title: XM2001 Crusader

text: In 1996, the Crusader's experimental liquid propellant system was replaced by more traditional solid propellant bags. In 1997 the Government Accountability Office advised the Army to consider either upgrading the Paladin or to purchase the German Panzerhaubitze 2000 instead.


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: The Crusader was intended to replace the M109A6 Paladin self-propelled howitzer and the M992 Field Artillery Ammunition Support Vehicle (FAASV). It was intended to be an automated gun artillery system to support the Interim Brigade Combat Teams (IBCT) Counterattack Corps and a basis for other vehicle developments.


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: The Army required that the Crusader was to share a common engine with the M1 Abrams. The principal driver for this change was to shed weight off the Crusader. Caterpillar Inc. proposed a diesel engine, as did a joint venture of General Dynamics and DaimlerChrysler. In September 2000, the Army selected Honeywell's LV 100 turbine engine. The Army was to procure as many as 3600 of these, including 2845 for the Abrams and 846 for the Crusader.


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: Using the same chassis, the resupply vehicles (RSVs) would deliver automatic, reciprocal transfer of ammunition, data and fuel to the SPH or another RSV.


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: In October 1999, Army Chief of Staff Eric Shinseki outlined a future that envisioned transforming heavy brigades into lighter brigades outfitted with wheeled Interim Armored Vehicles, later renamed "Stryker." Shinseki said the priority of a lighter, more mobile army could shift resources from heavier armored vehicle acquisitions. The following month Shinseki said the vehicles were too heavy: the howitzer and its resupply vehicle would weigh a combined 110 tons, more than could be carried by any of the Air Force's aircraft, including the C-5 Galaxy if flight rules aren't waived. Shinseki spoke with contractor United Defense about bringing down the combined weight of the two vehicles by 20 tons, which United agreed was possible.


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: In April 2001, a panel convened by Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld recommended canceling the Crusader and other defense modernization programs. An official involved called the Crusader "a wonderful system -- for a legacy world."


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: In February 2002, President George W. Bush allocated $475 million for the Crusader program in the White House's 2003 budget proposal, which also proposed increased Pentagon spending by $48 billion.


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: In April, Defense Secretary Rumsfeld, whose concerns about defense modernization overspending had intensified, met with Pentagon officials including Army Secretary Thomas E. White to discuss defense spending cuts to free funding for more essential modernization programs. The officials discussed cuts to the Crusader, RAH-66 Comanche helicopter, and F-22 Raptor. Some officials questioned whether the howitzer was redundant given the parallel development of a lighter howitzer for the Future Combat Systems modernization effort.


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: On May 9, Rumsfeld announced that he would ask Congress to cancel the $11 billion program. Days before, Congress members favorable to the Crusader received talking points from Army officials who sought to save the program. The last-minute lobbying prompted anger from Rumsfeld and an internal Army investigation into its congressional liaison office. The investigation culminated with the resignation of the Army official who had distributed the talking points. After being absolved himself of wrongdoing in the matter, Army Secretary White assured that he supported Rumsfeld's decision and said the Army was analyzing alternatives to the Crusader including the M982 Excalibur 155-mm guided artillery shell. The House Appropriations Committee responded, after rejecting a measure that would have sustained the program until the fall, asking the Pentagon to delay plans to cancel the Crusader. Later that month President Bush asked Congress to reallocate the Crusader's budget towards other Army developmental weapons including $310 million for Future Combat Systems in the proposed 2003 Pentagon budget.


title: XM2001 Crusader

text: The XM2001 Crusader self-propelled howitzer had a speed of around compared to the PzH 2000 speed of around . However, the Pentagon refused German suggestions of producing a PzH that would have detachable armor, which could be shipped separately, or substituting titanium for steel in many parts.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: A major organ of the endocrine system, the anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis or pars anterior) is the glandular, anterior lobe that together with the posterior lobe (posterior pituitary, or the neurohypophysis) makes up the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The anterior pituitary regulates several physiological processes, including stress, growth, reproduction, and lactation. Proper functioning of the anterior pituitary and of the organs it regulates can often be ascertained via blood tests that measure hormone levels.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: The pituitary gland sits in a protective bony enclosure called the sella turcica ("Turkish chair/saddle"). It is composed of three lobes: the anterior, intermediate, and posterior lobes. In many animals, these lobes are distinct. However, in humans, the intermediate lobe is but a few cell layers thick and indistinct; as a result, it is often considered part of the anterior pituitary. In all animals, the fleshy, glandular anterior pituitary is distinct from the neural composition of the posterior pituitary.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: The pars distalis (distal part) comprises the majority of the anterior pituitary and is where the bulk of pituitary hormone production occurs. The pars distalis contains two types of cells, including chromophobe cells and chromophil cells. The chromophils can be further divided into acidophils (alpha cells) and basophils (beta cells). These cells all together produce hormones of the anterior pituitary and release them into the blood stream.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: Nota bene: The terms "basophil" and "acidophil" are used by some books, whereas others prefer not to use these terms. This is due to the possible confusion with white blood cells, where one may also find basophils and acidophils.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: The anterior pituitary is derived from the ectoderm, more specifically from that of Rathke’s pouch, part of the developing hard palate in the embryo. Rathke’s pouch is also ectodermal in origin.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: The pouch eventually loses its connection with the pharynx, giving rise to the anterior pituitary. The anterior wall of Rathke's pouch proliferates, filling most of the pouch to form the pars distalis and the pars tuberalis. The posterior wall of the anterior pituitary forms the pars intermedia. Its formation from the soft tissues of the upper palate contrasts with the posterior pituitary, which originates from neuroectoderm.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: The anterior pituitary contains five types of endocrine cell, and they are defined by the hormones they secrete: somatotropes (GH); lactotropes (PRL); gonadotropes (LH and FSH); corticotropes (ACTH) and thyrotropes (TSH). It also contains non-endocrine folliculostellate cells which are thought to stimulate and support the endocrine cell populations.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: Hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary are trophic hormones (Greek: trophe, “nourishment”). Trophic hormones directly affect growth either as hyperplasia or hypertrophy on the tissue it is stimulating. Tropic hormones are named for their ability to act directly on target tissues or other endocrine glands to release hormones, causing numerous cascading physiological responses.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: Hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland is regulated by hormones secreted by the hypothalamus. Neuroendocrine cells in the hypothalamus project axons to the median eminence, at the base of the brain. At this site, these cells can release substances into small blood vessels that travel directly to the anterior pituitary gland (the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal vessels).


title: Anterior pituitary

text: Aside from hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary, other systems in the body have been shown to regulate the anterior pituitary’s function. GABA can either stimulate or inhibit the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and growth hormone (GH) and can stimulate the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Prostaglandins are now known to inhibit adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and also to stimulate TSH, GH and LH release. Clinical evidence supports the experimental findings of the excitatory and inhibitory effects GABA has on GH secretion, dependent on GABA’s site of action within the hypothalamic-pituitary axis.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: The homeostatic maintenance of the anterior pituitary is crucial to our physiological well being. Increased plasma levels of TSH induce hyperthermia through a mechanism involving increased metabolism and cutaneous vasodilation. Increased levels of LH also result in hypothermia but through a decreased metabolism action. ACTH increase metabolism and induce cutaneous vasoconstriction, increased plasma levels also result in hyperthermia and prolactin decreases with decreasing temperature values. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) also may cause hypothermia if increased beyond homeostatic levels through an increased metabolic mechanism only.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: Gonadotropes, primarily luteinising hormone (LH) secreted from the anterior pituitary stimulates the ovulation cycle in female mammals, whilst in the males, LH stimulates the synthesis of androgen which drives the ongoing will to mate together with a constant production of sperm.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: The anterior pituitary plays a role in stress response. Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates ACTH release in a cascading effect that ends with the production of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: Hyperpituitarism is the condition where the pituitary secretes excessive amounts of hormones. This hypersecretion often results in the formation of a pituitary adenoma (tumour), which are benign apart from a tiny fraction. There are mainly three types of anterior pituitary tumors and their associated disorders. For example, acromegaly results from excessive secretion of growth hormone (GH) often being released by a pituitary adenoma. This disorder can cause disfigurement and possibly death and can lead to gigantism, a hormone disorder shown in “giants” such as André the Giant, where it occurs before the epiphyseal plates in bones close in puberty. The most common type of pituitary tumour is a prolactinoma which hypersecretes prolactin. A third type of pituitary adenoma secretes excess ACTH, which in turn, causes an excess of cortisol to be secreted and is the cause of Cushing's disease.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: Hypopituitarism is characterized by a decreased secretion of hormones released by the anterior pituitary. For example, hypo-secretion of GH prior to puberty can be a cause of dwarfism. In addition, secondary adrenal insufficiency can be caused by hypo-secretion of ACTH which, in turn, does not signal the adrenal cortex to produce a sufficient amount of cortisol. This is a life-threatening condition. Hypopituitarism could be caused by the destruction or removal of the anterior pituitary tissue through traumatic brain injury, tumor, tuberculosis, or syphilis, among other causes. This disorder used to be referred to as Simmonds' disease but now according to the Diseases Database it is called Sheehan syndrome. If the hypopituitarism is caused by the blood loss associated with childbirth, the disorder is referred to as Sheehan syndrome.


title: Anterior pituitary

text: The anterior pituitary is also known as the adenohypophysis, meaning "glandular undergrowth", from the Greek "adeno-" ("gland"), "hypo" ("under"), and "physis" ("growth").


title: Bret Taylor

text: Bret Taylor (born July 10, 1980) is an American computer programmer and entrepreneur. He is most notable for co-creating Google Maps and his tenures as the CTO of Facebook (now Meta Platforms), the chairman of Twitter, Inc.'s board of directors prior to its acquisition by Elon Musk, and as the co-CEO of Salesforce (alongside Marc Benioff), the latter of which he will remain as until January 2023. Taylor was additionally one of the founders of FriendFeed and the creator of Quip.


title: Bret Taylor

text: Taylor attended Stanford University, where he earned his bachelor's degree and master's degree in computer science in 2002 and 2003, respectively.


