624–25), he was accompanied by Albrycht Stanisław Radziwiłł and other courtiers.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: First, he travelled to Wrocław (Breslau), then Munich, where he met Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. In Brussels he met Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain; in Antwerp, Rubens. Near Breda he met Ambrosio Spinola. It was during his stay with Spinola that he was impressed by Western military techniques; this was later reflected when he became king, as military matters were always important to him.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: While not a military genius, and surpassed by his contemporary, Commonwealth hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, Władysław was known as a fairly skillful commander on his own. In Rome he was welcomed by Pope Urban VIII, who congratulated him on his fighting against the Ottomans. During his stay in Florence he was impressed by opera, and decided to bring this form of art to the Commonwealth, where it was previously unknown.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In Genoa and Venice he was impressed by the local shipyards, and in Pisa he witnessed a specially organized mock naval battle, experiences that resulted in his later attempt to create the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: After returning to Poland, he fought in 1626 against the Swedes in the last phase of the Polish–Swedish War, where he took part in the battle of Gniew. His involvement in this conflict, which lasted till the Truce of Altmark in 1629, was rather limited, and he spent much time in other parts of the country.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: During that period and afterward, he lobbied for support of his candidature for the Polish throne, as his father, Sigismund, was getting more advanced in his age, and the succession to the Polish throne did not occur through inheritance but rather through the process of royal elections. While Władysław, and his father tried to ensure Władysław's election during Sigismund's lifetime, this was not a popular option for the nobility, and it repeatedly failed, up to and including at the sejm of 1631.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Sigismund suffered a sudden stroke in late April 1632 and died in the morning hours of 30 April, forcing the matter to be raised again.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: The election sejm of 1632 eventually chose Władysław; there were no other serious contenders. The decision reached on 8 November, but as the "pacta conventa" were not yet ready, the official announcement was delayed until 13 November. In the "pacta conventa", Władysław pledged himself to fund a military school and equipment; to find a way to fund a navy; to maintain current alliances; not to raise armies, give offices or military ranks to foreigners, negotiate peace treaties, or declare war without the Sejm's approval; not to take a wife without the Senate's approval; to convince his brothers to take an oath to the Commonwealth; and to transfer the profits from the Royal Mint to the Royal Treasury rather than to a private treasury. When the election result was announced by the Crown Grand Marshal, Łukasz Opaliński, the "szlachta" (nobility), who had taken part in the election, began festivities in honor of the new king, which lasted three hours. Władysław was crowned in the Wawel Cathedral, in Kraków on 6 February in the following year.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In an attempt to take advantage of the confusion expected after the death of the Polish king, Tsar Michael I of Russia invaded the Commonwealth. A Muscovite army crossed the Commonwealth eastern frontier in October 1632 and laid siege to Smolensk (which was ceded to Poland by Russia in 1618, at the end of the Dymitriad wars). In the war against Russia in 1632–1634 (the Smolensk War), Władysław broke the siege in September 1633 and then in turn surrounded the Russian army under Mikhail Shein, which was then forced to surrender on 1 March 1634.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: During that campaign Władysław started the modernisation program of the Commonwealth army, emphasising the usage of modern infantry and artillery. Władysław proved to be a good tactician, and his innovations in the use of artillery and fortifications based on Western ideas greatly contributed to the eventual Polish–Lithuanian success. King Władysław wanted to continue the war or, because the Polish–Swedish Treaty of Altmark would soon be expiring, ally with the Russians to strike against Sweden. However, the Sejm wanted no more conflict. As Stanisław Łubieński, the Bishop of Płock, wrote two weeks after Shein's surrender: "Our happiness is in remaining within our borders, guaranteeing health and well-being." The resulting Peace of Polyanov (Treaty of Polanów), favourable to Poland, confirmed the pre-war territorial "status quo". Muscovy also agreed to pay 20,000 rubles in exchange for Wladyslaw's renunciation of all claims to the tsardom and return of the royal insignia, which were in the Commonwealth possession since the Dymitriads.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Following the Smolensk campaign, the Commonwealth was threatened by another attack by the Ottoman Empire. During the wars against Ottomans in 1633–1634 Władysław moved the Commonwealth army south of the Muscovy border, where under the command of hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski it forced the Turks to renew a peace treaty. In the resulting treaty, both countries agreed again to curb the border raids by Cossacks and the Tatars, and the Ottomans confirmed that the Commonwealth to be an independent power, and had not to pay tribute to the Empire.