title: Iwrestledabearonce

text: "Late for Nothing" was released on August 6, 2013, along with an accompanied music video for the song "Boat Paddle". Steve Vai is noted to have provided sections of the song "Carnage Asada" on guitar.


title: Iwrestledabearonce

text: Their fourth album, "Hail Mary", was released on June 16, 2015 via Artery Recordings. Due to the label being acquired by Warner Bros. Records on August 31, 2017, this would prove to be the band's one and only release via the label.


title: Iwrestledabearonce

text: Following uncertainty of the band's status along with LaPlante's and Stringer's position in Iwrestledabearonce following the unveiling of their new project, LaPlante confirmed during an Instagram live video session via her private account that she was no longer a member of Iwrestledabearonce, and also didn't know if the band would continue on. In an interview with Loudwire in July 2019, she explained that she and her husband Mike Stringer's leaving was due to them being worn down by their status as "replacement people" (referring to how neither of them were original members), and their desire not to stagnate and to do something different.


title: Iwrestledabearonce

text: LaPlante and Stringer both currently perform in the band Spiritbox. Bradley works as a photographer, session musician and social media manager. Montgomery briefly performed with Spiritbox as a session drummer. Martin began his own YouTube channel, Worship & Tribute Nerd, which "examines comics, movies, TV, and pop culture."


title: Iwrestledabearonce

text: Although Iwrestledabearonce was generally categorized as metalcore, experimental metal and mathcore, the band's music is considered more diverse. This is due to their use of frequent genre changes within songs, varying between jazz, progressive metal, electro, synthpop, and even hillbilly music. The band has also been compared to grindcore.


title: Iwrestledabearonce

text: The band attempted to evade categorization so significantly that they focused on blending as many genres as possible. Their song structures are known for chaotic changes in pace, varying between blast beats, breakdowns and then contrasted rapidly by melodic, "lounged-out" interludes in the middle of their songs. Influences for their musical style have come from a wide variety of bands including The Dillinger Escape Plan, Radiohead, and Björk. Björk, particularly, was noted as being an inspiration for former vocalist Krysta Cameron's sung vocals.


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: Eliezer Shlomo Yudkowsky (born September 11, 1979) is an American decision theory and artificial intelligence (AI) researcher and writer, best known for popularizing the idea of friendly artificial intelligence. He is a co-founder and research fellow at the Machine Intelligence Research Institute (MIRI), a private research nonprofit based in Berkeley, California. His work on the prospect of a runaway intelligence explosion was an influence on Nick Bostrom's "".


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: Yudkowsky's views on the safety challenges posed by future generations of AI systems are discussed in the undergraduate textbook in AI, Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig's "". Noting the difficulty of formally specifying general-purpose goals by hand, Russell and Norvig cite Yudkowsky's proposal that autonomous and adaptive systems be designed to learn correct behavior over time:


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: In response to the instrumental convergence concern, where autonomous decision-making systems with poorly designed goals would have default incentives to mistreat humans, Yudkowsky and other MIRI researchers have recommended that work be done to specify software agents that converge on safe default behaviors even when their goals are misspecified.


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: In the intelligence explosion scenario hypothesized by I. J. Good, recursively self-improving AI systems quickly transition from subhuman general intelligence to superintelligent. Nick Bostrom's 2014 book "" sketches out Good's argument in detail, while citing writing by Yudkowsky on the risk that anthropomorphizing advanced AI systems will cause people to misunderstand the nature of an intelligence explosion. "AI might make an "apparently" sharp jump in intelligence purely as the result of anthropomorphism, the human tendency to think of 'village idiot' and 'Einstein' as the extreme ends of the intelligence scale, instead of nearly indistinguishable points on the scale of minds-in-general."


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: In "", authors Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig raise the objection that there are known limits to intelligent problem-solving from computational complexity theory; if there are strong limits on how efficiently algorithms can solve various computer science tasks, then intelligence explosion may not be possible.


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: Between 2006 and 2009, Yudkowsky and Robin Hanson were the principal contributors to "Overcoming Bias", a cognitive and social science blog sponsored by the Future of Humanity Institute of Oxford University. In February 2009, Yudkowsky founded "LessWrong", a "community blog devoted to refining the art of human rationality". "Overcoming Bias" has since functioned as Hanson's personal blog.


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: Over 300 blogposts by Yudkowsky on philosophy and science (originally written on "LessWrong" and "Overcoming Bias") were released as an ebook entitled "Rationality: From AI to Zombies" by the Machine Intelligence Research Institute (MIRI) in 2015. MIRI has also published "Inadequate Equilibria", Yudkowsky's 2017 ebook on the subject of societal inefficiencies.


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: Yudkowsky has also written several works of fiction. His fanfiction novel, "Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality", uses plot elements from J. K. Rowling's "Harry Potter" series to illustrate topics in science. "The New Yorker" described "Harry Potter and the Methods of Rationality" as a retelling of Rowling's original "in an attempt to explain Harry's wizardry through the scientific method".