title: Bret Taylor

text: In 2003, Taylor was hired by Google as an associate product manager. In 2005, he co-created Google Maps. Taylor left Google in June 2007 to join venture capital firm Benchmark Capital as an entrepreneur-in-residence, where he and several other former Google employees founded the social network web site FriendFeed. Taylor was CEO of FriendFeed until August 2009, when the company was acquired by Facebook for an estimated $50 million. The acquisition led to Facebook adopting the "Like" button from FriendFeed. After the acquisition, Taylor joined Facebook and became CTO in 2010.


title: Bret Taylor

text: In 2012, Taylor left Facebook to found Quip, a competitor to Google Docs. Quip was acquired by Salesforce in 2016. That year, Twitter, Inc. announced that Taylor was appointed to their board of directors. In 2021, he became chairman of Twitter. He remained in the position until the entire board of directors were dissolved following the acquisition of Twitter by Elon Musk in October 2022.


title: Bret Taylor

text: In 2017, Taylor was named chief product officer at Salesforce. In 2019, Taylor was named president and chief operating officer at Salesforce. As COO, Taylor led Salesforce's acquisition of Slack, which closed in 2021. Taylor also led the creation of a system dubbed Customer 360 at Salesforce and started an associate product manager program at the company. In November 2021, Taylor was named vice chair and co-CEO at Salesforce. On November 30, 2022, it was announced that Taylor would be stepping down as co-CEO and vice chair at Salesforce at the end of January 2023.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Abida Parveen (Urdu, ; born 20 February 1954) is a Pakistani singer, composer and musician of Sufi music. She is also a painter and entrepreneur. Parveen is one of the highest paid singers in Pakistan. Her singing and music has earned her many accolades, and she has been dubbed as the 'Queen of Sufi music'.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Born and raised in Larkana into a Sindhi Sufi family, she was trained by her father Ustad Ghulam Haider who was a famous singer and music teacher. She plays Pump organ, Keyboard and Sitar. Parveen started performing in the early 1970s and came into global prominence in the 1990s. Since 1993, Parveen has toured globally, performing her first international concert at Buena Park, California. She has also performed in Churches several times. Parveen features in Pakistan's popular musical show Coke Studio and was a judge on the pan-South Asia contest show Sur Kshetra alongside Runa Laila and Asha Bhosle hosted by Ayesha Takia. She had appeared in various Indian and Pakistani Music reality shows including Pakistan Idol, Chhote Ustaad and STAR Voice of India. She is among The 500 Most Influential Muslims of the world with the power to induce hysteria in her audience, Parveen is a "Global Mystic Sufi Ambassador". In the last few years she has sung in a Pepsi commercial collaborating with Atif Aslam for this.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen is regularly referred to as one of the world's greatest mystic singers. She sings mainly ghazals, thumri, khyal, qawwali, raga (raag), Sufi rock, classical, semi-classical music and her specialty, kafi, a solo genre accompanied by percussion and harmonium, using a repertoire of songs by Sufi poets. Parveen sings in Urdu, Sindhi, Saraiki, Punjabi, Arabic and Persian. Parveen notably sung a famous song in Nepali language called "Ukali Orali Haruma", originally by Nepali singer Tara Devi, in a concert in Kathmandu, Nepal and in 2017, she was designated a 'Peace Ambassador' by SAARC.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen is best known for singing in an impassioned, loud voice, especially on the song "Yaar ko Humne" from the album "Raqs-e-Bismil" and "Tere Ishq Nachaya" which is a rendition of Bulleh Shah's poetry. She was bestowed Pakistan's second highest civilian award Hilal-e-Imtiaz in 2012 and the highest civilian award Nishan-e-Imtiaz in March 2021 by the President of Pakistan.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen was born in Ali Goharabad in Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan. She received her musical training initially from her father, Ustad Ghulam Haider, whom she refers as Baba Sain and Gawwaya. He had his own musical school where Parveen got her devotional inspiration from. She and her father would often perform at shrines of Sufi Saints. Parveen's talent compelled her father to choose her as his musical heir over his two sons. Growing up, she attended her father's music school, where her foundation in music was laid. Later Ustad Salamat Ali Khan of the Sham Chaurasia gharana also taught and nurtured her. Parveen always remembers that she was never forced towards this occupation and she sang her first complete kalam when she was only 3 years old.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen had already begun performing at Dargahs and Urs in the early 1970s, but it was in 1973, on Radio Pakistan, that she achieved her first real breakthrough with the Sindhi song "Tuhinje zulfan jay band kamand widha." In 1977 she was introduced as an official singer on Radio Pakistan. Since then, Parveen has risen to prominence and is now considered one of the finest vocal artists of Pakistan. She has imbued Sufi music with a new identity, marking the beginning of this journey at Sultana Siddiqui's Awaz-o-Andaz in 1980.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen travels internationally, often performing at sold-out venues. Her 1988 performance in Chicago was recorded by the Hazrat Amir Khusrau Society of Art and Culture, which issued an LP of her songs. Her 1989 performance in London's Wembley Conference Centre was broadcast on the BBC. Parveen cites her motivation for international travel as being to spread Sufism, peace and the divine message. In doing so, she also promotes Pakistani culture.


title: Abida Parveen

text: In the 1990s Parveen licensed her spiritual ghazals to Bollywood, since her "spiritual brother", Khan, recorded songs for Bollywood. Recently Abida also performed at the grand finale of Sindh Festival arranged by Bilawal Bhutto Zardari in Thatta.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen began performing on the internationally acclaimed Pakistani show "Coke Studio" in 2010. She sang three songs: "Ramooz-e-Ishq", "Nigah-e-Darwaishaan", and "Soz-e-Ishq" in episodes 1 (Reason), 3 (Conception), and 5 (Realization), respectively of season 3. Parveen said she admired the programme because it offered a Dargahi environment. She commented:


title: Abida Parveen

text: "This project which Rohail Hyatt has started is indeed great and I would like to be a part of it for a long time. The music that comes out of this project reaches both the heart and soul and it always compliments the lyrics without overriding the true message of the kalams. This platform builds on those messages of our Sufi elders."


title: Abida Parveen

text: She was invited back in season 7 in 2014. She sang "Mein Sufi Hoon" with Rais Khan and performed "dost" as a solo. She also performed "Chaap Tilak" (A popular Sufi poem by Sufi poet Amir Khusro) in a duet with Rahat Fateh Ali Khan.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Abida was also a part of season 9. Her first song along with other artists in the season, "Ae Rah Haq K Shaheedo" was dedicated to the war martyrs. After that she sang a duet with Ali Sethi entitled "Aaqa", then solo an entitled "Maula-i-Kull".


title: Abida Parveen

text: In 1975, Abida married Ghulam Hussain Sheikh, senior producer at Radio Pakistan, who had retired from his job in the 1980s to manage and mentor Parveen's career. After he died of a heart attack on an international flight in the early 2000s, their daughter Maryam took up that role. There is a sense that Parveen's career has taken a more commercial route as a result of it. The couple has two daughters Pereha Ikram and Marium Hussain, and a son Sarang Latif who is a music director. All three children act as her advisors. Her family understands her need for "riyaz" ( daily vocal music practice) and its required space to do that practice.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen is also interested in the arts. She owns the Abida Parveen Gallery which features jewellery, paintings, her music CDs, awards section and garments and accessories and is run by her daughters. She also has her own music recording studio there.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen has a distinctive clothing style which she has created herself for ease and comfort. She wears long simple frocks buttoned up to the top covered with a coat. She is always accompanied by an ', a Sindhi ', which she claims comes from the "" (mausoleum) of Sufi saint Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai and her wardrobe is full of it.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Parveen has taken Bayyat and became a disciple of Najeeb Sultan, her spiritual master. Parveen suffered a heart attack during a performance in Lahore on 28 November 2010. Angiography and angioplasty were performed on her. She regained her health soon after.


title: Abida Parveen

text: Although Parveen is a highly acclaimed singer, she has never rendered her voice to films. Her pre-recorded songs have been used in films, however, on the insistence of her fans and Farooq Mengal. Parveen appears less and less in interviews and television morning shows due to her shy personality. Parveen confesses that she keeps getting offers from Bollywood film-makers namely Subhash Ghai and Yash Chopra but she keeps declining them as she has immersed herself in Sufism and it is time-consuming to spread the Divine Message. She even got offers from Shah Rukh Khan for Ra.One and music director A.R.Rehman has offered her some songs, too.


title: Perfidious Albion

text: "Perfidious Albion" is a pejorative phrase used within the context of international relations diplomacy to refer to acts of diplomatic slights, duplicity, treachery and hence infidelity (with respect to perceived promises made to or alliances formed with other nation states) by monarchs or governments of the United Kingdom (or England prior to 1707) in their pursuit of self-interest.


title: Perfidious Albion

text: "Perfidious" signifies one who does not keep his faith or word (from the Latin word "perfidia"), while "Albion" is an ancient and now poetic name for Great Britain.


title: Perfidious Albion

text: The use of the adjective "perfidious" to describe England has a long history; instances have been found as far back as the 13th century. A very similar phrase was used in a sermon by 17th-century French bishop and theologian Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet:


title: Perfidious Albion

text: The coinage of the phrase in its current form, however, is conventionally attributed to Augustin Louis de Ximénès, a French-Spanish playwright who wrote it in a poem entitled "", published in 1793:


title: Perfidious Albion

text: In this context, Great Britain's perfidy was political. In the early days of the French Revolution, when the revolution aimed at establishing a liberal constitutional monarchy along British lines, many in Great Britain had looked upon the Revolution with mild favour. However, following the turn of the revolution to republicanism with the overthrow and execution of Louis XVI, Britain had allied itself with the other monarchies of Europe against the Revolution in France. This was seen by the revolutionaries in France as a "perfidious" betrayal.


title: Perfidious Albion

text: "" became a stock expression in France in the 19th century, to the extent that the Goncourt brothers could refer to it as "a well-known old saying". It was utilised by French journalists whenever there were tensions between France and Britain, for example during the competition for colonies in Africa, culminating in the Fashoda Incident. The catch-phrase was further popularized by its use in , the first French comic strip, in which one of the characters fulminates against "Perfidious Albion, which burnt Joan of Arc on the rock of Saint Helena". (This sentence mixes two major incidents in French history that can be related to the UK's perfidy: Joan of Arc, whose execution may have been due to English influence; and Napoleon, who died in exile on Saint Helena. He may have died by being poisoned, according to the Swedish toxicologist Sten Forshufvud.)


