title: Operation Black Buck

text: Tuxford was supposed to return after this refuelling with of fuel while Biglands flew on with the Vulcan, but Tuxford now took Biglands's place. A quick calculation showed that he did not have enough fuel to make it back to Ascension. It fell to Tuxford to conduct the final refuelling. Withers received less than he expected. This meant that he would be making the return fuelling rendezvous with in his tanks instead of .


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Now alone, Withers flew on to the Falklands. He made his approach at low level, dropping to before climbing to for the bomb run from the target. To verify their position and minimise the risk of civilian casualties, the H2S radar was successfully locked on to the peak of Mount Usborne, west of Stanley, before the automated bombing control system was engaged. Withers made the final approach at , with an airspeed of . The Vulcan's electronic countermeasures defeated the radar systems controlling the defending Skyguard anti-aircraft cannons. The twenty-one bombs were dropped. Once all were away, Withers put the Vulcan into a 60-degree bank to the left, subjecting the crew to , twice the force of gravity. Sea Harriers of 801 Naval Air Squadron (NAS) were held at readiness on board the aircraft carrier to protect the Vulcan, but were not required as no Argentine aircraft were in the area at the time of the attack. The Sea Harriers went into action shortly after the Vulcan raid. Two of the aircraft flew over Port Stanley airport to photograph the damage caused by the Vulcan.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Withers climbed away from the airfield and headed nearly due north to a planned rendezvous with a Victor some way off the Brazilian coast near Rio de Janeiro. As they passed the British Task Force, the crew signalled the code word "superfuse" indicating a successful attack at 0746Z. Their journey continued within range of the South American coast to the rendezvous with a Victor flown by Squadron Leader Barry Neal. After contacting control with an update, the tanker was sent further south. To help bring the two planes together, one of Ascension's two Nimrod maritime reconnaissance aircraft flew from Wideawake to the area. Without an in-flight refuelling system, it was unable to remain for long. Tuxford, who had continued to maintain radio silence lest he compromise the mission, picked up the "superfuse" signal and radioed Ascension for help. A Victor flown by his squadron commander, Wing Commander Colin Seymour, flew out to meet him, and refuelled Tuxford's Victor, enabling him to return to Ascension 14 hours and 5 minutes after he had left. Meanwhile, with the help of the Nimrod, Withers made the rendezvous with Neal, and all three aircraft returned to Ascension safely. Withers touched down at 1452Z.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Northwood Headquarters received the "superfuse" message by 0830Z and the Ministry of Defence shortly thereafter. Beetham was informed by his deputy, Air Vice Marshal Kenneth Hayr, an hour later. The news of the bombing raid was reported on the BBC World Service before either the Vulcan or the last tanker arrived back at Ascension. The bombardment is believed to have killed three Argentinian personnel at the airport and injured several more. One bomb exploded on the runway and caused a large crater which proved difficult to repair, and the other bombs caused minor damage to aircraft and equipment. The shortened runway remained in action.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Later that morning, twelve 800 Naval Air Squadron Sea Harriers were dispatched from the aircraft carrier to attack targets on East Falkland. Nine of the aircraft struck Port Stanley Airport and dropped 27 bombs on the airfield and its defences. The bombs set a stockpile of fuel on fire and may have slightly damaged the runway. One of the Sea Harriers was struck by a 20 mm anti-aircraft round, which damaged its fin and tailplane; the aircraft managed to return to "Hermes" and was quickly repaired. The Argentine air defence headquarters incorrectly assessed British losses as three aircraft destroyed.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: The other three 800 NAS Sea Harriers attacked the airfield at Goose Green with cluster bombs shortly after the raid on Port Stanley, resulting in the destruction of a Pucará and severe damage to another two. The pilot of the destroyed aircraft and five maintenance personnel were killed. Neither of the two damaged aircraft flew again. The three British aircraft did not encounter any opposition and safely returned to "Hermes". After the aircraft were refuelled, 800 NAS began launching Sea Harriers on combat air patrol sorties. 801 NAS maintained a four-aircraft combat air patrol to the east of Port Stanley throughout the operation.