title: Eliezer Yudkowsky

text: Yudkowsky is an autodidact and did not attend high school or college. He was raised as a Modern Orthodox Jew.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The Hockey Hall of Fame () is a museum and hall of fame located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Dedicated to the history of ice hockey, it holds exhibits about players, teams, National Hockey League (NHL) records, memorabilia and NHL trophies, including the Stanley Cup. Founded in Kingston, Ontario, the Hockey Hall of Fame was established in 1943 under the leadership of James T. Sutherland. The first class of honoured members was inducted in 1945, before the Hall of Fame had a permanent location. It moved to Toronto in 1958 after the NHL withdrew its support for the International Hockey Hall of Fame in Kingston, Ontario, due to funding issues. Its first permanent building opened at Exhibition Place in 1961. The hall was relocated in 1993, and is now in Downtown Toronto, inside Brookfield Place, and a historic Bank of Montreal building. The Hockey Hall of Fame has hosted International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) exhibits and the IIHF Hall of Fame since 1998.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: An 18-person committee of players, coaches and others meets annually in June to select new honourees, who are inducted as players, builders or on-ice officials. In 2010, a subcategory was established for female players. The builders' category includes coaches, general managers, commentators, team owners and others who have helped build the game. Honoured members are inducted into the Hall of Fame in an annual ceremony held at the Hall of Fame building in November, which is followed by a special "Hockey Hall of Fame Game" between the Toronto Maple Leafs and a visiting team. As of 2022, 294 players (including nine women), 113 builders and 16 on-ice officials have been inducted into the Hall of Fame. The Hall of Fame has been criticized for focusing mainly on players from the National Hockey League and largely ignoring players from other North American and international leagues.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The Hockey Hall of Fame was established through the efforts of James T. Sutherland, a former president of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA). Sutherland sought to establish it in Kingston, Ontario as he believed that the city was the birthplace of hockey. In 1943, the NHL and CAHA reached an agreement that a Hall of Fame would be established in Kingston. Originally called the "International Hockey Hall of Fame", its mandate was to honour great hockey players and to raise funds for a permanent location. The first nine "honoured members" (players Hobey Baker, Charlie Gardiner, Eddie Gerard, Frank McGee, Howie Morenz, Tommy Phillips, Harvey Pulford, Hod Stuart and Georges Vézina) were inducted on April 30, 1945, although the Hall of Fame still did not have a permanent home. The first board of governors consisted of hockey executives Red Dutton, Art Ross, Frank Sargent, and Lester Patrick; and journalists Abbie Coo, Wes McKnight, Basil O'Meara, J. P. Fitzgerald, and W. A. Hewitt.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: Kingston lost its most influential advocate as permanent site of the Hockey Hall of Fame when Sutherland died in 1955. By 1958, the Hockey Hall of Fame had still not raised sufficient funds to construct a permanent building in Kingston. Clarence Campbell, then President of the NHL, grew tired of waiting for the construction to begin and withdrew the NHL's support to situate the hall in Kingston. In January 1958, the NHL and the Canadian National Exhibition (CNE) reached an agreement to establish a new Hall of Fame building in Toronto, and Frank J. Selke was named managing director of the project.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The temporary Hockey Hall of Fame opened as an exhibit within the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame at Exhibition Place in August 1958, and 350,000 people visited it during the 1958 CNE fair. Due to the success of the exhibit, NHL and CNE decided that a permanent home in the Exhibition Place was needed. The NHL agreed to fully fund the building of the new facility on the grounds of Exhibition Place, and construction began in 1960.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The first permanent Hockey Hall of Fame, which shared a building with the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame, was opened on August 26, 1961, by Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker. Over 750,000 people visited the Hall in its inaugural year. Admission to the Hockey Hall of Fame was free until 1980, when the Hockey Hall of Fame facilities underwent expansion.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: By 1986, the Hall of Fame was running out of room in its existing facilities and the Board of Directors decided that a new home was needed. The Hall vacated the Exhibition Place building in 1992, and its half was taken over by the Canadian Sports Hall of Fame. (The building was eventually demolished; portion of its facade was preserved as an entrance to BMO Field stadium. Development of the new location in the BCE Place complex (now Brookfield Place), featuring the former Bank of Montreal at the corner of Yonge and Front Streets in Toronto, began soon after. The design was by Frank Darling and S. George Curry. The new Hockey Hall of Fame officially opened on June 18, 1993. The new location has of exhibition space, seven times larger than that of the old facility. The Hockey Hall of Fame now hosts more than 300,000 visitors each year.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The first curator of the new Hall of Fame was Bobby Hewitson. Following Hewitson's retirement in 1967, Lefty Reid was appointed to the position. Reid was curator of the Hockey Hall of Fame for the next 25 years, retiring in 1992. Following Reid's retirement, former NHL referee-in-chief Scotty Morrison, who was the president of the Hockey Hall of Fame since 1986, was appointed curator. Morrison supervised the relocation of the Hall of Fame and its exhibits. The current curator is Phil Pritchard.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The Hockey Hall of Fame is led by Lanny McDonald, Chairman of the Board, and Chief Executive Officer, Jeff Denomme. It is operated as a non-profit business called the "Hockey Hall of Fame and Museum" (HHFM), independent of the National Hockey League. The Hall of Fame was originally sponsored by the NHL and Hockey Canada and revenue is generated mainly through admissions.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The Hockey Hall of Fame has 15 exhibit areas covering . Visitors can view trophies, memorabilia and equipment worn by players during special games. The "Esso Great Hall", described as "a Cathedral to the icons of Hockey", contains portraits and biographical information about every Hall of Fame honoured member. The centrepiece of the Great Hall is the Stanley Cup; for part of the year a replica is put on display when the presentation cup travels outside of the Hall of Fame. The original version of the Cup and the older rings, as well as all of the current National Hockey League trophies, are displayed in the bank vault, an alcove off the Great Hall. The Hall of Fame induction ceremony is annually held in the Great Hall.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The "NHL Zone" is a large area featuring displays relating to the NHL. Current teams and players are highlighted in the "NHL Today" area, while the "NHL Retro" displays include memorabilia and information about every NHL team past and present. The "NHL Legends" area features rotating exhibits focusing on honoured members; and "NHL Milestones" displays exhibits of noteworthy records including Darryl Sittler's ten-point game and Wayne Gretzky's all-time points record. The "Stanley Cup dynasties" exhibit features displays that include memorabilia from the rosters of nine teams considered to be dynasties because they dominated the NHL for several years at a time. This area also has a replica of the Montreal Canadiens' dressing room as it existed at the old Montreal Forum. The "Panasonic Hometown Hockey" section is dedicated to grassroots hockey in North America; it includes exhibits about various leagues and sections on women's and disabled hockey leagues. Special exhibits in the past included an exhibit in 2000 showcasing Gretzky memorabilia.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: Interactive displays are featured in the "NHLPA Be A Player Zone". At the "Source For Sports Shoot Out", visitors take shots using real pucks at a computer simulation of goaltender Ed Belfour. Its counterpart, "Lay's Shut Out", has visitors playing goaltender, blocking shots from computer simulations of players Wayne Gretzky and Mark Messier. The "TSN/RDS Broadcast Zone" provides a look at how hockey broadcasting works and allows users to record messages that may be displayed on both the Hockey Hall of Fame's website, and the TSN/RDS networks.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: While many of the Hall of Fame exhibits are dedicated to the NHL, there is a large section devoted to hockey leagues and players outside North America. On June 29, 1998, the "World of Hockey Zone" opened. It is a area dedicated to international hockey, including World and Olympic competition and contains profiles on all IIHF member countries.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The IIHF agreed to transfer its exhibits from the International Hockey Hall of Fame to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1998. The "World of Hockey Zone" is sponsored by Tissot. The zone includes the IIHF Hockey Hall of Fame honor roll, listing each inductee by country and year of enshrinement. Each national association member of the IIHF is represented in the collection of artifacts in the display, which includes many national team hockey jerseys. The World of Hockey also recognizes members of the Triple Gold Club, and displays memorabilia from the "Miracle on Ice" at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games. Other notable events included are the 1972 Summit Series, the men's and women's Ice Hockey World Championships, national-level hockey leagues in Europe, the Spengler Cup, the World Cup of Hockey, and the Canada Cup.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: As of 2009, new members can be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame as players, builders or on-ice officials. The builders' category includes coaches, general managers, commentators, team owners and others who have helped build the game. The category for on-ice officials was added in 1961 and a "veteran player" category was established in 1988. The purpose of the category was to "provide a vehicle for players who may have been overlooked and whose chances for election would be limited when placed on the same ballot with contemporary players". Eleven players were inducted into that category, but in 2000, the Board of Directors eliminated it; the players who had been inducted under this category were merged into the player category.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: Candidates for membership in the Hockey Hall of Fame are nominated by an 18-person selection committee. The committee consists of Hockey Hall of Fame members, hockey personnel and media personalities associated with the game; the membership is representative of "areas throughout the world where hockey is popular", and includes at least one member who is knowledgeable about international hockey and one member who is knowledgeable about amateur hockey. Committee members are appointed by the Board of Directors to a three-year term. The terms of the committee members are staggered so that each year there are six newly appointed or reappointed members. As of November 2018, the selection committee consists of: chairman John Davidson, James M. Gregory (Chairman Emeritus), and committee members David Branch, Brian Burke, Colin Campbell, Cassie Campbell-Pascall, Mark Chipman, Bob Clarke, Marc de Foy, Michael Farber, Ron Francis, Mike Gartner, Anders Hedberg, Jari Kurri, Igor Larionov, Pierre McGuire, Bob McKenzie, David Poile, and Luc Robitaille.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: Each committee member is allowed to nominate one person in each category per year. Nominations must be submitted to the Chairman of the Board of Directors by April 15 of the nomination year. The committee then meets in June where a series of secret ballot votes is held; any player with the support of 75% of the members of the committee present is inducted. If the maximum number of players does not receive 75% after the first round of voting, then run-off votes are held. Players with less than 50% are dropped from consideration for that year and voting continues until either the maximum number of inductees is reached or all remaining nominees receive between 50% and 75%. In any given year, a maximum of four players, two builders, and one on-ice official are inducted as members. Player and on-ice officials must have not participated in a professional or international game for a minimum of three years to be eligible for nomination. Builders may be "active or inactive".


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The waiting period was waived for ten players deemed exceptionally notable; Dit Clapper (1947), Maurice Richard (1961), Ted Lindsay (1966), Red Kelly (1969), Terry Sawchuk (1971), Jean Béliveau (1972), Gordie Howe (1972), Bobby Orr (1979), Mario Lemieux (1997), and Wayne Gretzky (1999). Following Gretzky's induction, the Board of Directors determined that the waiting period would no longer be waived for any player except under "certain humanitarian circumstances". Three Hall of Fame members came out of retirement after their induction and resumed a career in the National League: Gordie Howe, Guy Lafleur and Mario Lemieux. Chris Pronger was inducted in 2015 while still technically an active player; in his case, he had signed a contract with the Philadelphia Flyers that was not due to expire until after the 2016–17 season. The Hall of Fame amended its by-laws by introducing the "three-year waiting period", which made Pronger eligible for induction because he had not played since 2011.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: On March 31, 2009, the Hall of Fame announced new by-law additions which were implemented on January 1, 2010. Starting in 2010, male and female players are considered for induction separately and a maximum of two women can be inducted as players per year. The by-law also clarifies that a builder does not need to have been a coach, manager or executive to be inducted. Although they remain separate categories, the builders and on-ice officials are considered on the same ballot and a combined maximum of two can be inducted each year. The Board of Directors will now meet at least once every five years to consider potential changes to the limits.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: There is also a category for "Media honourees". The Elmer Ferguson Memorial Award is awarded by the Professional Hockey Writers' Association to "distinguished members of the newspaper profession whose words have brought honour to journalism and to hockey". The Foster Hewitt Memorial Award is awarded by the NHL Broadcasters' Association to "members of the radio and television industry who made outstanding contributions to their profession and the game during their career in hockey broadcasting". The voting for both awards is conducted by their respective associations. While media honourees are not considered full inductees, they are still honoured with a display at the Hockey Hall of Fame. The ceremonies associated with these awards are held separately from the induction of the members of the Hall of Fame. Some of the award winners have also been inducted into the Hall of Fame as builders, including Foster Hewitt.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The induction ceremony was held at the Hall of Fame from 1959 until 1974. In 1975, it was held at the Royal York Hotel in Toronto and would be held there until 1979. From 1980 to 1992, the ceremony was held at various different locations in Toronto, except for 1986, 1987 and 1991 when the ceremonies were held in Vancouver, Detroit and Ottawa respectively. Since 1993, it has been held at the current Hall of Fame building. The ceremony was first broadcast by The Sports Network in 1994. In 1999 the "Hockey Hall of Fame game" was established, a contest between the Toronto Maple Leafs and a visiting team, with a special ceremony honouring that year's inductees held before the game. Robert Tychkowski of the "Edmonton Sun" reports that many, including Edmonton Oilers president Kevin Lowe, believe the induction ceremony should be held on a night when there are no NHL games scheduled. This would allow a more representative portion of the hockey world to attend.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: The Hall of Fame has been criticized for inducting several lacklustre candidates in the early 2000s decade due to "a shortage of true greatness". Since then, some have claimed that the Hall of Fame has become too exclusive. The Hall of Fame has also been criticized for failing to induct international players; critics re-emphasized, from 2005 to 2007, that the Hall has been far too focused on the National Hockey League, that it is more of an "NHL Hall of Fame" than a general Hockey Hall of Fame. Partially in response to these claims, the Hall of Fame has hosted International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) exhibits and the IIHF Hall of Fame since 1998, and announced that it would start looking at more international players for induction. While Vladislav Tretiak had been a notable inductee in 1999, Valeri Kharlamov was inducted in 2005, and is one of the few other modern-day inductees to never play in the NHL. The Hall of Fame has also been criticized for overlooking World Hockey Association players and overrepresenting the Original Six era from 1942 to 1967. For several years, the Hall of Fame was criticized for overlooking female hockey players before the Hall of Fame announced that women would be given separate consideration. In 2010, Angela James and Cammi Granato were the first women to be inducted into the Hall of Fame.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: One of the most discussed potential nominees is Paul Henderson, who scored the winning goal in the final moments of the deciding eighth game of the 1972 Summit Series between Canada and the Soviet Union. This is one of the best-known moments in hockey and Canadian sports history. While there is little question of the historical significance of that goal, Henderson's NHL statistics are not at a level comparable to those players usually selected for induction. His candidacy led to many debates among hockey fans and columnists.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: Conn Smythe served as the Hall's chairman for several years, but resigned in June 1971 when Harvey "Busher" Jackson was posthumously elected into the Hall. Smythe said that it made him sick to think of Jackson alongside such Toronto Maple Leafs players as "Apps, Primeau, Conacher, Clancy and Kennedy. If the standards are going to be lowered I'll get out as chairman of the board." Jackson was notorious for his off-ice lifestyle of drinking and broken marriages. Smythe would not condone the induction and even tried to block it because he considered Jackson a poor role model. Frank J. Selke, head of the selection committee, defended the selection on the belief that a man should not be shut out "because of the amount of beer he drank".