title: Perfidious Albion

text: In German-speaking areas, the term "" became increasingly frequent, especially during the rule of the German Empire (1871–1918) against the backdrop of rising British-German tensions.


title: Bathing

text: Bathing is the act of washing the body, usually with water, or the immersion of the body in water. It may be practiced for personal hygiene, religious ritual or therapeutic purposes. By analogy, especially as a recreational activity, the term is also applied to sun bathing and sea bathing.


title: Bathing

text: People bathe at a range of temperatures, according to custom or purpose, from very cold to very hot. In the western world, bathing is usually done at comfortable temperatures in a bathtub or shower. This type of bathing is done more or less daily for hygiene purposes. A ritual religious bath is sometimes referred to as immersion or baptism. The use of water for therapeutic purposes can be called a water treatment or hydrotherapy. Recreational water activities are also known as swimming and paddling.


title: Bathing

text: The oldest accountable daily ritual of bathing can be traced to the ancient Indians. They used elaborate practices for personal hygiene with three daily baths and washing. These are recorded in the works called "grihya sutras" which date back to 500 BCE and are in practice today in some communities.


title: Bathing

text: Bathing in Ancient China can be traced back to Shang Dynasty 3000 years ago (1600-1046 BCE). Archaeological findings from the Yinxu ruins show a cauldron to boil water, smaller cauldrons to draw out the water to be poured into a basin, skin scrapers to remove dirt and dead skin. 2300 year old lavish imperial bathrooms with exquisite tiles and a sewage system can be seen in Xi'an. Bathing grew in importance in the Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220) where officials were allowed to take a day's leave for bathing at home every five days, and bathing became the reason for a bank holiday for the first time.


title: Bathing

text: Ancient Greece utilized small bathtubs, wash basins, and foot baths for personal cleanliness. The earliest findings of baths date from the mid-2nd millennium BC in the palace complex at Knossos, Crete, and the luxurious alabaster bathtubs excavated in Akrotiri, Santorini. A word for bathtub, (), occurs eleven times in Homer. As a legitimate Mycenaean word (a-sa-mi-to) for a kind of vessel that could be found in any Mycenaean palace, this Linear B term derives from an Aegean suffix "-inth-" being appended to an Akkadian loan word with the root "namsû" ('washbowl', 'washing tub'). This luxurious item of the Mycenaean palace culture, therefore, was clearly borrowed from the Near East. Later Greeks established public baths and showers within gymnasiums for relaxation and personal hygiene. The word "gymnasium" (γυμνάσιον) comes from the Greek word "gymnos" (γυμνός), meaning "naked."


title: Bathing

text: Ancient Rome developed a network of aqueducts to supply water to all large towns and population centers and had indoor plumbing, with pipes that terminated in homes and at public wells and fountains. The Roman public baths were called thermae. The thermae were not simply baths, but important public works that provided facilities for many kinds of physical exercise and ablutions, with cold, warm, and hot baths, rooms for instruction and debate, and usually one Greek and one Latin library. They were provided for the public by a benefactor, usually the Emperor. Other empires of the time didn't show such an affinity for public works, but this Roman practice spread their culture to places where there may have been more resistance to foreign mores. Unusually for the time, the thermae were not class-stratified, being available to all for no charge or a small fee. With the fall of the Roman Empire, the aqueduct system fell into disrepair and disuse. But even before that, during the Christianization of the Empire, changing ideas about public morals led the baths into disfavor.


title: Bathing

text: Before the 7th century, the Japanese were likely to have bathed in the many springs in the open, as there is no evidence of closed rooms. In the 6th to 8th centuries (in the Asuka and Nara periods) the Japanese absorbed the religion of Buddhism from China, which had a strong impact on the culture of the entire country. Buddhist temples traditionally included a bathhouse ("yuya") for the monks. Due to the principle of purity espoused by Buddhism these baths were eventually opened to the public. Only the wealthy had private baths.


title: Bathing

text: The first public bathhouse was mentioned in 1266. In Edo (modern Tokyo), the first "sentō" was established in 1591. The early steam baths were called "iwaburo" ( "rock pools") or "kamaburo" ( "furnace baths"). These were built into natural caves or stone vaults. In "iwaburo" along the coast, the rocks were heated by burning wood, then sea water was poured over the rocks, producing steam. The entrances to these "bath houses" were very small, possibly to slow the escape of the heat and steam. There were no windows, so it was very dark inside and the user constantly coughed or cleared their throats in order to signal to new entrants which seats were already occupied. The darkness could be also used to cover sexual contact. Because there was no gender distinction, these baths came into disrepute. They were finally abolished in 1870 on hygienic and moral grounds. Author John Gallagher says bathing "was segregated in the 1870s as a concession to outraged Western tourists".


title: Bathing

text: At the beginning of the Edo period (1603–1868) there were two different types of baths. In Edo, hot-water baths (' ') were common, while in Osaka, steam baths ( ') were common. At that time shared bathrooms for men and women were the rule. These bathhouses were very popular, especially for men. "Bathing girls" ( "") were employed to scrub the guests' backs and wash their hair, etc. In 1841, the employment of "yuna" was generally prohibited, as well as mixed bathing. The segregation of the sexes, however, was often ignored by operators of bathhouses, or areas for men and women were separated only by a symbolic line. Today, "sento" baths have separate rooms for men and women.


title: Bathing

text: Spanish chronicles describe the bathing habits of the peoples of Mesoamerica during and after the conquest.


title: Bathing

text: Bernal Díaz del Castillo describes Moctezuma (the Mexica, or Aztec, king at the arrival of Cortés) in his "Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España" as being "...Very neat and cleanly, bathing every day each afternoon...".


title: Bathing

text: Bathing was not restricted to the elite, but was practised by all people; the chronicler Tomás López Medel wrote after a journey to Central America that "Bathing and the custom of washing oneself is so quotidian (common) amongst the Indians, both of cold and hot lands, as is eating, and this is done in fountains and rivers and other water to which they have access, without anything other than pure water..."


title: Bathing

text: The Mesoamerican bath, known as "temazcal" in Spanish, from the Nahuatl word "temazcalli", a compound of "temaz" ("steam") and "calli" ("house"), consists of a room, often in the form of a small dome, with an exterior firebox known as "texictle" (teʃict͜ɬe) that heats a small portion of the room's wall made of volcanic rocks; after this wall has been heated, water is poured on it to produce steam, an action known as "tlasas". As the steam accumulates in the upper part of the room a person in charge uses a bough to direct the steam to the bathers who are lying on the ground, with which he later gives them a massage, then the bathers scrub themselves with a small flat river stone and finally the person in charge introduces buckets with water with soap and grass used to rinse. This bath had also ritual importance, and was vinculated to the goddess Toci; it is also therapeutic when medicinal herbs are used in the water for the "tlasas". It is still used in Mexico.


title: Bathing

text: Christianity has always placed a strong emphasis on hygiene. Despite the denunciation of the mixed bathing style of Roman pools by early Christian clergy, as well as the pagan custom of women bathing naked in front of men, this did not stop the Church from urging its followers to go to public baths for bathing, which contributed to hygiene and good health according to the Church Fathers, Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian. The Church also built public bathing facilities that were separate for both sexes near monasteries and pilgrimage sites; also, the popes situated baths within church basilicas and monasteries since the early Middle Ages. Pope Gregory the Great urged his followers on value of bathing as a bodily need.


title: Bathing

text: Great bathhouses were built in Byzantine centers such as Constantinople and Antioch, and the popes allocated to the Romans bathing through "diaconia", or private Lateran baths, or even a myriad of monastic bath houses functioning in eighth and ninth centuries. The Popes maintained their baths in their residences which described by scholar Paolo Squatriti as "luxurious baths", and bath houses including hot baths incorporated into Christian Church buildings or those of monasteries, which known as "charity baths" because they served both the clerics and needy poor people. Public bathing were common in medivail Christendom larger towns and cities such as Paris, Regensburg and Naples. Catholic religious orders of the Augustinians' and Benedictines' rules contained ritual purification, and inspired by Benedict of Nursia encouragement for the practice of therapeutic bathing; Benedictine monks played a role in the development and promotion of spas. Protestantism also played a prominent role in the development of the British spas.


title: Bathing

text: In the Middle Ages, bathing commonly took place in public bathhouses. Public baths were also havens for prostitution, which created some opposition to them. Rich people bathed at home, most likely in their bedroom, as 'bath' rooms were not common. Bathing was done in large, wooden tubs with a linen cloth laid in it to protect the bather from splinters. Additionally, during the Renaissance and Protestant Reformation, the quality and condition of the clothing (as opposed to the actual cleanliness of the body itself) were thought to reflect the soul of an individual. Clean clothing also reflected one's social status; clothes made the man or woman.


title: Bathing

text: Public opinion about bathing began to shift in the middle and late 18th century, when writers argued that frequent bathing might lead to better health. Two English works on the medical uses of water were published in the 18th century that inaugurated the new fashion for therapeutic bathing. One of these was by Sir John Floyer, a physician of Lichfield, who, struck by the remedial use of certain springs by the neighbouring peasantry, investigated the history of cold bathing and published a book on the subject in 1702.


title: Bathing

text: The other work was a 1797 publication by Dr James Currie of Liverpool on the use of hot and cold water in the treatment of fever and other illness, with a fourth edition published not long before his death in 1805. It was also translated into German by Michaelis (1801) and Hegewisch (1807). It was highly popular and first placed the subject on a scientific basis. Hahn's writings had meanwhile created much enthusiasm among his countrymen, societies having been everywhere formed to promote the medicinal and dietetic use of water; in 1804 Professor E.F.C. Oertel of Anspach republished them and quickened the popular movement by the unqualified commendation of water drinking as a remedy for all diseases.