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: On 8 October 1982, Withers was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his part in the action, and his crew—Flying Officer P. I. Taylor (co-pilot), Flight Lieutenant R. D. Wright (radar plotter), Flight Lieutenant G. C. Graham (navigator), Flight Lieutenant H. Prior (air electronics officer) and Flight Lieutenant R. J. Russell (air-to-air refuelling instructor)—were Mentioned in Dispatches. Tuxford was awarded the Air Force Cross, while his crew—Squadron Leader E. F. Wallis, Flight Lieutenant M. E. Beer, Flight Lieutenant J. N. Keable and Flight Lieutenant G. D. Rees—received the Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: During the night of 3–4 May, a Vulcan flown by Squadron Leader John Reeve and his crew of No. 50 Squadron, flew a near-identical mission to the first. This time, a Vulcan piloted by Squadron Leader Alastair Montgomery, acted as flying reserve aircraft, but was not required. As with Black Buck One, the approach to Port Stanley over the final was made at low altitude, with a final "pop-up" to a higher altitude, , for the bomb run in order to avoid the now fully alert Argentine anti-aircraft defences, particularly the Argentine Roland surface-to-air missiles. As a result, all the bombs missed the runway. This was not known for several days, as the weather conditions precluded photo-reconnaissance missions. According to Argentine sources, which also confirm impacts near the western end of the airstrip, two Argentine soldiers were wounded. The cratering at the western end of the runway prevented Argentine engineers from extending it sufficiently to make it capable of accommodating high-performance combat aircraft. The runway remained in use by Hercules and light transport aircraft, allowing the Argentinians to fly in critical supplies and evacuate wounded personnel.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Following Black Buck Two there was a break in Vulcan operations as the tankers were needed to support submarine-hunting missions conducted by Nimrods; each Nimrod sortie to protect the naval task force required 18 supporting tanker sorties. The two Vulcans returned to Waddington on 7 May, but one redeployed to Wideawake on 15 May to be the primary aircraft for Black Buck Three. Another, that had arrived from Waddington on 14 May, was the reserve aircraft for the mission. Scheduled for 16 May, Black Buck Three was cancelled before takeoff due to strong headwinds. The two Vulcans returned to Waddington on 20 and 23 May.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: The Black Buck Four mission was due to be the first using American-supplied Shrike anti-radar missiles, which were mounted on the Vulcans using improvised underwing pylons. These weapons had not previously been used by Vulcans, but arrangements for fitting them to the aircraft and the trials program were completed in just ten days. Vulcans equipped with Shrikes carried fuel tanks in their bomb bay, which extended their range and reduced the number of refuelling contacts needed on the flight to the Falklands to four.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: The primary aircraft was a Vulcan flown by Squadron Leader Neil McDougall and his crew from No. 50 Squadron that arrived at Wideawake on 27 May, with Montgomery flying the reserve aircraft. The mission was scheduled for 28 May, but was also cancelled, but only some five hours after they had taken off. One of the supporting Victor refuelling aircraft suffered a failure of the hose-and-drogue refuelling unit, and the flight had to be recalled. The substitution of missiles for bombs allowed the Vulcan to carry an additional of fuel in bomb bay tanks.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Black Buck Five was flown by McDougall with Montgomery reprising his role flying the reserve aircraft. This was the first completed anti-radar mission equipped with Shrike missiles. The main target was a Westinghouse AN/TPS-43 long-range 3D radar that the Argentine Air Force deployed during April to guard the airspace surrounding the Falkland Islands. The warning that this radar gave enabled the Argentine defenders to conceal mobile Exocet missile launchers. It also gave Argentine Hercules transports the warning they needed to continue using the runway at Stanley. An attack on the radar with Shrike missiles could only succeed if the targeted radar continued transmitting until struck, so a Sea Harrier raid was staged to coincide with the attack to force the defenders to turn on the radar. At 0845Z two Shrikes were launched at it. The first missile impacted from the target, causing minor blast damage, but not disabling the radar. The second missile missed by a greater margin.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Black Buck Six was flown on 3 June by McDougall, whose Vulcan was now armed with four Shrike missiles instead of just two. Montgomery again flew the reserve aircraft. McDougall loitered over the target for 40 minutes in a vain effort to engage the AN/TPS-43, which was not switched on. Finally, the crew fired two of the four Shrikes, which destroyed a Skyguard fire-control radar of the Argentine Army's 601 Anti-Aircraft Battalion, killing four radar operators.