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: On March 30, 1993, it was announced that Gil Stein, who at the time had been president of the National Hockey League for nine months but had been bypassed for the new job of commissioner in favour of Gary Bettman, would be inducted into the Hall of Fame. There were immediate allegations that he had engineered his election through manipulation of the hall's board of directors. Due to these allegations, NHL commissioner Gary Bettman hired two independent lawyers, Arnold Burns and Yves Fortier, to lead an investigation. They concluded that Stein had "improperly manipulated the process" and "created the false appearance and illusion" that his nomination was the idea of Bruce McNall. They concluded that Stein pressured McNall to nominate him and had refused to withdraw his nomination when asked to do so by Bettman. There was a dispute over McNall's role and Stein was "categorical in stating that the idea was Mr. McNall's". They recommended that Stein's selection be overturned, but it was revealed Stein had decided to turn down the induction before their announcement.


title: Hockey Hall of Fame

text: In 1989, Alan Eagleson, a longtime executive director of the National Hockey League Players Association, was inducted as a builder. He resigned nine years later from the Hall after pleading guilty to mail fraud and embezzling hundreds of thousands of dollars from the National Hockey League Players' Association pension funds. His resignation came six days before a vote was scheduled to determine if he should be expelled from the Hall. Originally, the Hall of Fame was not going to become involved in the issue, but was forced to act when dozens of inductees, including Bobby Orr, Ted Lindsay and Brad Park, campaigned for Eagleson's expulsion, even threatening to renounce their membership if he was not removed. He became the first member of a sports hall of fame in North America to resign.


title: Macromolecule

text: A macromolecule is a very large molecule important to biophysical processes, such as a protein or nucleic acid. It is composed of thousands of covalently bonded atoms. Many macromolecules are polymers of smaller molecules called monomers. The most common macromolecules in biochemistry are biopolymers (nucleic acids, proteins, and carbohydrates) and large non-polymeric molecules such as lipids, nanogels and macrocycles. Synthetic fibers and experimental materials such as carbon nanotubes are also examples of macromolecules.


title: Macromolecule

text: The term "macromolecule" ("macro-" + "molecule") was coined by Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger in the 1920s, although his first relevant publication on this field only mentions "high molecular compounds" (in excess of 1,000 atoms). At that time the term "polymer", as introduced by Berzelius in 1832, had a different meaning from that of today: it simply was another form of isomerism for example with benzene and acetylene and had little to do with size.


title: Macromolecule

text: Usage of the term to describe large molecules varies among the disciplines. For example, while biology refers to macromolecules as the four large molecules comprising living things, in chemistry, the term may refer to aggregates of two or more molecules held together by intermolecular forces rather than covalent bonds but which do not readily dissociate.


title: Macromolecule

text: According to the standard IUPAC definition, the term "macromolecule" as used in polymer science refers only to a single molecule. For example, a single polymeric molecule is appropriately described as a "macromolecule" or "polymer molecule" rather than a "polymer," which suggests a substance composed of macromolecules.


title: Macromolecule

text: Because of their size, macromolecules are not conveniently described in terms of stoichiometry alone. The structure of simple macromolecules, such as homopolymers, may be described in terms of the individual monomer subunit and total molecular mass. Complicated biomacromolecules, on the other hand, require multi-faceted structural description such as the hierarchy of structures used to describe proteins. In British English, the word "macromolecule" tends to be called "high polymer".


title: Macromolecule

text: Another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar solvents, instead forming colloids. Many require salts or particular ions to dissolve in water. Similarly, many proteins will denature if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low.


title: Macromolecule

text: High concentrations of macromolecules in a solution can alter the rates and equilibrium constants of the reactions of other macromolecules, through an effect known as macromolecular crowding. This comes from macromolecules excluding other molecules from a large part of the volume of the solution, thereby increasing the effective concentrations of these molecules.


title: Macromolecule

text: All living organisms are dependent on three essential biopolymers for their biological functions: DNA, RNA and proteins. Each of these molecules is required for life since each plays a distinct, indispensable role in the cell. The simple summary is that DNA makes RNA, and then RNA makes proteins.


title: Macromolecule

text: DNA, RNA, and proteins all consist of a repeating structure of related building blocks (nucleotides in the case of DNA and RNA, amino acids in the case of proteins). In general, they are all unbranched polymers, and so can be represented in the form of a string. Indeed, they can be viewed as a string of beads, with each bead representing a single nucleotide or amino acid monomer linked together through covalent chemical bonds into a very long chain.


title: Macromolecule

text: In most cases, the monomers within the chain have a strong propensity to interact with other amino acids or nucleotides. In DNA and RNA, this can take the form of Watson-Crick base pairs (G-C and A-T or A-U), although many more complicated interactions can and do occur.


title: Macromolecule

text: Because of the double-stranded nature of DNA, essentially all of the nucleotides take the form of Watson-Crick base pairs between nucleotides on the two complementary strands of the double-helix.


title: Macromolecule

text: In contrast, both RNA and proteins are normally single-stranded. Therefore, they are not constrained by the regular geometry of the DNA double helix, and so fold into complex three-dimensional shapes dependent on their sequence. These different shapes are responsible for many of the common properties of RNA and proteins, including the formation of specific binding pockets, and the ability to catalyse biochemical reactions.


title: Macromolecule

text: DNA is an information storage macromolecule that encodes the complete set of instructions (the genome) that are required to assemble, maintain, and reproduce every living organism.


title: Macromolecule

text: DNA and RNA are both capable of encoding genetic information, because there are biochemical mechanisms which read the information coded within a DNA or RNA sequence and use it to generate a specified protein. On the other hand, the sequence information of a protein molecule is not used by cells to functionally encode genetic information.


title: Macromolecule

text: DNA has three primary attributes that allow it to be far better than RNA at encoding genetic information. First, it is normally double-stranded, so that there are a minimum of two copies of the information encoding each gene in every cell. Second, DNA has a much greater stability against breakdown than does RNA, an attribute primarily associated with the absence of the 2'-hydroxyl group within every nucleotide of DNA. Third, highly sophisticated DNA surveillance and repair systems are present which monitor damage to the DNA and repair the sequence when necessary. Analogous systems have not evolved for repairing damaged RNA molecules. Consequently, chromosomes can contain many billions of atoms, arranged in a specific chemical structure.


title: Macromolecule

text: Proteins are functional macromolecules responsible for catalysing the biochemical reactions that sustain life. Proteins carry out all functions of an organism, for example photosynthesis, neural function, vision, and movement.


title: Macromolecule

text: The single-stranded nature of protein molecules, together with their composition of 20 or more different amino acid building blocks, allows them to fold in to a vast number of different three-dimensional shapes, while providing binding pockets through which they can specifically interact with all manner of molecules. In addition, the chemical diversity of the different amino acids, together with different chemical environments afforded by local 3D structure, enables many proteins to act as enzymes, catalyzing a wide range of specific biochemical transformations within cells. In addition, proteins have evolved the ability to bind a wide range of cofactors and coenzymes, smaller molecules that can endow the protein with specific activities beyond those associated with the polypeptide chain alone.


title: Macromolecule

text: RNA is multifunctional, its primary function is to encode proteins, according to the instructions within a cell’s DNA. They control and regulate many aspects of protein synthesis in eukaryotes.


title: Macromolecule

text: RNA encodes genetic information that can be translated into the amino acid sequence of proteins, as evidenced by the messenger RNA molecules present within every cell, and the RNA genomes of a large number of viruses. The single-stranded nature of RNA, together with tendency for rapid breakdown and a lack of repair systems means that RNA is not so well suited for the long-term storage of genetic information as is DNA.


title: Macromolecule

text: In addition, RNA is a single-stranded polymer that can, like proteins, fold into a very large number of three-dimensional structures. Some of these structures provide binding sites for other molecules and chemically-active centers that can catalyze specific chemical reactions on those bound molecules. The limited number of different building blocks of RNA (4 nucleotides vs >20 amino acids in proteins), together with their lack of chemical diversity, results in catalytic RNA (ribozymes) being generally less-effective catalysts than proteins for most biological reactions.


title: Macromolecule

text: Carbohydrate macromolecules (polysaccharides) are formed from polymers of monosaccharides. Because monosaccharides have multiple functional groups, polysaccharides can form linear polymers (e.g. cellulose) or complex branched structures (e.g. glycogen). Polysaccharides perform numerous roles in living organisms, acting as energy stores (e.g. starch) and as structural components (e.g. chitin in arthropods and fungi). Many carbohydrates contain modified monosaccharide units that have had functional groups replaced or removed.


title: Macromolecule

text: Polyphenols consist of a branched structure of multiple phenolic subunits. They can perform structural roles (e.g. lignin) as well as roles as secondary metabolites involved in signalling, pigmentation and defense.


title: Macromolecule

text: Some examples of macromolecules are synthetic polymers (plastics, synthetic fibers, and synthetic rubber), graphene, and carbon nanotubes. Polymers may be prepared from inorganic matter as well as for instance in inorganic polymers and geopolymers. The incorporation of inorganic elements enables the tunability of properties and/or responsive behavior as for instance in smart inorganic polymers.


title: Dembow

text: Dembow is a Dominican musical genre that can be traced to a riddim that originated in Jamaican dancehall. When Shabba Ranks released "Dem Bow" in 1990, it did not take long for the dembow genre to form. Riddims were built from the song and the sound became a popular part of reggaeton. From there it took off in Dominican Republic creating the sound UNDERWORLD ("Bajo Mundo" in Spanish). It hit the streets of New York and from there it made its way to all of Latin America. The Dominican Dembow sound keeps evolving and has been fusioned with Trap music since 2016 and it's also fused with Bachata and Merengue from the Dominican Republic. Dembow artists are called "Dembowseros"


title: Dembow

text: The main element of dembow music is its rhythm, which is somewhat reminiscent of reggaeton and dancehall music, but with a more constant rhythm and faster beats per minute than reggaeton. Rhythm and melodies in dembow tend to be simple and repetitive.