title: Bathing

text: A popular revival followed the application of hydrotherapy around 1829, by Vincenz Priessnitz, a peasant farmer in Gräfenberg, then part of the Austrian Empire.


title: Bathing

text: Captain R. T. Claridge was responsible for introducing and promoting hydropathy in Britain, first in London in 1842, then with lecture tours in Ireland and Scotland in 1843. His 10-week tour in Ireland included Limerick, Cork, Wexford, Dublin and Belfast, over June, July and August 1843, with two subsequent lectures in Glasgow.


title: Bathing

text: Large public baths such as those found in the ancient world and the Ottoman Empire were revived during the 19th century. The first modern public baths were opened in Liverpool in 1829. The first known warm fresh-water public wash house was opened in May 1842.


title: Bathing

text: The popularity of wash-houses was spurred by the newspaper interest in Kitty Wilkinson, an Irish immigrant "wife of a labourer" who became known as the "Saint of the Slums". In 1832, during a cholera epidemic, Wilkinson took the initiative to offer the use of her house and yard to neighbours to wash their clothes, at a charge of a penny per week, and showed them how to use a chloride of lime (bleach) to get them clean. She was supported by the District Provident Society and William Rathbone. In 1842, Wilkinson was appointed baths superintendent.


title: Bathing

text: In Birmingham, around ten private baths were available in the 1830s. Whilst the dimensions of the baths were small, they provided a range of services. A major proprietor of bath houses in Birmingham was a Mr. Monro who had had premises in Lady Well and Snow Hill. Private baths were advertised as having healing qualities and being able to cure people of diabetes, gout and all skin diseases, amongst others. On 19 November 1844, it was decided that the working class members of society should have the opportunity to access baths, in an attempt to address the health problems of the public. On 22 April and 23 April 1845, two lectures were delivered in the town hall urging the provision of public baths in Birmingham and other towns and cities.


title: Bathing

text: After a period of campaigning by many committees, the Public Baths and Wash-houses Act received royal assent on 26 August 1846. The act empowered local authorities across the country to incur expenditure in constructing public swimming baths out of its own funds.


title: Bathing

text: The first London public baths was opened at Goulston Square, Whitechapel, in 1847 with the Prince consort laying the foundation stone.


title: Bathing

text: "Turkish" baths (based on the traditional Muslim bathhouses which are derived from the Roman bath) were introduced to Britain by David Urquhart, diplomat and sometime Member of Parliament for Stafford, who for political and personal reasons wished to popularize Turkish culture. In 1850 he wrote "The Pillars of Hercules", a book about his travels in 1848 through Spain and Morocco. He described the system of dry hot-air baths used there and in the Ottoman Empire which had changed little since Roman times. In 1856 Richard Barter read Urquhart's book and worked with him to construct a bath. They opened the first modern hot water bath at St Ann's Hydropathic Establishment near Blarney, County Cork, Ireland.


title: Bathing

text: The following year, the first public bath of its type to be built in mainland Britain since Roman times was opened in Manchester, and the idea spread rapidly. It reached London in July 1860, when Roger Evans, a member of one of Urquhart's Foreign Affairs Committees, opened a Turkish bath at 5 Bell Street, near Marble Arch. During the following 150 years, over 600 Turkish baths opened in Britain, including those built by municipal authorities as part of swimming pool complexes, taking advantage of the fact that water-heating boilers were already on site.


title: Bathing

text: Similar baths opened in other parts of the British Empire. Dr. John Le Gay Brereton opened a Turkish bath in Sydney, Australia in 1859, Canada had one by 1869, and the first in New Zealand was opened in 1874. Urquhart's influence was also felt outside the Empire when in 1861, Dr Charles H Shepard opened the first Turkish baths in the United States at 63 Columbia Street, Brooklyn Heights, New York, most probably on 3 October 1863.


title: Bathing

text: By the mid-19th century, the English urbanised middle classes had formed an ideology of cleanliness that ranked alongside typical Victorian concepts, such as Christianity, respectability and social progress. The cleanliness of the individual became associated with his or her moral and social standing within the community and domestic life became increasingly regulated by concerns regarding the presentation of domestic sobriety and cleanliness.


title: Bathing

text: The industry of soapmaking began on a small scale in the 1780s, with the establishment of a soap manufactory at Tipton by James Keir and the marketing of high-quality, transparent soap in 1789 by Andrew Pears of London. It was in the mid-19th century, though, that the large-scale consumption of soap by the middle classes, anxious to prove their social standing, drove forward the mass production and marketing of soap.


title: Bathing

text: William Gossage produced low-priced, good-quality soap from the 1850s. William Hesketh Lever and his brother, James, bought a small soap works in Warrington in 1886 and founded what is still one of the largest soap businesses, formerly called Lever Brothers and now called Unilever. These soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns.


title: Bathing

text: Before the late 19th century, water to individual places of residence was rare. Many countries in Europe developed a water collection and distribution network. London water supply infrastructure developed through major 19th-century treatment works built in response to cholera threats, to modern large-scale reservoirs. By the end of the century, private baths with running hot water were increasingly common in affluent homes in America and Britain.


title: Bathing

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, a weekly Saturday night bath had become common custom for most of the population. A half day's work on Saturday for factory workers allowed them some leisure to prepare for the Sunday day of rest. The half day off allowed time for the considerable labor of drawing, carrying, and heating water, filling the bath and then afterward emptying it. To economize, bath water was shared by all family members. Indoor plumbing became more common in the 20th century and commercial advertising campaigns pushing new bath products began to influence public ideas about cleanliness, promoting the idea of a daily shower or bath.


title: Bathing

text: In the twenty-first century challenges to the need for soap to effect such everyday cleanliness and whether soap is needed to avoid body odor, appeared in media.


title: Bathing

text: One purpose of bathing is for personal hygiene. It is a means of achieving cleanliness by washing away dead skin cells, dirt, and soil and as a preventative measure to reduce the incidence and spread of disease. It also may reduce body odors, however, some people note that may not be so necessary as commonly thought.


title: Bathing

text: Bathing may also be practised for religious ritual or therapeutic purposes or as a recreational activity. Bathing may be used to cool or to warm the body of an individual.


title: Bathing

text: Therapeutic use of bathing includes hydrotherapy, healing, rehabilitation from injury or addiction, and relaxation.


title: Bathing

text: The use of a bath in religious ritual or ceremonial rites include immersion during baptism in Christianity and to achieve a state of ritual cleanliness in a "mikvah" in Judaism. It is referred to as "Ghusl" in Arabic to attain ceremonial purity ("Taahir") in Islam. All major religions place an emphasis on ceremonial purity, and bathing is one of the primary means of attaining outward purity. In Hindu households, any acts of defilement are countered by undergoing a bath and Hindus also immerse in Sarovar as part of religious rites. In the Sikh religion, there is a place at Golden Temple where the leprosy of Rajni's husband was cured by immersion into the holy sacred pool, and many pilgrims bathe in the sacred pool believing it will cure their illness as well.


title: Bathing

text: Where bathing is for personal hygiene, bathing in a bathtub or shower is the most common form of bathing in Western, and many Eastern, countries. Bathrooms usually have a tap, and a shower if it is a modern home, and a huge water heating pot. People take water from the tap or the water-heating pot into a large bucket and use a mug to pour water on themselves. A soap and loofah is used to clean the body after, and then rinsed again using the mug. People most commonly bath in their home or use a private bath in a public bathhouse. In some societies, bathing can take place in rivers, creeks, lakes or water holes, or any other place where there is an adequate pool of water. The quality of water used for bathing purposes varies considerably. Normally bathing involves use of soap or a soap-like substance, such as shower gel. In southern India people more commonly use aromatic oil and other home-made body scrubs.


title: Bathing

text: Bathing occasions can also be occasions of social interactions, such as in public, Turkish, banya, sauna or whirlpool baths.


title: Bathing

text: When water is in short supply or a person is not fit to have a standing bath, a wet cloth or sponge can be used, or the person can wash by splashing water over their body. A sponge bath is usually conducted in hospitals, which involves one person washing another with a sponge, while the person being washed remains lying in bed.


title: Bathing

text: This method involves using a small container to scoop water out of a large container and pour water over the body, in such a way that this water does not go back into the large container.


title: Bathing

text: In the Indonesian language, "mandi" is the verb for this process; "bak mandi" is the large container, and "kamar mandi" is the place in which this is done. Travel guides often use the word "mandi" on its own or in various ways such as for the large container and for the process of bathing.


title: Bathing

text: When bathing for cleanliness, normally, people bathe completely naked, so as to make cleaning every part of their body possible. This is the case in private baths, whether in one's home or a private bath in a public bathhouse. In public bathing situations, the social norms of the community are followed, and some people wear a swimsuit or underwear. For example, when a shower is provided in a non-sex segregated area of a public swimming pool, users of the shower commonly wear their swimsuit. The customs can vary depending on the age of a person, and whether the bathing is in a sex segregated situation. In some societies, some communal bathing is also done without clothing.


title: Bathing

text: Babies can be washed in a kitchen sink or a small plastic baby bath, instead of using a standard bath which offers little control of the infant's movements and requires the parent to lean awkwardly or kneel. Bathing infants too often has been linked to the development of asthma or severe eczema according to some researchers, including Michael Welch, chair of the American Academy of Pediatrics' section on allergy and immunology. A safe temperature for the bathwater is generally held to be .


title: Bathing

text: Today, most homes in Japan have a bathroom ("ofuro"), which was often not the case about 30 years ago. Bath water in Japan is much hotter than what is usual in Central Europe. The temperature is usually well above 40 °C. In medical literature, 47 °C is considered bearable. The heat is considered a prerequisite for complete relaxation. The custom is to thoroughly clean oneself with soap and rinse before entering the tub, so as not to contaminate the bath water. Until the 19th century, the Japanese did not use soap, but rubbed the skin with certain herbs, or rice bran, which was also a natural exfoliant.


title: Bathing

text: In public baths, there is a distinction between those with natural hot springs called, "onsen" (hot), and the other, the "sento". Since Japan is located in a volcanically active region, there are many hot springs, of which about 2000 are swimming pools. Most "onsen" are in the open countryside, but they are also found in cities. In Tokyo, for example, there are about 25 "onsen" baths. Locations of known mineral springs spas are on the Western model.


