title: Gun turret

text: Rotating turrets were weapon mounts designed to protect the crew and mechanism of the artillery piece and with the capability of being aimed and fired over a broad arc, typically between a three-quarter circle up to and including a full 360 degrees. These presented the opportunity to concentrate firepower in fewer, better-sited positions by eliminating redundancy, in other words combining the firepower of those guns unable to engage an enemy because they sited on the wrong beam into a more powerful, and more versatile unified battery.


title: Gun turret

text: Designs for a rotating gun turret date back to the late 18th century. In the mid 19th century, during the Crimean War, Captain Cowper Phipps Coles constructed a raft with guns protected by a 'cupola' and used the raft, named the "Lady Nancy", to shell the Russian town of Taganrog in the Black Sea during the Siege of Taganrog. The "Lady Nancy" "proved a great success" and Coles patented his rotating turret design after the war.


title: Gun turret

text: The British Admiralty ordered a prototype of Coles's patented design in 1859, which was installed in the ironclad floating battery, HMS "Trusty", for trials in 1861, becoming the first warship to be fitted with a revolving gun turret. Coles's aim was to create a ship with the greatest possible all round arc of fire, as low in the water as possible to minimise the target.


title: Gun turret

text: The Admiralty accepted the principle of the turret gun as a useful innovation, and incorporated it into other new designs. Coles submitted a design for a ship having ten domed turrets each housing two large guns.


title: Gun turret

text: The design was rejected as impractical, although the Admiralty remained interested in turret ships and instructed its own designers to create better designs. Coles enlisted the support of Prince Albert, who wrote to the first Lord of the Admiralty, the Duke of Somerset, supporting the construction of a turret ship. In January 1862, the Admiralty agreed to construct a ship, HMS "Prince Albert" which had four turrets and a low freeboard, intended only for coastal defence.


title: Gun turret

text: While Coles designed the turrets, the ship was the responsibility of Chief Constructor Isaac Watts. Another ship using Coles' turret designs, , was completed in August 1864. Its existing broadside guns were replaced with four turrets on a flat deck and the ship was fitted with of armour in a belt around the waterline.


title: Gun turret

text: Early ships like the "Royal Sovereign" had little sea-keeping qualities being limited to coastal waters.


title: Gun turret

text: Sir Edward James Reed, went on to design and build HMS "Monarch", the first seagoing warship to carry her guns in turrets. Laid down in 1866 and completed in June 1869, it carried two turrets, although the inclusion of a forecastle and poop prevented the turret guns firing fore and aft.


title: Gun turret

text: The gun turret was independently invented by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson in America, while technologically inferior to Coles's version. Ericsson designed in 1861, its most prominent feature being a large cylindrical gun turret mounted amidships above the low-freeboard upper hull, also called the "raft". This extended well past the sides of the lower, more traditionally shaped hull.


title: Gun turret

text: A small armoured pilot house was fitted on the upper deck towards the bow; however, its position prevented "Monitor" from firing her guns straight forward. Like Coles's, one of Ericsson's goals in designing the ship was to present the smallest possible target to enemy gunfire. The turret's rounded shape helped to deflect cannon shot. A pair of donkey engines rotated the turret through a set of gears; a full rotation was made in 22.5 seconds during testing on 9 February 1862 but fine control of the turret proved to be difficult as the engine would have to be placed in reverse if the turret overshot its mark or another full rotation could be made.


title: Gun turret

text: Including the guns, the turret weighed approximately ; the entire weight rested on an iron spindle that had to be jacked up using a wedge before the turret was free to rotate. The spindle was in diameter which gave it ten times the strength needed in preventing the turret from sliding sideways.


title: Gun turret

text: When not in use, the turret rested on a brass ring on the deck that was intended to form a watertight seal but in service this proved to leak heavily, despite caulking by the crew.


title: Gun turret

text: The gap between the turret and the deck proved to be another kind of problem for several s, which used the same turret design, as debris and shell fragments entered the gap and jammed the turrets during the First Battle of Charleston Harbor in April 1863. Direct hits at the turret with heavy shot also had the potential to bend the spindle, which could also jam the turret.


title: Gun turret

text: "Monitor" was originally intended to mount a pair of smoothbore Dahlgren guns, but they were not ready in time and guns were substituted, each gun weighing approximately .


title: Gun turret

text: "Monitor"s guns used the standard propellant charge of specified by the 1860 ordnance instructions for targets "distant", "near", and "ordinary", established by the gun's designer Dahlgren himself. They could fire a round shot or shell up to a range of at an elevation of +15°.


title: Gun turret

text: (1872) represented the culmination of this pioneering work. An ironclad turret ship designed by Edward James Reed, she was equipped with revolving turrets that used pioneering hydraulic turret machinery to maneouvre the guns. She was also the world's first mastless battleship, built with a central superstructure layout, and became the prototype for all subsequent warships. With her sister of 1871 she was another pivotal design, and led directly to the modern battleship.


title: Gun turret

text: The US Navy tried to save weight and deck space, and allow the much faster firing 8-inch to shoot during the long reload time necessary for 12-inch guns by superposing secondary gun turrets directly on top of the primary turrets (as in the and s), but the idea proved to be practically unworkable and was soon abandoned.


title: Gun turret

text: With the advent of the s in 1908, the main battery turrets were designed so as to superfire, to improve fire arcs on centerline mounted weapons. This was necessitated by a need to move all main battery turrets to the vessel's centerline for improved structural support. The 1906 , while revolutionary in many other ways, had retained wing turrets due to concerns about muzzle blast affecting the sighting mechanisms of a turret below. A similar advancement was in the s and s, which dispensed with the "Q" turret amidships in favour of heavier guns in fewer mountings.


title: Gun turret

text: Like pre-dreadnoughts, the first dreadnoughts had two guns in each turret; however, later ships began to be fitted with triple turrets. The first ship to be built with triple turrets was the Italian , although the first to be actually commissioned was the Austro-Hungarian of the . By the beginning of World War II, most battleships used triple or, occasionally, quadruple turrets, which reduced the total number of mountings and improved armour protection. However, quadruple turrets proved to be extremely complex to arrange, making them unwieldy in practice.


title: Gun turret

text: The largest warship turrets were in World War II battleships where a heavily armoured enclosure protected the large gun crew during battle. The calibre of the main armament on large battleships was typically . The turrets carrying three 460 mm guns of each weighed around 2,500 tonnes. The secondary armament of battleships (or the primary armament of light cruisers) was typically between . Smaller ships typically mounted guns from upwards, although these rarely required a turret mounting, except for large destroyers, like the American and the German "Narvik" classes.


title: Gun turret

text: In naval terms, "turret" traditionally and specifically refers to a gun mounting where the entire mass rotates as one, and has a trunk that projects below the deck. The rotating part of a turret seen above deck is the gunhouse, which protects the mechanism and crew, and is where the guns are loaded. The gunhouse is supported on a bed of rotating rollers, and is not necessarily physically attached to the ship at the base of the rotating structure. In the case of the German battleship "Bismarck", the turrets were not vertically restrained and fell out when she sank. The British battlecruiser "Hood", like some American battleships, did have vertical restraints.


title: Gun turret

text: Below the gunhouse there may be a working chamber, where ammunition is handled, and the main trunk, which accommodates the shell and propellant hoists that bring ammunition up from the magazines below. There may be a combined hoist ("cf" the animated British turret) or separate hoists ("cf" the US turret cutaway). The working chamber and trunk rotate with the gunhouse, and sit inside a protective armoured barbette. The barbette extends down to the main armoured deck (red in the animation). At the base of the turret sit handing rooms, where shell and propelling charges are passed from the shell room and magazine to the hoists.


title: Gun turret

text: The handling equipment and hoists are complex arrangements of machinery that transport the shells and charges from the magazine into the base of the turret. Bearing in mind that shells can weigh around a ton, the hoists have to be powerful and rapid; a 15-inch turret of the type in the animation was expected to perform a complete loading and firing cycle in a minute.


title: Gun turret

text: The loading system is fitted with a series of mechanical interlocks that ensure that there is never an open path from the gunhouse to the magazine down which an explosive flash might pass. Flash-tight doors and scuttles open and close to allow the passage between areas of the turret. Generally, with large-calibre guns, powered or assisted ramming is required to force the heavy shell and charge into the breech.


title: Gun turret

text: As the hoist and breech must be aligned for ramming to occur, there is generally a restricted range of elevations at which the guns can be loaded; the guns return to the loading elevation, are loaded, then return to the target elevation, at which time they are said to be "in battery". The animation illustrates a turret where the rammer is fixed to the cradle that carries the guns, allowing loading to occur across a wider range of elevations.


title: Gun turret

text: Earlier turrets differed significantly in their operating principles. It was not until the last of the "rotating drum" designs described in the previous section were phased out that the "hooded barbette" arrangement above became the standard.


title: Gun turret

text: A wing turret is a gun turret mounted along the side, or the wings, of a warship, off the centerline.


title: Gun turret

text: The positioning of a wing turret limits the gun's arc of fire, so that it generally can contribute to only the broadside weight of fire on one side of the ship. This is the major weakness of wing turrets as broadsides were the most prevalent type of gunnery duels. Depending on the configurations of ships, such as HMS "Dreadnought" but not , the wing turrets could fire fore and aft, so this somewhat reduced the danger when an opponent crossed the T enabling it to fire a full broadside.


title: Gun turret

text: Attempts were made to mount turrets "en echelon" so that they could fire on either beam, such as the and battlecruisers, but this tended to cause great damage to the ships' deck from the muzzle blast.


title: Gun turret

text: Wing turrets were commonplace on capital ships and cruisers during the late 19th century up until the 1910s. In pre-dreadnought battleships, the wing turret contributed to the secondary battery of sub-calibre weapons. In large armoured cruisers, wing turrets contributed to the main battery, although the casemate mounting was more common. At the time, large numbers of smaller calibre guns contributing to the broadside were thought to be of great value in demolishing a ship's upperworks and secondary armaments, as distances of battle were limited by fire control and weapon performance.