title: Bushwhacker

text: Bushwhacking was a form of guerrilla warfare common during the American Revolutionary War, War of 1812, American Civil War and other conflicts in which there were large areas of contested land and few governmental resources to control these tracts. This was particularly prevalent in rural areas during the Civil War where there were sharp divisions between those favoring the Union and Confederacy in the conflict. The perpetrators of the attacks were called bushwhackers. The term "bushwhacking" is still in use today to describe ambushes done with the aim of attrition.


title: Bushwhacker

text: Bushwhackers were generally part of the irregular military forces on both sides. While bushwhackers conducted well-organized raids against the military, the most dire of the attacks involved ambushes of individuals and house raids in rural areas. In the countryside, the actions were particularly inflammatory since they frequently amounted to fighting between neighbors, often to settle personal accounts. Since the attackers were non-uniformed, the government response was complicated by trying to decide whether they were legitimate military attacks or criminal actions.


title: Bushwhacker

text: The term "bushwhacker" came into wide use during the American Civil War (1861–1865). It became particularly associated with the pro-Confederate secessionist guerrillas of Missouri, where such warfare was most intense. Guerrilla warfare also wracked Kentucky, Tennessee, northern Georgia, Arkansas, and western Virginia (including the new state of West Virginia), among other locations.


title: Bushwhacker

text: In some areas, particularly the Appalachian regions of Tennessee and North Carolina, the term "bushwhackers" was used for Confederate partisans who attacked Union forces. Residents of southern Alabama used the name in the same manner. Several bushwhacker bands operated in California in 1864.


title: Bushwhacker

text: Pro-Union guerrilla fighters in Kansas were called "Jayhawkers". They were involved in cross-border raids into Missouri.


title: Bushwhacker

text: In most areas, guerrilla warfare operated as an adjunct to conventional military operations. The title adopted by the Confederate government in formally authorizing such insurgents was "partisan ranger". One of them was Col. John Singleton Mosby, who carried out raids on Union forces in the Shenandoah Valley and northern Virginia. He also raided to the north in Kentucky and Tennessee. Partisan rangers were also authorized in Arkansas.


title: Bushwhacker

text: In Missouri, however, secessionist bushwhackers operated outside of the Confederate chain of command. On occasion, a prominent bushwhacker commander might receive formal Confederate rank, as in the case of William Quantrill. Or they might receive written orders from a Confederate general, as "Bloody Bill" Anderson did in October 1864 during a large-scale Confederate incursion into Missouri, or as when Joseph C. Porter was authorized by Gen. Sterling Price to recruit in northeast Missouri. Missouri guerrillas frequently assisted Confederate recruiters in Union-held territory. For the most part, however, Missouri's bushwhacker squads were self-organized groups of young men, predominantly from the slave-holding counties along the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. They independently organized and fought against Federal forces and their Unionist neighbors, both in Kansas and Missouri. Their actions were in retaliation for what they considered a Federal invasion of their home state.


title: Bushwhacker

text: The conflict with Confederate bushwhackers rapidly escalated into a succession of atrocities committed in Missouri by both sides. Hostage-taking and banishment were employed by local District and Union commanders to punish secessionist sympathizers. Individual families, including that of Jesse and Frank James and the maternal grandparents and mother of future President Harry Truman, were banished from Missouri.


title: Bushwhacker

text: Union troops often executed or tortured suspects without trial and burned the homes of guerrillas and those suspected of aiding or harboring them. If official credentials were doubted, the suspects were often executed, as in the case of Lt. Col. Frisby McCullough after the Battle of Kirksville. Bushwhackers retaliated by ambushing federal soldiers and frequently going house to house and executing Unionist sympathizers.


title: Bushwhacker

text: One of the most vicious actions during the Civil War by the bushwhackers was the Lawrence Massacre. William Quantrill led a raid in August 1863 on Lawrence, Kansas, burning the town and murdering some 150 men and boys in Lawrence. Bushwhackers justified the raid as retaliation for the Sacking of Osceola, Missouri two years earlier, in which the town was set aflame and at least nine men killed, and for the deaths of five female relatives of bushwhackers killed in the collapse of a Kansas City, Missouri jail.


title: Bushwhacker

text: To end guerrilla raids into Kansas, the Union commander of the District of the Border, which comprised counties along the Missouri-Kansas state line, Thomas Ewing, Jr., ordered the total depopulation of Jackson, Cass, Bates, and northern Vernon counties in Missouri under his General Order No. 11. Near 25 thousand rural inhabitants had to go to areas near Union camps or leave the state; their houses were burned to prevent them from returning; altogether, twenty-two hundred square miles of western Missouri became a desolation by the end of September 1863. A minister, George Miller, who lived in Kansas City, wrote, "For miles and miles we saw nothing but lone chimneys. It seemed like a vast cemetery – not a living thing to break the silence." The District of the Border became known as the "burnt district".


title: Bushwhacker

text: The Missouri–Arkansas border had been desolated as well. The "Little Rock Arkansas Gazette" wrote in August 1866:


title: Bushwhacker

text: In other areas of Missouri, properties were also pillaged and destroyed by both warring sides since atrocities during the Civil War were in many ways a continuation of Bleeding Kansas violence.


title: Bushwhacker

text: Besides the attack on Lawrence, the most notorious by Confederate bushwhackers was the murder of 24 unarmed Union soldiers pulled from a train in the Centralia Massacre in retaliation for the earlier execution of a number of Anderson's own men. In an ambush of pursuing Union forces shortly thereafter, the bushwhackers killed well over 100 Federal troops. In October 1864, "Bloody Bill" Anderson was lured into an ambush and killed in the ensuing battle by soldiers of the Missouri State Militia under the command of Col. Samuel P. Cox. Anderson's body was displayed following his death.


title: Bushwhacker

text: The guerrilla conflict in Missouri was, in many respects, a civil war within the Civil War. Jesse James began to fight as an insurgent in 1864. During months of often intense combat, he battled only fellow Missourians, ranging from Missouri regiments of U.S. Volunteer troops, to state militia, to unarmed Unionist civilians. The single confirmed instance of his exchanging fire with Federal troops from another state occurred a month after the 1865 surrender of Confederate General Robert E. Lee, during a near-fatal encounter with Wisconsin cavalrymen. In the course of the war, James' mother and sister were arrested, his stepfather tortured, and his family banished temporarily from Missouri by state militiamen— all Unionist Missourians.


title: Bushwhacker

text: After the end of the war, the survivors of Anderson's band (including the James brothers) remained together under the leadership of Archie Clement, one of Anderson's lieutenants. In February 1866, they began a series of armed robberies. This group became known as the James-Younger Gang, after the death or capture of the older outlaws (including Clement) and the addition of former bushwhacker Cole Younger and his brothers. In December 1869, Jesse James became the most famous of this group when he emerged as the prime suspect in the robbery of the Daviess County Savings Association in Gallatin, Missouri, and the murder of cashier John W. Sheets. During Jesse James's flight from the scene, he declared that he had killed Samuel P. Cox and had taken revenge for Bloody Bill Anderson's death. (Cox lived in Gallatin, and the killer apparently mistook Sheets for the former militia officer.) Throughout James' criminal career, he often wrote to the newspapers portraying himself as a bushwhacker, and rallying the support of former Confederates and other Missourians who were harmed by Federal authorities during the Civil War and Reconstruction.


title: Bushwhacker

text: After the end of the war in 1865, the Mason Henry Gang continued as outlaws in Southern California with a price on their heads for the November 1864 "Copperhead Murders" in the San Joaquin Valley of three men they believed to be Republicans. Tom McCauley, known as "James" or "Jim Henry", was killed in a shootout with a posse from San Bernardino on September 14 of that year, in San Jacinto Canyon, in what was then San Diego County. John Mason was killed by a fellow gang member for the reward in April 1866 near Fort Tejon in Kern County.


title: Bushwhacker

text: In 1867, near Nevada, Missouri, a band of bushwhackers shot and killed Sheriff Joseph Bailey, a former Union brigadier general, who was attempting to arrest them. Among those suspected of his killing was William McWaters, who once rode with Anderson and Quantrill.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Frederick VII (Frederik Carl Christian; 6 October 1808 – 15 November 1863) was King of Denmark from 1848 to 1863. He was the last Danish monarch of the older Royal branch of the House of Oldenburg and the last king of Denmark to rule as an absolute monarch. During his reign, he signed a constitution that established a Danish parliament and made the country a constitutional monarchy. Frederick's motto was "Folkets Kærlighed, min Styrke" (Danish for "the People's Love, my Strength").


