title: Manannán mac Lir

text: There are many oral folktales about conflicts between Manannán and St. Patrick in County Monaghan. In many of them Manannán invites St. Patrick to his castle for a feast; however Patrick is warned by a butler or servant not to eat the food because it is poisoned. In retaliation for the crime, Patrick turns Manannán into a giant eel or salmon, and in some stories he is placed in a bottle and sent to the bottom of a lake to guard his iron treasure chest (or barrel) until the end of time. The treasure is chained to a team of white horses, and the chain can be seen at the top of the lake. In one story from County Monaghan, Manannán's castle was built with mortar from the blood of slaughtered animals, which allowed it to resist weathering for centuries. When the top of the castle toppled over, the bottom part sank into the ground, but the ruins could still be seen owing to the power of Manannán. In some stories Manann was said to ride a flying white steed and could transform himself into a dove and could be heard crying every seven years.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In another story Manann was a druid who challenged St. Patrick over whose god was more powerful. Manann covered the land in darkness, but St. Patrick placed his crozier in the ground, prayed to god, and dispelled the darkness. At the spot where St. Patrick placed his crozier, a well called "Tobar Lasar" sprang from the ground.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In another story, villagers searching for Manann's treasure attempt to drain his lake, but just before they complete their task, a man on a white steed appears before them to send them on an errand. When they return a large rock is placed in the spot where they were digging, and no chisel or hammer can break it. In a variant of this story, all the men's horses are killed, and the work they had completed to dig the channel was filled with silt.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In another story, Manann was said to live in a castle and own a fabulous cow and calf that gave milk to everyone in the parish who wanted it. Some of the older people were jealous of the cow's abundance, and an old Protestant woman went to milk the cow into a sieve. When the cow saw what has happening, it was enraged and she and her calf ran to Dunany Point in County Lough, where they were turned to stone.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In County Mayo a pot of treasure was supposed to be buried in Manann's wood, and this treasure was guarded by a serpent.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In a variant to the story about the formation of Lough Cullin and Lough Conn, Manann was said to have a huntsman named Cullen who had two hunting dogs. The dogs chased after a ferocious boar, and when they overtook the boar, the boar turned and killed the dogs in Lough Conn. Cullen was then drowned at Lough Cullin.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In a folktale from Donegal, St Colum Cille broke his golden chalice and sent a servant to the mainland to have it repaired. While returning to the mainland in his currach, the servant met a stranger in a currach (later identified as Manannán), who blew his breath on the chalice, which then became whole again. Manannán then asked for a response from Colum Cille, who relayed that there would be no forgiveness for the man responsible for such works. When Manannán heard this, he said he would provide no more help to the Irish until they are "as weak as water," and then retired to the gray waves in the Highlands of Scotland. In a variant of this story, Manann was said to live in a castle near a lake, and at night, he would draw the lake around the castle like a moat, but each morning he would return the lake to its proper place. A boy gathering water from a well ran into Manann and accidentally broke his Delft pitcher. Manann offered to put the Dellft pitcher back together using witchcraft if the boy would ask Colum Cille what sort of people go to hell. Colum Cille told the boy that people such as Manann go to hell, and when he returned to report this to Manann, Manann was so enraged that he packed up his gold in a barrel and enchanted both the gold and himself. A diver from Dublin later went down into the lake and found Manann's barrel of gold with a monstrous serpent chained to it. Men from the village then tried to drain the lake, but the morning after drilling the drain, they found it all closed up with grass growing over it.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Manann was king of the faeries and coveted a beautiful meadow in Carndonagh owned by Neill na hAirde (in some versions another faery king). Manann bought the land from Neill with pearls from the ocean and built a beautiful castle there. Neill's wife grew jealous, and she compelled her husband to go to war over the castle. Neill's army was defeated Manann's, but in retribution, Neill (or in a variant, Manann) rode out to Bar Mouth; there he removed three enchanted rods that held back the ocean. The castle and land were subsequently submerged, but the gardens and castle can still be seen beneath the waves in Straghbregagh.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: According to Donegal folklore, Manannán is said to be buried in the Tonn Banks off the coast of Inishowen, which form part of a Triad called the Three Waves of Erin. When Cú Chulainn struck his shield, the three waves of Erin echoed the sound and roared across the ocean. Manannán's spirit is believed to ride the storms that occur when ships are wrecked. The three legs of Manannán "paradoxically" make up the heraldic arms of Man, and are said to represent the "storm-god careering over land and sea with whirling motion."


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: The 9th century "Sanas Cormaic" (Cormac's Glossary) euhemerizes Manannán as "a famous merchant" of the Isle of Man and the best sailor in western Europe, who knew by "studying the heavens" when the weather would be good and bad. O'Donovan's annotation remarks that this merchant went by another name, Orbsen, son of Allot, and it is stated thus in Roderick O'Flaherty's "Ogygia" (1685).