title: Gun turret

text: In the early 1900s, weapon performance, armour quality and vessel speeds generally increased along with the distances of engagement; the utility of large secondary batteries reducing as a consequence, and in addition at extreme range it was impossible to see the fall of lesser weapons and so correct the aim. Therefore, most early dreadnought battleships featured "all big gun" armaments of identical calibre, typically 11 or 12 inches, some of which were mounted in wing turrets. This arrangement was not satisfactory, however, as the wing turrets not only had a reduced fire arc for broadsides, but also because the weight of the guns put great strain on the hull and it was increasingly difficult to properly armour them.


title: Gun turret

text: Larger and later dreadnought battleships carried superimposed or superfiring turrets (i.e. one turret mounted higher than and firing over those in front of and below it). This allowed all turrets to train on either beam, and increased the weight of fire forward and aft. The superfiring or superimposed arrangement had not been proven until after "South Carolina" went to sea, and it was initially feared that the weakness of the previous ship's stacked turrets would repeat itself. Larger and later guns (such as the US Navy's ultimate big gun design, the 16"/50 Mark 7) also could not be shipped in wing turrets, as the strain on the hull would have been too great.


title: Gun turret

text: Many modern surface warships have mountings for large calibre guns, although the calibres are now generally between . The gunhouses are often just weatherproof covers for the gun mounting equipment and are made of light un-armoured materials such as glass-reinforced plastic. Modern turrets are often automatic in their operation, with no humans working inside them and only a small team passing fixed ammunition into the feed system. Smaller calibre weapons often operate on the autocannon principle, and indeed may not even be turrets at all; they may just be bolted directly to the deck.


title: Gun turret

text: On board warships, each turret is given an identification. In the British Royal Navy, these would be letters: "A" and "B" were for the turrets from the front of the ship backwards in front of the bridge, and letters near the end of the alphabet (i.e., "X", "Y", etc.) were for turrets behind the bridge ship, "Y" being the rearmost. Mountings in the middle of the ship would be "P", "Q", "R", etc. Confusingly, the s had a "Q" and the s had an "X" turret in what would logically be "C" position; the latter being mounted at the main deck level in front of the bridge and behind the "B" turret, thus having restricted training fore and aft.


title: Gun turret

text: Secondary turrets were named "P" and "S" (port and starboard) and numbered from fore to aft, e.g. "P1" being the forward port turret.


title: Gun turret

text: There were exceptions; the battleship HMS "Agincourt" had the uniquely large number of seven turrets. These were numbered "1" to "7" but were unofficially nicknamed "Sunday", Monday", etc. through to "Saturday".


title: Gun turret

text: In German use, turrets were generally named "A", "B", "C", "D", "E", going from bow to stern. Usually the radio alphabet was used on naming the turrets (e.g. "Anton", "Bruno" or "Berta", "Caesar", "Dora") as on the German battleship "Bismarck".


title: Gun turret

text: In the United States Navy, main battery turrets are numbered fore to aft. Secondary gun mounts are numbered by gun muzzle diameter in inches followed by a second digit indicating the position of the mount, with the second digit increasing fore to aft. Gun mounts not on the centerline would be assigned odd numbers on the port side and even numbers on the starboard side. For example, "Mount 52" would be the forwardmost 5-inch gun mount on the starboard side of the ship.


title: Gun turret

text: During World War I, air gunners initially operated guns that were mounted on pedestals or swivel mounts known as pintles. The latter evolved into the Scarff ring, a rotating ring mount which allowed the gun to be turned to any direction with the gunner remaining directly behind it, the weapon held in an intermediate elevation by bungee cord, a simple and effective mounting for single weapons such as the Lewis Gun though less handy when twin mounted as with the British Bristol F.2 Fighter and German "CL"-class two-seaters such as the Halberstadt and Hannover-designed series of compact two-seat combat aircraft. In a failed 1916 experiment, a variant of the SPAD S.A two-seat fighter was probably the first aircraft to be fitted with a remotely-controlled gun, which was located in a nose nacelle.


title: Gun turret

text: As aircraft flew higher and faster, the need for protection from the elements led to the enclosure or shielding of the gun positions, as in the "lobsterback" rear seat of the Hawker Demon biplane fighter.


title: Gun turret

text: The first British operational bomber to carry an enclosed, power-operated turret was the British Boulton & Paul Overstrand twin-engined biplane, which first flew in 1933. The Overstrand was similar to its First World War predecessors in that it had open cockpits and hand-operated defensive machine guns. However, unlike its predecessors, the Sidestrand could fly at 140 mph (225 km/h) making operating the exposed gun positions difficult, particularly in the aircraft's nose. To overcome this problem, the Overstrand was fitted with an enclosed and powered nose turret, mounting a single Lewis gun. As such the Overstrand was the first British aircraft to have a power-operated turret. Rotation was handled by pneumatic motors while elevation and depression of the gun used hydraulic rams. The pilot's cockpit was also enclosed but the dorsal (upper) and ventral (belly) gun positions remained open, though shielded.


title: Gun turret

text: The Martin B-10 all-metal monocoque monoplane bomber introduced turret-mounted defensive armament within the United States Army Air Corps, almost simultaneously with the RAF's Overstrand biplane bomber design. The Martin XB-10 prototype aircraft first featured the nose turret in June 1932—roughly a year "before" the less advanced Overstrand airframe design—and was first produced as the YB-10 service test version by November 1933. The production B-10B version started service with the USAAC in July 1935.


title: Gun turret

text: In time the number of turrets carried and the number of guns mounted increased. RAF heavy bombers of World War II such as the Handley Page Halifax (until its Mk II Series I (Special) version omitted the nose turret), Short Stirling and Avro Lancaster typically had three powered turrets: rear, mid-upper and nose. (Early in the war, some British heavy bombers also featured a retractable, remotely-operated ventral (or mid-under) turret). The rear turret mounted the heaviest armament: four 0.303 inch Browning machine guns or, late in the war, two AN/M2 light-barrel versions of the US Browning M2 machine gun as in the Rose-Rice turret. The tail gunner or "Tail End Charlie" position was generally accepted to be the most dangerous assignment.


title: Gun turret

text: During the World War II era, British turrets were largely self-contained units, manufactured by Boulton Paul Aircraft and Nash & Thompson. The same model of turret might be fitted to several different aircraft types.


title: Gun turret

text: As almost a 1930s "updated" adaptation of the earlier Bristol F.2's concept, the UK introduced the concept of the "turret fighter", with aeroplanes such as the Boulton Paul Defiant and Blackburn Roc where the armament (four 0.303 inch) machineguns was in a turret mounted behind the pilot, rather than in fixed positions in the wings. The Defiant and Roc possessed no fixed, forward-firing automatic ordnance; the World War I-era Bristol F.2 was designed with one synchronized Vickers machine gun firing forward on a fuselage mount.


title: Gun turret

text: The concept came at a time when the standard armament of a fighter was only two machine guns and in the face of heavily armed bombers operating in formation, it was thought that a group of turret fighters would be able to concentrate their fire flexibly on the bombers; making beam, stern and rising attacks practicable. Although the idea had some merits in attacking unescorted bombers the weight and drag penalty of the turret (and gunner) put them at a disadvantage when Germany was able to escort its bombers with fighters from bases in Northern France. By this point British fighters were flying with eight machine guns which concentrated firepower for use in single fleeting attacks of fighters against bombers.


title: Gun turret

text: Attempts to put this heavier armament, such as multiple 20 mm cannon in low profile aerodynamic turrets were explored by the British but were not successful, this class of weapons and heavier armament (up to and including artillery pieces as in the 1,420 examples produced of the American B-25G and B-25H Mitchell medium bombers, and the experimental 'Tsetse' variant of the de Haviland Mosquito) being exclusively fuselage or underwing-mounted and thus aimed by pointing the aircraft as a whole.


title: Gun turret

text: Not all turret designs put the gunner in the turret along with the armament: US and German-designed aircraft both featured remote-controlled turrets.


title: Gun turret

text: In the US, the large, purpose-built Northrop P-61 Black Widow night fighter was produced with a remotely operated dorsal turret that had a wide range of fire though in practice it was generally fired directly forward under control of the pilot. For the last Douglas-built production blocks of the B-17F (the "B-17F-xx-DL" designated blocks), and for all versions of the B-17G Flying Fortress a twin-gun remotely operated "chin" turret, designed by Bendix and first used on the experimental YB-40 "gunship" version of the Fortress, was added to give more forward defence. Specifically designed to be compact and not obstruct the bombardier, this was operated by a swing-away diagonal column possessing a yoke to traverse the turret, and aimed by a reflector sight mounted in the windscreen.


title: Gun turret

text: The intended replacement for the German Bf 110 heavy fighter, the Messerschmitt Me 210, possessed twin half-teardrop-shaped, remotely operated "Ferngerichtete Drehringseitenlafette" FDSL 131/1B turrets, one on each side "flank" of the rear fuselage to defend the rear of the aircraft, controlled from the rear area of the cockpit. By 1942, the German He 177A "Greif" heavy bomber would feature a "Fernbedienbare Drehlafette" FDL 131Z remotely operated forward dorsal turret, armed with twin 13mm MG 131 machine guns on the top of the fuselage, which was operated from a hemispherical, clear rotating "astrodome" just behind the cockpit glazing and offset to starboard atop the fuselage—a second, manned powered "Hydraulische Drehlafette" HDL 131 dorsal turret, further aft on the fuselage with a single MG 131 was also used on most examples.


title: Gun turret

text: The US B-29 Superfortress had four remote controlled turrets, comprising two dorsal and two ventral turrets. These were controlled from a trio of hemispherically glazed gunner-manned "astrodome" sighting stations operated from the pressurised sections in the nose and middle of the aircraft, each housing an altazimuth mounted pivoting gunsight to aim one or more of the unmanned remote turrets as needed, in addition to a B-17 style flexible manned tail gunner's station.