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Frederick was born at Amalienborg Palace to Christian VIII of Denmark and Duchess Charlotte Frederica of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. His maternal grandparents were Friedrich Franz I, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and Luise, Duchess of Saxe-Gotha.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: The king's first two marriages both ended in scandal and divorce. He was first married in Copenhagen on 1 November 1828 to his second cousin Princess Vilhelmine Marie of Denmark, a daughter of King Frederick VI of Denmark. They separated in 1834 and divorced in 1837. On 10 June 1841 he married for a second time to Duchess Caroline Charlotte Mariane of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, whom he divorced in 1846.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: On 7 August 1850 in Frederiksborg Palace, he morganatically married Louise Christina Rasmussen, whom he created Landgravine Danner in 1850 (), a milliner and former ballet dancer who had for many years been his acquaintance or mistress, the natural daughter of Gotthilf L. Køppen and of Juliane Caroline Rasmussen. This marriage seems to have been happy, although it aroused great moral indignation among the nobility and the bourgeoisie. Countess Danner, who was denounced as a vulgar gold digger by her enemies, but viewed as an unaffected daughter of the people by her admirers, seems to have had a stabilizing effect on him. She also worked at maintaining his popularity by letting him meet the people of the provinces.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: The expectation that Frederick would not likely produce offspring, despite numerous affairs, was widespread, but sources rarely state the reasons. Some speculate that Frederick was infertile. During the reign of Frederick's father, Christian VIII, the succession question was already being brought forward. "(See below: Succession crisis)"


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: It has recently been claimed that the king did indeed father a son, Frederik Carl Christian Poulsen, born on 21 November 1843, as a result of his relationship with Else Maria Guldborg Pedersen (also referred to as Marie Poulsen), which took place after his first two unhappy marriages. This was brought forward in a book published in 1994 and again in a book published in 2009. According to an article in the Danish newspaper "Politiken", the author of the latter book, who believes herself to be the great-granddaughter of Frederick VII, is in possession of four letters from the King to Marie Poulsen in which he acknowledged paternity. The letters are quoted in the book. In all cases, however, extramarital offspring were and still are barred from the line of succession.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: It has been claimed Frederick had a same-sex relationship with his friend, Carl Berling (1812–1871), publisher and owner of the newspaper Berlingske Tidende. The bisexual Berling had an illegitimate child with Louise Rasmussen, Carl Christian (1841–1908) who was much liked by the King, to the extent that he insisted on signing the new constitution on Carl Christian's 8th birthday on 5 June 1849. To retain a tinge of decency, the King married Louise Rasmussen and the trio then moved into the royal castle where Berling was appointed Chamberlain and remained until 1861. The public indignation within higher circles over Frederick's morganatic marriage is well-known, but reasons have rarely been explained in detail.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Frederick, who was the last king of the older branch of the Oldenburg dynasty, had a rather neglected childhood after the divorce of his parents. His youth was marked by private scandals and for many years he appeared as the problem child of the royal family.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: When he succeeded to the throne in January 1848, he was almost at once met by the demands for a constitution. The Schleswig-Holsteiners wanted an independent state while the Danes wished to maintain South Jutland as a Danish area. The king soon yielded to the Danish demands, and in March he accepted the end of absolutism, which resulted in the June Constitution of 1849. During the First War of Schleswig against the German powers in 1848–51, Frederick appeared as ”the national leader” and was regarded almost as a war hero, despite having never taken any active part in the struggles.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: During his reign, Frederick on the whole behaved as a constitutional monarch. He did not, however, quite give up interfering in politics. In 1854, he contributed to the fall of the strongly conservative Ørsted cabinet, and in 1859–60, he accepted a liberal government appointed on the initiative of his wife. During the crisis in the Duchies in 1862–63, shortly before his death, he spoke openly for an inter-Scandinavian military co-operation. Those minor crises created frictions and maintained some permanent insecurity, but did not damage his general popularity. In some of these affairs, he overstepped the mark beyond any doubt; on the other hand, the first Danish constitution was somewhat vague as regards to the limits of royal power.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Frederick's rule also witnessed the heyday of the National Liberal Party, which was in office from 1854. This period was marked by some political and economic reforms, such as the beginning of the demolition of the walls around Copenhagen and, in 1857, the introduction of free trade. The constant quarrels with the opposition regarding the Schleswig-Holstein Question and German demands that Denmark not try to unite with Schleswig (South Jutland) led to some changes to the constitution in order to fit the foreign political situation, which created frustration in Denmark. The National Liberals therefore at last favored a more resistant course against the Germans, which led to the Second War of Schleswig in 1864. The king wholeheartedly supported this course and just before his sudden death he was prepared to sign a new special constitution for Denmark and Schleswig (the so-called November Constitution).


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Frederick was married three times, but produced no legitimate issue. The fact that he reached middle age without producing an heir meant that his second cousin Prince Christian of Glücksburg (1818–1906), the paternal descendant of Christian III, was chosen as his heir-presumptive in 1852. When Frederick died in 1863, Christian took the throne as Christian IX.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Nationalism in the German-speaking parts of Schleswig-Holstein meant that there was no consensus to keep the duchies united under the Danish crown, internationally or within the duchies themselves. The duchies were inherited according to Salic law among the descendants of a past heiress, Helvig of Schauenburg, whose heir according to primogeniture after King Frederick VII was Frederick, Duke of Augustenburg (who proclaimed himself Duke of Schleswig-Holstein after Frederick VII's death). This Frederick of Augustenburg had become the symbol of the nationalist German independence movement in Schleswig-Holstein since the time that his father, in exchange for compensation, had renounced his claims as first in line to inherit the twin Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein following the London Protocol of 8 May 1852, which concluded the First War of Schleswig. Because of his father's renunciation, Frederick was regarded as ineligible to succeed.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Denmark was (up until 1953) also under Salic Law, but only among descendants of Frederick III (who was the first hereditary monarch of Denmark; previously the kingdom had been, officially, elective). But Frederick VII was the last of Frederick III's male line, therefore, his nearest kinsmen in the male-line, the Schleswig-Holstein ducal lines of Augustenborg and Glücksburg (cadet branches of Denmark's earlier, non-hereditary kings), were not entitled to succeed to Denmark's throne, although they retained hereditary claims to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Upon Frederick VII's death, Denmark's throne could devolve to or through a female heir according to "semi-Salic" succession. There were, however, conflicting interpretations of that provision and of Denmark's claim to its applicability to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, held theretofore in personal union by the kings of Denmark. The question was solved by an election and a separate law to confirm Denmark's new successor.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: The closest female relatives of Frederick VII were the issue of his paternal aunt, Princess Louise Charlotte of Denmark, who had married a cadet Hessian prince. However, they were not male-line descendants of Helwig of Schauenburg, and thus were not eligible to succeed in Holstein, and had disputed claims on Schleswig. The semi-Salic heiresses of Frederick VII were Princess Caroline of Denmark and Frederick VII's divorced wife Vilhelmine (both childless daughters of the late King Frederick VI). They were followed in the line of succession by Princess Louise Auguste of Denmark, sister of Frederick VI, who had married Frederick, Duke of Augustenburg, Salic heir to Schleswig and Holstein after Frederick VII, but whose wife's claim to Denmark would only come into effect after the deaths of Caroline and Vilhelmine, both still living in 1863.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Some rights also belonged to the Glücksburg line, a more junior branch of the royal clan. They were also semi-Salic heirs of Frederick III through a daughter of Frederick V of Denmark, and they were more junior agnatic heirs eligible to succeed in Schleswig-Holstein. These dynasts were Christian of Glücksburg (1818–1906) and his two elder brothers, the younger of whom had sons and daughters.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Prince Christian of Glücksburg (1818–1906) had been a foster grandson of the sonless royal couple Frederick VI and Queen Marie Sophie, and thus was well known at the royal court. Prince Christian was a nephew of Queen Marie Sophie and descended from a first cousin of Frederick VI. He was brought up as a Dane, having lived in Danish-speaking lands of the royal dynasty and never bore arms for German interests against Denmark, as had other princes of the House of Glücksburg and the House of Augustenburg. This made him a relatively attractive royal candidate from the Danish viewpoint since, as a descendant of Frederick III, he was eligible to succeed in Denmark, although not first-in-line. He was also, but separately, eligible to inherit the dual duchies, but was not first-in-line. Christian of Glücksburg also had married Princess Louise of Hesse-Kassel, second eldest daughter of the closest female relative of Frederick VII. Louise's mother and brothers, princes of Hesse in Germany, renounced their rights in favor of Louise and her husband. Prince Christian's wife thereby became the closest female heiress of Frederick VII. The thorny question of the application of semi-Salic provision in the succession of Denmark was at that point resolved by legislation, through which Prince Christian of Glücksburg was chosen in 1852 to succeed Frederick VII in Denmark.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Frederick VII died in Glücksburg in 1863 following an attack of erysipelas and was interred in Roskilde Cathedral. Christian took the throne as Christian IX.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: In November 1863, Frederick of Augustenborg claimed the twin-duchies in succession to Frederick VII of Denmark, who also was the last king of Denmark who, by primogeniture, was also sovereign Duke of Schleswig and Holstein, but whose death extinguished the patriline of Denmark's hereditary Oldenburg kings. The resulting divergence of hereditary claims to the duchies eventually developed into the Second War of Schleswig.


title: Frederick VII of Denmark

text: Frederick VII managed to make himself one of the most beloved Danish kings of recent times. This was probably due partially to his relinquishment of absolutism and partially to his personality. In spite of many weaknesses documented by his contemporaries — drinking, eccentric behavior, etc. — he also possessed something of a gift as an actor. He could be both folksy and genuinely hearty, able to appear as a ”simple, yet dignified monarch”. During his many travels throughout Denmark, he cultivated contacts with ordinary subjects. He was also a keen antiquarian and according to the later Danish archaeologist P.V. Glob, it was "he, more than anyone else, [who] helped to arouse the wide interest in Danish antiquities".


title: Chaunté Wayans

text: Chaunté Wayans is a member of the Wayans Family, whose members include Keenen Ivory Wayans, Damon Wayans, Sr., Kim Wayans, Shawn Wayans, and Marlon Wayans, and her brother Damien Dante Wayans. She is the daughter of Elvira Wayans.


title: Chaunté Wayans

text: Chaunté’s first entered the film industry as a production assistant, working on "Americanizing Shelley", and on some of her uncles' productions including "Scary Movie 2" and "My Wife and Kids". She later appeared as herself in the TLC series "Trading Spaces". She made her feature film debut in 2009, alongside several extended family members in the movie "Dance Flick", in the role of "Free Gas Pedestrian".


title: Chaunté Wayans

text: On April 1, 2012 she performed a comedy set at the Hot 97 April Fools' Day Comedy Show at Madison Square Garden. The event was hosted by her uncles Marlon and Shawn Wayans.


title: Octet rule

text: The octet rule is a chemical rule of thumb that reflects the theory that main-group elements tend to bond in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence shell, giving it the same electronic configuration as a noble gas. The rule is especially applicable to carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens; although more generally the rule is applicable for the s-block and p-block of the periodic table. Other rules exist for other elements, such as the duplet rule for hydrogen and helium, or the 18-electron rule for transition metals.