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: After the southern campaign, the Commonwealth had to deal with a threat from the north, as the armistice, ending the Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629) was expiring. The majority of Polish nobles preferred to solve the problem through negotiations, unwilling to pay taxes for a new war, provided that Sweden was open to negotiations and concessions (in particular, to retreat from the occupied Polish coastal territories). Władysław himself was hoping for a war, which could yield some more significant territorial gains, and even managed to gather a sizeable army, with navy elements, near the disputed territories. Sweden, weakened by involvement in the Thirty Years' War, was however open to a peaceful solution. Władysław could not go against the decision of the Sejm and Senate, and agreed to support the treaty. Thus both sides agreed to sign the Armistice of Stuhmsdorf (Sztumska Wieś) on 12 September 1635, favourable to the Commonwealth, which regained the Prussian territories, and called for a reduction of the Swedish tolls on the maritime trade.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In the three months between his election and coronation, Władysław sounded the waters regarding the possibility of a peaceful succession to the Swedish throne, following the recent death of Gustavus Adolphus, but this, as well as his proposal to mediate between Sweden and its enemies, was rejected, primarily by the Swedish chancellor and head of the regency council, Axel Oxenstierna.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław IV owed nominal allegiance to the Imperial Habsburgs as a member of the Order of the Golden Fleece. His relationship with the Habsburgs was relatively strong; although he was not above carrying some negotiations with their enemies, like France, he refused Cardinal Richelieu's 1635 proposal of an alliance and a full-out war against them, despite potential lure of territorial gains in Silesia. He realized that such a move would cause much unrest in a heavily Catholic Commonwealth, that he likely lacked the authority and power to push such a change of policy through the Sejm, and that the resulting conflict would be very difficult. From 1636 onward, for the next few years, Władysław strengthened his ties with the Habsburgs.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In the meantime, Władysław still tried to take a leading role in European politics, and negotiate a peaceful settlement to the Thirty Years' War, a settlement which he hoped would ease his way into regaining the Swedish crown. Following the armistice of Stuhmsdorf, Władysław came to increasingly realize that his prospects for regaining the Swedish throne were dim. In the years 1636–1638 he proposed several reforms to strengthen his and his dynasty's power in the Commonwealth. His first plan was an attempt to secure a hereditary province within the country, which would not be threatened by the possible power shift following a future royal election; this, however, did not gain sufficient support in the Sejm. Next, Władysław attempted to create an order of chivalry, similar to the Order of the Golden Fleece, but this plan was scuttled down as well, with the szlachta and the magnates seeing this as an attempt to create a royal, loyalist elite, and traditionally opposing anything that could lead to the reduction of their extensive power. Popular vote and opposition also resulted in the failure of the plan to raise taxes from trade tariffs; here it was not only the nobility but even the merchants and burghers from towns, like Gdańsk (Danzig) who were able to muster enough support (including from foreign powers) to stop the king's reforms. In fact, the defeat of his plans was so total, that he was forced to make certain conciliatory gestures to the nobility, as the Sejm passed several laws constraining his authority (such as to hire foreign troops), further indicating the limits of royal power in the Commonwealth.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Early in his reign, there were plans regarding a marriage of Władysław and Princess Elisabeth of Bohemia, Princess Palatine (daughter of Frederick V, Elector Palatine). This was however unpopular, both with Catholic nobles and the Catholic Church, and when it became clear to Władysław that this would not convince the Swedes to elect him to their throne, this plan, with quiet support from Władysław himself, was dropped.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor's proposal of marriage between Władysław and Archduchess Cecilia Renata of Austria (sister of future Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor) arrived in Warsaw somewhere during spring 1636. In June that year, Władysław sent Jerzy Ossoliński to the Imperial Court, to work on improving the Imperial-Commonwealth relations. The king's trusted confessor, father Walerian Magni (of Franciscan religious order), and voivode Kasper Doenhoff arrived in Regensburg () on 26 October 1636 with consent and performed negotiations. The Archduchess' dowry was agreed for 100,000 zlotys, the Emperor also promised to pay the dowries of both of Siegmund III's wives: Anna and Konstance. Additionally the son of Władysław and Cecilia Renata was to obtain the duchy of Opole and Racibórz in Silesia (Duchy of Opole and Racibórz). However, before everything was confirmed and signed Ferdinand II died and Ferdinand III backed from giving the Silesian duchy to the son of Władysław. Instead a dowry was awarded to be secured by the Bohemian estates of Třeboň (Trebon). On 16 March 1637 a "family alliance" was signed between the Habsburgs and the Polish branch of the House of Vasa. Władysław promised not to sign any pacts against the Habsburgs, and to transfer his rights to the Swedish throne in case of his line's extinction; in return, Habsburg promised to support his efforts to regain the Swedish crown, and to transfer to him some territory in case of gains in a war against the Ottomans. The marriage took place in 1637, on 12 September.