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: However, the "Yellow Book of Lecan" (written c. 1400) separates these figures, stating there were four individuals called "Manandán" who lived at different times. They are: "Manandán mac Alloit", a "druid of the Tuath Dé Danann" whose "proper name was Oirbsen"; "Manandán mac Lir", a great sailor, merchant and druid; "Manandán mac Cirp", king of the Isles and Mann; and "Manandán mac Atgnai, who took in the sons of Uisnech and sailed to Ireland to avenge their deaths.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Tradition has it that Orbsen engaged in the battle of Moycullin in Co. Galway, and fell on the brink of Lake Orbsen; the lake, named after him, is the present-day Lough Corrib. The conflict in which Manannan mac Alloid was slain by Ullinn was recorded in verse by 11th century poet Flann Mainistrech. There is a great stone pillar erected in the field of Moycullin, possibly marking the battle location.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: There is a folk tale that an English horse racer challenges one of the O'Neills to a horse race. Manannán wants to defend the character of the Irish and knows that none of O'Neill's horses stands a chance against the Englishman's, so he appears in the form of a beggar and challenges the Englishman to a race that he himself runs from Shane's Castle to Dublin. By his enchantments, he wins the race and defends the pride of Ireland and the O'Neill clan. The tale bears some resemblance to the horse race of Macha and also the Roman tradition in which "Neptune Equester" oversaw horse races.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: In O'Donnell's Kern, Manannan appears as a kern or serving man at the courts of various historical personages from 16th Century Ireland. As a kern, Manannan is repeatedly described as wearing thinly striped clothing and leather brogues (shoes) soaking with water, having ears and half his sword protruding from his mantle, and carrying three scorched holly javelins (elsewhere described as a single javelin) in his right hand. In this guise, he again appears as a trickster, walking into his hosts' homes uninvited and undetected by the guardsmen.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: At Black Hugh O'Donnell's home in Ballyshannon, Manannan challenges the court musicians to a competition, and with a harp plays music so sweetly melodious that it can put anyone to sleep – including the suffering and dying. O'Donnell declares he has never heard such beautiful music and offers the kern new clothing; the kern refuses O'Donnell's gift and also refuses to stay in his court (indicating he must go to Cnoc Aine the next day), so O'Donnell has his men surround the kern to prevent his departure. Manannan again plays music, but this time the strain causes O'Donnell's men to hack each other to pieces with axes. When he leaves O'Donnell, Manannan extracts a fine of twenty cattle and land, and in exchange, rubs a magic herb on the gums of O'Donnell's slaughtered men that revives them to life.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: At the kern's next stop near Limerick, Shane Mac an Iarla invites the kern into his home, having heard of Manannan's reputation with reading and music, to which Manannan declares he is not impotent. However, when Shane brings the kern an instrument and a book, the kern is unable to read or play until Shane lampoons him. When Shane asks Manannan whether he has visited Desmond before, he declares that he was there with the Fianna, several millennia earlier.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Next, the kern travels to Leinster to visit MacEochaidh, who is incapacitated with a broken leg and blood poisoning. When asked about his art, the kern declares that he is a healer and tells MacEochaidh that if he will put his stingy, churlish behavior past him he would be healed. Manannan then dresses MacEochaidh's leg with a healing herb, who immediately recovers from his affliction. MacEochaidh then throws a feast for Manannan and offers him his buxom daughter along with three hundred each of cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs. Before he can receive his reward, however, the kern flees MacEochaidh's house to his next destination.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: He goes to Sligo where he encounters O'Conner, who is about to make war with Munster. After some ridicule from O'Conner's men, the kern offers his military services to O'Conner if he agrees that nothing unfair will be done to the kern. O'Conner's men engage in cattle raiding, and when the men of Munster attempt to steal them back, Manannan kills them with a bow and 24 arrows. He then drives all the cattle across the Shannon and back to O'Conner in Sligo. At a feast to celebrate the victory, O'Conner slights Manannan by drinking the first toast without a thought to the kern, so Manannan recites some verses indicating his displeasure and then vanishes from the company.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Then, the kern goes to Teigue O'Kelly's home and describes his art as conjuring. He bluffs O'Kelly with two spurious tricks (wagging an ear and making a reed disappear), then from a bag conjures a thread that he throws into the air and fixes to a cloud, a hare, a beagle, and a dog boy. From another bag he pulls a woman, and all the characters go running up the thread into the clouds. The king remarks that something bad will happen, such as the boy ending up with the woman, and the dog eating the hare. When Manannan reels in his thread, this is indeed, exactly what the men discover has happened, and O'Kelly, in anger, beheads the dogboy. The kern then replaces the dog boy's head backward, but after O'Kelly's complaints turns it back to the right side.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Finally, the kern visits the King of Leinster, whose musicians he declares sound worse than the sledgehammer's thunder in the lowest regions of hell. The King's musicians and men then jump the kern, but each blow they make on the kern inflicts the same wound on themselves. In retaliation, the King has the kern taken out 3 times to the gallows to be hanged, but each time, they find in the kern's place one of the king's confidants at the end of the rope. The following day at sunrise, the kern returns to the king's castle and offers to heal all the men who were killed the previous day, which he revives with a healing herb.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: It is only at the end of the tale that the kern is revealed as Manannan, who is offered a dish of crabapples and bonnyclabber at Shane O'Donnellan's house in Meath. As the kern, Manannan repeatedly calls himself sweet one day and bitter or sour the next and describes himself as a stroller or traveler who was born in “Ellach of the kings.” He also gives the following names for himself “Duartaine O'Duartaine,” “Cathal O'Cein,” “Gilla de” and “Gilla Decair” during his travels. O'Donnell's Kern is an example of the folk memory of the Irish gods long after Christianization.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: As the Gilla Decair, a name also referenced in “O'Donnell's Kern,” Manannan appears in the Fenian story “The Pursuit of the Gilla Decair and his Horse.” In this tale the Fianna encounter the Gilla on Samhain while pursuing the hunt through the forests of Ballachgowan in Munster. The Gilla is described as a gigantic, virile ruffian with black limbs, devilish, misshapen, and ugly, leading a gaunt horse with grey hindquarters and thin legs with an iron chain. Additionally, the Gilla is dressed as a warrior with a convex, black shield hanging from his back, a wide grooved sword at his left thigh, two long javelins at his shoulder, and a limp mantle about him, all reminiscent of Manannan's description in “O'Donnell's Kern.” After greeting Finn with a lay that begins, “May the gods bless thee, Finn, O man of affable discourse..,” the Gilla tells Finn that he is a Fomorian who visits the kings of Christendom to earn a wage, and that his name was given because of the great personal sacrifices he makes on behalf of his retainers. The Gilla then asks Finn if he will hire him as a horseman, to which Finn assents, and then asks to release his horse to graze with those of the Fianna. When Finn grants his permission, the Gilla unbridles his horse to graze with the others and proceeds to mutilate and kill all the horses of the Fianna.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: After seeking the Fianna's counsel, Finn tells Conán mac Morna to mount the Gilla's horse and ride him to death, but though he tries violently to make the horse move, he won't budge. Thirteen other Fianna then mount the horse in an attempt to weigh the horse down as much as the Gilla, but still the horse refuses to budge. The Gilla then tells Finn and the Fianna that were he to serve the rest of his term under Finn's contemptuous frivolity, he would be pitied and mocked, so he tells them that he will be parting, and leaves the Fianna with such a fierce, thundering rapidity that it is compared to the speed of a swallow and noise of a March wind over a mountain. As soon as the Gilla's horse loses sight of his master, he speeds off after him with fourteen of the Fianna on his back. Finn and the remaining Fianna then track the Gilla and his horse until they arrive at the sea, where another of the Fianna grabs the horse's tail as it alights over the water with the fifteen men.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Finn then travels to Ben-Adar, where the Tuatha Dé Danann promised the children of the Gael that should they ever need to leave Ireland, they would encounter a ship outfit for them. As the Fianna approach the sea, Finn encounters a pair of men, described as “bulkiest of heroes, most powerful of fighting men, hardiest of champions.” Both men bear shields with lions, leopards, and griffins, “terrible” swords, crimson cloaks with gold fibulae, gold sandals, and gold bands on their heads. They bow to Finn and tell him they are the sons of the King of India, who have the ability to create ships with three fells of the axe and can carry the ships over land and sea. One of the brothers tells Finn that his name is Feradach.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: After three days on Feradach's ships without seeing any land or coastline, the Fianna reach a craggy island where they spot the Gilla's tracks. Here it is determined that Dermot, who was fostered by Manannan and Aengus Og, is shamed into vaulting onto the island using the javelins of Manannan, which he possessed. Dermot leaves the Fianna behind and ventures a beautiful forested land, filled with buzzing bees and birds. In the midst of the forested plain, Dermot beholds a massive tree with interlacing branches, beneath which is a well of pure water with an ornamented drinking horn suspended above it. Dermot lusts after the water in the well, pursues it and is confronted with a loud rumbling noise indicating that none should drink of its waters. Dermot drinks the water, and a hostile wizard appears who upbraids Dermot for roaming his forests and drinking his water. Dermot and the wizard battle each other, and the wizard jumps into the well, leaving Dermot behind. Dermot then kills a stag with his javelin, cooks it, and falls asleep. The next day, he finds the wizard, and the two continue their fight for three days with the wizard jumping into his well at the end of each day. On the third day, Dermot follows the wizard into the well and finds upon his emergence, a wide open flowery plain with a regal city. He follows the wizard into the city where he fights the host until he is bleeding, injured, and on the ground. When Dermot awakens, a burly wizard kicks him in the back and explains that he is not there to do Dermot harm but to explain that he is in a dangerous place of enemies. The wizard then takes Dermot on a long journey to a towering fortress, where his wounds are healed with herbs, and he is taken to feasting with the wizard's men.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: When Dermot asks where he is and whom he is, the wizard tells him he is in "Tir fo Thuinn", that he is the Wizard of Chivalry who is an enemy of the Wizard of the Well, with whom Dermot had fought, and that he was hired o work under Finn for a year. While Dermot is detained with the Wizard of Chivalry, Finn and the Fianna craft rope ladders and also scale the cliffs onto the island. There they encounter a king on horseback who takes them to his kingdom where they enjoy feasting. The Fianna wage war with the king against the King of Greece, who is attempting to invade the island. After winning the war, there is a great celebration with the kings of other lands, and there Finn is reunited with Dermot. Dermot explains that the Gilla's true name is Abartach son of Allchad, and he lives in the Land of Promise.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: The daughter of the King of Greece promised herself to Finn prior to the King's defeat, so the Fianna split into groups again, one to pursue Abartach, and the other to Greece. The Fianna retrieve the King of Greece's daughter Taise for Finn, and return to the Land of Promise. Their they reunite with Finn, who has found Abartach. Abartach challenges Finn to determine what debt is owed for the long journeys, adventures, and victories of the Fianna, to which Goll demands payment in the form of fourteen women from the Land of Promise along with Abartach's own wife, who are to ride on his horse, as the Fianna had, back to Ireland. Abartach agrees to the terms, vanishes before the Fianna, and the company returns to Ireland.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: Although none of the characters in the story are explicitly called Manannan, the setting of the tale in "Tir fo Thuinn", the use of the name Gilla Decair, which is explicitly one of Manannan's bynames in O'Donnell's Kern, and the description of the Gilla's behavior all clearly point to his being the central character on the island. Additionally, the name Abartach is used in the context of Manannan's family as the right-hand man of Manannan's son Eachdond Mor. In the "Book of Lecan" Abartach and Manannan are listed together as two celebrated chiefs of the Tuatha De known for being, respectively, a great musician and a great navigator. Elsewhere Abartach, whose name means dwarf, and who also goes by the name Averty, was a magician of dwarfish size that terrorized part of Ireland. Abartach was only vulnerable in one part of his body, and Fionn mac Cumhaill was able to slay him by sticking his thumb into his mouth to determine the vulnerable spot before spearing him. Abartach was then buried upside down in his grave to prevent his rising from the dead.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: A document called the "Supposed True Chronicle of Man" (16th century) asserts that Manannan was the first "ruler of Mann" and "was as paynim (pagan), and kept, by necromancy, the Land of Man under mists", and imposed as tax a bundle of green rushes, which was due every Midsummer Eve at a place called Warfield (the present-day South Barrule). More or less the same thing is stated in verse within "The Traditionary Ballad" aka "Manannan beg va Mac y Leirr" (1504), whose third quatrain ran:


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: The poem thus identified the king of the island as one "Manannan-beg-mac-y-Lheirr", "little Manannan, son of the Sea" (or, "son of Leir"). Manannan was later banished by Saint Patrick according to the poem.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: As to the Manx offering rushes to Manannán, there is evidence these wild plants—which typically grow in wetlands—were sacred to him.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: According to tradition, Manannan once held Peel Castle, and caused a single man guarding its battlements to appear as a force of a thousand, thus succeeding in driving out his enemies. Manx storyteller Sophia Morrison repeats this story except reducing the amplification to hundredfold men, and referring to the rampart "a great stone fort on Peel Island". She also appends a story that Manannan once crafted makeshift boats out of sedges, creating an illusion of a larger fleet, causing the Viking invaders to flee in terror from the bay of Peel Island.


title: Manannán mac Lir

text: There are places named after Manannán in Ireland, the Isle of Man and Scotland. In Ireland, most of them are on the coast or contain water features. They include Mannin Lake ("Loch Mhanainn") in County Mayo, Mannin Bay ("Cuan Mhanainn") in County Galway, Mannin Island ("Manainn") in County Cork, Cashelmanannan ("Caiseal Mhanannáin", "Manannán's ringfort") and Sheevannan ("Sí Mhanannáin", "Manannán's fairy mound") in County Roscommon, Derrymannin ("Doire Mhanainn", "Manann's oak") in County Mayo, and Carrickmannan ("Carraig Mhanainn", "Manann's rock") in County Down. Also in Ireland Lough Corrib takes its name from Manannán's alternate name Oirbsiu or Oirbsen. The placenames Clackmannan ("Clach Mhanainn") and Slamannan ("Sliabh Mhanainn") in Scotland may also refer to Manann.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A fitting or adapter is used in pipe systems to connect straight sections of pipe or tube, adapt to different sizes or shapes, and for other purposes such as regulating (or measuring) fluid flow. These fittings are used in plumbing to manipulate the conveyance of water, gas, or liquid waste in domestic or commercial environments, within a system of pipes or tubes.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Fittings (especially uncommon types) require money, time, materials, and tools to install and are an important part of piping and plumbing systems. Valves are technically fittings, but are usually discussed separately.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Standard codes are followed when designing (or manufacturing) a piping system. Organizations which promulgate piping standards include:


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: The material with which a pipe is manufactured is often the basis for choosing a pipe. Materials used for manufacturing pipes include:


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: The bodies of fittings for pipe and tubing are often the same base material as the pipe or tubing connected: copper, steel, PVC, CPVC, or ABS. Any material permitted by the plumbing, health, or building code (as applicable) may be used, but it must be compatible with the other materials in the system, the fluids being transported, and the temperature and pressure inside (and outside) the system. Brass or bronze fittings are common in copper piping and plumbing systems. Fire resistance, earthquake resistance, mechanical ruggedness, theft resistance, and other factors also influence the choice of pipe and fitting materials.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Gaskets are mechanical seals, usually ring-shaped, which seal flange joints. Gaskets vary by construction, materials and features. Commonly used gaskets are non-metallic (ASME B 16.21), spiral-wound (ASME B 16.20) and ring-joint (ASME B 16.20). Non-metallic gaskets are used with flat- or raised-face flanges. Spiral-wound gaskets are used with raised-face flanges, and ring-joint gaskets are used with ring-type joint (RTJ) flanges. Stress develops between an RTJ gasket and the flange groove when the gasket is bolted to a flange, leading to plastic deformation of the gasket.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Piping or tubing is usually inserted into fittings to make connections. Connectors are assigned a gender, abbreviated M or F. An example of this is a "-inch female adapter NPT", which would have a corresponding male connection of the same size and thread standard (in this case also NPT).


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: This section discusses fittings primarily used in pressurized piping systems, though there is some overlap with fittings for low-pressure or non-pressurized systems. Specialized fittings for the latter setups are discussed in the next major subsection.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: In plumbing, an "adapter" is generally a fitting that interfaces two different parts. The term commonly refers to:


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: An elbow is installed between two lengths of pipe (or tubing) to allow a change of direction, usually a 90° or 45° angle; 22.5° elbows are also available. The ends may be machined for butt welding, threaded (usually female), or socketed. When the ends differ in size, it is known as a reducing (or reducer) elbow.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Elbows are also categorized by length. The radius of curvature of a long-radius (LR) elbow is 1.5 times the pipe diameter, but a short-radius (SR) elbow has a radius equal to the pipe diameter. Wide available short elbows are typically used in pressurized systems and physically tight locations.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Long elbows are used in low-pressure gravity-fed systems and other applications where low turbulence and minimum deposition of entrained solids are of concern. They are available in acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS plastic), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), and copper, and are used in DWV systems, sewage, and central vacuum systems.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A coupling connects two pipes. The fitting is known as a reducing coupling, reducer, or adapter if their sizes differ. There are two types of collars: "regular" and "slip." A regular coupling has a small ridge or stops internally to prevent the over-insertion of a pipe and, thus, under-insertion of the other pipe segment (which would result in an unreliable connection).


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A slip coupling (sometimes also called a repair coupling) is deliberately made without this internal stop to allow it to be slipped into place in tight locations, such as the repair of a pipe that has a small leak due to corrosion or freeze bursting, or which had to be cut temporarily for some reason. Since the alignment stop is missing, it is up to the installer to carefully measure the final location of the slip coupling to ensure that it is located correctly.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A union also connects two pipes but is quite different from a coupling, as it allows future disconnection of the pipes for maintenance. In contrast to a coupling requiring solvent welding, soldering, or rotation (for threaded couplings), a union allows easy connection and disconnection multiple times if needed. It consists of three parts: a nut, a female, and a male end. When the female and male ends are joined, the nut seals the joint by pressing the two ends tightly together. Unions are a type of very compact flange connector.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Dielectric unions, with dielectric insulation, separate dissimilar metals (such as copper and galvanized steel) to prevent galvanic corrosion. When two dissimilar metals are in contact with an electrically conductive solution (ordinary tap water is conductive), they form an electrochemical couple which generates a voltage by electrolysis. When the metals are in direct contact with each other, the electric current from one to the other also moves metallic ions from one to the other; this dissolves one metal, depositing it on the other. A dielectric union breaks the electrical path with a plastic liner between its halves, limiting galvanic corrosion.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A nipple is a short stub of pipe, usually male-threaded steel, brass, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), or copper (occasionally unthreaded copper), which connects two other fittings. A nipple with continuous uninterrupted threading is known as a close nipple. Nipples are commonly used with plumbing and hoses.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A reducer reduces the pipe size from a larger to a smaller bore (inner diameter). Alternatively, "reducer" may refer to any fitting which causes a change in pipe diameter. This change may be intended to meet hydraulic flow requirements of the system or adapt to existing piping of a different size. The reduction length is usually equal to the average of the larger and smaller pipe diameters. Although reducers are usually concentric, eccentric reducers are used as needed to maintain the top- or bottom-of-pipe level.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A double-tapped bushing, commonly shortened to bushing, is a fitting which serves as a reducer. It is a sleeve similar to a close nipple, but is threaded on both its inner and outer circumferences. Like a reducer, a double-tapped bushing has two threads of different sizes. A common type of this style fitting is a "hex bushing" with a hex head for installation with a pipe wrench.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A double-tapped bushing is more compact than a reducer but not as flexible. While a double-tapped bushing has a more minor female thread concentric to a larger male thread (and thus couples a smaller male end to a larger female), a reducer may have large and small ends of either gender. If both ends are the same gender, it is a "gender-changing reducer".


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: There are similar fittings for both sweat and solvent joinery. Since they are not "tapped" (threaded), they are simply called "'reducing bushings".


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A tee, the most common pipe fitting, combines or divides fluid flow. Tees can connect pipes of different diameters, change the direction of a pipe run, or both. Available in various materials, sizes and finishes, they may also be used to transport two-fluid mixtures. Tees may be equal or unequal in size of their three connections, with equal tees the most common.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: This specialized type of tee fitting is used primarily in pressurized hydronic heating systems to divert a portion of the flow from the main line into a side branch connected to a radiator or heat exchanger. The diverter tee allows the flow in the main line, even when the side branch is shut down and not calling for heat. Diverter tees must be heeded with directional markings; a tee installed backwards will function very poorly.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Crosses, also known as four-way fittings or cross branch lines, have one inlet and three outlets (or vice versa), and often have a solvent-welded sockets or female-threaded ends. Cross fittings may stress pipes as temperatures change because they are at the center of four connection points. A tee is steadier than a cross; it behaves like a three-legged stool, and a cross behaves like a four-legged stool. Geometrically, any three non-collinear points can self-consistently define a plane; three legs are inherently stable, whereas four points overdetermine a plane and can be inconsistent, resulting in physical stress on a fitting.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Crosses are common in fire sprinkler systems (where stress caused by thermal expansion is not generally an issue), but are not common in plumbing. One cross fitting is more expensive than two tees.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Caps, usually liquid- or gas-tight, cover the otherwise open end of a pipe. The exterior of an industrial cap may be round, square, rectangular, U- or I-shaped, or may have a handgrip.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A plug is a short barbed fitting with a blank end that can only be used with PEX piping to end the continuation of a water line that is no longer in use due to tying in elsewhere within the system or to seal the end of a water line which may be used for future use in the case of additional facilities. All plugs are sealed watertight with a PEX crimp.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A barb (or hose barb), which connects flexible hose or tubing to pipes, typically has a male-threaded end which mates with female threads. The other end of the fitting has a single- or multi-barbed tube—a long tapered cone with ridges, which is inserted into a flexible hose.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Valves stop (or regulate) the flow of liquids or gases. They are categorized by application, such as isolation, throttling, and non-return.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Isolation valves temporarily disconnect part of a piping system to allow maintenance or repair, for example. Isolation valves are typically left in either a fully open or closed position. A given isolation valve may be in place for many years without being operated but must be designed to be readily operable whenever needed, including for emergency use.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Throttling valves control the amount or pressure of a fluid allowed to pass through and are designed to withstand the stress and wear caused by this operation. Because they may wear out in this usage, they are often installed alongside isolation valves which can temporarily disconnect a failing throttling valve from the rest of the system, so it can be refurbished or replaced.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Non-return or check valves allow the free flow of a fluid in one direction but prevent its flow in a reverse direction. They are often seen in drainage or sewage systems but may also be used in pressurized systems.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Because they operate at low pressure and rely on gravity to move fluids (and entrained solids), drain-waste-vent systems use fittings whose interior surfaces are as smooth as possible. The fittings may be "belled" (expanded slightly in diameter) or otherwise shaped to accommodate the insertion of pipe or tubing without forming a sharp interior ridge that might catch debris or accumulate material, and cause a clog or blockage. Freshly cut ends of pipe segments are carefully deburred to remove projecting slivers of material which may snag debris (such as hair or fibers) which can build up to cause blockages. This internal smoothness also makes it easier to "snake out" or "rod out" a clogged pipe with a plumber's snake.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Underground piping systems for landscaping drainage or the disposal of stormwater or groundwater also use low-pressure gravity flow, so fittings for these systems resemble larger-scale DWV fittings. With high peak-flow volumes, the design and construction of these systems may resemble those of storm sewers.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Fittings for central vacuum systems are similar to DWV fittings but usually have thinner and lighter construction because the weight of the materials conveyed is less. Vacuum-system designs share with DWV designs the need to eliminate internal ridges, burrs, sharp turns, or other obstructions which might create clogs.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Slip-joint fittings are frequently used in kitchen, bathroom and tub drainage systems. They include a detached (movable) slip nut and slip-joint washer; the washer is made of rubber or nylon. An advantage of this type of fitting is that the pipe it is connecting to does not need to be cut to a precise length; the slip joint can attach within a range of the end of the inserting pipe. Many slip fittings may be tightened or loosened by hand for easier access to residential drainpipe systems (for example, to clean out a trap or access a drain line past a trap).