title: Octet rule

text: The valence electrons can be counted using a Lewis electron dot diagram as shown at the right for carbon dioxide. The electrons shared by the two atoms in a covalent bond are counted twice, once for each atom. In carbon dioxide each oxygen shares four electrons with the central carbon, two (shown in red) from the oxygen itself and two (shown in black) from the carbon. All four of these electrons are counted in both the carbon octet and the oxygen octet, so that both atoms are considered to obey the octet rule.


title: Octet rule

text: Ionic bonding is common between pairs of atoms, where one of the pair is a metal of low electronegativity (such as sodium) and the second a nonmetal of high electronegativity (such as chlorine).


title: Octet rule

text: A chlorine atom has seven electrons in its third and outer electron shell, the first and second shells being filled with two and eight electrons respectively. The first electron affinity of chlorine (the energy release when chlorine gains an electron to form Cl) is 349 kJ per mole of chlorine atoms. Adding a second electron to form a hypothetical Cl would require energy, energy that cannot be recovered by the formation of a chemical bond. The result is that chlorine will very often form a compound in which it has eight electrons in its outer shell (a complete octet), as in Cl.


title: Octet rule

text: A sodium atom has a single electron in its outermost electron shell, the first and second shells again being full with two and eight electrons respectively. To remove this outer electron requires only the first ionization energy, which is +495.8 kJ per mole of sodium atoms, a small amount of energy. By contrast, the second electron resides in the deeper second electron shell, and the second ionization energy required for its removal is much larger: +4562 kJ per mole. Thus sodium will, in most cases, form a compound in which it has lost a single electron and have a full outer shell of eight electrons, or octet.


title: Octet rule

text: The energy required to transfer an electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom (the difference of the 1st ionization energy of sodium and the electron affinity of chlorine) is small: +495.8 − 349 = +147 kJ mol. This energy is easily offset by the lattice energy of sodium chloride: −783 kJ mol. This completes the explanation of the octet rule in this case.


title: Octet rule

text: In 1864, the English chemist John Newlands classified the sixty-two known elements into eight groups, based on their physical properties.


title: Octet rule

text: In the late 19th century, it was known that coordination compounds (formerly called "molecular compounds") were formed by the combination of atoms or molecules in such a manner that the valencies of the atoms involved apparently became satisfied. In 1893, Alfred Werner showed that the number of atoms or groups associated with a central atom (the "coordination number") is often 4 or 6; other coordination numbers up to a maximum of 8 were known, but less frequent. In 1904, Richard Abegg was one of the first to extend the concept of coordination number to a concept of valence in which he distinguished atoms as electron donors or acceptors, leading to positive and negative valence states that greatly resemble the modern concept of oxidation states. Abegg noted that the difference between the maximum positive and negative valences of an element under his model is frequently eight. In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis referred to this insight as Abegg's rule and used it to help formulate his cubical atom model and the "rule of eight", which began to distinguish between valence and valence electrons. In 1919, Irving Langmuir refined these concepts further and renamed them the "cubical octet atom" and "octet theory". The "octet theory" evolved into what is now known as the "octet rule".


title: Octet rule

text: Walther Kossel and Gilbert N. Lewis saw that noble gases did not have the tendency of taking part in chemical reactions under ordinary conditions. On the basis of this observation, they concluded that atoms of noble gases are stable and on the basis of this conclusion they proposed a theory of valency known as "electronic theory of valency" in 1916:


title: Octet rule

text: The quantum theory of the atom explains the eight electrons as a closed shell with an sp electron configuration. A closed-shell configuration is one in which low-lying energy levels are full and higher energy levels are empty. For example, the neon atom ground state has a full shell (2s 2p) and an empty shell. According to the octet rule, the atoms immediately before and after neon in the periodic table (i.e. C, N, O, F, Na, Mg and Al), tend to attain a similar configuration by gaining, losing, or sharing electrons.


title: Octet rule

text: The argon atom has an analogous 3s 3p configuration. There is also an empty 3d level, but it is at considerably higher energy than 3s and 3p (unlike in the hydrogen atom), so that 3s 3p is still considered a closed shell for chemical purposes. The atoms immediately before and after argon tend to attain this configuration in compounds. There are, however, some hypervalent molecules in which the 3d level may play a part in the bonding, although this is controversial (see below).


title: Octet rule

text: For helium there is no 1p level according to the quantum theory, so that 1s is a closed shell with no p electrons. The atoms before and after helium (H and Li) follow a duet rule and tend to have the same 1s configuration as helium.


title: Octet rule

text: Many reactive intermediates are unstable and do not obey the octet rule. This includes species such as carbenes, as well as free radicals and the methyl radical (CH) which has an unpaired electron in a non-bonding orbital on the carbon atom and no electron of opposite spin in the same orbital. Another example is the radical chlorine monoxide (ClO) which is involved in ozone depletion. These molecules often react so as to complete their octet. Electron deficient molecules such as boranes also do not obey the octet rule but share delocalized electrons in a manner similar to metallic bonding.


title: Octet rule

text: Although stable odd-electron molecules and hypervalent molecules are commonly taught as violating the octet rule, ab initio molecular orbital calculations show that they largely obey the octet rule (see three-electron bonds and hypervalent molecules sections below).


title: Octet rule

text: Some stable molecular radicals (e.g. nitric oxide, NO) obtain octet configurations by means of a three-electron bond which contributes one shared and one unshared electron to the octet of each bonded atom. In NO, the octet on each atom consists of two electrons from the three-electron bond, plus four electrons from two two-electron bonds and two electrons from a lone pair of non-bonding electrons on that atom alone. The bond order is 2.5, since each two-electron bond counts as one bond while the three-electron bond has only one shared electron and therefore corresponds to a half-bond.


title: Octet rule

text: Dioxygen is sometimes represented as obeying the octet rule with a double bond (O=O) containing two pairs of shared electrons. However the ground state of this molecule is paramagnetic, indicating the presence of unpaired electrons. Pauling proposed that this molecule actually contains two three-electron bonds and one normal covalent (two-electron) bond. The octet on each atom then consists of two electrons from each three-electron bond, plus the two electrons of the covalent bond, plus one lone pair of non-bonding electrons. The bond order is 1+0.5+0.5=2.


title: Octet rule

text: Main-group elements in the third and later rows of the periodic table can form hypercoordinate or hypervalent molecules in which the central main-group atom is bonded to more than four other atoms, such as phosphorus pentafluoride, PF, and sulfur hexafluoride, SF. For example, in PF, if it is supposed that there are five true covalent bonds in which five distinct electron pairs are shared, then the phosphorus would be surrounded by 10 valence electrons in violation of the octet rule. In the early days of quantum mechanics, Pauling proposed that third-row atoms can form five bonds by using one s, three p and one d orbitals, or six bonds by using one s, three p and two d orbitals. To form five bonds, the one s, three p and one d orbitals combine to form five spd hybrid orbitals which each share an electron pair with a halogen atom, for a total of 10 shared electrons, two more than the octet rule predicts. Similarly to form six bonds, the six spd hybrid orbitals form six bonds with 12 shared electrons. In this model the availability of empty d orbitals is used to explain the fact that third-row atoms such as phosphorus and sulfur can form more than four covalent bonds, whereas second-row atoms such as nitrogen and oxygen are strictly limited by the octet rule.


title: Octet rule

text: However other models describe the bonding using only s and p orbitals in agreement with the octet rule. A valence bond description of PF uses resonance between different PF F structures, so that each F is bonded by a covalent bond in four structures and an ionic bond in one structure. Each resonance structure has eight valence electrons on P. A molecular orbital theory description considers the highest occupied molecular orbital to be a non-bonding orbital localized on the five fluorine atoms, in addition to four occupied bonding orbitals, so again there are only eight valence electrons on the phosphorus. The validity of the octet rule for hypervalent molecules is further supported by ab initio molecular orbital calculations, which show that the contribution of d functions to the bonding orbitals is small.


title: Octet rule

text: Nevertheless, for historical reasons, structures implying more than eight electrons around elements like P, S, Se, or I are still common in textbooks and research articles. In spite of the unimportance of d shell expansion in chemical bonding, this practice allows structures to be shown without using a large number of formal charges or using partial bonds and is recommended by the IUPAC as a convenient formalism in preference to depictions that better reflect the bonding. On the other hand, showing more than eight electrons around Be, B, C, N, O, or F (or more than two around H, He, or Li) is considered an error by most authorities.


title: Octet rule

text: The octet rule is only applicable to main-group elements. Other elements follow other electron counting rules as their valence electron configurations are different from main-group elements. These other rules are shown below:


title: IPadOS 15

text: iPadOS 15 is the third major release of the iPadOS operating system developed by Apple for its iPad line of tablet computers. The successor to iPadOS 14, it was announced at the company's Worldwide Developers Conference (WWDC) on June 7, 2021 along with iOS 15, macOS Monterey, watchOS 8, and tvOS 15. It was released to the public on September 20, 2021. It was succeeded by iPadOS 16, which was released on October 24, 2022.


title: IPadOS 15

text: iPadOS 15 is the final version of iPadOS that supports the iPad Air 2 and the iPad Mini 4, as its successor, iPadOS 16, drops support for the those models.


title: IPadOS 15

text: The first developer beta of iPadOS 15 was released on June 7, 2021, and the first public beta was released on June 30, 2021, six days after the release of the second developer beta. The second public beta was released on July 16, 2021. iPadOS 15 was officially released on September 20, 2021.


title: IPadOS 15

text: The home screen grid is reduced by one row to accommodate the new widgets when placed (23 icons), and rotates in portrait orientation, just like iOS 12 and earlier.


title: IPadOS 15

text: Widgets can now be placed directly anywhere on the home screen. There are more widgets, many of which now have a new fourth size to pick from, being extra-large.


title: IPadOS 15

text: New multitasking user interface allows users to enter split view, slide over, enter full screen with quick gestures. The multiwindow shelf gives quick access to all running apps.


title: IPadOS 15

text: A new feature, called Quick Note, can be taken by swiping from the corner with fingers or the Apple Pencil, the Control Center or a keyboard shortcut.


title: IPadOS 15

text: Safari has been redesigned just like in iOS 15 and macOS Monterey. Safari has tab groups which allow the user to organize tabs into user-defined groups. Users can download third party extensions for Safari in the App Store.