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: The next few years were similarly unsuccessful with regards to his plans. Eventually, he tried to bypass the opposition in the Sejm with secret alliances, dealings, and intrigues, but did not prove successful. Those plans included schemes such as supporting the Holy Roman Emperor's raid on Inflanty in 1639, which he hoped would lead to a war; an attempted alliance with Spain against France in 1640–1641, and in 1641–1643, with Denmark against Sweden. On the international scene, he attempted to mediate between various religious factions of Christianity, using the tolerant image of the Commonwealth to portray himself as the neutral mediator. He organized a conference in Toruń (Thorn) that begun on 28 January 1645, but it failed to reach any meaningful conclusions.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: After Cecilia's death in 1644, the ties between Władysław and the Habsburgs were somewhat loosened. In turn, the relations with France improved, and eventually Władysław married the French princess Ludwika Maria Gonzaga de Nevers, daughter of Charles I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, in 1646.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław's last plan was to orchestrate a major war between the European powers and the Ottoman Empire. The border with the Empire was in a near constant state of low-level warfare; some historians estimate that in the first half of the 17th century, Ottoman raids and wars resulted in the loss (death or enslavement) of about 300,000 Commonwealth citizens in the borderlands. The war, Władysław hoped, would also solve the problem of unrest among the Cossacks, a militant group living in the Ukraine, near the Ottoman border, who could find worth in such a campaign, and turn their attention to fighting for the Commonwealth, instead of against it. As usual, he failed to inspire the nobility, rarely willing to consider sponsoring another war, to agree to this plan. He received more support from foreign powers, from Rome, Venice and Muscovy. With the promise of funds for the war, Władysław started recruiting troops among the Cossacks in 1646. The opposition of the Sejm, demanding that he dismiss the troops, coupled with Władysław's worsening health, crippled that plan as well. Władysław still did not give up, and attempted to resurrect the plan in 1647, and with support of magnate Jeremi Wiśniowiecki (who organized military exercises near Ottoman border), attempted unsuccessfully to provoke the Ottomans to attack.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: On 9 August 1647, his young son, Sigismund Casimir, then seven years old, suddenly fell ill and died; the death of his only legitimate heir to the throne was a major blow to the king, whose grief prevented his attendance at the boy's funeral held in Kraków.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: While hunting near Merkinė (Merecz) in early 1648, Władysław suffered from a case of gallstones or kidney stones. The King's condition supposedly worsened as he was given the incorrect medication to treat the ailment. Being aware that these might be his final days, the King had his last will dictated and then received his last rites. Władysław died around 02:00 at night on 20 May 1648.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: His heart and "viscera" were interred in the Chapel of St. Casimir of Vilnius Cathedral. As he had no legitimate male heirs, he was succeeded by his half brother John II Casimir Vasa.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław has been described as outgoing and friendly, with a sense of humor, optimistic, a "people's person", able to charm many of those who interacted with him. On the other hand, he had a short temper and when angered, could act without considering all consequences.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław was criticized for being a spendthrift; he lived lavishly, spending more than his royal court treasury could afford. He also dispensed much wealth among his courtiers, who were seen by people farther from the court as taking advantage of the king. He has also been known to maintain several mistresses throughout his life, including during his married period.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: One of the king's most substantial achievements was in the cultural sphere; he became a notable patron of the arts. Władysław was a connoisseur of the arts, in particular, theater and music. He spoke several languages, enjoyed reading historical literature and poetry. He collected paintings and created a notable gallery of paintings in the Warsaw castle. Władysław assembled an important collection of Italian and Flemish Baroque paintings, much of which were lost in the wars after his death. He sponsored many musicians and in 1637 created the first amphitheater in the palace, the first theater in Poland, where during his reign dozens of operas and ballets were performed. He is credited with bringing the very genre of opera to Poland. Władysław's attention to theater contributed to the spread of this art form in Poland. He was also interested in poetry, as well as in cartography and historical and scientific works; he corresponded with Galileo.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Notable painters and engravers Władysław supported and who attended his royal court included Peter Paul Rubens, Tommaso Dolabella, Peter Danckerts de Rij, Wilhelm Hondius, Bartłomiej Strobel, and Christian Melich. His royal orchestra was headed by kapellmeister Marco Scacchi, seconded by Bartłomiej Pękiel.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: One of the most renowned works he ordered was the raising of the Sigismund's Column in Warsaw. The column, dedicated to his father, was designed by the Italian-born architect Constantino Tencalla and the sculptor Clemente Molli, and cast by Daniel Tym. He was less interested in decorative architecture; he supported the construction of two palaces in Warsaw – Kazanowski Palace and "Villa Regia". Among other works sponsored by or dedicated to him is Guido Reni's "The Rape of Europa".