title: Bathing

text: An "onsen", consists mostly of outdoor pools ("rotenburo"), which are sometimes at different temperatures. Extremely hot springs, where even experienced or frequent hot-spring bathers can only stay a few minutes, are called "jigoku" (hell). Many "onsen" also have saunas, spa treatments and therapy centers. The same rules apply in public baths as in private baths, with bathers required to wash and clean themselves before entering the water. In general, the Japanese bathe naked in bathhouses; bathing suits are not permissible.


title: Bathing

text: Bathing scenes were already in the Middle Ages a popular subject of painters. Most of the subjects were women shown nude, but the interest was probably less to the bathing itself rather than to provide the context for representing the nude figure. From the Middle Ages, illustrated books of the time contained such bathing scenes. Biblical and mythological themes which featured bathing were depicted by numerous painters. Especially popular themes included Bathsheba in the bath, in which she is observed by King David, and Susanna in the sight of lecherous old men.


title: Bathing

text: In the High Middle Ages, public baths were a popular subject of painting, with rather clear depictions of sexual advances, which probably were not based on actual observations. During the Renaissance and Baroque periods, the gods and nymphs of Greek mythology were depicted bathing in allegorical paintings by artists such as Titian and François Boucher, both of whom painted the goddess Diana bathing. Artists continued to paint Biblical characters bathing, and also sometimes depicted contemporary women bathing in the river, an example being Rembrandt's "Woman Bathing".


title: Bathing

text: In the 19th century, the use of the bathing scene reached its high point in classicism, realism and impressionism. Oriental themes and harem and turkish baths scenes became popular. These scenes were based on the artists' imagination, because access by men to Islamic women was not generally permitted. In the second half of the century, artists increasingly eschewed the pretexts of mythology and exoticism, and painted contemporary western women bathing. Edgar Degas, for example, painted over 100 paintings with a bathing theme. The subject of Bathers remained popular in avant-garde circles at the outset of the 20th century.


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: In mathematics, Kruskal's tree theorem states that the set of finite trees over a well-quasi-ordered set of labels is itself well-quasi-ordered under homeomorphic embedding.


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: The theorem was conjectured by Andrew Vázsonyi and proved by ; a short proof was given by . It has since become a prominent example in reverse mathematics as a statement that cannot be proved within ATR (a form of arithmetical transfinite recursion), and a finitary application of the theorem gives the existence of the fast-growing TREE function.


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: In 2004, the result was generalized from trees to graphs as the Robertson–Seymour theorem, a result that has also proved important in reverse mathematics and leads to the even-faster-growing SSCG function.


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: The version given here is that proven by Nash-Williams; Kruskal's formulation is somewhat stronger. All trees we consider are finite.


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: Given a tree with a root, and given vertices , , call a successor of if the unique path from the root to contains , and call an immediate successor of if additionally the path from to contains no other vertex.


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: Take to be a partially ordered set. If , are rooted trees with vertices labeled in , we say that is inf-embeddable in and write if there is an injective map from the vertices of to the vertices of such that


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: Kruskal's tree theorem then states: If is well-quasi-ordered, then the set of rooted trees with labels in is well-quasi-ordered under the inf-embeddable order defined above. (That is to say, given any infinite sequence of rooted trees labeled in , there is some so that .)


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: Define , the weak tree function, as the length of the longest sequence of 1-labelled trees (i.e. ) such that:


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: It is known that tree(1) = 2, tree(2) = 5, and tree(3) ≥ 844424930131960, but (where the argument specifies the number of "labels"; see below) is larger than formula_1.


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: For a countable label set formula_2, Kruskal's tree theorem can be expressed and proven using second-order arithmetic. However, like Goodstein's theorem or the Paris–Harrington theorem, some special cases and variants of the theorem can be expressed in subsystems of second-order arithmetic much weaker than the subsystems where they can be proved. This was first observed by Harvey Friedman in the early 1980s, an early success of the then-nascent field of reverse mathematics. In the case where the trees above are taken to be unlabeled (that is, in the case where formula_2 has order one), Friedman found that the result was unprovable in ATR, thus giving the first example of a predicative result with a provably impredicative proof. This case of the theorem is still provable by Π-CA, but by adding a "gap condition" to the definition of the order on trees above, he found a natural variation of the theorem unprovable in this system. Much later, the Robertson–Seymour theorem would give another theorem unprovable by Π-CA.


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: Ordinal analysis confirms the strength of Kruskal's theorem, with the proof-theoretic ordinal of the theorem equaling the small Veblen ordinal (sometimes confused with the smaller Ackermann ordinal).


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: All the statements "P"("n") are true as a consequence of Kruskal's theorem and Kőnig's lemma. For each "n", Peano arithmetic can prove that "P"("n") is true, but Peano arithmetic cannot prove the statement ""P"("n") is true for all "n"". Moreover the length of the shortest proof of "P"("n") in Peano arithmetic grows phenomenally fast as a function of "n", far faster than any primitive recursive function or the Ackermann function for example. The least "m" for which "P"("n") holds similarly grows extremely quickly with "n".


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: By incorporating labels, Friedman defined a far faster-growing function. For a positive integer "n", take "TREE"("n") to be the largest "m" so that we have the following:


title: Kruskal's tree theorem

text: The "TREE" sequence begins "TREE"(1) = 1, "TREE"(2) = 3, then suddenly "TREE"(3) explodes to a value so immensely large that many other "large" combinatorial constants, such as Friedman's "n"(4), are extremely small by comparison. In fact, it is much larger than "n"(5). A lower bound for "n"(4), and hence an "extremely" weak lower bound for "TREE"(3), is "A"(1), where "A"("x") taking one argument, is defined as "A"("x", "x"), where "A"("k", "n"), taking two arguments, is a particular version of Ackermann's function defined as: "A"(1, "n") = 2"n", "A"("k"+1, 1) = "A"("k", 1), "A"("k"+1, "n"+1) = "A"("k", "A"("k"+1, "n")). Graham's number, for example, is much smaller than the lower bound "A"(1). It can be shown that the growth-rate of the function "TREE" is at least formula_4 in the fast-growing hierarchy. "A"(1) is approximately formula_5, where "g" is Graham's function.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Dodge Monaco is an automobile that was marketed by the Dodge division of Chrysler Corporation. Introduced as the flagship of the Dodge product line, the Monaco was introduced for 1965 to replace the Custom 880, later then later joining as a sub-model of the Dodge Polara. During its production, the Monaco was offered in multiple body configurations, including two-door and four-door hardtop sedans, four-door sedans, two-door convertibles, and station wagons.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: From 1965 to 1977, three generations of the Monaco were produced with the full-size Chrysler C platform. For 1977 and 1978, Dodge shifted the Monaco to the intermediate Chrysler B platform, effectively downsizing the model line. For 1979, the model line was redesigned and renamed the Dodge St. Regis.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: After a 12-year hiatus, the full-size Monaco was revived for 1990 as the flagship Dodge sedan, replacing the Diplomat. A rebadged version of the AMC-developed Eagle Premier, the Monaco was replaced by the Dodge Intrepid for 1993.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Upon its introduction on September 25, 1964, for the 1965 model year, the Dodge Monaco was intended to compete with the Pontiac Grand Prix in what came to be known as the personal luxury market, but ended up filling in for Dodge in the full-size, luxury line instead.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The 1965 Monaco was based on the Custom 880 two-door hardtop body. The Monaco received special badging, different taillight and grille treatment, and a sportier interior with a full-length center console, as well as a V8 engine as standard equipment. Larger, more powerful engines were also available as options. The Monaco competed with the Ford LTD, a top-of-the-line model in the Galaxie 500 series, the Caprice package for the Impala Sport sedan, as well as the 1966 Plymouth VIP model for its Fury series and the Ambassador DPL offered by American Motors. These models provided competition for mid-priced sedans like Chrysler, Oldsmobile, Buick, and Mercury.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: In Canada, a version of the Plymouth Sport Fury was marketed as the Dodge Monaco. It was available in hardtop coupe or convertible body styles. The Canadian Monacos were equipped with Plymouth dashboards in 1965 and 1966. Unlike the U.S. Monaco versions, the Canadian Monacos were available with V8s or the slant six.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For 1966, in the U.S., the Monaco replaced the Custom 880 series and the former Monaco became the Monaco 500. The basic Monaco was available in hardtop coupe, four-door (pillarless) hardtop sedan, conventional four-door (pillared) sedan, and four-door station wagon bodystyles. In the U.S., the Monaco 500 was available only as a hardtop coupe. Although there was no convertible in the 1966 U.S. Monaco range, there was in the 1966 Canadian Monaco lineup. The Canadian Dodge hung onto the "Monaco" name for the Sport Fury equivalent and Polara 880 for the Fury III competitor.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For 1967, all full-sized Dodges, the Monaco included, received significant facelifts with all-new exterior sheet metal. Chief designer Elwood Engel's work featured generally flat body planes with sharp-edged accent lines. The hardtop coupes got new semi-fastback rooflines with reverse-slanted trailing edges on the rear quarter windows.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: In Canada, the "Monaco" name was applied for 1967 to all of the premium full-sized Dodge cars, replacing the Polara 880 at the top of the Dodge line. Taking the Monaco's place as a premium full-size model was the Monaco 500, which was available only as a two-door hardtop and convertible.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Marker lights in the fenders and full width tail lights were added. The Monaco 500 was dropped at the end of the 1968 model year in the United States and at the end of the 1970 model year in Canada.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For the 1969 model year, the wheelbase of the Monaco was increased from 121 inches to 122 inches, and the length was increased to about 220 inches. Returning for 1969 was the "500" option, which in the U.S. market gave the Monaco front bucket seats and a center armrest. In Canada, the Monaco 500 was a separate series that used the side trim of the Polara 500 sold in the U.S. Canadians could also buy a Monaco convertible; U.S. Dodge full-size convertible shoppers had only the lower-end Polara and Polara 500 to choose from.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: All full-sized Dodge cars including the Monaco adopted Chrysler Corporation's new "fuselage" styling, in which the upper and lower body are melded into a uniformly curved unit. Curved side glass adds to the effect, as does the deletion of the "shoulder" along the rear. The look starts in the front of the car, with a nearly straight-across bumper—demanded by a Chrysler executive after a Congressional committee attacked him over the seeming inability of car bumpers to protect cars from extensive damage in low-speed collisions—and a five-segment eggcrate grille that surrounds the headlamps. When the cars failed to spark buyers' interest, Dodge executives demanded a change. By the summer of 1969, the division released new chrome trim for the front fender caps and leading edge of the hood as an option, which gives the appearance of a then-fashionable loop bumper without the tooling expense. At the rear, Dodge's signature delta-shaped taillamps were presented in a new form that required the top of the bumper to slope downward toward each end.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The standard-equipment engine on the 1969 Monaco is Chrysler's B-block V8 engine with a two-barrel 2245 Holley carburetor. Buyers could order the 383 with a four-barrel carburetor that increased power to , or they could opt for the Magnum RB-block engine. Wagon buyers choosing the 440 got a version.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The 1969 Monaco offered, as a $50 option, the first modern polyellipsoidal (projector) automotive road lamp. Called "Super-Lite" and mounted in the driver's side of the grille, this auxiliary headlamp was produced in a joint venture between Chrysler Corporation and Sylvania. It uses an 85-watt halogen bulb and was intended as a mid-beam, to extend the reach of the low beams during turnpike travel when low beams alone were inadequate but high beams would produce excessive glare to oncoming drivers.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Available models for 1969 included a two-door hardtop coupe, four-door hardtop sedan, four-door pillared sedan, and four-door station wagons with six- or nine-passenger capacity. A new Brougham option package included a vinyl roof on sedans and hardtops and a split-bench front seat with a reclining mechanism on the passenger side (except on the two-door hardtops). Monaco wagons received wood-grained vinyl trim along their sides and across the dual-action (side- and bottom-hinged) tailgate.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Sales of the Polara and Monaco were down by nearly 20,000 cars compared with 1968, with the Monaco line accounting for 38,566 of the 127,252 full-size cars made by Dodge for the year.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The 1970 models got completely new front and rear styling that included expensive-to-make loop bumpers front and rear. In the front, the new bumper enclosed a new diecast grille and the headlamps. At the rear, the double-loop bumper enclosed the taillamps. Reversing lamps were moved up into the endcaps that terminated the quarter panels, in slotted body-color housings. The designers chose to emphasize the length of the hood this year, which meant that the redesigned front end grew by three inches. However, the new rear end was four inches (102 mm) shorter.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Improvements to the suspension were promoted as the new "Torsion-Quiet" system, which used strategically placed rubber isolators to reduce road noise and vibrations. The rear wheel track was broadened by nearly three inches as Dodge installed the rear axle that had been used only on Wagons on all 1970 Monaco models.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Brougham and 500 option packages continued, as did the availability of the Super-Lite, but the 440 Magnum V8 was dropped. The version 440, available only in wagons for 1969, became the new top engine for all Monacos. Despite all of the changes, which cost Chrysler a rather large sum of money, Monaco (and Polara) sales declined with 24,692 Monacos built for the model year.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The 1971 Monaco received a facelift featuring a new grille within the bumper that had been used the previous year, and other minor styling changes that were focused mainly at the rear. The Super-Lite was no longer available because of a lack of consumer interest and challenges to its legality in some states. A new single-loop rear bumper and larger taillamps were installed.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The 500 option package was deleted although a stereo cassette player-recorder with microphone was new on the option list. Bucket seats remained available despite the loss of the 500 package, and the Brougham package was also still available for $220, despite the addition of a separate Polara Brougham series.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: All engines had their compression ratio reduced so they could all run satisfactorily on regular-grade gasoline. The two-barrel 383 versions still has the same power rating , the four-barrel 383 dropped to , and the 440 dropped to .