title: Spanish Legion

text: For centuries, Spain recruited foreign soldiers to its army, forming the Foreign Regiments () - such as the Regiment of Hibernia (formed in 1709 from Irishmen who fled their own country in the wake of the Flight of the Earls and the penal laws). However, the specific unit of the Spanish Army and Spain's Rapid Reaction Force, now known as the Spanish Legion (), and informally known as the Tercio or the Tercios, is a 20th-century creation. It was raised in the 1920s to serve as part of Spain's Army of Africa. The unit, which was established in January 1920 as the Spanish equivalent of the French Foreign Legion, was initially known as the ("Tercio of foreigners"), the name under which it began fighting in the Rif War of 1920–1926.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Although foreign recruitment spans the Spanish-speaking nations, the majority of recruits are Spaniards. Over the years, the force's name has changed from to (when the field of operations targeted Morocco), and by the end of the Rif War it became the "Spanish Legion", with several "tercios" as sub-units.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The Legion played a major role in the Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War. In post-Franco Spain, the modern Legion has undertaken tours of duty in the Yugoslav Wars, Afghanistan, Iraq and Operation Libre Hidalgo UNIFIL.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The Spanish Legion was formed by royal decree of King Alfonso XIII on 28 January 1920, with the Minister of War stating, "With the designation of Foreigners Regiment there will be created an armed military unit, whose recruits, uniform and regulations by which they should be governed will be set by the minister of war." In the 1920s the Spanish Legion's five battalions were filled primarily by native Spaniards (since foreigners were not easy to recruit) with most of its foreign members coming from the Republic of Cuba.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Historically there had been a "Spanish Foreign Legion" which preceded the modern Legion's formation in 1920. On 28 June 1835, the French government had decided to hand over to the Spanish government the French Foreign Legion in support of Queen Isabella's claim to the Spanish throne during the First Carlist War. The French Foreign Legion, with around 4,000 men, landed at Tarragona on 17 August 1835. This became the first Spanish Legion until it was disbanded on 8 December 1838, when it had dropped to only 500 men.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The Spanish Legion was modelled on the French Foreign Legion. Its purpose was to provide a corps of professional troops to fight in Spain's colonial campaigns in North Africa, in place of conscript units that were proving ineffective. The first commanding officer, Lieutenant Colonel José Millán-Astray Terreros, referred to his unit as ‘La Legión’ from the start but this only became part of the unit's title from 1937.


title: Spanish Legion

text: In the original there were, amongst others, one Chinese, three Japanese, one Maltese, one Russian, and one black American. However, soon the majority of its members were Spaniards who joined to fight outside of European Spain.


title: Spanish Legion

text: In 1925, the unit title was changed to ("Tercio of Morocco"). This was soon abbreviated to ‘The Tercio’. In 1937 at the height of the Spanish Civil War, the was renamed , the name by which it is still known today.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The Spanish Legion's first major campaign was in Spanish North Africa. In 1920 Spain was facing a major rebellion in the Protectorate of Spanish Morocco, led by the able Rif leader Abd el-Krim. On 2 September 1920, King Alfonso XIII conferred command of the new regiment on Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry José Millán-Astray, chief proponent of its establishment. Millán-Astray was an able soldier but an eccentric and extreme personality. His style and attitude would become part of the mystique of the legion.


title: Spanish Legion

text: On 20 September 1920 the first recruit joined the new legion, a date which is now celebrated annually. The initial make-up of the regiment was that of a headquarters unit and three battalions (known as "Banderas", lit. "banners"- another archaic 16th century term). Each battalion was in turn made up of a headquarters company, two rifle companies and a machine gun company. The regiment's initial location was at the Cuartel del Rey en Ceuta on the Plaza de Colón. At its height, during the Spanish Civil War, the legion consisted of 18 "banderas", plus a tank "bandera", an assault engineer "bandera" and a Special Operations Group. "Banderas" 12 to 18 were considered independent units and never served as part of the additional "tercios" into which the legion was organised.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Francisco Franco was one of the leaders of the legion and the unit's second-in-command, concurrently commanding the 1st Legion Bandera. The legion fought in Morocco in the War of the Rif (to 1926). Together with the "Regulares" (Moorish colonial troops), the legion made up the Spanish Army of Africa. In October 1934 units of both the legion and the "Regulares" were brought to Spain by the Republican Government to help put down a workers revolt in the area of Asturias.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Under the leadership of Lieutenant Colonel Juan Yagüe the Army of Africa played an important part in the Spanish Civil War on the Nationalist side. The professionalism of both the legion and the "Regulares" gave Franco's rebel troops a significant initial advantage over the less well trained Spanish Republican forces. The Army of Africa remained an elite spearhead until the expansion of the rebel armies after April 1937 led to the legion and Moroccan units being distributed across several fronts. Following the Francoist victory in 1939, the legion was reduced in size and returned to its bases in Spanish Morocco. It was only after then that the legion attained its present composition of 4 Tercios, and the names given to them, the 4th Tercio of the legion was established later in 1950:


title: Spanish Legion

text: When Morocco gained its independence in 1956 the legion continued in existence as part of the garrison of the remaining Spanish enclaves and territories in North Africa. The legion fought Arab irregulars in the Ifni War in 1957–58.


title: Spanish Legion

text: On 17 June 1970, Legion units opened fire and killed between two and eleven demonstrators at the Zemla neighbourhood in El Aaiun, Spanish Sahara, modern day Western Sahara. The incident, which became known as the Zemla Intifada, had a significant influence on pushing the Sahrawi anticolonial movement into embarking on an armed struggle which continues, though Spain has long since abandoned the territory and handed it over to Morocco.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Through the course of the legion's history Spaniards (including natives of the colony of Spanish Guinea) have made up the majority of its members, with foreigners accounting for 25 percent or less. During the Rif War of the 1920s most of the Foreigners serving with the legion were Spanish speaking Latin Americans.


title: Spanish Legion

text: In the 2000s, after the abandonment of conscription, the Spanish Legion once again accepted foreigners into service. Male and female native Spanish speakers, mostly from Central American and South American states, were included.


title: Spanish Legion

text: In recent years, the Spanish Legion was involved in Bosnia as part of the SFOR. It also took part in the Iraq War, deploying in Najaf alongside Salvadoran troops, until the new Spanish government of José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero fulfilled its electoral promises by withdrawing Spanish troops from Iraq. The legion units deployed in Iraq were involved in several operations against the insurgency. In 2005, the legion was deployed in Afghanistan as part of the NATO-led International Stabilisation Force (ISAF). In 2006, the 10th Bandera was sent to Southern Lebanon as part of United Nations' Operation UNIFIL.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The Spanish Legion is now mostly used in NATO peacekeeping missions. It has 5,000 soldiers in a Brigade of two Tercios (regiments) based in Ronda, Málaga and Viator, Almería (Andalusia). Two other independent "tercios" are deployed in the Spanish African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla as part of their respective garrisons. The legion is directly controlled by the Spanish General Staff.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Although the detachment at Málaga was transferred away, each year a company of legionaries from one of the Tercios (regiments) returns to march in the Holy Week procession with the "Christ of the Good Death", a life-size effigy of Christ Crucified, adopted by the legion as Patron in the 1920s. It also has its own confraternity with its home chapel located in this historic city, where veterans who served in this unit are counted among its membership. The Legion's detachments also take part in various Holy Week events nationwide, including its military band.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The legion has a special operations unit known as the (Legion Special Operations Battalion or BOEL). The members of this unit, who were (and still mostly are) volunteers from other banderas of the legion, received training in: SCUBA/Maritime Warfare, Arctic and Mountain Warfare, Sabotage and Demolitions, Parachute and HALO techniques, Long Range Reconnaissance, Counter-terrorism and CQB, Vehicle insertion, Sniping and SERE ("Survival, Escape, Resistance and Evasion"). Much of the training was undertaken at Fort Bragg (USA). In 2002 the BOEL was renamed "19th Special Operations Group "Maderal Oleaga"" (GOE-XIX) and was moved to Alicante, and reported directly to Army HQ as part of the Special Operations Command, with recruitment now being in a national basis, with personnel assigned from various Army units. In 2019-20, the battalion returned to the Legion Command.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The military ranks and promotion conditions of the Spanish Legion are the same as those applicable to the remainder of the Spanish Army. Formerly the Legion had its own rank system for non-commissioned officers. The only modern difference is that soldiers (OR-1) in the Legion are referred to as "Caballeros Legionarios" (Legionary Gentlemen). Legionnaires consider this title as a distinction, earned through rigorous training and initiation tests.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Basic training lasts four months and takes place in Cáceres or Cádiz. It includes basic military skills, forced marches and a stringent assault course. After the second month, the recruit signs a 2 or 3-year contract. After finishing basic training the recruit joins one of the tercios, in there he receives further training, mostly focused on parading and legionary tradition. This is the same process as in the rest of units in the Spanish army.


title: Spanish Legion

text: From its establishment the legion was noted for its plain and simple style of dress, in contrast to the colourful dress uniforms worn by the Peninsular regiments of the Spanish Army until the overthrow of the Monarchy in 1931. This was part of the cult of austerity favoured by a unit that considered itself on more or less continual active service.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The modern legion has the same camouflage dress for active service and ordinary duties as the rest of the Spanish Army but retains the unique, sage green Tropical uniform for semi-formal barrack dress and as the basis of Legion parade uniform. Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the modern legion uniform is the khaki "gorrillo" cap or "chapiri", with red hanging tassel and piping.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Contrary to usual military practice, Legionaries are allowed to sport beards and are permitted to wear their uniforms, both traditional and service, open at the chest.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The basic weapons used by the Legion are the same as those used by the rest of the Spanish Army. These include the G36-E rifle, its 40mm grenade launcher modular attachment the AG36, the HK MG4 and MG3 machine guns, and the HK USP 9mm pistol.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Like the rest of the Army, the Legion makes use of crew served weapons such as the M2 Browning machine gun and the SB LAG 40 automatic grenade launcher on their armoured vehicles.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The Legions field artillery group mans L118 105mm Light Guns, Italian wheeled tank destroyers B1 Centauro also are used.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The Legion uses Land Rovers, Spanish-made BMR and VEC-M1, VAMTAC, URO trucks and other vehicles like foreign LMV or RG31.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Millán-Astray provided the Legion with a distinctive spirit and symbolism intended to evoke Spain's Imperial and Christian traditions. For instance, the Legion adopted the regimental designation of "tercio" in memory of the 16th-century Spanish infantry formations that had toppled nations and terrorized the battlefields of Europe in the days of Charles V. Millán-Astray also revived the Spaniards' ancient feud with the Moors and portrayed his men first as crusaders on an extended "Reconquista" against Islamic civilization, and later as the saviours of Spain warding off Communism and democratic liberalism defeating the "dangerous spectre of 'Eastern Atheism"'.