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: DWV elbows are usually long-radius ("sweep") types. To reduce flow resistance and solid deposits when the direction of flow is changed, they use a shallow curve with a large radius of curvature. In addition, a well-designed system will often use two 45° elbows instead of one 90° elbow (even a sweep 90° elbow) to reduce flow disruption as much as possible.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Central vacuum system inlet fittings are intentionally designed with a tighter curvature radius than other bends in the system. If vacuumed debris becomes stuck, it will jam at the inlet, where it is easy to find and remove.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A closet flange (the drainpipe flange to which a flush toilet is attached) is a specialized flange designed to be flush with the floor, allowing a toilet to be installed above it. The flange must be mechanically strong to accommodate slight misalignments or movements and resist corrosion.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Clean-outs are fittings with removable elements, allowing access to drains without removing plumbing fixtures. They are used to allow an auger (or plumber's snake) to clean out a plugged drain. Since clean-out augers are limited in length, clean-outs should be placed in accessible locations at regular intervals throughout a drainage system (including outside the building). Minimum requirements are typically at the end of each branch in piping, just ahead of each water closet, at the base of each vertical stack and inside and outside the building in the main drain or sewer. Clean-outs usually have screw-on caps or screw-in plugs. They are also known as "rodding eyes", because of the eye-shaped cover plates often used on external versions.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A trap primer automatically injects water into a trap, maintaining a water seal to keep sewer gas out of buildings. It must be installed in an easily accessible place for adjustment, replacement, and repair. A trap primer, a specialized valve, is usually connected to a clean-water supply in addition to a DWV system. Because of the dual connection, it must be designed to resist the accidental backflow of contaminated water.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A combination tee (combo tee, combo wye, tee-wye, long-sweep wye, or combi) is a tee with a gradually curving central connecting joint: a wye plus an additional 1/8 bend (45°), combined in one 90° unit. It is used in drains for a smooth, gradually curving path to reduce the likelihood of clogs, to ease the pushing of a plumber's snake through a drain system and to encourage water flow in the direction of the drain.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A sanitary tee has a curved center section. In drainage systems, it is primarily used to connect horizontal drains (including fixture trap arms) to vertical drains. The center connection is generally to the pipe leading to a trap (the trap arm). It must not connect a vertical drain to a horizontal drain because of the likelihood that solids will accumulate at the bottom of the junction and cause a blockage.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Also called a tee with a diverter baffle, a waste tee or an end-outlet tee, it typically connects waste lines before they enter the trap and has a baffle to keep water from one waste pipe from entering the other at the connection.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: This fitting differs from a standard cross in that two ports have curved inlets. Although it has been used in the past for connecting the drains of back-to-back fixtures (such as back-to-back sinks), some current codes—including the 2006 Uniform Plumbing Code in the United States—prohibit the use of this fitting for that purpose and require a double-fixture fitting (double combination wye) to minimize wastewater from one side flowing into the other.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Tee-wyes are similar to tees, except for angling the branch line to reduce friction and turbulence. They are commonly used to attach a vertical drainpipe to a horizontal one, reducing the deposition of entrained solids at the junction. Wyes and combo wyes follow a long-sweep pattern relative to sanitary tees and other short-sweep bends, which have a smaller radius and require less space.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Wyes also have industrial applications. Although low-priced wyes are often spot-welded, industrial-strength wyes are flash-welded at each seam. In long-distance pipeline applications, a specialized wye is used to allow insertion of pigging to keep pipes clear and flowing.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: This fitting (also known as a "bungalow fitting" or a "cottage fitting") is a sanitary tee that allows two trap arms to be connected at the same level. A toilet is the main connection, with the option of a right or left-hand outlet to the 3" inlet with a choice of 1-1/2" or 2" in size. It is used to keep stack-vented fixtures high to the joist space and thus conserves the headroom in a basement. As the water closet must be the lowest fixture, the smaller side outlet (usually used to connect the bathtub trap arm) enters slightly above the larger connection.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Hydraulic systems use high fluid pressure, such as the hydraulic actuators for bulldozers and backhoes. Their hydraulic fittings are designed and rated for much greater pressure than that experienced in general piping systems, and they are generally not compatible with those used in plumbing. Hydraulic fittings are designed and constructed to resist high-pressure leakage and sudden failure.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Much of the work of installing a piping or plumbing system involves making leakproof, reliable connections, and most piping requires mechanical support against gravity and other forces (such as wind loads and earthquakes) which might disrupt an installation. Depending on the connection technology and application, basic skills may be sufficient, or specialized skills and professional licensure may be legally required.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Fasteners join, or affix, two or more objects. Although they are usually used to attach pipe and fittings to mechanical supports in buildings, they do not connect the pipes. Fasteners commonly used with piping are a stud bolt with nuts (usually fully threaded, with two heavy, hexagonal nuts); a machine bolt and nut; or a powder-actuated tool (PAT) fastener (usually a nail or threaded stud, driven into concrete or masonry).