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław had many plans (dynastic, about wars, territorial gains: regaining Silesia, Inflanty (Livonia), incorporation of Ducal Prussia, creation of his hereditary dukedom etc.), some of them with real chances of success, but for various reasons, most of them ended in failure during his 16-year reign. Though his grand international political plans failed, he did improve the Commonwealth foreign policy, supporting the establishment of a network of permanent diplomatic agents in important European countries.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Throughout his life, Władysław successfully defended Poland against foreign invasions. He was recognized as a good tactician and strategist, who did much to modernize the Polish Army. Władysław ensured that the officer corps was significantly large so that the army could be expanded; introduced foreign (Western) infantry to the Polish Army, with its pikes and early firearms, and supported the expansion of the artillery. His attempt to create a Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy resulted in the creation of a new port village, Władysławowo. Despite promising beginnings, Władysław failed to secure enough funds for the fleet creation; the ships were gone – sunk, or stolen – by the 1640s.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: The king, while Catholic, was very tolerant and did not support the more aggressive policies of the Counter-Reformation. When he took power, the Senate of Poland had 6 Protestant members; at the time of his death, it had 11. Despite his support for religious tolerance, he did fail, however, to resolve the conflict stemming from the Union of Brest split. Despite his support for the Protestants, he did not stop the growing tide of intolerance, either in Poland or abroad, as shown by the fate of the Racovian Academy, or an international disagreement between the faiths. Neither did he get involved with the disagreement about the Orthodox Cossacks, a group that he respected and counted on in his plans.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In internal politics he attempted to strengthen the power of the monarchy, but this was mostly thwarted by the szlachta, who valued their independence and democratic powers. Władysław suffered continuing difficulties caused by the efforts of the Polish Sejm (parliament) to check the King's power and limit his dynastic ambitions. Władysław was fed up with the weak position of the king in the Commonwealth; his politics included attempting to secure a small, preferably hereditary territory – like a duchy – where his position would be much stronger.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Władysław used the title of the King of Sweden, although he had no control over Sweden whatsoever and never set foot in that country. However, he continued his attempts to regain the Swedish throne, with similar lack of results as his father. He might have been willing to trade his claim away, but the offer was never put down in the negotiations.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Some historians see Władysław as a dreamer who could not stick to one policy, and upon running into first difficulties, ditched it and looked for another opportunity. Perhaps it was due to this lukewarmness that Władysław was never able to inspire those he ruled to support, at least in any significant manner, any of his plans. Władysław Czapliński in his biography of the king is more understanding, noting the short period of his reign (16 years) and the weakness of the royal position he was forced to deal with.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: Several years after his death, a diplomatic mission from Muscovy demanded that publications about Władysław's victories in the Smolensk War of 1633–1634 be collected and burned. Eventually, to much controversy, their demand was met. Polish historian Maciej Rosalak noted: "under the reign of Władysław IV, such a shameful event would have never been allowed."