title: Gun turret

text: The defensive turret on bombers fell from favour with the realization that bombers could not attempt heavily defended targets without escort regardless of their defensive armament unless very high loss rates were acceptable, and the performance penalty from the weight and drag of turrets reduced speed, range and payload and increased the number of crew required. The already mentioned British de Havilland Mosquito light bomber was designed to operate without "any" defensive armament and used its speed to avoid engagement with fighters, much as the minimally armed German "Schnellbomber" aircraft concepts had been meant to do early in World War II.


title: Gun turret

text: A small number of aircraft continued to use turrets however—in particular maritime patrol aircraft such as the Avro Shackleton used one as an offensive weapon against small unarmoured surface targets. The Boeing B-52 jet bomber and many of its contemporaries (particularly Russian) featured a barbette (a British English term equivalent to the American usage of the term 'tail gun'), or a "remote turret"—an unmanned turret but often one with a more limited field of fire than a manned equivalent.


title: Gun turret

text: Amongst the first armoured vehicles to be equipped with a gun turret were the Lanchester and Rolls-Royce Armoured Cars, both produced from 1914. The Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) raised the first British armoured car squadron during the First World War. In September 1914 all available Rolls Royce "Silver Ghost" chassis were requisitioned to form the basis for the new armoured car. The following month a special committee of the Admiralty Air Department, among whom was Flight Commander T.G. Hetherington, designed the superstructure which consisted of armoured bodywork and a single fully rotating turret holding a regular water cooled Vickers machine gun.


title: Gun turret

text: However, the first tracked combat vehicles were not equipped with turrets due to the problems with getting sufficient trench crossing while keeping the centre of gravity low, and it was not until late in World War I that the French Renault FT light tank introduced the single fully rotating turret carrying the vehicle's main armament that continues to be the standard of almost every modern main battle tank and many post-World War II self-propelled guns. The first turret designed for the FT was a circular, cast steel version almost identical to that of the prototype. It was designed to carry a Hotchkiss 8mm machine gun. Meanwhile, the Berliet Company produced a new design, a polygonal turret of riveted plate, which was simpler to produce than the early cast steel turret. It was given the name "omnibus", since it could easily be adapted to mount either the Hotchkiss machine gun or the Puteaux 37mm with its telescopic sight. This turret was fitted to production models in large numbers.


title: Gun turret

text: In the 1930s, several nations produced —probably influenced by the experimental British Vickers A1E1 Independent of 1926. Those that saw combat during the early part of World War II performed poorly and the concept was soon dropped. Combat vehicles without turrets, with the main armament mounted in the hull, or more often in a completely enclosed, integral armored casemate as part of the main hull, saw extensive use by both the German (as "Sturmgeschütz" and "Jagdpanzer" vehicles) and Soviet (as "Samokhodnaya Ustanovka" vehicles) armored forces during World War II as tank destroyers and assault guns. However, post-war, the concept fell out of favour due to its limitations, with the Swedish Stridsvagn 103 'S-Tank' and the German Kanonenjagdpanzer being exceptions.


title: Gun turret

text: In modern tanks, the turret is armoured for crew protection and rotates a full 360 degrees carrying a single large-calibre tank gun, typically in the range of 105 mm to 125 mm calibre. Machine guns may be mounted inside the turret, which on modern tanks is often on a "coaxial" mount, parallel with the larger main gun.


title: Gun turret

text: Early designs often featured multiple weapons mounts. This concept was carried forwards into the early interwar years in Britain, Germany and the Soviet Union, arguably reaching its most absurd expression in the British Vickers A1E1 Independent tank, though this attempt was soon abandoned while the Soviet Union's similar effort produced a 'land battleship' which was actually produced and fought in defence of the Soviet Union.


title: Gun turret

text: In modern tanks, the turret houses all the crew except the driver (who is located in the hull). The crew located in the turret typically consist of tank commander, gunner, and often a gun loader (except in tanks that have an autoloader), while the driver sits in a separate compartment with a dedicated entry and exit, though often one that allows the driver to exit via the turret basket (fighting compartment).


title: Gun turret

text: For other combat vehicles, the turrets are equipped with other weapons dependent on role. An infantry fighting vehicle may carry a smaller calibre gun or an autocannon, or an anti-tank missile launcher, or a combination of weapons. A modern self-propelled gun mounts a large artillery gun but less armour. Lighter vehicles may carry a one-man turret with a single machine gun, occasionally the same model being shared with other classes of vehicle, such as the Cadillac Gage T50 turret/weapons station.


title: Gun turret

text: The size of the turret is a factor in combat vehicle design. One dimension mentioned in terms of turret design is "turret ring diameter" which is the size of the aperture in the top of the chassis into which the turret is seated.


title: Gun turret

text: In 1859, the Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom were in the process of recommending a huge programme of fortifications to protect Britain's naval bases. They interviewed Captain Coles, who had bombarded Russian fortifications during the Crimean War, however Coles repeatedly lost his temper during the discussion and the commissioners failed to ask him about the gun turret that he had patented earlier in that year, with the result that none of the Palmerston Forts mounted turrets. Eventually, the Admiralty Pier Turret at Dover was commissioned in 1877 and completed in 1882.


title: Gun turret

text: In continental Europe, the invention of high explosive shells in 1885 threatened to make all existing fortifications obsolete; a partial solution was the protection of fortress guns in armoured turrets. Pioneering designs were produced by Commandant Henri-Louis-Philippe Mougin in France and Captain Maximilian Schumann in Germany. Mougin's designs were incorporated in a new generation of polygonal forts constructed by Raymond Adolphe Séré de Rivières in France and Henri Alexis Brialmont in Belgium. Developed versions of Schumann's turrets were employed after his death in the fortifications of Metz. In 1914, the Brialmont forts in the Battle of Liège proved unequal to the German "Big Bertha" 42 cm siege howitzers, which were able to penetrate the turret armour and smash turret mountings.


title: Gun turret

text: Elsewhere, armoured turrets, sometimes described a cupolas, were incorporated into coastal artillery defences. An extreme example was Fort Drum, the "concrete battleship", near Corregidor, Philippines; this mounted four huge 14-inch guns in two naval pattern turrets and was the only permanent turreted fort ever constructed by the United States. Between the wars, improved turrets formed the offensive armament of the Maginot Line forts in France. During the Second World War, some of the artillery pieces in the Atlantic Wall fortifications, such as the Cross-Channel guns, were large naval guns housed in turrets.


title: Gun turret

text: Some nations, from Albania to Switzerland and Austria, have embedded the turrets of obsolete tanks in concrete bunkers, while others have constructed or updated fortifications with modern artillery systems, such as the 1970s era Swedish coastal artillery battery on Landsort Island.


title: IRobot

text: iRobot Corporation is an American technology company that designs and builds consumer robots. It was founded in 1990 by three members of MIT's Artificial Intelligence Lab, who designed robots for space exploration and military defense. The company's products include a range of autonomous home vacuum cleaners (Roomba), floor moppers (Braava), and other autonomous cleaning devices.


title: IRobot

text: On August 5, 2022, Amazon announced that it plans to acquire iRobot in a deal worth US$1.7billion. The deal is currently subject to federal approval from the FTC. This was not immediately forthcoming; in September 2022, the FTC requested more data from both companies, amid concerns about Amazon's market power and the privacy implications of it gaining information about consumer floorplans.


title: IRobot

text: iRobot was founded in 1990 by Rodney Brooks, Colin Angle, and Helen Greiner after working in MIT's Artificial Intelligence Lab.


title: IRobot

text: iRobot has sold more than 30 million home robots, and has deployed more than 5,000 defense & security robots, as of 2020.


title: IRobot

text: In addition to deployment as bomb-disposal units with the US military in Iraq and Afghanistan, PackBots have been used to gather data in dangerous conditions at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster site, and an iRobot Seaglider detected underwater pools of oil after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.


title: IRobot

text: iRobot has been criticized for attempting unregulated use of 6240-6740 MHz band, and asking for an FCC exemption to do so. This band is for use for the lawn mowing robot without needing to use an electronic fence as a boundary marker, instead by using radio beacons. The band falls into a band reserved for radio astronomy use, thus interfering with radio telescope observations of methanol's 6.66852 GHz emissions.


title: IRobot

text: In February 2016, iRobot announced that it would sell its military robotics business to Arlington Capital Partners, in order to focus more on the consumer market.


title: IRobot

text: In November 2021, iRobot announced that it had acquired Aeris Cleantec AG, a Swiss air purifier manufacturer. iRobot began selling Aeris-designed air purifiers through its own brand in 2022.


title: IRobot

text: In August 2022, Amazon agreed to buy iRobot in an all-cash deal worth $1.7billion. The deal is expected to draw antitrust scrutiny from the FTC.


title: IRobot

text: Roomba is an automated vacuum cleaning robot first released in 2002. Roomba is powered by a rechargeable battery, and many models are available with a docking station to which the Roomba should return to recharge at the end of its cleaning cycle. They work in conjunction with accessories that use both IR and RF.


title: IRobot

text: The company intentionally allows customers to hack the robot because they want people to experiment and improve the product. The API for the serial has been published and the serial port made easily accessible to make modifications easy to perform.


title: IRobot

text: In 2015, iRobot released an updated Roomba called the Roomba 980, with a camera that maps out a room of its objects. The camera uses VSlam technology to map out a room and the objects in the room to clean the entire floor of a home. The Roomba 980 also includes Carpet boost where the suction is turned up when the Roomba sensor detects itself on carpets or rugs. This was also one of the first Roombas to include Wi-FI connectivity with app control.


title: IRobot

text: In May 2022, iRobot announced the new operating system and software platform for its Roomba vacuum cleaners, iRobot OS. The company stated the move from iRobot genius to iRobot OS will aid in giving their products a deeper understanding of the user’s households and the users habits, in addition to voice commands and greater objected identification.


title: IRobot

text: In October 2022, iRobot released the Roomba Combo, a Roomba j7+ that includes mopping capabilities. The robot is able to differentiate between hardwood floor and carpet; when it moves to carpet it lifts its mop to the top of the robot.