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Monaco station wagons, which in 1969 and 1970 had worn their woodgrain trim on the lower bodysides, got completely new woodgrain up high on the sides, even around the windows. The new vinyl decals were translucent, allowing some of the paint color to show through.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Despite the power losses and mild styling change, sales slightly rose. About 900 more Monacos were built for 1971 (approximately 25,544 — an exact number is not known).


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For the 1972 model year, the full-sized Dodges finally got the all-new sheetmetal that had originally been planned for 1971.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Setting off the new look for the Monaco was a new front end with hidden headlamps set above a completely new bumper-grille assembly. The sides of the car lost their previous plump appearance in favor of a new, lean look with a new feature line that started on the front fenders and ran back through the doors, kicking up ahead of the rear wheels. Sedan and hardtop rooflines were new and more formal-looking. At the rear, there was yet another new loop bumper and full-width taillamp which, like the rest of the car, looked much more expensive and impressive. Station wagons received a new rear appearance with "stacked" vertical taillamps.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Monaco got a smaller standard V8 for 1972. The LA-block V8 engine, which had been introduced in 1971 as an option on Polaras, developed , now measured as net instead of gross. Still the 400 was a new created V8 B engine B-block V8. The 440 remained available, but it now produced (net). 1972 sales nearly matched 1969 levels, with 37,013 built for the model year.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For its last year in the fuselage body, the Monaco continued with its 1972 styling, except for another new rear bumper with redesigned taillamps, along with a new decklid and rear-quarter endcaps. Large black rubber guards were added to the bumpers to comply with new Federal five-mile-per-hour impact standards. Hardtop and sedan models gained about due mostly to the bumper guards.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Inside, new fire-retardant materials in virtually every visible part of the interior meant added safety. Under the hood, all three available engines gained reliability with the addition of Chrysler's new electronic ignition system as standard equipment, which extended spark plug life and virtually eliminated periodic ignition system maintenance.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: 1973 proved to be the Monaco's final year as Dodge's top-of-the-line full-size car. After 14 years, the Polara name was dropped and, for 1974, all big Dodges carried the Monaco name.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: In July 1969, Chrysler South Africa introduced a rebadged locally built version of the Dodge Monaco as the "Chrysler 383". This badge remained in use for about four years, being dropped in early 1973. This was the first time that they had used the "Chrysler" badge on a locally built product in ten years. It was also one of the biggest cars built there, and had the biggest engine as well. The 383 ci V8 offered , and the fully equipped car featured power windows and a standard vinyl roof.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The full-size C-body 1974 Dodge Monaco was completely redesigned for the 1974 model year with an all-new unibody platform and all-new sheet metal. However, within days of their introduction, the 1973 oil crisis began. Chrysler was excoriated in the media for bringing out huge new cars, and sales suffered accordingly. Many in the automotive press also criticized the car's new design as being too derivative of what they thought resembled a 3-year-old Buick or Oldsmobile full-size car. The Dodge Polara and Polara Custom models were discontinued after the 1973 model year. The Monaco and Monaco Custom replaced them respectively. The previous Monaco was renamed Monaco Brougham. The Brougham name had was used on a luxury option package from 1969 to 1973. The hidden headlamps of the previous models were replaced by fixed headlamps on all Monacos. The standard engine on all Monacos was a with a 2-barrel carburetor—engine options included a with a 4-barrel carburetor, a with a 2- or 4-barrel carburetor, and a with a 4-barrel carburetor.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For the 1975 model year, changes to the base Monaco were minimal. However, the Monaco Custom was renamed the Royal Monaco, and the Monaco Brougham became the Royal Monaco Brougham. These newly named models featured hidden headlamps. 1975 was the last model year in which the four-door hardtop was available. Some models, depending on equipment and the state they were sold in, received catalytic converters to comply with increasingly strict vehicle emissions control regulations. After the start of the 1975 model year, a limited-production option for Royal Monaco Brougham coupes was introduced: the Diplomat package featured a landau vinyl roof with opera windows and a wide steel roof band. It was available in only three colors—Cold Metallic, Silver Cloud Metallic and Maroon Metallic. The standard engine on the Monaco and the Royal Monaco was a with a 2-barrel carburetor while Royal Monaco Broughams and wagons received a with a 4-barrel carburetor. Engine options for the Monaco and the Royal Monaco were a with a 2- or 4-barrel carburetor and all Monacos could be upgraded to a with a 4-barrel carburetor. The car weighed over two tons with a top speed of 127 mph.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: At the start of the 1976 model year, exterior changes on the full-size C-body 1976 Dodge Monaco were very minimal, though all models (including police packages) now had the former high-series front panel with hidden headlights. Chrysler's new Lean Burn system was introduced in order to reduce exhaust emissions (only on the 400 cubic inch engine). The four-door hardtop, which had been part of the Dodge Monaco line up during the previous ten model years (from 1966 to 1968, from 1969 to 1973 and from 1974 to 1975) ever since the Dodge Monaco made its debut from eleven model years earlier (1965), had been discontinued during the end of the previous model year (1975), which reduced the choice of body styles to just three offerings, the four-door wagon, four-door sedan, and two-door hardtop for the 1976 model year. A with a two-barrel carburetor and 150 bhp became standard on the base Monaco while the Royal Monaco Broughams and wagons were downgraded to with 2-barrel carburetors, but the Royal Monaco continued with 1975's with a two-barrel carburetor. The with a four-barrel carburetor could still be ordered.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For the 1977 model year, the Monaco was effectively split into two model lines, with the Royal Monaco retaining the full-size C-platform alongside the Chrysler New Yorker, with the standard Monaco replacing the Coronet B-platform intermediate. Offered in standard and Brougham trims, the Royal Monaco was produced as a two-door hardtop sedan, four-door sedan, and five-door station wagon.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For the first time, the 318 cubic-inch V8 was used as the standard engine. Outside of California, the 360 V8 (with a two-barrel carburetor) and the 400 V8 remained available; the 440 V8 was offered as an option. A 3-speed automatic was the only transmission available.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Royal Monaco was retired for 1978, as Chrysler offered the C-platform only through its namesake division.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The 1977 model year brought changes to the Dodge Monaco line up as a lingering result of the 1973–1974 energy crisis, especially as Chrysler decided to move the Dodge Monaco, in name form only, from the full-size C platform-body to the mid-size B platform-body line up for the 1977 model year. The entire 1977 Dodge Monaco line up received a make-over. The previous model year's full-size C-body Dodge Monaco (from 1976) became, just for one year only, the full-size C-body 1977 Dodge Royal Monaco until its discontinuation from all production during the end of the 1977 model year. The mid-size B-body 1977 Dodge Monaco two-door coupe, four-door wagon and four-door sedan replaced the previous model year's Coronet hardtop coupe, four-door wagon and four-door sedan. These cars were "corporate twins" to the new-for-1975 "downsized" Plymouth Fury. The 1977 Dodge Monaco Brougham four-door sedan replaced the previous model year's Coronet Brougham four-door sedan. The 1977 Dodge Monaco Crestwood four-door wagon replaced the previous model year's Coronet Crestwood four-door wagon. However, the 1977 Dodge Monaco, for all marketing practices, were little-changed from the 1976 Coronet. The 1977 models received a revised front end design with stacked rectangular headlamps.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For the 1978 model year, the mid-size B-body 1978 Dodge Monaco was unchanged from the previous model year. It became Dodge's largest car during the 1978 model year. The Dodge Monaco was discontinued at the end of the 1978 model year. The B-Body cars continued in the form of the Dodge Magnum until 1979.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For 1979, the Dodge Monaco was replaced by the Dodge St. Regis, using the Chrysler R platform (a small revision of the B platform). Struggling to compete against the all-new designs of General Motors and Ford, sales of the St. Regis were heavily supported by fleets, largely including law enforcement vehicles. After 1981, the St. Regis was discontinued (in favor of the Diplomat), becoming the longest-wheelbase sedan, Chrysler had produced, until the 2005 Dodge Magnum debuted.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For the 1990 model year, Dodge revived the Monaco nameplate after a 12-year hiatus. Replacing the long-running Diplomat sedan, the model line was the first full-size Dodge sedan since the 1981 Dodge St. Regis. Slotted above the slightly smaller Dodge Dynasty in size, the fifth-generation Monaco was the Dodge counterpart of the Eagle Premier, available in standard LE and deluxe ES trims.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Dodge Monaco and Eagle Premier were assembled by the Bramalea Assembly in Brampton, Ontario (opened by AMC in 1986). Although produced in Canada, Chrysler Canada did not sell the model line; following the discontinuation of the Diplomat, the largest Dodge sedan sold in Canada was the mid-size Spirit (the Dynasty was badged as a Chrysler).