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: In 1632 Władysław was elected King of Poland. He claimed to be King of Sweden by paternal inheritance, but was never able to gain possession of that throne. His titles were the longest of any Polish king ever.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: a After some discussions early on, he chose the title of "elected Grand Duke of Moscow" ("electus Magnus Dux Moscoviae") rather than that of a tsar.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: b Władysław had no children with his second wife, and his first wife bore him only two children (Maria Anna Izabela and Zygmunt Kazimierz), both of them died in their youth. He had at least one known illegitimate son, Władysław Konstanty Vasa, but he played no significant role in Polish politics.


title: Władysław IV Vasa

text: c The confusion stems from an undisambiguated use of the Polish medical term "kamica" in the cited reference work (Czapliński 1976). Czapliński also mentions that Władysław suffered from ill health throughout his life, related to obesity, rheumatism and kidney issues. There were months-long periods, particularly in 1635 and 1639, when he could not walk.


title: Avatar (band)

text: Avatar is a Swedish heavy metal band, formed in Gothenburg in 2001. The band has released eight studio albums, the most recent being "Hunter Gatherer" in 2020. The band has had some success on US rock radio, notably with their song "New Land", which peaked at number 20 on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock Songs chart in May 2017.


title: Avatar (band)

text: The band was formed in 2001 by drummer John Alfredsson and guitarist Jonas Jarlsby, who at the time were in separate bands. After several lineup changes, the band released two four-song EP demos in 2004: Personal Observations released on 18 January 2004 and 4 Reasons to Die on 19 November 2004. Avatar's first studio album, "Thoughts of No Tomorrow", was released on 25 January 2006 and peaked at #47 on the Sweden Albums Top 60. The band completed several European tours as a supporting act for Impaled Nazarene, Evergrey, and In Flames.


title: Avatar (band)

text: Avatar's second album, "Schlacht", was released on 24 October 2007, reaching spot 27 on the Swedish album chart. Björn Gelotte from In Flames contributed a guitar solo on the track "Letters from Neverend". The subsequent set of tours saw them perform at the 2008 Sweden Rock Festival as well as shows in support of Obituary (January–February 2008), and Hardcore Superstar (October–November 2009).


title: Avatar (band)

text: The band's third album, the self-titled "Avatar", was released in Sweden in November 2009 and reached the 36th position on the national album chart. In January 2010 the music video for the song "Queen of Blades" was released on the band's website. Around that time, the band signed with Sony Music for the German and Swiss release of their latest album on 26 March 2010. In April of the same year a deal was signed with the Japanese label Art Union, for a 19 May launch of the album. They then launched into an ambitious touring schedule appearing at the 2010 Storsjöyran, and also with Warrior Soul (March–April 2010), Dark Tranquillity (October–November 2010), and Helloween (December 2010 – January 2011).