title: IRobot

text: Braava is iRobot's Floor Mopping Robot, designed to work on all hard-surface floors. Braava uses disposable or microfiber cleaning cloths for damp and/or dry cleaning. The 380t model comes with a Channel 4 NorthStar Navigation Cube, which is set on a high surface and directs the robot around the area it cleans.


title: IRobot

text: The design was known as the Mint until 2013. It was developed by Evolution Robotics, which was acquired by iRobot in 2012.


title: IRobot

text: Create is a hobby robot, released in 2007. Create offers users the possibility of changing or adapting the robot's functions through experimentation with the basic elements of robotics as well as by adding sensors, grippers, wireless connections, computers, or other hardware.


title: IRobot

text: Root is a robot that can help kids learn how to code. It is programmed through a tablet or smartphone. iRobot acquired Root Robotics in 2019.


title: IRobot

text: In recent developments, iRobot received FCC approval to move forward with their plans to commercialize a robotic lawn mower capable of using wireless localization technology. In early 2019 iRobot announced the robot is to be branded "Terra". Terra uses mapping (similar to the Roomba i7) to navigate and mow the lawn in a straight-line pattern. It uses smart beacon stakes to localize itself in the yard, and is taught a boundary by the user (where the robot should avoid going, such as a garden). Terra includes Wi-Fi capabilities and a docking station for recharging. Terra was available as a beta program in 2019 in Germany and the United States. The program was indefinitely postponed in March 2020.


title: IRobot

text: Scooba was iRobot's floor-washing robot. The product became commercially available in limited quantities in late 2005 before a full product release in 2006. Early models required either a special non-bleach cleaning solution or white vinegar to wash hard floors. Newer units could use plain water. Several versions were marketed. iRobot phased out the Scooba line of products in favor of the Braava line of floor moppers in 2016.


title: IRobot

text: Dirt Dog was designed for workshop use and was released in 2006. This product picks up small objects such as nuts, bolts, dirt, and debris from a workshop or similar floor. The unit was able to be used on hard floors, shop carpets and industrial floor surfaces. The Dirt Dog was discontinued in late 2010.


title: IRobot

text: My Real Baby was a robotic toy marketed by iRobot from 2000 and produced in partnership with the toy manufacturer Hasbro. It is no longer in production. This product, which was meant to look like a human infant, employed animatronic facial expressions and was developed from an emotionally expressive and responsive robot developed by iRobot corporation called "IT."


title: IRobot

text: Connect R was made in 2010; unfortunately it did not pass pilot test, and therefore was never introduced to the public.


title: IRobot

text: Looj was a gutter-cleaning robot released in September 2007, and based on an autonomous version created for a science fair project created by Lucas Garrow in 2004 (Garrow was a finalist in the 2004 The Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC)). Looj is not an autonomous robot, but rather a remote-controlled robot patterned after a toy tank with an auger mounted on the front. The robot fits inside most gutters to clean out debris stuck inside them, such as leaves and pine needles. It has long treads on its side which allow it to move inside the gutter. The auger dislodges and removes almost all of the debris inside the gutter by flinging it sideways into the air. Looj also has a detachable handle/remote that is used to carry and operate the robot. It was discontinued in 2017, but as of 2020 parts, supplies, and entire robot kits are still available on the aftermarket on sites like eBay.


title: IRobot

text: Mirra was a swimming-pool cleaning robot, the successor of Verro. Mirra cleaned a pool's floor and walls of large and small debris. It was discontinued in 2014.


title: IRobot

text: In April 2016, iRobot sold off its Defense & Security unit, with a new company being formed called Endeavor Robotics. This unit became part of Teledyne FLIR in 2019.


title: IRobot

text: AIRarm is an inflatable arm robot developed by iRobot. The inflatable arm uses pumps to inflate the arm. Since the arm uses strings and actuators, no motors were used at the joints.


title: IRobot

text: FirstLook is a small reconnaissance robot weighing with a top speed of and line-of-sight control range of . It has visible and thermal cameras and infrared sensors to gather and transmit images of buildings, caves, or other locations. It can participate in explosive ordnance disposal by carrying of C4 explosive to an IED. The robot has the ability to mesh together a network of feeds from other robots to extend the range of its sensors. The FirstLook has CBRN detectors and is semi-autonomous, meaning it can perform tasks like course correction and flipping itself over without direct intervention. 100 were bought by JIEDDO in March 2012 and the Pentagon has ordered hundreds more.


title: Doug McMillon

text: Carl Douglas McMillon (born October 17, 1966) is an American businessman, and the president and chief executive officer (CEO) of Walmart Inc. He sits on the retailer's board of directors. Having first joined the company as a summer associate in high school, he became the company's fifth CEO in 2014. He previously led the company's Sam's Club division, from 2005 to 2009, and Walmart International, from 2009 to 2013.


title: Doug McMillon

text: McMillon was born in Memphis, Tennessee, and grew up in Jonesboro, Arkansas, the eldest of three children born to Laura and Morris McMillon, a dentist who served in Vietnam. His parents moved the family to Bentonville, Arkansas, the home of Walmart headquarters, when McMillon was 16. A sports enthusiast, McMillon played point guard on the Bentonville High School basketball team.


title: Doug McMillon

text: McMillon has worked for Walmart throughout his career. He took on his first role with the company as a teenager in 1984. He later became a buyer, then moved into management roles before becoming CEO in 2014.


title: Doug McMillon

text: When he was a teenager, McMillon began his first job with Walmart as a summer associate. He worked during the summer unloading trucks in a distribution center. After high school, McMillon attended University of Arkansas, where he graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1989.


title: Doug McMillon

text: The next year, as McMillon studied for a Master of Business Administration (MBA) from University of Tulsa, he called Walmart and told an executive he was interested in training to become a buyer when he completed his studies. Soon thereafter, McMillon rejoined Walmart as an assistant manager at a Tulsa, Oklahoma, store. After completing his MBA in 1991, McMillon moved to Walmart's Bentonville headquarters to join the buyer-training program. Originally in charge of buying fishing tackle, he later took on various roles as a buyer and a merchandiser, dealing in food, clothes, crafts and furnishings. He later worked as a general merchandise manager for Walmart's wholesale store division Sam's Club before taking an executive role at Walmart, overseeing toys, electronics, and sporting goods, among other areas.


title: Doug McMillon

text: Walmart promoted McMillon to president and CEO of Sam's Club on August 4, 2005. Under McMillon, the wholesaler emphasized marketing to small business customers. Additionally, McMillon incorporated what "The Wall Street Journal" called "treasure hunt" items that are limited-selection expensive premium items, such as diamond necklaces and wine vacations, for sale next to cheap bulk goods in an attempt to compete with Costco.


title: Doug McMillon

text: Walmart officials moved McMillon from his role at Sam's Club to lead Walmart's international division in February 2009, replacing Mike Duke, who was promoted to CEO of Walmart Stores, Inc. Under McMillon, Walmart International focused on improving in existing markets, such as Canada, China, United Kingdom and the Americas. One area of particular importance to McMillon was integrating Walmart's "everyday low prices" model to these international markets. Under McMillon, the international division acquired a majority stake in South Africa's Massmart Holdings Ltd. for .


title: Doug McMillon

text: During McMillon's tenure, Walmart International's sales growth outpaced Walmart US and grew to 29 percent of total sales company-wide. When McMillon first became head of the division, it comprised more than 3,300 stores in 14 countries. When Walmart announced it would move him to head Walmart Stores, Inc. in late 2013, Walmart International operated 6,300 stores in 26 countries.


title: Doug McMillon

text: Walmart announced on November 25, 2013, that McMillon would immediately join the company's board of directors, and would replace Mike Duke as Walmart CEO effective on February 1, 2014, becoming the company's fifth chief executive.


title: Doug McMillon

text: McMillon took over the company at a time of slowing growth and increased competition from rivals, such as Costco, Amazon.com, grocery store chains Kroger and Safeway, and discount chains of small stores like Family Dollar and Dollar General. Within his first two years as chief executive, McMillon raised wages for hourly workers in the US, boosted the company's commitment to e-commerce and revamped Walmart's executive team. While increased spending on labor and Walmart's digital offerings lowered short-term profits, McMillon argued that the moves would lead to happier workers and better customer service, as well as a better footing in a changing retail market.


title: Doug McMillon

text: In February 2015, McMillon announced Walmart would invest an additional in higher associate wages, benefits and training, including raising its lowest wage to an hour in 2015 and an hour for 2016. The action affected 40 percent of the company's 1.4million US workers. In January 2016, McMillon announced raises for the majority of its workers, free basic short-term disability for full-time workers and a revised paid time off program.


title: Doug McMillon

text: McMillon made it a long-term goal of Walmart to increase investments in e-commerce, stressing a need to create a "seamless shopping experience". As such he announced in 2015 that Walmart would invest on its online operations. Another goal is to improve the company's environmental sustainability and eliminate waste across the company. In 2014, Walmart began rolling out an initiative to replace lighting in its stores in the US, UK, Latin America and Asia with LED lights for energy efficiency. At the Davos World Economic Forum in January 2016, McMillon said Walmart would press three of its main goals: supply the company with renewable energy, eliminate waste and promote sustainably packaged goods.


title: Doug McMillon

text: As CEO, McMillon sought to make a "positive difference" in other issues. On March 31, 2015, McMillon issued a statement urging Arkansas Gov. Asa Hutchinson to veto the state's "religious freedom" bill. McMillon said the bill "threatens to undermine the spirit of inclusion present throughout the state of Arkansas and does not reflect the values we proudly uphold".


title: Doug McMillon

text: In June 2015, McMillon said the company would stop selling Confederate flag merchandise following the shooting of nine black churchgoers in Charleston, South Carolina. McMillon altered Walmart's gun sales. He told "CNNMoney" in an interview that Walmart's selection of firearms should be geared towards hunters and sports shooters. In August 2015, the company ceased sales of military-style semiautomatic weapons.