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A threaded pipe has a screw thread at one or both ends for assembly. Steel pipe is often joined with threaded connections; tapered threads are cut into the end of the pipe, and sealant is applied in the form of thread-sealing compound or thread seal tape (also known as PTFE or Teflon tape) and the pipe is screwed into a threaded fitting with a pipe wrench.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Threaded steel pipe is widely used in buildings to convey natural gas or propane fuel and is also a popular choice in fire sprinkler systems due to its resistance to mechanical damage and high heat (including the threaded joints). Threaded steel pipe may still be used in high-security or exposed locations because it is more resistant to vandalism, more difficult to remove, and its scrap value is much lower than copper or brass.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A galvanized coating of metallic zinc was often used to protect steel water pipes from corrosion, but this protective coating eventually would dissolve away, exposing the iron to deterioration. Pipes used to convey fuel gas are often made of "black iron", which has been chemically treated to reduce corrosion, but this treatment does not resist erosion from flowing water. Despite its ruggedness, steel pipe is no longer preferred for conveying drinking water because corrosion can eventually cause leakage (especially at threaded joints), deposits on internal surfaces will eventually restrict flow, and corrosion will shed black or rusty residues into the flowing water.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: These disadvantages are less problematic for fire sprinkler installations because standing water in the steel pipes does not flow, except during occasional tests or activation by a fire. Introducing oxygen dissolved in freshwater supplies will cause some corrosion, but this soon stops without any source of additional water-borne oxygen.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: In older installations, the threaded brass pipe was similarly used and was considered superior to steel for drinking water because it was more resistant to corrosion and shed much fewer residues into the flowing water.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Assembling threaded pipe is labor-intensive, and requires skill and planning to allow lengths of pipe to be screwed together in sequence. Most threaded-pipe systems require strategically located pipe-union fittings in final assembly. The threaded pipe is heavy and requires adequate attachment to support its weight.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A solvent is applied to PVC, CPVC, ABS or other plastic piping to partially dissolve and fuse the adjacent surfaces of piping and fitting. Solvent welding is usually used with a sleeve-type joint to connect pipe and fittings made of the same (or compatible) material.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Unlike metal welding, solvent welding is relatively easy to perform (although care is needed to make reliable joints). Solvents typically used for plastics are usually toxic and may be carcinogenic and flammable, requiring adequate ventilation.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: To make a solder connection, a chemical flux is applied to the inner sleeve of a joint and the pipe is inserted. The joint is then heated, typically by using a propane or MAPP gas torch, although electrically heated soldering tools are sometimes used. Once the fitting and pipe have reached sufficient temperature, solder is applied to the heated joint, and the molten solder is drawn into the joint by capillary action as the flux vaporizes. "Sweating" is a term sometimes used to describe the soldering of pipe joints.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Where many connections must be made in a short period (such as plumbing of a new building), soldering is quicker and less expensive joinery than compression or flare fittings. A degree of skill is needed to make several reliable soldered joints quickly. If flux residue is thoroughly cleaned, soldering can produce a long-lasting connection at a low cost. However, using an open flame for heating joints can present fire and health hazards to building occupants and requires adequate ventilation.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: The welding of metals differs from soldering and brazing in that the joint is made without adding a lower-melting-point material (e.g. solder); instead, the pipe or tubing material is partially melted, and the fitting and piping are directly fused. This generally requires piping and fitting to be the same (or compatible) material. Skill is required to melt the joint sufficiently to ensure good fusion while not deforming or damaging the joined pieces.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Properly welded joints are considered reliable and durable. Pipe welding is often performed by specially licensed workers whose skills are retested periodically. For critical applications, every joint is tested with nondestructive methods. Because of the skills required, welded pipe joints are usually restricted to high-performance applications such as shipbuilding, and in chemical and nuclear reactors.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Adequate ventilation is essential to remove metal fumes from welding operations, and personal protective equipment must be worn. Because the high temperatures during welding can often generate intense ultraviolet light, dark goggles or full face shields must be used to protect the eyes. Precautions must also be taken to avoid fires caused by stray sparks and hot welding debris.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Compression fittings (sometimes called "lock-bush fittings") consist of a tapered, concave conical seat; a hollow, barrel-shaped compression ring (sometimes called a ferrule); and a compression nut which is threaded onto the body of the fitting and tightened to make a leakproof connection. They are typically brass or plastic, but stainless steel or other materials may be used.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Although compression connections are less durable than soldered (aka sweated) connections, they are easy to install with simple tools. However, they take longer to install than soldered joints and sometimes require re-tightening to stop slow leaks which may develop over time. Because of this possible leakage, they are generally restricted to accessible locations (such as under a kitchen or bathroom sink) and are prohibited in concealed locations such as the interiors of walls.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Push-to-pull fittings are easily removed compression fitting that allows pipes to be connected with minimal tools. These fittings are similar to regular compression fittings but use an O-ring for sealing and a grip ring to hold the pipe. The main advantage is that it can easily be removed and re-used, it is easy to assemble, and the joints are still rotatable even after assembly. The pipe end should be square, so it sits against the stop in the fittings and does not create turbulence, and needs to be a clean cut to avoid damaging the O-ring during insertion.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Flared connectors should not be confused with compression connectors, which are generally not interchangeable. Lacking a compression ring, they use a tapered conical shaped connection instead. A specialized flaring tool is used to enlarge tubing into a 45º tapered bell shape matching the projecting shape of the flare fitting. The flare nut, which had previously been installed over the tubing, is then tightened over the fitting to force the tapered surfaces tightly together. Flare connectors are typically brass or plastic, but stainless steel or other materials may be used.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Although flare connections are labor-intensive, they are durable and reliable. Considered more secure against leaks and sudden failure, they are used in hydraulic brake systems and in other high-pressure, high-reliability applications.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Flange fittings are generally used to connect valves, inline instruments or equipment nozzles. Two surfaces are joined tightly together with threaded bolts, wedges, clamps, or other means of applying high compressive force. Although a gasket, packing, or O-ring may be installed between the flanges to prevent leakage, it is sometimes possible to use only a special grease or nothing at all (if the mating surfaces are sufficiently precisely formed). Although flange fittings are bulky, they perform well in demanding applications such as large water supply networks and hydroelectric systems.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Flanges are rated at 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 psi; or 10, 15, 25, 40, 64, 100, and 150 bars of pressure. Various types of flanges are available, depending on construction. Flanges used in piping (orifice, threaded, slip-on, blind, weld neck, socket weld, lap-joint, and reducing) are available with a variety of facings, such as raised, flat, and ring-joint.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Flange connections tend to be expensive because they require the precision forming of metal. Factory-installed flanges must meet carefully measured dimensional specifications, and pipe segments cut to length on-site require skilled precision welding to attach flanges under more-difficult field conditions.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Manufacturers such as Victaulic and Grinnell produce sleeve-clamp fittings, which replace many flange connections. They attach to the end of a pipe segment via circumferential grooves pressed (or cut) around the end of the pipe to be joined. They are widely used on larger steel pipes and can also be used with other materials.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: The chief advantage of these connectors is that they can be installed after cutting the pipe to length in the field. This can save time and considerable expense compared to flange connections, which must be factory- or field-welded to pipe segments. However, mechanically fastened joints are sensitive to residual and thickness stresses caused by dissimilar metals and temperature changes.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: A grooved fitting, also known as a grooved coupling, has four elements: grooved pipe, gasket, coupling housing, and nuts and bolts. The groove is made by cold-forming (or machining) a groove at the end of a pipe. A gasket encompassed by coupling housing is wrapped around the two pipe ends, with the coupling engaging the groove; the bolts and nuts are tightened with a socket or impact wrench. The installed coupling housing encases the gasket and engages the grooves around the pipe to create a leakproof seal in a self-restrained pipe joint. There are two types of grooved coupling; a flexible coupling allows a limited amount of angular movement, and a rigid coupling does not allow movement and may be used where joint immobility is required (similar to a flange or welded joint).


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Crimped or pressed connections to use special fittings permanently attached to tubing with a powered crimper. The fittings, manufactured with a pre-installed sealant or O-ring, slide over the tubing to be connected. High pressure is used to deform the fitting and compress the sealant against the inner tubing, creating a leakproof seal.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: The advantages of this method are durability, speed, neatness, and safety. Some crimped fittings are designed to be used with copper tubing without requiring flux or filler metal. The connection can be made even when the tubing is wet. Although crimped fittings are suitable for drinking water pipes and other hot-and-cold systems (including central heating), they are substantially more expensive than sweated fittings.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Press fittings with either V and M profile (or contour) in stainless steel, carbon steel, and copper are trendy in Europe, and several manufacturers such as Viega, Geberit, Swiss Fittings, and ISOTUBI, distribute proprietary systems of press fittings. Compared to other connection types, press fittings have the advantages of installation speed and safety. Pressing a stainless steel fitting can be completed within 5 seconds with the correct equipment. Primary pressing of fittings to pipes or other fittings is performed using electrically powered press equipment, but mechanically driven press equipment is also available. Most of the significant brands further have a plastic slip on the end of the press fittings allowing a simple identification if a press fitting has securely been installed. Further, the installation does not use welding; press fittings with appropriate and region-specific certification may be installed for gas lines. Stainless steel and carbon steel press fittings can hold up to 16 bars of pressure.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Cast iron piping was traditionally made with one "spigot" end (plain, which was cut to length as needed) and one "socket" or "hub" end (cup-shaped). The larger-diameter hub was also called a "bell" because of its shape.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: In use, the spigot of one segment was placed into the socket of the preceding one, and a ring of oakum was forced down into the joint with a caulking iron. Then the remainder of the space in the hub was filled up. Ideally, this would be done by pouring molten lead, allowing it to set, and hammering it tightly with a caulking tool. If this was not possible due to position or some other constraint, the joint could be filled with lead wool or rope, which was forcibly compacted one layer at a time.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: This labor-intensive technique was durable if appropriately done but required time, skill, and patience for each joint to be made up. Quicker and lower-cost methods, such as rubber sleeve joints, have replaced mainly leaded hub connections of cast-iron piping in most new installations, but the older technology may still be used for some repairs. In addition, some conservative plumbing codes still require leaded hub joints for final connections where the sewer main leaves a building.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: Cast iron DWV pipe and fittings are still used in premium construction because they muffle the sound of wastewater rushing through them, but today they are rarely joined with traditional lead joints. Instead, pipe and fittings with plain (non-belled) connections are butted against each other, and clamped with special rubber sleeve (or "no-hub") fittings. The rubber sleeves are typically secured with stainless steel worm drive clamping bands, which compress the rubber to make a tight seal around the pipes and fittings. These pipe clamps are similar to hose clamps, but are heavier-duty and ideally are made completely of stainless steel (including the screw) to provide maximum service life. Optionally, the entire rubber sleeve may be jacketed with thin sheet metal, to provide extra stiffness, durability, and resistance to accidental penetration by a misplaced nail or screw. Although the fittings are not cheap, they are reasonably durable (the rubber is typically neoprene or flexible PVC).


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: An alternative design also allows the selective use of belled fittings made entirely of flexible rubber, including more-complex shapes such as wyes or tee-wyes. They are secured to cast iron pipe segments by use of stainless steel worm drive clamps. Because these fittings are not as stiff as traditional cast-iron fittings, the heavy pipe segments may need better anchoring and support to prevent unwanted movement. The lighter rubber fittings may not muffle sound as well as the heavy cast-iron fittings.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: An advantage of flexible rubber fittings is that they can accommodate small misalignments and can be flexed slightly for installation in tight locations. A flexible fitting may be preferred to connect a shower or heavy tub to the drainage system without transmitting slight movements or stresses, which could eventually cause cracking. Flexible fittings may also be used to reduce the transmission of vibration into the DWV system.