title: Avatar (band)

text: In December 2011 guitarist Simon Andersson left the band, being replaced by Tim Öhrström. On 25 January 2012 the album "Black Waltz" was released in Europe. It reached position 25 on the album list in Avatar's native Sweden. The album was released in the US on 14 February. "Black Waltz" marks the first appearance of the "Clown" face paint now worn regularly by Eckerström. To support the American release of "Black Waltz", Avatar embarked on its first ever U.S. tour alongside Lacuna Coil and Sevendust in February 2013.


title: Avatar (band)

text: In August 2013, after the wife of Device and Disturbed vocalist David Draiman gave birth and Draiman opted to bow out of his tour schedule, Avatar was picked by Avenged Sevenfold to replace Device and continue to tour with them and Five Finger Death Punch. The following fall, the band spent a month in Thailand recording for a new album, planned for release in March 2014.


title: Avatar (band)

text: On 11 March 2014 it was announced that Avatar's fifth album would be titled "Hail the Apocalypse" and was released 13 May 2014 via eOne Music. The album's first single, the title track, was released 17 March 2014 and was accompanied by a video. The new album is produced by Tobias Lindell and mixed by Jay Ruston.


title: Avatar (band)

text: Since the release of "Hail the Apocalypse", Avatar has conducted several tours of the U.S. and Europe as both a supporting and headline act, as well as performing at festivals such as Rock on the Range 2014 and the inaugural Louder Than Life. The music video for 'Vultures Fly' premiered on 26 January 2015 and earned distinction by being voted #1 for five weeks in a row in Loudwire's Battle Royal video countdown, as well as their 2015 Best Rock Video. Avatar then began a U.S. tour in April 2015 consisting of headline performances, and supporting Five Finger Death Punch and Mushroomhead.


title: Avatar (band)

text: On 6 May 2015 it was announced that Avatar would be included in the lineup of Shiprocked 2016. Avatar returned to the U.S. for another headline tour in August–September 2015 with Gemini Syndrome and First Decree, and in January–February 2016 with September Mourning prior to returning to Sweden to complete writing on the follow up to "Hail The Apocalypse". Sylvia Massy was announced as producer of that album, which was then recorded in three studios across Europe. Towards the end of 2015, it was announced Avatar would be scheduled to appear at several festivals in 2016, to include Rock on the Range and Carolina Rebellion.


title: Avatar (band)

text: After several tours supporting 2014's "Hail the Apocalypse", Avatar entered the studio in December 2015 to begin recording a then unnamed follow-up studio album. The band split their time between three European studios — Castle Studios in Rohrsdorf, Germany, Finnvox Studios in Helsinki, Finland and Spinroad Studios in Lindome, Sweden. Acclaimed producer Sylvia Massy, noted for her work with Tool and Red Hot Chili Peppers, praised Avatar as "relentless," noting singer Johannes Eckerström as having "wild energy and charisma." The start of recording sessions also coincided with multiple updates via the band's Instagram account, chronicling their time in the studio. Once recording finished, Avatar took part in Shiprocked 2016, then toured the southern United States with September Mourning and Saint Diablo. On 30 January 2016 in Dallas, Texas, Avatar performed the song "For The Swarm" for the first time, the first original song since the release of their previous album.