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: On its return flight McDougall was forced to divert to Rio de Janeiro after his in-flight refuelling probe broke. One of the missiles he was carrying was ditched into the ocean to reduce drag, but the other remained stuck on the pylon and could not be released. Sensitive documents containing classified information were jettisoned into the sea via the crew hatch, and a "Mayday" signal was sent. Two Northrop F-5E Tiger II fighters from 2° Esquadrão do 1° Grupo de Aviação de Caça of the Brazilian Air Force were scrambled from Santa Cruz Airfield and intercepted the Vulcan. The aircraft was cleared to land at Galeão Airport by Brazilian authorities with less than of fuel remaining, not enough to complete a circuit of the airport.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: This was a potentially embarrassing international incident, as it revealed that the United States had supplied the British with Shrike missiles. British diplomats negotiated for the release of the Vulcan and its crew, who were interned at Galeão Air Force Base. A deal was struck on 4 June under which they would be released in exchange for spare parts for Westland Lynx helicopters. Brazil came under pressure from Argentina, and the United States agreed to intervene to preserve the secrets of the Shrike missile. The crew and aircraft were permitted to fly to Ascension on 10 June. A new refuelling probe was fitted there, and the aircraft flew back to Waddington on 13 June. The remaining Shrike missile remained in Brazil.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: The final Black Buck mission was flown on 12 June by Withers, and with the same crew as for Black Buck One except that Flight Lieutenant Peter Standing acted as Air-to-Air Refuelling Instructor instead of Russell. Montgomery once again flew the reserve aircraft. This time the mission targeted Argentine troop positions and facilities around the airport instead of the runway. The bombs were fused in error to explode on impact; the end of the war was in sight and the intention had been for them to air burst to destroy aircraft and stores without damaging the runway, which would soon be needed for RAF Phantom FGR.2 operations after the Falkland Islands were recaptured. In the event, all 21 bombs missed the intended targets. The Argentine ground forces surrendered two days later.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: The military effectiveness of Black Buck remains controversial, with some independent sources describing it as "minimal". The runway continued to be used by Argentine C-130 Hercules transport aircraft until the end of the war, although after 1 May only of supplies and 340 troops were delivered, and early flights were suspended after 4 May, as Black Buck missions occurred in the early morning hours. Woodward has stated that he "fully expected" Hercules flights to continue after Black Buck One, but that he "did not care too much about that" at the time since, unlike fast jets, they were not a direct threat to the naval forces. The British were aware that Hercules flights continued to use the airfield and attempted to interdict these flights, leading to the downing of a Hercules on 1 June. In view of the airport's lack of impact on the ultimate outcome of the campaign, the British targeting of Stanley airport was questionable.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Planning for the raid called for a bomb run in a 35° cut across the runway, with the aim of placing at least one bomb on the runway and possibly two. The main purpose in doing so was to prevent the use of the runway by fast jets; in this respect the raid was successful as the repair to the runway was botched and subsequently there were several near accidents. The fact that the British forces could penetrate Argentine air defences and attack the airfield had the desired effect in relation to preventing fast jet usage of the Port Stanley airstrip as the Argentine military command could not risk stationing its fast jets and the infrastructure necessary to operate them on the islands if they could be destroyed on the ground, irrespective of the operational status of the runway. Admiral Woodward considered it vital to keep fast jets from using Port Stanley, to reduce the threat of air attack on the British aircraft carriers. Starting on 1 May, the Royal Navy attacked Port Stanley with aerial bombing by Sea Harriers and naval bombardment, in order to hamper Argentinian repair efforts. The Argentinians left the runway covered with piles of earth during the day, leading to claims this caused British intelligence to surmise that repairs were still in progress and misleading the British as to the condition of the airfield and the success of their raids.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: Commander Nigel (Sharkey) Ward, the commander of 801 NAS, who flew a Sea Harrier to protect Black Buck One from fighter attack, was highly critical of Operation Black Buck. He calculated that for the quantity of fuel expended by Black Buck One to drop 21 bombs, which he estimated at at a cost of £3.3 million, the Sea Harriers of the carrier force could have carried out 785 sorties that would have delivered 2,357 bombs. Ward dismissed as RAF propaganda the claim that the raids led to fear of attacks on the mainland:


title: Operation Black Buck

text: There is no evidence that Mirage IIIs were withdrawn from southern Argentina to protect Buenos Aires. On 29 April, Argentine radars at Puerto San Julián detected a suspected British air strike and aircraft from there were moved to Comodoro Rivadavia, but they still remained in southern Argentina.


title: Operation Black Buck

text: The British intended to convince the Argentinian forces that an amphibious assault on Port Stanley was imminent, and Admiral Woodward saw Black Buck One as an important contribution to this effort, alongside naval attacks and deception efforts. The author of "Vulcan 607", Rowland White, claimed that Vice Admiral Juan Lombardo was led to believe that Black Buck One was the prelude to a full-scale landing by the British. As a consequence, he ordered Rear Admiral , the commander of the Argentine Sea Fleet, to immediately attack the British fleet. This attack took the form of a pincer movement, with the light cruiser to the south and aircraft carrier to the north. On 2 May, "General Belgrano" was sunk by the submarine . Thereafter the Argentine Navy withdrew to territorial waters and played no further part in the conflict.


title: Serial communication

text: In telecommunication and data transmission, serial communication is the process of sending data one bit at a time, sequentially, over a communication channel or computer bus. This is in contrast to parallel communication, where several bits are sent as a whole, on a link with several parallel channels.


title: Serial communication

text: Serial communication is used for all long-haul communication and most computer networks, where the cost of cable and synchronization difficulties make parallel communication impractical. Serial computer buses are becoming more common even at shorter distances, as improved signal integrity and transmission speeds in newer serial technologies have begun to outweigh the parallel bus's advantage of simplicity (no need for serializer and deserializer, or SerDes) and to outstrip its disadvantages (clock skew, interconnect density). The migration from PCI to PCI Express is an example.


title: Serial communication

text: Many serial communication systems were originally designed to transfer data over relatively large distances through some sort of data cable.


title: Serial communication

text: Practically all long-distance communication transmits data one bit at a time, rather than in parallel, because it reduces the cost of the cable. The cables that carry this data (other than "the" serial cable) and the computer ports they plug into are usually referred to with a more specific name, to reduce confusion.


title: Serial communication

text: Keyboard and mouse cables and ports are almost invariably serial—such as PS/2 port, Apple Desktop Bus and USB.


title: Serial communication

text: The cables that carry digital video are almost invariably serial—such as coax cable plugged into a HD-SDI port, a webcam plugged into a USB port or Firewire port, Ethernet cable connecting an IP camera to a Power over Ethernet port, FPD-Link, etc.


title: Serial communication

text: Other such cables and ports, transmitting data one bit at a time, include Serial ATA, Serial SCSI, Ethernet cable plugged into Ethernet ports, the Display Data Channel using previously reserved pins of the VGA connector or the DVI port or the HDMI port.


title: Serial communication

text: Many communication systems were generally designed to connect two integrated circuits on the same printed circuit board, connected by signal traces on that board (rather than external cables).


title: Serial communication

text: Integrated circuits are more expensive when they have more pins. To reduce the number of pins in a package, many ICs use a serial bus to transfer data when speed is not important. Some examples of such low-cost serial buses include RS-232, SPI, I²C, UNI/O, 1-Wire and PCI Express.


title: Serial communication

text: The communication links, across which computers (or parts of computers) talk to one another, may be either serial or parallel. A parallel link transmits several streams of data simultaneously along multiple channels (e.g., wires, printed circuit tracks, or optical fibers); whereas, a serial link transmits only a single stream of data.