title: Doug McMillon

text: "Forbes" named McMillon to its World's Most Powerful People list in 2014, 2015 and 2016 where he ranked No.29, No.32, No.27 respectively. ExecRank ranked McMillon No.4 on its 2015 list of top CEOs for large companies.


title: Doug McMillon

text: In December 2016, McMillon joined a business forum assembled by then president-elect Donald Trump to provide strategic and policy advice on economic issues. In August 2017, McMillon wrote a rebuke of President Trump's response to the violent protests Charlottesville, Virginia in an email to all employees and on the internal company website that is viewable by the public. The statement said the President, "missed a critical opportunity to help bring our country together". A company spokesman said McMillon would continue to serve on a presidential advisory council on economic development.


title: Doug McMillon

text: In September 2019, McMillion announced that the company would no longer sell ammunition used for handguns and military-style weapons. This policy update came as a result of the mass shooting which took place at a Walmart in El Paso, Texas in August 2019. McMillion's actions to create a dialogue and take actions around the issue, set a new precedent for how corporations and their leaders address these matters.


title: Doug McMillon

text: McMillon lives with his wife, Shelley, in Bentonville, Arkansas. They have two sons. Doug McMillon is a born-again Christian.


title: C++23

text: C++23 is the informal name for the next version of the ISO/IEC 14882 standard for the C++ programming language that will follow C++20. The current draft is N4910.


title: C++23

text: In February 2020, at the final meeting for C++20 in Prague, an overall plan for C++23 was adopted: planned features for C++23 are library support for coroutines, a modular standard library, executors, and networking.


title: C++23

text: The first WG21 meeting focused on C++23 was intended to take place in Varna in early June 2020, but was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, as was the November 2020 meeting in New York and the February 2021 meeting in Kona, Hawaii. All meetings are currently planned virtual until November 2022.


title: C++23

text: In the absence of face-to-face WG21 meetings, few new features have so far been added to the C++23 draft. But the following were added after the virtual WG21 meeting of 9 November 2020, where they were approved by straw polls:


title: C++23

text: After the virtual WG21 meeting of 22 February 2021, following features are added where they were approved by straw polls:


title: C++23

text: After the summer 2021 ISO C++ standards plenary virtual meeting of June 2021, new features and defect reports were approved by straw polls:


title: C++23

text: After the autumn 2021 ISO C++ standards plenary virtual meeting of October 2021, new features and defect reports were approved by straw polls:


title: C++23

text: After the virtual WG21 meeting of 7 February 2022, the following features are added where they were approved by straw polls:


title: Brazil Union

text: The Brazil Union () is a liberal-conservative political party in Brazil. The party was founded on 6 October 2021 from a merger between the Democrats (DEM) and the Social Liberal Party (PSL). The merger resulted in the biggest party in Brazil, and was approved by Brazil's Superior Electoral Court on 8 February 2022.


title: Brazil Union

text: The party is generally split on opposition to Jair Bolsonaro and is most often in opposition to the policies of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, nominating Soraya Thronicke for president in 2022 Brazilian general election. In 2022, it was reported the party is in talks with the Progressistas to form the largest block in Congress, forming a party that could dictate presidential policy. The party has formed alliances with both Bolsonaro's Liberal Party, as in the 2022 Ceará gubernatorial election, and selectively with the Worker's Party, as with Fernando Haddad in the 2022 São Paulo gubernatorial election.


title: Brazil Union

text: Historically, the Democrats were one of the largest parties on the Brazilian right, being the successor of the Liberal Front Party (PFL), a descendent of the military dictatorship governist party National Renewal Alliance (ARENA), while the PSL was historically a small social-liberal party, but with the election of Jair Bolsonaro as President started to position itself as a more socially conservative and economically liberal party.


title: Brazil Union

text: In 2017, Constitutional Amendment 97 was enacted, which established a progressive barrier clause, with that Brazilian political parties have free access to radio and television in electoral campaigns, as well federal funds. Likewise, the amendment prohibited the formation of political coalitions to contest proportional elections. The purpose of the amendment was to reduce the number of political parties in Brazil.


title: Brazil Union

text: The first news that emerged proposing the merger was at the end of 2019, during the crisis that culminated in the departure of Jair Bolsonaro from the PSL along with many of his core supporters and by the departure of several historical members of DEM, such as mayor of the city of Rio de Janeiro Eduardo Paes, the former president of the Chamber Rodrigo Maia and the vice governor of the state of São Paulo Rodrigo Garcia, in addition to bad election results of PSL in the municipal elections.


title: Brazil Union

text: At the time, there was opposition, with ACM Neto, president of Democratas, stating that this union would be meaningless and Felipe Francischini, president of the Constitution and Justice Commission in the Chamber of Deputies, saying that the union would make both parties lose space in politics.


title: Brazil Union

text: Since then, some political parties merged with others. Using this precedent, in 2021, the Social Liberal Party (PSL) and Democrats announced the upcoming merger.


title: Brazil Union

text: The name along with the TSE number 44 was chosen at the end of September 2021. The merger was agreed upon on 6 October 2021 by an acclamation on a national convention containing representatives from both parties, and was legally approved by the Superior Electoral Court on 8 February 2022.


title: Brazil Union

text: In the 2018 elections, the predecessor parties (DEM and PSL) elected 81 federal deputies, so that, on the date of the merger, the party had the largest number of members in the Chamber of Deputies. With the merger however, more core Bolsonaro supporters left the party for the Liberal Party and the Progressistas, given that the party wanted to run its own presidential candidate. In April 2022, the party had 46 members in the Chamber of Deputies, ranking fifth among the parties in the House.


title: Brazil Union

text: Committing to its attempt to nominate a presidential candidate in the 2022 Brazilian general election, the party nominated Soraya Thronicke, a lawyer and senator from Mato Grasso do Sul, as their presidential candidate and Marcos Cintra, an economist and federal deputy for São Paulo, as vice-president. While Thronicke was not elected, the party itself won the gubernatorial race on Amazonas, Goiás, Mato Grosso and Rondônia. On parliamentary elections they also had success, electing 59 Federal Deputies and 7 Senators.


title: Brazil Union

text: Like its predecessors, Brazil Union is positioned on the right in the conventional political spectrum.  Political scientist Vinícius Vieira describes the merger as being a Brazilian version of liberal parties, being focused on capitalizing on the right-wing electorate who have become disillusioned with President Jair Bolsonaro.  PSL vice president Junior Bozzella placed the new party as part of the democratic pole and which seeks to avoid political polarization between Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva and Jair Bolsonaro, stating that radical Bolsonaro supporters would have to leave the party.


title: Brazil Union

text: At the foundation, a manifesto was defined that affirms the political positions of Brazil Union, with its four guidelines:


title: Brazil Union

text: The manifesto also defined 44 basic principles of the party. In economics, although advocating fiscal austerity, privatization and tax cuts, the party is against the minimal state, stating that the state has an important role in areas such as education, health and income transfer programs. On social issues, it positions itself as favorable to the preservation of the Brazilian family and culture, also defending the increase in the participation of women and racial minorities in politics. Furthermore, it states that the existence of climate change is evident and that the government must take immediate action to mitigate this, becoming one of first decidedly pro-business parties to do so.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The sculpture of ancient Greece is the main surviving type of fine ancient Greek art as, with the exception of painted ancient Greek pottery, almost no ancient Greek painting survives. Modern scholarship identifies three major stages in monumental sculpture in bronze and stone: the Archaic (from about 650 to 480 BC), Classical (480–323) and Hellenistic. At all periods there were great numbers of Greek terracotta figurines and small sculptures in metal and other materials.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The Greeks decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Seeing their gods as having human form, there was little distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude of Apollo or Heracles had only slight differences in treatment to one of that year's Olympic boxing champion. The statue, originally single but by the Hellenistic period often in groups was the dominant form, though reliefs, often so "high" that they were almost free-standing, were also important.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: By the classical period, roughly the 5th and 4th centuries, monumental sculpture was composed almost entirely of marble or bronze; with cast bronze becoming the favoured medium for major works by the early 5th century; many pieces of sculpture known only in marble copies made for the Roman market were originally made in bronze. Smaller works were in a great variety of materials, many of them precious, with a very large production of terracotta figurines. The territories of ancient Greece, except for Sicily and southern Italy, contained abundant supplies of fine marble, with Pentelic and Parian marble the most highly prized. The ores for bronze were also relatively easy to obtain.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Both marble and bronze are easy to form and very durable; as in most ancient cultures there were no doubt also traditions of sculpture in wood about which we know very little, other than acrolithic sculptures, usually large, with the head and exposed flesh parts in marble but the clothed parts in wood. As bronze always had a significant scrap value very few original bronzes have survived, though in recent years marine archaeology or trawling has added a few spectacular finds, such as the Artemision Bronze and Riace bronzes, which have significantly extended modern understanding. Many copies of the Roman period are marble versions of works originally in bronze. Ordinary limestone was used in the Archaic period, but thereafter, except in areas of modern Italy with no local marble, only for architectural sculpture and decoration. Plaster or stucco was sometimes used for the hair only.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Chryselephantine sculptures, used for temple cult images and luxury works, used gold, most often in leaf form and ivory for all or parts (faces and hands) of the figure, and probably gems and other materials, but were much less common, and only fragments have survived. Many statues were given jewellery, as can be seen from the holes for attaching it, and held weapons or other objects in different materials.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Ancient Greek sculptures were originally painted bright colors; they only appear white today because the original pigments have deteriorated. References to painted sculptures are found throughout classical literature, including in Euripides's "Helen" in which the eponymous character laments, "If only I could shed my beauty and assume an uglier aspect/The way you would wipe color off a statue." Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration and archaeologists can reconstruct what they would have originally looked like.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: It is commonly thought that the earliest incarnation of Greek sculpture was in the form of wooden or ivory cult statues, first described by Pausanias as xoana. No such statues survive, and the descriptions of them are vague, despite the fact that they were probably objects of veneration for hundreds of years. The first piece of Greek statuary to be reassembled since is probably the Lefkandi Centaur, a terracotta sculpture found on the island of Euboea, dated . The statue was constructed in parts, before being dismembered and buried in two separate graves. The centaur has an intentional mark on its knee, which has led researchers to postulate that the statue might portray Cheiron, presumably kneeling wounded from Herakles' arrow. If so, it would be the earliest known depiction of myth in the history of Greek sculpture.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The forms from the Geometric period () were chiefly terracotta figurines, bronzes, and ivories. The bronzes are chiefly tripod cauldrons, and freestanding figures or groups. Such bronzes were made using the lost-wax technique probably introduced from Syria, and are almost entirely votive offerings left at the Hellenistic civilization Panhellenic sanctuaries of Olympia, Delos, and Delphi, though these were likely manufactured elsewhere, as a number of local styles may be identified by finds from Athens, Argos, and Sparta. Typical works of the era include the Karditsa warrior (Athens Br. 12831) and the many examples of the equestrian statuette (for example, NY Met. 21.88.24 online). The repertory of this bronze work is not confined to standing men and horses, however, as vase paintings of the time also depict imagery of stags, birds, beetles, hares, griffins and lions. There are no inscriptions on early-to-middle geometric sculpture, until the appearance of the Mantiklos "Apollo" (Boston 03.997) of the early 7th century BC found in Thebes. The figure is that of a standing man with a pseudo-daedalic form, underneath which lies the hexameter inscription reading "Mantiklos offered me as a tithe to Apollo of the silver bow; do you, Phoibos [Apollo], give some pleasing favour in return". Apart from the novelty of recording its own purpose, this sculpture adapts the formulae of oriental bronzes, as seen in the shorter more triangular face and slightly advancing left leg. This is sometimes seen as anticipating the greater expressive freedom of the 7th century BC and, as such, the Mantiklos figure is referred to in some quarters as proto-Daedalic.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Inspired by the monumental stone sculpture of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Greeks began again to carve in stone. Free-standing figures share the solidity and frontal stance characteristic of Eastern models, but their forms are more dynamic than those of Egyptian sculpture, as for example the Lady of Auxerre and Torso of Hera (Early Archaic period, , both in the Louvre, Paris). After about 575 BC, figures such as these, both male and female, began wearing the so-called archaic smile. This expression, which has no specific appropriateness to the person or situation depicted, may have been a device to give the figures a distinctive human characteristic.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Three types of figures prevailed—the standing nude male youth (kouros, plural kouroi), the standing draped girl (kore, plural korai), and the seated woman. All emphasize and generalize the essential features of the human figure and show an increasingly accurate comprehension of human anatomy. The youths were either sepulchral or votive statues. Examples are Apollo (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), an early work; the Strangford Apollo from Anafi (British Museum), a much later work; and the Anavyssos Kouros (National Archaeological Museum of Athens). More of the musculature and skeletal structure is visible in this statue than in earlier works. The standing, draped girls have a wide range of expression, as in the sculptures in the Acropolis Museum of Athens. Their drapery is carved and painted with the delicacy and meticulousness common in the details of sculpture of this period.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The Greeks thus decided very early on that the human form was the most important subject for artistic endeavour. Seeing their gods as having human form, there was no distinction between the sacred and the secular in art—the human body was both secular and sacred. A male nude without any attachments such as a bow or a club, could just as easily be Apollo or Heracles as that year's Olympic boxing champion. In the Archaic Period the most important sculptural form was the kouros (See for example Biton and Kleobis). The kore was also common; Greek art did not present female nudity (unless the intention was pornographic) until the 4th century BC, although the development of techniques to represent drapery is obviously important.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: As with pottery, the Greeks did not produce sculpture merely for artistic display. Statues were commissioned either by aristocratic individuals or by the state, and used for public memorials, as offerings to temples, oracles and sanctuaries (as is frequently shown by inscriptions on the statues), or as markers for graves. Statues in the Archaic period were not all intended to represent specific individuals. They were depictions of an ideal—beauty, piety, honor or sacrifice. These were always depictions of young men, ranging in age from adolescence to early maturity, even when placed on the graves of (presumably) elderly citizens. "Kouroi" were all stylistically similar. Graduations in the social stature of the person commissioning the statue were indicated by size rather than artistic innovations.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The Classical period saw a revolution of Greek sculpture, sometimes associated by historians with the popular culture surrounding the introduction of democracy and the end of the aristocratic culture associated with the "kouroi". The Classical period saw changes in the style and function of sculpture, along with a dramatic increase in the technical skill of Greek sculptors in depicting realistic human forms. Poses also became more naturalistic, notably during the beginning of the period. This is embodied in works such as the "Kritios Boy" (480 BC), sculpted with the earliest known use of "contrapposto" ('counterpose'), and the "Charioteer of Delphi" (474 BC), which demonstrates a transition to more naturalistic sculpture. From about 500 BC, Greek statues began increasingly to depict real people, as opposed to vague interpretations of myth or entirely fictional votive statues, although the style in which they were represented had not yet developed into a realistic form of portraiture. The statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, set up in Athens mark the overthrow of the aristocratic tyranny, and have been said to be the first public monuments to show actual individuals.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The Classical Period also saw an increase in the use of statues and sculptures as decorations of buildings. The characteristic temples of the Classical era, such as the Parthenon in Athens, and the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, used relief sculpture for decorative friezes, and sculpture in the round to fill the triangular fields of the pediments. The difficult aesthetic and technical challenge stimulated much in the way of sculptural innovation. Most of these works survive only in fragments, for example the Parthenon Marbles, roughly half of which are in the British Museum.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Funeral statuary evolved during this period from the rigid and impersonal kouros of the Archaic period to the highly personal family groups of the Classical period. These monuments are commonly found in the suburbs of Athens, which in ancient times were cemeteries on the outskirts of the city. Although some of them depict "ideal" types—the mourning mother, the dutiful son—they increasingly depicted real people, typically showing the departed taking his dignified leave from his family. This is a notable increase in the level of emotion relative to the Archaic and Geometrical eras.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Another notable change is the burgeoning of artistic credit in sculpture. The entirety of information known about sculpture in the Archaic and Geometrical periods are centered upon the works themselves, and seldom, if ever, on the sculptors. Examples include Phidias, known to have overseen the design and building of the Parthenon, and Praxiteles, whose nude female sculptures were the first to be considered artistically respectable. Praxiteles' Aphrodite of Knidos, which survives in copies, was often referenced to and praised by Pliny the Elder.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Lysistratus is said to have been the first to use plaster molds taken from living people to produce lost-wax portraits, and to have also developed a technique of casting from existing statues. He came from a family of sculptors and his brother, Lysippos of Sicyon, produced fifteen hundred statues in his career.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Statue of Athena Parthenos (both chryselephantine and executed by Phidias or under his direction, and considered to be the greatest of the Classical Sculptures), are lost, although smaller copies (in other materials) and good descriptions of both still exist. Their size and magnificence prompted rivals to seize them in the Byzantine period, and both were removed to Constantinople, where they were later destroyed.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic period occurred during the 4th century BC. Greek art became increasingly diverse, influenced by the cultures of the peoples drawn into the Greek orbit, by the conquests of Alexander the Great (336 to 323 BC). In the view of some art historians, this is described as a decline in quality and originality; however, individuals of the time may not have shared this outlook. Many sculptures previously considered classical masterpieces are now known to be of the Hellenistic age. The technical ability of the Hellenistic sculptors are clearly in evidence in such major works as the "Winged Victory of Samothrace", and the Pergamon Altar. New centres of Greek culture, particularly in sculpture, developed in Alexandria, Antioch, Pergamum, and other cities. By the 2nd century BC, the rising power of Rome had also absorbed much of the Greek tradition—and an increasing proportion of its products as well.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: During this period, sculpture again experienced a shift towards increasing naturalism. Common people, women, children, animals, and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens. Realistic figures of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection. At the same time, new Hellenistic cities springing up in Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with the consequent standardisation and (some) lowering of quality. For these reasons, quite a few more Hellenistic statues survive to the present than those of the Classical period.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Alongside the natural shift towards naturalism, there was a shift in expression of the sculptures as well. Sculptures began expressing more power and energy during this time period. An easy way to see the shift in expressions during the Hellenistic period would be to compare it to the sculptures of the Classical period. The classical period had sculptures such as the "Charioteer of Delphi" expressing humility. The sculptures of the Hellenistic period however saw greater expressions of power and energy as demonstrated in the Jockey of Artemision.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Some of the best known Hellenistic sculptures are the Winged Victory of Samothrace (2nd or 1st century BC), the statue of Aphrodite from the island of Melos known as the "Venus de Milo" (mid-2nd century BC), the "Dying Gaul" (about 230 BC), and the monumental group "Laocoön and His Sons" (late 1st century BC). All these statues depict Classical themes, but their treatment is far more sensuous and emotional than the austere taste of the Classical period would have allowed or its technical skills permitted. Hellenistic sculpture was also marked by an increase in scale, which culminated in the Colossus of Rhodes (late 3rd century), thought to have been roughly the same size as the Statue of Liberty. The combined effect of earthquakes and looting have destroyed this as well as any other very large works of this period that might have existed.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: Following the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek culture spread as far as India, as revealed by the excavations of Ai-Khanoum in eastern Afghanistan, and the civilization of the Greco-Bactrians and the Indo-Greeks. Greco-Buddhist art represented a syncretism between Greek art and the visual expression of Buddhism. Discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient Egyptian city of Heracleum include a 4th-century BC depiction of Isis. The depiction is unusually sensual for depictions of the Egyptian goddess, as well as being uncharacteristically detailed and feminine, marking a combination of Egyptian and Hellenistic forms around the time of Alexander the Great's conquest of Egypt.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: In Goa, India, were found Buddha statues in Greek styles. These are attributed to Greek converts to Buddhism, many of whom are known to have settled in Goa during Hellenistic times.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: All ancient Greek temples and Roman temples normally contained a cult image in the cella. Access to the cella varied, but apart from the priests, at the least some of the general worshippers could access the cella some of the time, though sacrifices to the deity were normally made on altars outside in the temple precinct (temenos in Greek). Some cult images were easy to see, and were what we would call major tourist attractions. The image normally took the form of a statue of the deity, originally less than life-size, then typically roughly life-size, but in some cases many times life-size, in marble or bronze, or in the specially prestigious form of a Chryselephantine statue using ivory plaques for the visible parts of the body and gold for the clothes, around a wooden framework. The most famous Greek cult images were of this type, including the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, and Phidias's Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon in Athens, both colossal statues now completely lost. Fragments of two chryselephantine statues from Delphi have been excavated. Cult images generally held or wore identifying attributes, which is one way of distinguishing them from the many other statues of deities in temples and other locations.