title: Piping and plumbing fitting

text: If necessary, clamped joints can be disassembled later, and the fittings and pipe may be reconfigured. However, it is often not customary to re-use the clamps and rubber sleeves, which their previous installation may deform and may not seal well after rearranging. Clamped fittings may occasionally need to be disassembled to provide access for "snaking" or "rodding-out" with a unique tool to clear blockage or clogs. This is also an indication that a clean-out fitting could be installed to provide easier future access.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens, or crystalline lens, is a transparent biconvex structure in the eye that, along with the cornea, helps to refract light to be focused on the retina. By changing shape, it functions to change the focal length of the eye so that it can focus on objects at various distances, thus allowing a sharp real image of the object of interest to be formed on the retina. This adjustment of the lens is known as "accommodation" (see also below). Accommodation is similar to the focusing of a photographic camera via movement of its lenses. The lens is flatter on its anterior side than on its posterior side.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: In humans, the refractive power of the lens in its natural environment is approximately 18 dioptres, roughly one-third of the eye's total power.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens is part of the anterior segment of the human eye. In front of the lens is the iris, which regulates the amount of light entering into the eye. The lens is suspended in place by the suspensory ligament of the lens, a ring of fibrous tissue that attaches to the lens at its equator and connects it to the ciliary body. Posterior to the lens is the vitreous body, which, along with the aqueous humor on the anterior surface, bathes the lens. The lens has an ellipsoid, biconvex shape. The anterior surface is less curved than the posterior. In the adult, the lens is typically circa 10 mm in diameter and has an axial length of about 4 mm, though it is important to note that the size and shape can change due to accommodation and because the lens continues to grow throughout a person's lifetime.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens has three main parts: the lens capsule, the lens epithelium, and the lens fibers. The lens capsule forms the outermost layer of the lens and the lens fibers form the bulk of the interior of the lens. The cells of the lens epithelium, located between the lens capsule and the outermost layer of lens fibers, are found only on the anterior side of the lens. The lens itself lacks nerves, blood vessels, or connective tissue.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens capsule is a smooth, transparent basement membrane that completely surrounds the lens. The capsule is elastic and is composed of collagen. It is synthesized by the lens epithelium and its main components are type IV collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). The capsule is very elastic and so allows the lens to assume a more spherical shape when not under the tension of the zonular fibers (also called suspensory ligaments), which connect the lens capsule to the ciliary body. The capsule varies from 2 to 28 micrometres in thickness, being thickest near the equator (peri-equitorial region) and thinnest near the posterior pole.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens epithelium, located in the anterior portion of the lens between the lens capsule and the lens fibers, is a simple cuboidal epithelium. The cells of the lens epithelium regulate most of the homeostatic functions of the lens. As ions, nutrients, and liquid enter the lens from the aqueous humor, Na/K-ATPase pumps in the lens epithelial cells pump ions out of the lens to maintain appropriate lens osmotic concentration and volume, with equatorially positioned lens epithelium cells contributing most to this current. The activity of the Na/K-ATPases keeps water and current flowing through the lens from the poles and exiting through the equatorial regions.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The cells of the lens epithelium also serve as the progenitors for new lens fibers. It constantly lays down fibers in the embryo, fetus, infant, and adult, and continues to lay down fibers for lifelong growth.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens fibers form the bulk of the lens. They are long, thin, transparent cells, firmly packed, with diameters typically 4–7 micrometres and lengths of up to 12 mm long. The lens fibers stretch lengthwise from the posterior to the anterior poles and, when cut horizontally, are arranged in concentric layers rather like the layers of an onion. If cut along the equator, it appears as a honeycomb. The middle of each fiber lies on the equator. These tightly packed layers of lens fibers are referred to as laminae. The lens fibers are linked together via gap junctions and interdigitations of the cells that resemble "ball and socket" forms.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens is split into regions depending on the age of the lens fibers of a particular layer. Moving outwards from the central, oldest layer, the lens is split into an embryonic nucleus, the fetal nucleus, the adult nucleus, and the outer cortex. New lens fibers, generated from the lens epithelium, are added to the outer cortex. Mature lens fibers have no organelles or nuclei.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: Development of the human lens begins at the 4 mm embryonic stage. Unlike the rest of the eye, which is derived mostly from the neural ectoderm, the lens is derived from the surface ectoderm. The first stage of lens differentiation takes place when the optic vesicle, which is formed from outpocketings in the neural ectoderm, comes in proximity to the surface ectoderm. The optic vesicle induces nearby surface ectoderm to form the lens placode. At the 4 mm stage, the lens placode is a single monolayer of columnar cells.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: As development progresses, the lens placode begins to deepen and invaginate. As the placode continues to deepen, the opening to the surface ectoderm constricts and the lens cells forms a structure known as the lens vesicle. By the 10 mm stage, the lens vesicle has completely separated from the surface ectoderm.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: After the 10 mm stage, signals from the developing neural retina induces the cells closest to the posterior end of the lens vesicle begin to elongate toward the anterior end of the vesicle. These signals also induce the synthesis of crystallins. These elongating cells eventually fill in the lumen of the vesicle to form the primary fibers, which become the embryonic nucleus in the mature lens. The cells of the anterior portion of the lens vesicle give rise to the lens epithelium.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: Additional secondary fibers are derived from lens epithelial cells located toward the equatorial region of the lens. These cells lengthen anteriorly and posteriorly to encircle the primary fibers. The new fibers grow longer than those of the primary layer, but as the lens gets larger, the ends of the newer fibers cannot reach the posterior or anterior poles of the lens. The lens fibers that do not reach the poles form tight, interdigitating seams with neighboring fibers. These seams are readily visible and are termed sutures. The suture patterns become more complex as more layers of lens fibers are added to the outer portion of the lens.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens continues to grow after birth, with the new secondary fibers being added as outer layers. New lens fibers are generated from the equatorial cells of the lens epithelium, in a region referred to as the germinative zone. The lens epithelial cells elongate, lose contact with the capsule and epithelium, synthesize crystallin, and then finally lose their nuclei (enucleate) as they become mature lens fibers. From development through early adulthood, the addition of secondary lens fibers results in the lens growing more ellipsoid in shape; after about age 20, however, the lens grows rounder with time and the iris is very important for this development.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: Several proteins control the embryonic development of the lens: among these, primarily, PAX6, considered the master regulator gene of this organ. Other effectors of proper lens development include the Wnt signaling components BCL9 and Pygo2.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: In many aquatic vertebrates, the lens is considerably thicker, almost spherical, to increase the refraction. This difference compensates for the smaller angle of refraction between the eye's cornea and the watery medium, as they have similar refractive indices. Even among terrestrial animals, however, the lens of primates such as humans is unusually flat.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: In reptiles and birds, the ciliary body touches the lens with a number of pads on its inner surface, in addition to the zonular fibres. These pads compress and release the lens to modify its shape while focusing on objects at different distances; the zonular fibres perform this function in mammals. In fish and amphibians, the lens is fixed in shape, and focusing is instead achieved by moving the lens forwards or backwards within the eye.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: In cartilaginous fish, the zonular fibres are replaced by a membrane, including a small muscle at the underside of the lens. This muscle pulls the lens forward from its relaxed position when focusing on nearby objects. In teleosts, by contrast, a muscle projects from a vascular structure in the floor of the eye, called the "falciform process", and serves to pull the lens backwards from the relaxed position to focus on distant objects. While amphibians move the lens forward, as do cartilaginous fish, the muscles involved are not homologous with those of either type of fish. In frogs, there are two muscles, one above and one below the lens, while other amphibians have only the lower muscle.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: In the most primitive vertebrates, the lampreys and hagfish, the lens is not attached to the outer surface of the eyeball at all. There is no aqueous humor in these fish, and the vitreous body simply presses the lens against the surface of the cornea. To focus its eyes, a lamprey flattens the cornea using muscles outside of the eye and pushes the lens backwards.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens is flexible and its curvature is controlled by ciliary muscles through the zonules. By changing the curvature of the lens, one can focus the eye on objects at different distances from it. This process is called accommodation. At short focal distance the ciliary muscle contracts, zonule fibers loosen, and the lens thickens, resulting in a rounder shape and thus higher refractive power. Changing focus to an object at a greater distance requires the relaxation of the


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The refractive index of human lens varies from approximately 1.406 in the central layers down to 1.386 in less dense layers of the lens. This index gradient enhances the optical power of the lens.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: Aquatic animals must rely entirely on their lens for both focusing and to provide almost the entire refractive power of the eye as the water-cornea interface does not have a large enough difference in indices of refraction to provide significant refractive power. As such, lenses in aquatic eyes tend to be much rounder and harder.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: Crystallins are water-soluble proteins that compose over 90% of the protein within the lens. The three main crystallin types found in the human eye are α-, β-, and γ-crystallins. Crystallins tend to form soluble, high-molecular weight aggregates that pack tightly in lens fibers, thus increasing the index of refraction of the lens while maintaining its transparency. β and γ crystallins are found primarily in the lens, while subunits of α -crystallin have been isolated from other parts of the eye and the body. α-crystallin proteins belong to a larger superfamily of molecular chaperone proteins, and so it is believed that the crystallin proteins were evolutionarily recruited from chaperone proteins for optical purposes. The chaperone functions of α-crystallin may also help maintain the lens proteins, which must last a human for their entire lifetime.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: Another important factor in maintaining the transparency of the lens is the absence of light-scattering organelles such as the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria within the mature lens fibers. Lens fibers also have a very extensive cytoskeleton that maintains the precise shape and packing of the lens fibers; disruptions/mutations in certain cytoskeletal elements can lead to the loss of transparency.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens blocks most ultraviolet light in the wavelength range of 300–400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. The pigment responsible for blocking the light is 3-hydroxykynurenine glucoside, a product of tryptophan catabolism in the lens epithelium. High intensity ultraviolet light can harm the retina, and artificial intraocular lenses are therefore manufactured to also block ultraviolet light. People lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive ultraviolet light as whitish blue or whitish-violet.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: The lens is metabolically active and requires nourishment in order to maintain its growth and transparency. Compared to other tissues in the eye, however, the lens has considerably lower energy demands.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: By nine weeks into human development, the lens is surrounded and nourished by a net of vessels, the tunica vasculosa lentis, which is derived from the hyaloid artery. Beginning in the fourth month of development, the hyaloid artery and its related vasculature begin to atrophy and completely disappear by birth. In the postnatal eye, Cloquet's canal marks the former location of the hyaloid artery.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: After regression of the hyaloid artery, the lens receives all its nourishment from the aqueous humor. Nutrients diffuse in and waste diffuses out through a constant flow of fluid from the anterior/posterior poles of the lens and out of the equatorial regions, a dynamic that is maintained by the Na/K-ATPase pumps located in the equatorially positioned cells of the lens epithelium.