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For 1993, Dodge consolidated its two largest sedan lines, as the Dodge Intrepid replaced both the Monaco and the Dynasty; the Eagle Vision replaced the Premier.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: In August 1987, Chrysler completed its acquisition of American Motors Corporation (AMC). Along with its ownership of the Jeep model line, the AMC Eagle sedan/station wagons, and the Renault lineup of the Alliance and Encore (and the newly introduced Medallion), AMC was sought after for ability to develop and engineer cars quicker (and at lower cost) than other American auto manufacturers. Beginning in 1985, AMC had begun to build the Dodge Omni/Plymouth Horizon and the Dodge Diplomat/Plymouth Gran Fury/Chrysler Fifth Avenue for Chrysler under contract.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: At the time of the sale, AMC was nearing the release of the Premier, a collaboration between AMC and Renault to develop a full-size car for the North American market. The largest AMC-branded vehicle since the 1978 Matador, the Premier was to become a full model line, including a four-door sedan, station wagon, and two-door coupe (named the Allure). Derived from the chassis of the Renault 25 (the flagship Renault model line in Europe), the Premier adopted the suspension of the Renault (later Eagle) Medallion (a Renault 21 developed for North America, replacing the Renault 18i and AMC Concord). To further distinguish the AMC Premier from the Renault 25, the model line received an exterior update by Giorgetto Giugiaro; the interior was restyled by AMC designer Dick Teague (one of his final designs). The standard engine was an AMC-sourced 2.5 L inline-4 (shared with Jeep) and an optional 3.0 L PRV V6.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Premier began production in September 1987 for the 1988 model year. While prototypes wore Renault badging, all production vehicles wore the badging of the newly created Eagle brand (though designated with AMC VINs). The flagship of the Eagle brand, the Premier was slotted above the Medallion (a nearly direct rebrand of the Renault 21) and the Eagle Wagon (the former AMC Eagle, ending production in December 1987).


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Along with its purchase of AMC, Chrysler contractually agreed to use 260,000 PRV V6 engines. For 1988 and 1989, Eagle sold less than 90,000 Premiers, forcing Chrysler to shutter the Bramalea plant on several occasions. To expand production of the facility and to also fulfill its obligation to Renault sooner, Chrysler opted to offer a Dodge-branded version of the model line alongside the Premier for the 1990 model year.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Dodge Monaco and Eagle Premier use the front-wheel drive Chrysler B platform. Developed in a collaboration of AMC and Renault, the architecture was the final AMC vehicle platform and the only front-wheel drive chassis ever produced by the automaker. Originally codenamed X-58, the chassis was renamed following its acquisition by Chrysler. Sharing only its letter designation with the 1962-1979 Chrysler intermediate architecture, the 1988-1992 B platform is derived from the Renault 25, sharing the rear torsion-bar suspension design of the Renault 21.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Dodge Monaco was fitted with four-wheel disc brakes (introduced to the Premier for 1990), with anti-lock brakes (ABS) becoming added in 1991. The first-generation Dodge Viper shares its rear disc brakes with the Dodge Monaco/Eagle Premier ("without" ABS).


title: Dodge Monaco

text: Engineered by former Renault product engineer Francois Castaing, the B platform adopted a longitudinal engine configuration, allowing for better engine access and more stable handling. To increase compatibility with other Chrysler vehicles (and to increase reliability), the B platform shifted from Renault to Chrysler electrical components for 1990.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: The Dodge Monaco was powered by the Renault-produced 3.0 L "Douvrin" PRV V6, paired with a ZF-produced 4-speed automatic transmission


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For 1990, the Eagle Premier underwent a minor revision (leading to the deletion of the "Design Giugiaro" badges). The Dodge Monaco shared its entire body with the Premier, differing in turn signal lenses (amber instead of clear), trunklid design (gray trim between the taillamps), and the adoption of the Dodge "crosshair" grille.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: In contrast to the Dodge Dynasty (six-passenger with a 50/50 split front bench seat and column-mount shifter), the Monaco was a five-passenger vehicle with front bucket seats and a console-mounted shifter.


title: Dodge Monaco

text: For 1991, the Monaco replaced chrome trim on all models with black or body-color trim. To streamline production, air conditioning and automatic climate control became standard.


title: ECC memory

text: Error correction code memory (ECC memory) is a type of computer data storage that uses an error correction code (ECC) to detect and correct n-bit data corruption which occurs in memory. ECC memory is used in most computers where data corruption cannot be tolerated, like industrial control applications, critical databases, and infrastructural memory caches.


title: ECC memory

text: Typically, ECC memory maintains a memory system immune to single-bit errors: the data that is read from each word is always the same as the data that had been written to it, even if one of the bits actually stored has been flipped to the wrong state. Most non-ECC memory cannot detect errors, although some non-ECC memory with parity support allows detection but not correction.


title: ECC memory

text: Error correction codes protect against undetected data corruption and are used in computers where such corruption is unacceptable, examples being scientific and financial computing applications, or in database and file servers. ECC can also reduce the number of crashes in multi-user server applications and maximum-availability systems.


title: ECC memory

text: Electrical or magnetic interference inside a computer system can cause a single bit of dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) to spontaneously flip to the opposite state. It was initially thought that this was mainly due to alpha particles emitted by contaminants in chip packaging material, but research has shown that the majority of one-off soft errors in DRAM chips occur as a result of background radiation, chiefly neutrons from cosmic ray secondaries, which may change the contents of one or more memory cells or interfere with the circuitry used to read or write to them. Hence, the error rates increase rapidly with rising altitude; for example, compared to sea level, the rate of neutron flux is 3.5 times higher at 1.5 km and 300 times higher at 10-12 km (the cruising altitude of commercial airplanes). As a result, systems operating at high altitudes require special provisions for reliability.


title: ECC memory

text: As an example, the spacecraft "Cassini–Huygens", launched in 1997, contained two identical flight recorders, each with 2.5 gigabits of memory in the form of arrays of commercial DRAM chips. Due to built-in EDAC functionality, the spacecraft's engineering telemetry reported the number of (correctable) single-bit-per-word errors and (uncorrectable) double-bit-per-word errors. During the first 2.5 years of flight, the spacecraft reported a nearly constant single-bit error rate of about 280 errors per day. However, on November 6, 1997, during the first month in space, the number of errors increased by more than a factor of four on that single day. This was attributed to a solar particle event that had been detected by the satellite GOES 9.


title: ECC memory

text: There was some concern that as DRAM density increases further, and thus the components on chips get smaller, while operating voltages continue to fall, DRAM chips will be affected by such radiation more frequently, since lower-energy particles will be able to change a memory cell's state. On the other hand, smaller cells make smaller targets, and moves to technologies such as SOI may make individual cells less susceptible and so counteract, or even reverse, this trend. Recent studies show that single-event upsets due to cosmic radiation have been dropping dramatically with process geometry and previous concerns over increasing bit cell error rates are unfounded.


title: ECC memory

text: Work published between 2007 and 2009 showed widely varying error rates with over 7 orders of magnitude difference, ranging from 10 error/bit·h (roughly one bit error per hour per gigabyte of memory) to 10 error/bit·h (roughly one bit error per millennium per gigabyte of memory). A large-scale study based on Google's very large number of servers was presented at the SIGMETRICS/Performance '09 conference. The actual error rate found was several orders of magnitude higher than the previous small-scale or laboratory studies, with between 25,000 (2.5 × 10 error/bit·h) and 70,000 (7.0 × 10 error/bit·h, or 1 bit error per gigabyte of RAM per 1.8 hours) errors per billion device hours per megabit. More than 8% of DIMM memory modules were affected by errors per year.