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: The acrolith was another composite form, this time a cost-saving one with a wooden body. A xoanon was a primitive and symbolic image, usually in wood, some perhaps comparable to the Hindu lingam, although the oldest cult image from the Greek world, the Minoan Palaikastro Kouros, is highly sophisticated. Many xoana were retained and revered for their antiquity in later periods; they were often light enough to be carried in processions. Many of the Greek statues well known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the Apollo Barberini, can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example the bronze Piraeus Athena (2.35 metres high, including a helmet).


title: Ancient Greek sculpture

text: In Greek and Roman mythology, a "palladium" was an image of great antiquity on which the safety of a city was said to depend, especially the wooden one that Odysseus and Diomedes stole from the citadel of Troy and which was later taken to Rome by Aeneas. (The Roman story was related in Virgil's "Aeneid" and other works.)


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: The Lost City is a 2005 American drama film directed by Andy García. It stars García, Dustin Hoffman, Inés Sastre, and Bill Murray.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Fico Fellove is the owner of El Trópico, a swank nightclub in Cuba in 1958. He lives for his family and his music, while facing the harsh realities of Batista's dictatorial regime. His brother Ricardo becomes a revolutionary for Castro's rebel army, his brother Luis joins the student opposition, and his father Federico, a well-respected university professor, pushes for change by constitutional, peaceful means.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: When Ricardo is arrested and threatened with execution, Fico calls upon an old prep school friend Castel, now a police captain, for help. Ricardo is released from jail, and Fico offers to help him go to Miami or New York City, but he instead joins a rebel column headed by Che Guevara.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Fico is approached by Meyer Lansky, of New York's Genovese crime family, who wishes to open up a gambling room at El Tropico. As he intends for his club to remain a place of music, he turns down the offer. When a bomb later explodes at the club, killing Fico's star entertainer (who is also his lover), Fico assumes that Lansky is behind it. However, in the increasingly unsettled climate, he cannot be certain.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Luis becomes connected with a plot to seize the presidential palace, kill Batista, and restore democracy. The plot fails and most of the attackers are killed. Luis escapes but is killed later by Batista's secret police. At the urging of his mother, Fico tries to cheer up Luis’ distraught widow AuroraFico and Aurora fall in love.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Castro's rebels seize power after Batista flees the country. Fidel Castro declares there will be no elections and Che Guevara oversees the arrests and summary execution of all those who supported the Batista regime. Among those to be executed is Captain Castel. Fico asks Ricardo, now a high-ranking officer in the new regime, to return the favor that Castel once carried out to save Ricardo's life, but Ricardo does nothing to save him.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Ricardo visits his uncle Donoso, a tobacco farmer and cigar maker. Donoso feels that while Castro may be in power now, “the land endures” and says that the farm will next pass to him. Ricardo announces that the reason for his visit is to appropriate the farm for the state. Donoso, furious, has a heart attack and dies. Ricardo, overcome by grief, commits suicide shortly after the funeral.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: The revolution affects Fico in other ways as it takes a communist direction. The musicians' union, controlled by Castro, has declared the saxophone to be an imperialist instrument and forbids its use. The club is eventually shut down on a flimsy pretext. After a chance meeting with Castro, Aurora is declared Revolutionary Widow of the Year. She begins to work for the State, and ends her relationship with Fico.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Fico's parents beg him to leave Cuba and start a new family. Reluctantly, he procures exit visas for himself and Aurora. In a last effort to convince her to join him, Fico barges in on a reception for revolutionary leaders and Soviet Bloc ambassadors, but Aurora refuses to go. He raises a toast to a democratic Cuba, then leaves the reception. Fico says his goodbyes to his parents and goes to the airport, where most of his money and possessionsincluding a prized family pocket watch from his fatherare confiscated.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Fico begins a new life in New York. Working as a dishwasher and piano player at a Cuban club, he hopes to save enough money to bring his family to America. Meyer Lansky approaches him with an offer of a Cuban nightclub in Las Vegas, but Fico turns him down. He runs into Aurora, who is in New York as part of a Cuban delegation to the United Nations. He now realizes that she is like Cuba: beautiful, alluring, but also damaged and unattainable. He decides now that his cause is to build a new life until he can return to the city he lost. Fico recites a poem by Cuban nationalist Father José Martí and commits himself to someday returning to his "lost city". He later opens a new nightclub in New York.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: In one scene of the film actor Jsu Garcia as Che Guevara is shown after an ambush casually shooting a wounded Fulgencio Batista soldier where he lies. Later in the film the Guevara character asks Andy García's character why he "bothers with such scum", in reference to a former Batista officer who was executed that morning.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: The film depicts Fulgencio Batista's Bureau for the Repression of Communist Activities (BRAC) unit executing a prisoner at La Cabaña and shooting a wounded insurgent who had attempted to storm the Presidential palace during the growing popular rebellion.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Bill Murray appeared in the movie as the character of "the Writer". He shows up early in the movie asking Fico for a job, and hovers around Fico, commenting on the absurdities of life, though never playing a clear part in those absurdities. According to the “making of” video, the role is similar to that of a Greek chorus and is really the personality of the movie's author G. Cabrera Infante. Again, according to the making-of video, Murray was given some latitude in improvising dialogue – the scene toward the end where Murray and Hoffman (as Meyer Lansky) discuss egg creams was almost entirely improvised.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: The movie was filmed in various locations in the Dominican Republic due to similarity of landscape, vegetation and architecture. The palace scenes were filmed at the Dominican National Palace and the tobacco estate is that of Arturo Fuente.


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: The film generally received unfavorable reviews. Rotten Tomatoes' collection of critics gave the film a 25% approval rating, with the stated consensus that "what starts as a promising exercise devolves into an overlong, unevenly directed disappointment."


title: The Lost City (2005 film)

text: Michael Atkinson of "The Village Voice" critiqued the historical validity of the film, stating "García's tale bemoans the loss of easy wealth for a precious few. Poor people are absolutely absent; García and Infante seem to have thought that peasant revolutions happen for no particular reason—or at least no reason the moneyed 1 percent should have to worry about." Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" described the political dialogue in the film as "strictly of the junior high school variety" while opining that the "characters pontificate in generalities and aphorisms" making them "little more than stick figures with cartoon balloons pasted over their heads."


title: Kurt Daluege

text: Kurt Max Franz Daluege (15 September 1897 – 24 October 1946) was chief of the national uniformed "Ordnungspolizei" (Order Police) of Nazi Germany. Following Reinhard Heydrich's assassination in 1942, he served as Deputy Protector for the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Daluege directed the German measures of retribution for the assassination, including the Lidice massacre. After the end of World War II, he was extradited to Czechoslovakia, tried, convicted and executed in 1946.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: Daluege, son of a Prussian state official, was born in the small Upper Silesian town of Kreuzburg (now Kluczbork) on 15 September 1897. He entered the Prussian Army in 1916 and served with the 7th Guards Infantry Regiment. He served on the Eastern Front. In October 1917, he attended officers training in Doberitz. During his service on the Western Front, he was severely wounded in the head and shoulder. He was hospitalised and declared 25% disabled. Daluege was awarded the Iron Cross, second class (1918) and the Wound Badge in Black (1918).


title: Kurt Daluege

text: After World War I, Daluege became leader of "Selbstschutz Oberschlesien" (SSOS) - Upper Silesian Self Defense  — an Upper Silesian veterans' organization engaged in combat with the Poles in that region. In 1921, he also became active in the "Freikorps" "Rossbach" while studying engineering at the Technical University in Berlin, where he eventually earned a civil engineering degree. Two years later he joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) and was assigned Party number 31,981. He also joined the Greater German Workers' Party in the same year. From 1924, he helped to organize the Berlin "Frontbann", largely a front organization for the Nazi "Sturmabteilung" (SA), since it and the Nazi Party were banned in Prussia at that time. In 1926 he joined the SA directly, eventually becoming both the leader of Berlin's SA and Joseph Goebbels' deputy ("Gauleiter", or Party leader) in Berlin. Throughout the period of 1926—1929, Daluege led the Berlin-Brandenburg division of the SA.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: In July 1930, in accordance with Hitler's wishes, Daluege resigned from the SA and joined the SS with the rank of SS-"Oberführer" and membership number 1,119. His main responsibility was to spy on the SA and political opponents of the Nazi Party. Berlin SS headquarters was strategically placed at the corner of Lützowstrasse and Potsdamerstrasse, opposite the SA headquarters.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: In August 1930, when Berlin SA leader Walter Stennes had his men attack the Berlin Party headquarters, it was Daluege's SS men who defended it and put the attack down. Sometime afterwards in an open letter to Daluege, Adolf Hitler proclaimed ""SS Mann, deine Ehre heißt Treue!"" ("SS man, your honour is loyalty"). Then, the slogan "Meine Ehre heißt Treue" (My honour is loyalty) was duly adopted by the SS as its motto. Hitler promoted both Daluege and Heinrich Himmler to SS-"Obergruppenführer", with Daluege the SS leader of northern Germany while Himmler controlled the southern SS units out of Munich in addition to serving as national leader for the entire SS. In 1932 Daluege became a Nazi Party delegate in the Prussian state Parliament, and in November 1932 was elected to the Reichstag representing the Berlin East electoral district, a seat he retained until 1945. At the same time, Hermann Göring moved Daluege to the Prussian Interior Ministry, where he took over the nonpolitical police with the rank of "General der Polizei". Intrigues created by Göring, Himmler and Heydrich surrounding Ernst Röhm led to Daluege's playing an important role in the infamous "Night of the Long Knives". In that operation Röhm along with other leading members of the SA were killed between 30 June and 2 July 1934, thus neutralizing the SA and shifting the balance of power within the party to the SS.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: Evidence of Daluege's ruthlessness goes beyond his intrigue against his former SA comrades, and is discernible in his remarks about anyone he considered a threat to society. He once argued that "the consciously asocial enemies of the people ("Volksfeinde")" must be eliminated by state intervention "if it hopes to prevent the outbreak of complete moral degeneration." Historian George Browder claims that Daluege "bragged that the Police Institute for detective training had especially been reorganized according to NS viewpoints", and that advancement within this organization was contingent to a considerable degree on the internalization of Nazi ideology.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: By November 1934, Daluege's authority over the uniformed police was extended beyond Prussia to include all of Germany. That meant he commanded municipal police forces, the rural gendarmerie, traffic police, the coastguard, the railway police, the postal protection service, fire brigades, the air-raid services, the emergency technical service, the broadcasting police, the factory protection police, building regulations enforcement, and the commercial police.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: In 1936, the entire German police force was reorganized with the administrative functions previously exercised by the now largely defunct federal states reassigned to the nominal control of the Reich Interior Ministry, but under the actual control of Himmler's SS. Making the most of his police expertise and coinciding with his appointment, Daluege wrote and published a book entitled "National-sozialistischer Kampf gegen das Verbrechertum" (NS Struggle against Criminality). That same year, Himmler appointed Daluege as chief of the "Ordnungspolizei" (Orpo), which gave him administrative, though not executive, authority over most of the uniformed police in Nazi Germany. He commanded the Orpo until 1943, rising to the rank of "SS-Oberst-Gruppenführer und Generaloberst der Polizei".