title: Lens (anatomy)

text: Glucose is the primary energy source for the lens. As mature lens fibers do not have mitochondria, approximately 80% of the glucose is metabolized via anaerobic metabolism. The remaining fraction of glucose is shunted primarily down the pentose phosphate pathway. The lack of aerobic respiration means that the lens consumes very little oxygen as well.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: The Haenel MK 556 () is a gas-operated selective-fire 5.56×45mm NATO assault rifle designed by C.G. Haenel in Germany. The MK556 was finalised in September 2020, and it is a fully automatic version of an earlier Haenel design, the CR 223, which was already in limited use by law enforcement agencies since 2017. On 14 September 2020, the Haenel MK 556 was selected by the German Armed Forces ("Bundeswehr") as a replacement for the G36, making it the first service rifle used by the "Bundeswehr" produced by a company other than Heckler & Koch, who had submitted their own designs.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: In order to replace the G36, the German Federal Ministry of Defence put forth the "Assault Rifle System", which the MK 556 won, leading to a purchase of the rifle, which was withdrawn on 9 October 2020, citing suspicion of breaches of public procurement law and concerns about alleged patent infringements by C.G. Haenel to the detriment of the other bidder company, Heckler & Koch. The German Federal Defence Minister Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer (CDU) had this communicated to the Defence Committee of the German Federal Parliament. The decision followed a crisis meeting with representatives of the procurement office. The offers of the bidders will be reassessed by the procurement office against this background.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 14 October 2020, media reports emerged, doubting patent infringements regarding the "Bundeswehr" MK 556 versions being offered by C.G. Haenel to the detriment of Heckler & Koch. Furthermore, reports regarding patent infringements by Haenel's German box magazine sub-supplier Oberland Arms to the detriment of Magpul Industries emerged.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: Oberland Arms polymer box magazines were commercially launched to European consumers in 2009. German media have tried to obtain more information from Magpul Industries and C.G. Haenel, but since 13 October 2020 no new information appeared that could substantiate a magazine patent litigation.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 2 March 2021 the German Federal Ministry of Defence officially announced, after evaluating all submitted documents, the offer from C.G. Haenel was excluded from the further award procedure. The company has already been informed of this. It is now intended to award the contract to Heckler & Koch. C.G. Haenel announced on 3 March 2021 the federal government's decision will be reviewed and "all necessary legal steps will be taken to protect our interests". According to public procurement lawyers, the final decision on the new assault rifle could be delayed until all legal actions are exhausted. This may delay any future contract award for years until the matter is settled and lead to compensation payments. Within a week, German media started reporting on initiated legal actions as a result of the award revocation.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 21 April 2017, the German Ministry of Defence began its program by putting out a tender to look for a service rifle to replace the Heckler & Koch G36, which has been standard issue in the "Bundeswehr" since the 1990s. The main issue cited with the G36 was that it became inaccurate when it overheated, either because of continuous fire, or the climate it was in.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: The "System Sturmgewehr Bundeswehr" tender was calling for up to 120,000 new rifles including accessories with an estimated total worth of €245 million without VAT (the annual German defence budget for 2020 is €45.646 billion.) In order for the rifle to see production, a parliamentary consensus is required. The first set of rifles were scheduled to be sent in the final week of October 2020, and the weapon's laser sights, optics, and other attachments in mid-December. Some of the requirements in the tender were a rifle chambered in 5.56×45mm NATO or 7.62×51mm NATO, with ambidextrous controls, a maximum weight of without a magazine and aiming optics, box magazines with an empty maximum weight of and a receiver service life of at least 30,000 rounds (barrel 15,000 ball or 7,500 hard-core rounds) as well as interchangeable long- and short-barrel variants. Accessories required included bayonet, sound suppressor, drum magazine, bipod, forward grip, special bolt for training cartridges, cartridge case catching bag, cleaning kit, carry sling and transport bag. The rifle was required to be able to function in areas with climate categories A1-3, B1-3, C0-3 and M1-3 according to STANAG 4370 Environmental Testing Procedures without restriction (with the exception of electrical components). The "Assault Rifle System" tender also stipulated that the technology used in the offers should not be subject to foreign approval or regulations from the International Traffic in Arms Regulations, an American set of laws that dictate the export of defense and military related technologies.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: Several companies participated, including SIG Sauer with the SIG MCX and Rheinmetall/Steyr with the RS556, but both dropped out early. According to Die Zeit, SIG Sauer asserted that the tests were not impartial, and were given insufficient testing ammunition in response to their complaints. The only remaining companies were Heckler & Koch with two separate rifles, the HK416 (selected in October 2017 in a separate tender for limited use by the German KSK and KSM special forces), and the HK433, which combines features of the G36 and the HK416 families of assault rifles, and C.G. Haenel with the (second generation) MK 556.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: In October 2018, none of the weapons submitted met the required technical criteria. Heckler & Koch and C.G. Haenel were given a deadline for further development. The tests of the improved weapons began on 18 February 2019 and were completed in the autumn of 2019 according to modified planning. Heckler & Koch criticized the Ministry of Defence in 2019 for the strict requirements, claiming that no 5.56×45mm NATO chambered rifle would have been able to meet the given demands, and also complained about a lack of expertise and neutrality in the proceedings. On 8 November 2019, the Federal German Armed Forces Technical Center for Weapons and Ammunition (WTD 91) stated in a final report that all the presented weapons had successfully passed the technical tests and met the "Bundeswehr's" technical requirements.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: In September 2020, the MK 556 won the "Assault Rifle System" tender for the future service rifle of the "Bundeswehr". According to the German Press Agency (DPA) "C.G. Haenel presented a weapon that, in extensive tests, was somewhat better tailored to the requirements of the military and also proved to be economically advantageous."


title: Haenel MK 556

text: The decision for the MK 556 was announced on 15 September 2020. The same day the decision was announced, the Ministry of Defence released an official statement:


title: Haenel MK 556

text: The “assault rifle” (System Sturmgewehr Bundeswehr) award procedure has made another major step forward. From the now completed evaluation of the offers by the registration office of the procurement office in Koblenz, C.G. Haenel GmbH, limited liability company, emerged as the winner of the tender.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On May 14, 2020, the bidders remaining in the System Assault Rifle Basic Weapon award procedure were asked to submit a Best And Final Offer (BAFO). The deadline for submitting bids ended on June 15, 2020. The bids received from the bidders have meanwhile been evaluated by the contracting authority.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: From this evaluation, the C.G. Haenel GmbH, a limited liability company, emerged as the winner of the tender. The result of the evaluation is not yet legally effective. Legal recourse is always open to unsuccessful bidders.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: The decision of the registry is also subject to parliamentary approval in the context of the €25 million bill. The documents required for this are currently being prepared, with the aim of a parliamentary referral at the end of 2020.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 21 September 2020 C.G. Haenel announced it wants to manufacture the rifles mainly in Germany. The German production share should be 90 percent and benefit the economic region in southern Thuringia.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 15 September 2020 Heckler & Koch announced they were examining legal steps regarding the decision. On 24 September 2020 Heckler & Koch announced the company has lodged a complaint with the procurement office against the outcome of the bidding process. The complaint can also later be used by the unsuccessful bidder for further legal steps against the award. According to Heckler & Koch, they had called a price well below the maximum volume, but Haenel had undercut it by a further €51 million.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 29 September 2020, the "Deutsche Presse-Agentur" reported that Heckler & Koch took further legal action effectively suspending the process. According to the dpa, the initial bid of Heckler & Koch was €235 million, which was ultimately lowered to €179 million. The final offer of Haenel undercut Heckler & Koch's final offer by about €50 million. According to "Business Insider", in a leaked report issued on 5 October 2020, Haenel offered the MK 556 assault rifles including accessories for around €152 million, including 19 percent VAT. Heckler & Koch offered their rifles for €179 million, making Haenel's final offer €27 million or 18 percent cheaper. Regarding the choice, the secret report says: “The main criterion is the lower price, with a technically comparable performance.” The offered rifles all passed the Federal German Armed Forces Technical Center for Weapons and Ammunition (WTD 91) tests. The overall project risk is assessed by the procurement office experts as “medium”. The intended contract with C.G. Haenel apparently has a number of tough clauses and regulations to protect the "Bundeswehr" against risks.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 9 October 2020, the German Federal Ministry of Defence withdrew their intended award decision, seemingly leaving the potential remaining G36 replacements as either the HK416, HK433 or MK 556 after concluding a re-entered evaluation phase.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: Regarding this decision, the Ministry of Defence issued the following statement (machine translated from German):


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On the basis of the request for a review by the company Heckler & Koch received by the 1st Federal Procurement Chamber at the Federal Cartel Office on 30 September 2020, the Federal Procurement Office (BAAINBw Federal Office for Equipment, Information Technology and Use of the "Bundeswehr") for the first time verifiable of a possible patent infringement by the company C.G. Haenel GmbH with limited liability knowledge.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: The internal examinations initiated thereupon led to the result that a corresponding patent infringement by the bidder C.G. Haenel GmbH with limited liability at the expense of the bidder Heckler & Koch cannot be ruled out.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: Against this background, the federal awarding authority was required to send the information letter (Section 134 GWB) to the bidders about the intended award of the contract to the company C.G. Haenel GmbH with limited liability cancel.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: Since then it is completely open which supplier will be awarded the "Assault Rifle System" contract and when a decision will be made.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: C.G. Haenel announced in late November 2020 they have initiated appropriate legal steps. According to a letter to "Bild" from Haenel managing director Olaf Sauer, "the MK 556 is a different rifle with different design features compared with the CR 223 and not addressed in the patent lawsuit. The patented technology is not used in the MK 556."