title: Spanish Legion

text: As a tribute to the old Tercios the Legion coat of arms features, besides the crown, weapons used by the soldiers of these units - the musket, halberd and crossbow.


title: Spanish Legion

text: "El Novio de la Muerte" ("Bridegroom of Death") is the unofficial hymn and regimental slow march of the Spanish Legion, composed in 1921 with words by Juan Costa set to music by Fidel Prado.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Composed in 1920, "La Cancion del Legionario" ("The Legionnare's Song") is the official quick march and anthem of the Legion. It was composed by Modesto Romero and Infantry Commandant Emilio Guillén Pedemonti. It is played by the military bands and bugle bands of the Legion at the regulation 190 beats that it exclusively uses.


title: Spanish Legion

text: Before it became the legion's official march, "Le Madelon" and "Tercios Heroicos" ("Heroic Tercios") by Francisco Calles and Antonio Soler were its official march past tunes.


title: Spanish Legion

text: The following is a list of Legionaries who have gained fame or notoriety inside or outside of the legion.


title: French Grand Prix

text: The French Grand Prix (), formerly known as the Grand Prix de l'ACF (Automobile Club de France), is an auto race held as part of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile's annual Formula One World Championship. It is one of the oldest motor races in the world as well as the first "Grand Prix". It ceased shortly after its centenary in with 86 races having been held, due to unfavourable financial circumstances and venues. The race returned to the Formula One calendar in with Circuit Paul Ricard hosting the race.


title: French Grand Prix

text: Unusually even for a race of such longevity, the location of the Grand Prix has moved frequently with 16 different venues having been used over its life, a number only eclipsed by the 23 venues used for the Australian Grand Prix since its 1928 start. It is also one of four races (along with the Belgian, Italian and Spanish Grands Prix) to have been held as part of the three distinct Grand Prix championships (the World Manufacturers' Championship in the late 1920s, the European Championship in the 1930s and the Formula One World Championship since 1950).


title: French Grand Prix

text: The Grand Prix de l'ACF was tremendously influential in the early years of Grand Prix racing, leading the establishment of the rules and regulations of racing as well as setting trends in the evolution of racing. The power of the original organiser, the Automobile Club de France, established France as the home of motor racing organisation.


title: French Grand Prix

text: France was one of the first countries to hold motor racing events of any kind. The first competitive motor race, the Paris to Rouen Horseless Carriages Contest was held on 22 July 1894, and was organized by the Automobile Club de France (ACF). The race was 126 km (78 mi) long and was won by Count Jules-Albert de Dion in his De Dion Bouton steam powered car in just under 7 hours. This race was followed by races starting in Paris to various towns and cities around France such as Bordeaux, Marseille, Lyon and Dieppe, and also to various other European cities such as Amsterdam, Berlin, Innsbruck and Vienna. The 1901 Paris-Berlin race was noteworthy as the race winner, Henri Fouriner averaged an astonishing 57 mph (93 km/h) in his Mors, but there were details of other incidents. A competitor driving a 40H.P. Panhard suddenly found the road blocked by a tram in the village of Metternich, and he deliberately ran into the vehicle to avoid the crowd of spectators. The tram was knocked off the rails; the car was hardly damaged. And in Reims, a future location of many French Grands Prix, another competitor in a Mors hit and killed a child who wandered onto the road.


title: French Grand Prix

text: But these races, held on public dirt roads that were not all closed to the public came to a halt in 1903. The Paris-Madrid race, a 1,307 km (812 mi) long competition from the French capital to the Spanish capital held in May of that year had over 300 entrants. Some of the cars were doing 140 km/h (87 mph)- an astonishingly fast speed for the time- not even rail locomotives were capable of hitting these speeds. It was not known at the time how safe these races would be or how these cars- made mostly of wood would perform, and development of the car had improved significantly over 9 years. The race was a disaster, with 8 people killed and over 15 injured in multiple accidents- and all this happened before any of the competitors reached the Spanish border. Crowds of onlookers would stand right on the edge of the track, and children were wandering into the roads which became very dusty and visibility was limited at best. The most notable fatality of this race was one Marcel Renault, one of the 3 brothers who founded Renault. When Renault reached the village of Payré just south of Grand Poitiers he lost control of his 16HP Renault in poor visibility caused by excess dust. The car went into a gutter and crashed into a tree, and Renault sustained a horrific wound in the side of his head and dislocated his shoulder. Fellow competitor Leon Théry stopped his Decauville in order to help Renault and his riding-mechanic Vauthier, still trapped in their car. No doctors were on hand, but Théry found one at the next village and sent him to the place of accident- the doctor rode a bicycle to get to the accident. The doctor conveyed Renault back to the nearest hospital in Grand Poitiers, where Renault succumbed to his injuries two days later, while Vauthier survived with minor injuries. Accidents continued throughout the day; cars hit trees and disintegrated, they overturned and caught fire, axles broke and inexperienced drivers crashed on the rough roads. The race was eventually called off by the French government and there was no declared winner. The cars were impounded by the French authorities, towed to the nearest rail stations by horses and transported back to Paris by train. The race created a political uproar in France, and a French magazine did their own investigation into the race. Speed, dust created by the cars, poor organization and lack of crowd control were to blame for these tragedies and even French Prime Minister Émile Combes was held partially responsible because he was the ultimate authority on allowing the race to proceed.


title: French Grand Prix

text: Other races were organized by American newspaper publisher James Gordon Bennett called the Gordon Bennett Cup, 4 of which were in France. 3 city-to-city races in 1900, 1901 and 1902, all starting in Paris were organized by Bennett and they attracted top racers from the United States and Western Europe. But after the 1903 Paris-Madrid race, the French government banned point-to-point car races on open public roads, so Bennett moved the 1903 race to Ireland on a closed circuit 2 months after Paris-Madrid, the first of its kind. This race was won by Belgian Camille Jenatzy in a Mercedes, who was one of the bravest and most fearless racing drivers of his time. The 1904 race was held in western Germany while the last Gordon Bennett Cup race was held in an 137 km (85 mi) circuit in Auvergne in south-central France. The race started in Clermont-Ferrand, and was run over 4 laps, and was won by Théry in a Brasier.


title: French Grand Prix

text: The French "Grand Prix", open to international competition was first run on 26 June 1906 under the auspices of the Automobile Club de France in Sarthe with a starting field of 32 automobiles. The Grand Prix name ("Great Prize") referred to the prize of 45,000 French francs to the race winner. The franc was pegged to the gold at 0.290 grams per franc, which meant that the prize was worth 13kg of gold, or €191,000 adjusted for inflation. The earliest French Grands Prix were held on circuits consisting of public roads near towns through northern and central France, and they usually were held at different towns each year, such as Le Mans, Dieppe, Amiens, Lyon, Strasbourg, and Tours. Dieppe in particular was an extremely dangerous circuit – 9 people (5 drivers, 2 riding mechanics, and 2 spectators) in total were killed at the three French Grands Prix held at the 79km (49-mile) circuit.


title: French Grand Prix

text: The 1906 race was the first ever national race named "Grand Prix" (the "Grand Prix" mention appears in 1901 as the Grand Prix du Sud-Ouest); other, later, international events in the 1900s and 1910s in Europe and the United States had their own names with the term "Prize" in them, such as "Grand Prize" in America or "Kaiserpreis" (English: Emperor's Prize) in Germany. The French Grand Prix race was run on a very fast 66-mile (106km) one-off anti-clockwise closed public road circuit east of the small western French city of Le Mans, starting in the village of Saint-Mars-la-Briere. It then went down the Route D323 and turned a hard left onto Route D357 near the commune of Yvre-l-Eveque onto a 4-mile straight towards the village of La Butte, then down a 15-mile straight through Bouloire and then into a twisty section in Saint-Calais. The circuit then went north on Route D1 through Berfay and then entered a purpose-built twisty section made of wooden logging track in a forest before Vibraye and then went north again, entering a series of fast corners in and near Lamnay, and then turned west at La Ferte-Bernard. The circuit then went down Route D323 again and down multiple straights 3 to 6 miles long with a few fast corners at Sceaux-sur-Huisne and Conerre, before returning to the pits at Saint-Mars-la-Briere. Circuits in Europe that went through multiple rural towns like this one became ever more common on public road circuits in France and other European countries. Long straights also became a staple of circuits in France, particularly at future iterations of the relocated Sarthe circuit at Le Mans- a city that would host another race that would become a fixed staple in motor racing circles. The Hungarian Ferenc Szisz won this very long 12hour race on a Renault from Italian Felice Nazzaro in a Fiat, where laps on this circuit took just under an hour and the horse carriage road surface was made of dirt; even so this did not stop the fastest lap average speed being 73.37 mph (118.09 km/h)- an astonishingly fast speed for the time. The 1908 race saw Mercedes humiliating the French organizers and finishing 1-2-3 at the lethal circuit at Dieppe, where no less than 4 people were killed during the weekend. The 1913 race was won by Georges Boillot on a one-off 19-mile (31km) circuit near Amiens in northern France. Amiens was another deadly circuit – it had a 7.1 mile straight and 5 people were killed during its use during pre-race testing and the race weekend itself.