title: Serial communication

text: Although a serial link may seem inferior to a parallel one, since it can transmit less data per clock cycle, it is often the case that serial links can be clocked considerably faster than parallel links in order to achieve a higher data rate. Several factors allow serial to be clocked at a higher rate:


title: Serial communication

text: In many cases, serial is cheaper to implement than parallel. Many ICs have serial interfaces, as opposed to parallel ones, so that they have fewer pins and are therefore less expensive.


title: David Rintoul

text: David Rintoul (born David Wilson; 29 November 1948) is a Scottish stage and television actor. Rintoul was born in Aberdeen, Scotland. He studied at the University of Edinburgh, and won a scholarship to study at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London.


title: David Rintoul

text: Rintoul has worked extensively in theatre with companies including the Royal National Theatre and Royal Shakespeare Company. His appearances have included Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "Henry IV", "As You Like It", and the title role in "Macbeth". Other stage appearances include George Bernard Shaw's "Candida" and "Funny Girl". In 2010 he played Charles Dickens in "Andersen's English", the new play by Sebastian Barry.


title: David Rintoul

text: Rintoul's film credits include the title role in "Legend of the Werewolf" (1975), "A.D." (1985), "Unrelated" (2007) and "Is Anybody There?" (2008). In 2010, he starred in the film "The Ghost Writer" with Pierce Brosnan and Ewan McGregor.


title: David Rintoul

text: In 1980, he played the role of Mr Darcy in a BBC television adaptation by Fay Weldon of "Pride and Prejudice". From 1993 to 1996 he played "Doctor Finlay" in the television series of the same name. His other television appearances include "Prince Regent", "Taggart", "Hornblower" and the "Agatha Christie's Poirot film, The Mysterious Affair at Styles". He voices three characters, Granddad Dog, Mr. Bull and Dr. Brown Bear, in the popular children's series "Peppa Pig." He also voiced the knight 'Sir Boris' in the 1999 animation "The Big Knights" and the arch villain Cut Throat Jake in the newer version of "Captain Pugwash". He played the role of Noah in the 2013 History Channel's "The Bible". In 2016 he portrayed Aerys Targaryen in the HBO series "Game of Thrones" in Season 6.


title: David Rintoul

text: Rintoul has narrated many audiobooks, including Frederick Forsyth's "The Day of the Jackal" and J. G. Ballard's "Millennium People". In 1986, he recorded unabridged readings of all of Ian Fleming's James Bond novels and short stories for Chivers Audio Books (with the exception of "The Spy Who Loved Me", which has a first person female narrator). He also later recorded "Nobody Lives Forever" and "Licence to Kill", written by John Gardner. Whilst reading the prose with his usual speaking voice, Rintoul speaks Bond's dialogue with a mild Scottish accent.


title: David Rintoul

text: He also narrated Robert Harris's "Dictator", the final volume of his Cicero trilogy. Rintoul took over this role from Bill Wallis, who had read the previous two books, "Imperium" and "Lustrum", but died two years before "Dictator"'s publication. He has narrated two young people's books, "The Boggart" (2009) and "The Boggart and the Monster" (2013) written by Susan Cooper. Since 2015, he has been narrating the character of Sir James Powell in the audio drama series "John Sinclair – Demon Hunter". In 2016 Rintoul narrated Philippe Sands' "East West Street – the Origins of "Genocide" and "Crimes Against Humanity"", and in 2018 he narrated Dorothy Dunnett's novel of Macbeth "King Hereafter".


title: David Rintoul

text: Rintoul is married to actress Vivien Heilbron. A friend and University of Edinburgh classmate of Ian Charleson, Rintoul contributed a chapter to the 1990 book, "For Ian Charleson: A Tribute". His brother, Dougie Wilson, is stage manager and £250,000 winner on "Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?" His sister Dorothy is married to the artist Alain Senez.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Styracosaurus ( ; meaning "spiked lizard" from the Ancient Greek / "spike at the butt-end of a spear-shaft" and / "lizard") is a genus of herbivorous ceratopsian dinosaur from the Cretaceous Period (Campanian stage), about 75.5 to 74.5 million years ago. It had four to six long parietal spikes extending from its neck frill, a smaller jugal horn on each of its cheeks, and a single horn protruding from its nose, which may have been up to long and wide. The function or functions of the horns and frills have been debated for many years.