title: Kurt Daluege

text: Reinhard Heydrich, who took control of the SiPo (Security Police) at the same time that Daluege took control of the Orpo, thought very little of Daluege, as he was a former rival in the early struggle for power, and was contemptuously referred to by Heydrich as 'Dummi-Dummi', or 'the idiot'.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: By August 1939, the strength of the Orpo under Daluege's command and control had reached upwards of 120,000 active-duty personnel.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: Further indications of the brutality coming from Daluege's office (Chief of the "Ordnungspolizei"), are shown in a report dated 5 September 1939, outlining the methods to be employed during pacification operations in Poland. Regarding uniformed police battalions for planned reprisal actions around the Polish town of Czestochowa, the report gave the following instructions: "[t]he leader of this battalion is ordered to take the most drastic actions and measures such as those in the upper Silesian industrial area, the hanging of Polish "franc-tireurs" from light poles as a visible symbol for the entire population."


title: Kurt Daluege

text: During the war in 1941, he attended a mass shooting of 4,435 Jews by Police Battalion 307 near Brest-Litowsk and a mass shooting of Jews in Minsk. Furthermore, in October 1941 Daluege signed deportation orders for Jews from Germany, Austria and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, to Riga and Minsk. On 7 July 1942, he attended a conference led by Himmler which discussed the "enlargement" of Operation Reinhard, the secretive Nazi plan to mass-murder Polish Jews in the General Government district of occupied Poland, and other matters involving SS and police policies in the east.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: In 1942 Daluege became the Deputy Protector of Bohemia and Moravia, following the assassination of Deputy Protector Reinhard Heydrich. There seemed to be almost no logic behind Hitler appointing Daluege beyond the fact that he was a senior SS officer and was already in Prague at the time, where he had arrived on the day of Heydrich's assassination for medical treatment. Hitler originally wanted to appoint Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski but Himmler persuaded Hitler not to do so, arguing that Bach-Zelewski could not be spared because of the military situation on the Eastern front. Although Konstantin von Neurath was nominally Protector he had been stripped of his authority in 1941, so Daluege was Acting Protector in all but name. In June 1942, along with Karl Hermann Frank and other SS operatives, he ordered the villages of Lidice and Ležáky razed to the ground in reprisal for Heydrich's death. All the men in both villages were murdered, while many of the women and children were deported to Nazi concentration camps.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: On 16 October 1926, Daluege married Käthe Schwarz (born 23 November 1901) who later became a member of the Nazi Party (member no. 118,363). In 1937, Daluege and his wife adopted a son. Afterwards, Daluege's wife bore three biological children, two sons born in 1938 and 1940 and a daughter born in 1942.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: In May 1943, Daluege became seriously ill after a massive heart attack. In August, he was relieved of all of his day-to-day responsibilities and spent the rest of the war living on a property in western Pomerania, given to him by Hitler.


title: Kurt Daluege

text: In May 1945, Daluege was arrested by British troops in Lübeck and interned in Luxembourg and then at Nuremberg, where he was charged as "a major war criminal". In September 1946 after being extradited to Czechoslovakia, he was tried for his many crimes against humanity committed in the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. Throughout his trial, Daluege was unrepentant, claiming he was beloved by "three million policemen", only following Hitler's orders, and had a clear conscience. He was convicted on all charges and sentenced to death on 23 October 1946. Daluege was hanged in Pankrác prison in Prague on 24 October 1946.


title: Heléne Yorke

text: Yorke is known for her work on television. She currently plays Brooke Dubek on the HBO Max series "The Other Two". She has also played the roles of Jane Martin on the Showtime American period drama television series "Masters of Sex", Olivia Graves on "Graves" and Amy Breslin on "The Good Fight".


title: Heléne Yorke

text: Additionally, she is known for her work on Broadway, in particular for originating the roles of Olive Neal in "Bullets Over Broadway" and Evelyn Williams in "American Psycho", as well as for originating G(a)linda in the Munchkinland Tour of "Wicked".


title: Heléne Yorke

text: Yorke was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, and moved to the United States at the age of one. Yorke grew up in Pacific Palisades, California. She started dancing ballet when she was three years old and took her first acting class in middle school. Yorke graduated with a Bachelor of Fine Arts from the University of Michigan.


title: Heléne Yorke

text: Yorke has worked on various Broadway productions, including "Bullets Over Broadway", "American Psycho", and "Grease". She also played Glinda in "Wicked" on tour.


title: Heléne Yorke

text: In 2016-17, she played a major role in the 2 Seasons of Graves (EPIX), playing Nick Nolte’s daughter.


title: Heléne Yorke

text: She currently stars as Brooke Dubek on HBO Max’s "The Other Two," which was renewed for a third season in September 2021.


title: Heléne Yorke

text: Yorke dated chef Bobby Flay from 2016-2019. Throughout their relationship she ran a food-based Instagram account chronicling her cooking adventures with Flay, but the account was deleted following their breakup.


title: Heléne Yorke

text: Yorke married Bary Dunn in a Jewish ceremony on September 3, 2021, in Brooklyn, New York. On January 22, 2022, Yorke announced her pregnancy on Instagram. On June 12, 2022 the couple welcomed a son.


title: Kevin Rahm

text: Kevin Rahm (born January 7, 1971) is an American actor known for his television roles as Kyle McCarty on "Judging Amy", Lee McDermott on "Desperate Housewives", and Ted Chaough on "Mad Men".


title: Kevin Rahm

text: Rahm attended and graduated from Atlanta High School in Atlanta, Texas in May 1989. Following high school, Rahm, then a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, attended one the church's Missionary Training Centers before serving as a missionary in France, Switzerland, and on the islands of Mauritius and Réunion between 1990 and 1992.


title: Kevin Rahm

text: After returning to the United States, he studied pre-law at Brigham Young University, before changing his major to drama. In 1994, he was awarded the sought-after Irene Ryan Award for best college actor. In 1996, Rahm dropped out of college to pursue an acting career in Hollywood.


title: Kevin Rahm

text: Rahm played Kyle McCarty, Amy Gray's cousin, for 3 seasons on "Judging Amy". He joined the show in season 3, when Dan Futterman left the show. He also played Norvo Tigan, the brother of Nicole de Boer's character of Ezri Dax, in the "" episode, ""; "psychic-guy" patient Mr. Duff in the "Grey's Anatomy" episode, "Save Me". He also appeared in "Scrubs" as a patient. In 2001 he starred in the Volkswagen Super Bowl commercial "Big Day".


title: Kevin Rahm

text: In September 2006, Rahm guest-starred in the two-part 7th season premiere of "". On October 21, 2007, he made his first appearance as Lee McDermott, a new Wisteria Lane resident on ABC's "Desperate Housewives", who is gay and has a husband, Bob Hunter (played by Tuc Watkins).


title: Kevin Rahm

text: Rahm guest-starred on "Friends" as Tim, Monica's inexperienced sous-chef, in "The One with Rachel's Date" in Season 8; played car salesman Brad Elias on the CBS', "The Mentalist"; and played Jack, Annie's ex-brother-in-law and crush, on Fox's "I Hate My Teenage Daughter". In 2014, Rahm was cast as a newsroom editor in the film, "Nightcrawler".


title: Kevin Rahm

text: From 2010 to 2015, Rahm played Ted Chaough, a Madison Avenue advertising creative director, in AMC's award-winning show, "Mad Men".


title: Kevin Rahm

text: In March 2015, Rahm began a recurring role playing consultant and attorney, Michael Barnow, on the TV show, "Madam Secretary".


title: Kevin Rahm

text: Rahm married Amy Lonkar, a cardio-thoracic surgeon, at the UC Davis Medical Center, on April 28, 2012. They have a daughter. The family currently lives in Sacramento, California.


title: Norwegian Elkhound

text: The Norwegian Elkhound is one of the Northern Spitz-type breeds of dog and is the National Dog of Norway. The Elkhound has served as a hunter, guardian, herder, and defender. It is known for its courage in tracking and hunting elk and other large game, such as bears or wolves. The Norwegian Elkhound was first presented at a dog exhibition in Norway in 1877.