title: ECC memory

text: The consequence of a memory error is system-dependent. In systems without ECC, an error can lead either to a crash or to corruption of data; in large-scale production sites, memory errors are one of the most-common hardware causes of machine crashes. Memory errors can cause security vulnerabilities. A memory error can have no consequences if it changes a bit which neither causes observable malfunctioning nor affects data used in calculations or saved. A 2010 simulation study showed that, for a web browser, only a small fraction of memory errors caused data corruption, although, as many memory errors are intermittent and correlated, the effects of memory errors were greater than would be expected for independent soft errors.


title: ECC memory

text: Some tests conclude that the isolation of DRAM memory cells can be circumvented by unintended side effects of specially crafted accesses to adjacent cells. Thus, accessing data stored in DRAM causes memory cells to leak their charges and interact electrically, as a result of high cell density in modern memory, altering the content of nearby memory rows that actually were not addressed in the original memory access. This effect is known as row hammer, and it has also been used in some privilege escalation computer security exploits.


title: ECC memory

text: An example of a single-bit error that would be ignored by a system with no error-checking, would halt a machine with parity checking, or would be invisibly corrected by ECC: a single bit is stuck at 1 due to a faulty chip, or becomes changed to 1 due to background or cosmic radiation; a spreadsheet storing numbers in ASCII format is loaded, and the character "8" (decimal value 56 in the ASCII encoding) is stored in the byte that contains the stuck bit at its lowest bit position; then, a change is made to the spreadsheet and it is saved. As a result, the "8" (0011 1000 binary) has silently become a "9" (0011 1001).


title: ECC memory

text: Several approaches have been developed to deal with unwanted bit-flips, including immunity-aware programming, RAM parity memory, and ECC memory.


title: ECC memory

text: This problem can be mitigated by using DRAM modules that include extra memory bits and memory controllers that exploit these bits. These extra bits are used to record parity or to use an error-correcting code (ECC). Parity allows the detection of all single-bit errors (actually, any odd number of wrong bits). The most-common error correcting code, a single-error correction and double-error detection (SECDED) Hamming code, allows a single-bit error to be corrected and (in the usual configuration, with an extra parity bit) double-bit errors to be detected. Chipkill ECC is a more effective version that also corrects for multiple bit errors, including the loss of an entire memory chip.


title: ECC memory

text: Seymour Cray famously said "parity is for farmers" when asked why he left this out of the CDC 6600. Later, he included parity in the CDC 7600, which caused pundits to remark that "apparently a lot of farmers buy computers". The original IBM PC and all PCs until the early 1990s used parity checking. Later ones mostly did not.


title: ECC memory

text: An ECC-capable memory controller can generally detect and correct errors of a single bit per word (the unit of bus transfer), and detect (but not correct) errors of two bits per word. The BIOS in some computers, when matched with operating systems such as some versions of Linux, BSD, and Windows (Windows 2000 and later), allows counting of detected and corrected memory errors, in part to help identify failing memory modules before the problem becomes catastrophic.


title: ECC memory

text: Some DRAM chips include "internal" on-chip error correction circuits, which allow systems with non-ECC memory controllers to still gain most of the benefits of ECC memory. In some systems, a similar effect may be achieved by using EOS memory modules.


title: ECC memory

text: Error detection and correction depends on an expectation of the kinds of errors that occur. Implicitly, it is assumed that the failure of each bit in a word of memory is independent, resulting in improbability of two simultaneous errors. This used to be the case when memory chips were one-bit wide, what was typical in the first half of the 1980s; later developments moved many bits into the same chip. This weakness is addressed by various technologies, including IBM's Chipkill, Sun Microsystems' Extended ECC, Hewlett Packard's Chipspare, and Intel's Single Device Data Correction (SDDC).


title: ECC memory

text: DRAM memory may provide increased protection against soft errors by relying on error correcting codes. Such error-correcting memory, known as "ECC" or "EDAC-protected" memory, is particularly desirable for high fault-tolerant applications, such as servers, as well as deep-space applications due to increased radiation. Some systems also "scrub" the memory, by periodically reading all addresses and writing back corrected versions if necessary to remove soft errors.


title: ECC memory

text: Interleaving allows for distribution of the effect of a single cosmic ray, potentially upsetting multiple physically neighboring bits across multiple words by associating neighboring bits to different words. As long as a single event upset (SEU) does not exceed the error threshold (e.g., a single error) in any particular word between accesses, it can be corrected (e.g., by a single-bit error correcting code), and an effectively error-free memory system may be maintained.


title: ECC memory

text: Error-correcting memory controllers traditionally use Hamming codes, although some use triple modular redundancy (TMR). The latter is preferred because its hardware is faster than that of Hamming error correction scheme. Space satellite systems often use TMR, although satellite RAM usually uses Hamming error correction.


title: ECC memory

text: Many early implementations of ECC memory mask correctable errors, acting "as if" the error never occurred, and only report uncorrectable errors. Modern implementations log both correctable errors (CE) and uncorrectable errors (UE). Some people proactively replace memory modules that exhibit high error rates, in order to reduce the likelihood of uncorrectable error events.


title: ECC memory

text: Many ECC memory systems use an "external" EDAC circuit between the CPU and the memory. A few systems with ECC memory use both internal and external EDAC systems; the external EDAC system should be designed to correct certain errors that the internal EDAC system is unable to correct. Modern desktop and server CPUs integrate the EDAC circuit into the CPU, even before the shift toward CPU-integrated memory controllers, which are related to the NUMA architecture. CPU integration enables a zero-penalty EDAC system during error-free operation.


title: ECC memory

text: As of 2009, the most-common error-correction codes use Hamming or Hsiao codes that provide single-bit error correction and double-bit error detection (SEC-DED). Other error-correction codes have been proposed for protecting memory double-bit error correcting and triple-bit error detecting (DEC-TED) codes, single-nibble error correcting and double-nibble error detecting (SNC-DND) codes, Reed–Solomon error correction codes, etc. However, in practice, multi-bit correction is usually implemented by interleaving multiple SEC-DED codes.


title: ECC memory

text: Early research attempted to minimize the area and delay overheads of ECC circuits. Hamming first demonstrated that SEC-DED codes were possible with one particular check matrix. Hsiao showed that an alternative matrix with odd weight columns provides SEC-DED capability with less hardware area and shorter delay than traditional Hamming SEC-DED codes. More recent research also attempts to minimize power in addition to minimizing area and delay.


title: ECC memory

text: Many CPUs use error-correction codes in the on-chip cache, including the Intel Itanium, Xeon, Core and Pentium (since P6 microarchitecture) processors, the AMD Athlon, Opteron, all Zen- and Zen+-based processors (EPYC, EPYC Embedded, Ryzen and Ryzen Threadripper), and the DEC Alpha 21264.


title: ECC memory

text: , EDC/ECC and ECC/ECC are the two most-common cache error-protection techniques used in commercial microprocessors. The EDC/ECC technique uses an error-detecting code (EDC) in the level 1 cache. If an error is detected, data is recovered from ECC-protected level 2 cache. The ECC/ECC technique uses an ECC-protected level 1 cache and an ECC-protected level 2 cache. CPUs that use the EDC/ECC technique always write-through all STOREs to the level 2 cache, so that when an error is detected during a read from the level 1 data cache, a copy of that data can be recovered from the level 2 cache.


title: ECC memory

text: Registered, or buffered, memory is not the same as ECC; the technologies perform different functions. It is usual for memory used in servers to be both registered, to allow many memory modules to be used without electrical problems, and ECC, for data integrity. Memory used in desktop computers is usually neither, for economy. However, unbuffered (not-registered) ECC memory is available, and some non-server motherboards support ECC functionality of such modules when used with a CPU that supports ECC. Registered memory does not work reliably in motherboards without buffering circuitry, and vice versa.


title: ECC memory

text: ECC memory usually involves a higher price when compared to non-ECC memory, due to additional hardware required for producing ECC memory modules, and due to lower production volumes of ECC memory and associated system hardware. Motherboards, chipsets and processors that support ECC may also be more expensive.


title: ECC memory

text: ECC support varies among motherboard manufacturers so ECC memory may simply not be recognized by a ECC-incompatible motherboard. Most motherboards and processors for less critical applications are not designed to support ECC. Some ECC-enabled boards and processors are able to support unbuffered (unregistered) ECC, but will also work with non-ECC memory; system firmware enables ECC functionality if ECC memory is installed.


title: ECC memory

text: ECC may lower memory performance by around 2–3 percent on some systems, depending on the application and implementation, due to the additional time needed for ECC memory controllers to perform error checking. However, modern systems integrate ECC testing into the CPU, generating no additional delay to memory accesses as long as no errors are detected.


title: ECC memory

text: ECC supporting memory may contribute to additional power consumption due to error correcting circuitry.


title: Exception handling

text: In computing and computer programming, exception handling is the process of responding to the occurrence of "exceptions" – anomalous or exceptional conditions requiring special processing – during the execution of a program. In general, an exception breaks the normal flow of execution and executes a pre-registered "exception handler"; the details of how this is done depend on whether it is a hardware or software exception and how the software exception is implemented. Exception handling, if provided, is facilitated by specialized programming language constructs, hardware mechanisms like interrupts, or operating system (OS) inter-process communication (IPC) facilities like signals. Some exceptions, especially hardware ones, may be handled so gracefully that execution can resume where it was interrupted.


title: Exception handling

text: The definition of an exception is based on the observation that each procedure has a precondition, a set of circumstances for which it will terminate "normally". An exception handling mechanism allows the procedure to "raise an exception" if this precondition is violated, for example if the procedure has been called on an abnormal set of arguments. The exception handling mechanism then "handles" the exception.


title: Exception handling

text: The precondition, and the definition of exception, is subjective. The set of "normal" circumstances is defined entirely by the programmer, e.g. the programmer may deem division by zero to be undefined, hence an exception, or devise some behavior such as returning zero or a special "ZERO DIVIDE" value (circumventing the need for exceptions). Common exceptions include an invalid argument (e.g. value is outside of the domain of a function), an unavailable resource (like a missing file, a hard disk error, or out-of-memory errors), or that the routine has detected a normal condition that requires special handling, e.g., attention, end of file.