title: Avatar (band)

text: On 3 March 2016, Avatar revealed the name of the new album, "Feathers & Flesh", via their official website, and through social media. A release date of 13 May 2016 was also announced, as well as several pre-ordering merchandise bundles that would be available to order on 17 March 2016. One bundle offers a 60-page, 109-verse poem hardcover book described on the band's Facebook as 'a story too extensive for any booklet'. The first single, "For The Swarm," was released as a reward for those pre-ordering the album on iTunes. A music video of this single was also released. Fan reception of the new song and video were high, as evidenced in "For The Swarm" being voted #1 in Loudwire's Battle Royale for the week ending 11 March 2016. On 17 March 2016 the singles, "Regret" and "House of Eternal Hunt" were released to help kick off pre-ordering of merchandise bundles for "Feathers & Flesh". A video directed by Johan Carlén was released featuring the two songs playing sequentially as the view pans around a darkened art gallery, with many paintings of birds, primarily owls, mirroring some of the artwork that the band has created for the individual songs on their album. "Regret," as the opening track on the album, is described by the band as “an intense journey through epicness” and, “...by far the most different album-intro we ever written”. The song introduces The Owl, the protagonist of the album as she lays dying, reflecting on her past. "House of Eternal Hunt," described by the band as "the definition of metal", starts the tale of The Owl, a "predator ruling the sky" according to Eckerström. The first official single, "The Eagle Has Landed," was released 25 March 2016. As with the previously released singles, this track was an instant gratification reward for pre-ordering "Feathers & Flesh". The song introduces The Eagle, "...crashing into the world of his adversary", according to Eckerström. No new music video was released with this track, though the band did upload the song to its official YouTube channel with the same video featured for the release of "Regret" and "House of Eternal Hunt."


title: Avatar (band)

text: On 24 October 2017, Avatar released a new single called "A Statue of the King", along with the announcement that they will release their seventh album, "Avatar Country", on 12 January 2018. It was also announced the dates of the new Avatar tour, Called "Avatar Country Tour", which starts in January 2018 in North America and arrives in Europe in March of the same year. On 13 December the song "The King Wants You" was released on SiriusXM Octane radio, and soon available on digital platforms, being the second single from the album "Avatar Country". The official music video was released on 19 December.


title: Avatar (band)

text: On 12 January 2018, "Avatar Country" was released worldwide, available both through streaming services such as Spotify, and in physical formats from music stores throughout the world. On 29 October 2018, the band launched a Kickstarter campaign for "Legend of Avatar Country" which has been described as "A film featurette based on the album Avatar Country by the band Avatar." The band needed to meet funding of $50,000 and as of 31 October 2018, the band has over $110,000 raised for the film.


title: Avatar (band)

text: In early December 2019, Avatar announced that they had begun recording their next album at Sphere Studios in Los Angeles. An interview with Loudwire in January and later a paywalled video by the band itself revealed that Slipknot and Stone Sour frontman Corey Taylor has a cameo in the song "Secret Door". The same interview also revealed the names of a few other songs on the yet unnamed album: "Colossus", "Child", "Scream Into The Void", and "Silence In The Age Of Apes". Speaking of the tone of the album, Eckerström told Loudwire ""Avatar Country, we wanted to see if we could do comedy ... It was funny and we wanted to see if we could make something funny ... But it was humorous for us, and now it’s important for us to do something devoid of humor, there is no joking around with this and it pulls us back into reality. It deals more with darkness, sadness, detachment, alienation and the anxiety of thinking of the world at large."" In a YouTube video and a tweet on 1 May 2020, the band announced the end of the "Avatar Country" era and teased the upcoming album with the question "Will you hunt with us?".


title: Avatar (band)

text: The name "Hunter Gatherer" and the release date of 7 August 2020 were announced through another video on 5 May 2020.


title: Avatar (band)

text: The music video for "Silence in the Age of Apes" was released on 14 May 2020 and was released on streaming platforms the following day.


title: Avatar (band)

text: Two singles entitled "Going Hunting" and "Barren Cloth Mother" were released on August 31 and September 1, 2021, respectively, ahead of the band's Going Hunting tour. At the same time, the band announced their split with their record label eOne and the inception of their own label, Black Waltz Records.