title: Haenel MK 556

text: According to a video produced by Heckler & Koch, important breech components of the CR 223 are interchangeable with the HK416. The video is used to support Heckler & Koch's allegation that the MK 556 infringed upon their intellectual property. To legally clarify whether Heckler & Koch's allegations were relevant to the Bundeswehr tender, an evidence preservation drive occurred at C.G. Haenel's headquarters in December 2020, under the orders of the Düsseldorf Regional Court, so that evidence could be secured for a patent lawsuit.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: The Technical Center for Weapons and Ammunition (WTD 91), which tested the rifles offered by both companies, was also requested not to continue using the submitted test weapons and to store them.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 18 December 2020, German media reported a patent attorney commissioned by the Ministry of Defence came to the conclusion that C.G. Haenel had infringed patents of other companies in the submitted MK 556 weapon, which could subsequently exclude the company from the award. C.G. Haenel was given time until mid-January 2021 to comment on the results of the patent assessment, according to a "Bundestag" Defence Committee chairpersons briefing. A spokeswoman for the Ministry of Defence said: "By withdrawing the surcharge, we signaled that we had doubts regarding patent legislation. And the report that has now been submitted strengthens our view. But now the report still has to be evaluated by the procurement office." "All parties are given the opportunity to comment," she emphasized.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 14 January 2021, German media reported that the law firm Kohler Schmid Möbus from Stuttgart investigated the case and sent three confidential reports to the Ministry of Defense just before 25 December 2020. Possible infringements of patent law in relation to the so-called "over-the-beach" (OTB) patent and the magazines offered by C.G. Haenel were investigated. According to information from "Business Insider", the Stuttgart patent attorneys in two reports concluded that these patents have been infringed, but these infringements are not very significant. In the third report, the patent attorneys investigated whether a lawsuit initiated by C.G. Haenel for the nullity of Heckler & Koch's "over-the-beach" patent legal dispute could be successful, which they concluded was possible. In case these reports are correct, the Ministry faces a delivery cost and/or delivery time problem as legal deadlines will have expired before April 2021 if both companies are not willing to solve their legal disputes.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 31 January 2021, German media reported that C.G. Haenel is willing to take legal action if necessary to finally get the order that was initially awarded and then withdrawn. Haenel managing director Olaf Sauer announced in the "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung" that he would sue if his company should not be considered.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 20 February 2021, "Business Insider" reported the "Bundeswehr" in the near future wants to officially announce the revocation of the controversial contract and internally expects that C.G. Haenel will take legal action when excluded.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 3 March 2021, "Business Insider" reported C.G. Haenel had rejected patent violations allegations in a confidential official statement to the "Bundestag" Defence Committee on 18 January 2021, and that the box magazine was not part of the final offer anyway and that they reserved the right to deliver another magazine or even to build one themselves. "Bundeswehr" lawyers regarded this course of events as inadmissible renegotiation.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: Should Oberland Arms and/or Haenel actually use patented parts without permission, this would not only be a matter between the supplier and the manufacturer. Rather, the procurement guidelines of the "Bundeswehr" expressly oblige the contracting parties to guarantee that their products are free from third-party rights. The procurement office does not necessarily have to wait for the outcome of a patent dispute, which usually lasts several years. It must assess the risk a dispute poses for the manufacturer's ability to deliver, especially if the patent judges come to a different assessment of the situation in the future.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: According to public procurement lawyers, shortly after the official order revocation announcement on 2 March 2021 by the German Federal Ministry of Defence, the final decision on the new assault rifle could be delayed until all legal actions are exhausted. This may delay any future contract award for years until the matter is settled and lead to compensation payments. Within a week German media started reporting on initiated legal actions as a result of the award revocation. After the second step of the legal actions path C.G. Haenel financial director Swen Lahl announced in the "Südthüringer Zeitung" on 13 March 2021 that Haenel would be willing to go through all authorities and courts.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 24 April 2021, media reports regarding possible patent infringements by a Heckler & Koch box magazine to the detriment of Magpul Industries emerged. Magpul Industries send letters to Heckler & Koch, which were also forwarded to the "Bundeswehr". The American company is convinced the HK Gen3 polymer magazine infringes Magpul's patents and has asked Heckler & Koch whether the magazine in question is part of the Heckler & Koch offer to the "Bundeswehr". It is unclear how the German Ministry of Defence would like to proceed.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 10 June 2021, German media reported the Federal Public Procurement Chamber had rejected the review request by C.G. Heanel. The public procurement tribunal, which is located at the Federal Cartel Office in Bonn, has expressly stated that "the Federal Ministry of Defense rightly intends to award the contract to Heckler & Koch GmbH in this procurement procedure". C.G. Haenel can appeal against the Federal Public Procurement Chamber decision at the Düsseldorf Regional Court. The media consider that likely and estimate such a legal action could take three to five months.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 3 July 2021 German media reported the Federal Armed Forces Procurement Office made serious mistakes when awarding the contract. The Federal Cartel Office criticized the fact that the arms manufacturer C.G. Haenel was able to improperly improve its offer. According to the dpa news agency, citing a decision by the judges of the public procurement tribunal at the Federal Cartel Office, the procurement authority had contacted the bidders after their last possible final offers. Heckler & Koch stuck to its final offer - knowing that changes would no longer be valid anyway. C.G. Haenel changed its offer and price. The "concretization" of the price meant that Haenel "made a more economical offer", according to the decision. "Here the measure led inadmissibly to a change in the ranking order." This was "inadmissible."


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 21 and 22 July 2021, German media reported C.G. Haenel lodged a complaint at the Düsseldorf Regional Court after a for the company negative decision by the Federal Cartel Office. According to a court spokeswoman, the hearing is scheduled for 2 March 2022. Haenel's financial director Swen Lahl does not expect a decision by the court until the second quarter of 2022. According to Lahl, until the federal government announces its final decision and the "Bundestag" approves the budget, it should be the end of 2022. Then 400 test weapons would be produced, which the "Bundeswehr" tests under different conditions. Only when this is completed does the next step follow: "Whoever wins the contract - series production should not start until 2024." Haenel also rejects the patent infringement allegations by Heckler & Koch and Haenel's managing director Olaf Sauer stated: "We have a written agreement with the US company Magpul that we are allowed to use the magazine." The dispute over the MK 556 over-the-beach capability is the subject of two previously initiated proceedings; a patent suit initiated by Heckler & Koch before the Düsseldorf Regional Court expected to start in October 2021 and a filed patent nullity suit initiated by Haenel at the Federal Patent Court in Munich. According to German media it is unclear when the Federal Patent Court in Munich will decide on this. It could be during 2022 or as late as 2023.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 16 November 2021, the Düsseldorf Lower Regional Court ruled C.G. Haenel infringed a Heckler & Koch patent and on 20 November 2021 German media reported the complaint procedure at the Düsseldorf Regional Court after a for C.G. Haenel negative decision by the Federal Cartel Office will probably start during the spring in 2022. The complaint procudure started in March 2022 and Heckler & Koch was summoned to the proceedings as an interested party. German media expect a decision on 6 April 2022. The Regional Court was the final instance in the complaints procedure making it clear that the award decision remains in place. In June 2022 the Düsseldorf Regional Court rejected Haenel's lawsuit against being excluded from the bidding process, implying that the award decision remains in place.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: On 30 September 2022 partial success for C.G. Haenel in the "over-the-beach" (OTB) patent dispute with Heckler & Koch was reported by German media. The Federal Patent Court in Munich partially invalidated Heckler & Koch's patent in Germany. Other courts will probably have to decide whether this partial nullity judgment is sufficient for C.G. Haenel to obtain some compensation payments.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: "Bundestag" (German federal parliament) representatives of the Grüne and FDP political parties protested against awarding the Suhl, Thuringia-based bidder C.G. Haenel, because it is a subsidiary of other companies that are financially owned by the United Arab Emirates.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: Landtag of Thuringia FDP representative Robert-Martin Montag deems the expressed award criticism regarding C.G. Haenel as absurd, claiming that "if you follow the arguments of the Grüne and FDP "Bundestag" representatives, you shouldn't import oil from Saudi Arabia or buy Mercedes-Benz cars because Kuwait has a stake in Daimler. Both countries are also involved in the Yemeni Civil War." "Bundestag" representatives of the CDU and CSU political parties, that together with the SPD support the German government, do not share the views of the Grüne and FDP regarding awarding C.G. Haenel.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: According to the "Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung", they expressed quite similar thoughts, opinions and views as Robert-Martin Montag. According to Deputy Chairman of the Defence Committee of the German federal parliament Karl A. Lamers (CDU) it was "more often the case that investors from all over the world are involved in such companies." He specified how it was imperative "that our soldiers get a good rifle and that the price is good." The Ministry of Defence stated that the ownership structure of the bidding companies should not play a legal role in the proceedings. Its procurement office is bound by tender legislation and was only allowed to consider quality and price.


title: Haenel MK 556

text: "Business Insider" reported on 19 October 2020, the German Federal Defence Minister recently felt compelled to pause the process and informed her Secretary of State for Equipment, Cyber/Information Technology and Planning that any further steps and any communication regarding the planned acquisition of new assault rifles is subject to ″leadership restriction″. This means the minister wants to personally decide how things will proceed in a politically sensitive armament project.