title: Avatar (band)

text: As of June 2022, Avatar has been working on new material for their ninth studio album, Dance Devil Dance. Three singles from it have been released so far.


title: Avatar (band)

text: Avatar has been described as a heavy metal band, and more specifically as melodic death metal and groove metal. The band has also been referred to as a "grease-painted Swedish death/industrial/progressive metal ensemble". Originally a pure melodic death metal band, Avatar later began to play a different style of music, moving to a more avant-garde metal style.


title: Avatar (band)

text: Avatar's influences include In Flames, Dark Tranquility, The Haunted, Marilyn Manson, Ministry, Strapping Young Lad, Devin Townsend, ABBA, Iron Maiden, Thin Lizzy, Rammstein, Beethoven, Helloween, the Beatles, Ozzy Osbourne, Meshuggah, Gojira, and Cryptopsy.


title: DeForest Buckner

text: DeForest George Buckner (born March 17, 1994) is an American football defensive tackle for the Indianapolis Colts of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Oregon, and was selected by the San Francisco 49ers in the first round of the 2016 NFL Draft. With the 49ers, Buckner made a Pro Bowl and was a second-team All-Pro selection in 2019. With the Colts, he was selected to the first-team All Pro in 2020 and made the Pro Bowl the following year.


title: DeForest Buckner

text: Buckner was born to a Samoan mother and an African American father. He attended Punahou School in Honolulu, Hawaii, where he was rated as a four-star recruit. Buckner also was a teammate of Kaʻimi Fairbairn, currently the kicker of the Houston Texans. In January 2012, Buckner committed to the University of Oregon to play college football. Buckner also played basketball in high school.


title: DeForest Buckner

text: Buckner played in all 13 games as a true freshman in 2012, making two starts. He finished his freshman season with 29 tackles, 2.5 for a loss, and 1.0 sack. As a sophomore in 2013, Buckner started eight of 13 games, recording 39 tackles, 3.5 for a loss, and 2.5 sacks. As a junior in 2014, he finished the year with 81 tackles, 13 for a loss, and 4.0 sacks. Buckner was considered a possible first-round pick in the NFL Draft but chose to return for his senior season to graduate and improve his draft stock. As a senior in 2015, Buckner improved even further, achieving career highs in tackles with 83, tackles for loss with 17, and sacks with 10.5.


title: DeForest Buckner

text: Buckner was voted the 2015 Pac-12 Defensive Player of the Year by the Pac-12 coaches, joining Haloti Ngata as the second Oregon Duck to ever win the award. He was awarded the Morris Trophy for best Pac-12 defensive lineman (voted on by opposing players) and was named a first-team All-American. Following his senior season, Buckner officially announced he would enter the 2016 NFL Draft. He was considered one of the top-ranked defensive ends in the draft.


title: DeForest Buckner

text: The San Francisco 49ers selected Buckner with the seventh overall pick in the 2016 NFL Draft. He was the second consecutive Oregon defensive end selected in the first round by the 49ers, joining Arik Armstead who was selected 17th overall in 2015. They went on to draft Solomon Thomas who was another Pac-12 defensive end in 2017.


title: DeForest Buckner

text: Buckner made his NFL debut in the season-opener against the Los Angeles Rams, recording one tackle in the 28–0 shutout victory. During a Week 6 45-16 road loss to the Buffalo Bills, he recorded nine tackles and his first two NFL sacks on quarterback Tyrod Taylor and recovered a fumble forced by former college teammate Arik Armstead on Taylor. During Week 14 against the New York Jets, Buckner recorded a team-high 11 tackles and sacked Bryce Petty twice in the 23–17 overtime loss.


title: DeForest Buckner

text: Buckner finished his rookie season with 73 tackles, six sacks, two fumble recoveries, and a pass deflection in 15 games and starts. He led all NFL defensive linemen with 1,108 snaps on the season and ranked second with his 73 tackles. Buckner's six sacks ranked fourth among rookies.