title: Styracosaurus

text: "Styracosaurus" was a relatively large dinosaur, reaching lengths of and weighing about . It stood about tall. "Styracosaurus" possessed four short legs and a bulky body. Its tail was rather short. The skull had a beak and shearing cheek teeth arranged in continuous dental batteries, suggesting that the animal sliced up plants. Like other ceratopsians, this dinosaur may have been a herd animal, travelling in large groups, as suggested by bone beds.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Named by Lawrence Lambe in 1913, "Styracosaurus" is a member of the Centrosaurinae. One species, S. albertensis, is currently assigned to "Styracosaurus". Another species, "S. ovatus", named in 1930 by Charles Gilmore was reassigned to a new genus, "Rubeosaurus", by Andrew McDonald and Jack Horner in 2010, but it has been considered either its own species or a species of "Styracosaurus" (or even a specimen of "S. albertensis") again, since 2020.


title: Styracosaurus

text: The first fossil remains of "Styracosaurus" were collected in Alberta, Canada by C. M. Sternberg (from an area now known as Dinosaur Provincial Park, in a formation now called the Dinosaur Park Formation) and named by Lawrence Lambe in 1913. This quarry was revisited in 1935 by a Royal Ontario Museum crew who found the missing lower jaws and most of the skeleton. These fossils indicate that "S. albertensis" was around in length and stood about high at the hips. An unusual feature of this first skull is that the smallest frill spike on the left side is partially overlapped at its base by the next spike. It appears that the frill suffered a break at this point in life and was shortened by about . The normal shape of this area is unknown because the corresponding area of the right side of the frill was not recovered.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Barnum Brown and crew, working for the American Museum of Natural History in New York, collected a nearly complete articulated skeleton with a partial skull in 1915. These fossils were also found in the Dinosaur Park Formation, near Steveville, Alberta. Brown and Erich Maren Schlaikjer compared the finds, and, though they allowed that both specimens were from the same general locality and geological formation, they considered the specimen sufficiently distinct from the holotype to warrant erecting a new species, and described the fossils as "Styracosaurus parksi", named in honor of William Parks. Among the differences between the specimens cited by Brown and Schlaikjer were a cheekbone quite different from that of "S. albertensis", and smaller tail vertebrae. "S. parksi" also had a more robust jaw, a shorter dentary, and the frill differed in shape from that of the type species. However, much of the skull consisted of plaster reconstruction, and the original 1937 paper did not illustrate the actual skull bones. It is now accepted as a specimen of "S. albertensis".


title: Styracosaurus

text: In the summer of 2006, Darren Tanke of the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology in Drumheller, Alberta relocated the long lost "S. parksi" site. Pieces of the skull, evidently abandoned by the 1915 crew, were found in the quarry. These were collected and it is hoped more pieces will be found, perhaps enough to warrant a redescription of the skull and test whether "S. albertensis" and "S. parksi" are the same. The Tyrrell Museum has also collected several partial "Styracosaurus" skulls. At least one confirmed bone bed (bonebed 42) in Dinosaur Provincial Park has also been explored (other proposed "Styracosaurus" bone beds instead have fossils from a mix of animals, and nondiagnostic ceratopsian remains). Bonebed 42 is known to contain numerous pieces of skulls such as horncores, jaws and frill pieces.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Several other species which were assigned to "Styracosaurus" have since been assigned to other genera. "S. sphenocerus", described by Edward Drinker Cope in 1890 as a species of "Monoclonius" and based on a nasal bone with a broken "Styracosaurus"-like straight nose horn, was attributed to "Styracosaurus" in 1915. "S. makeli", mentioned informally by amateur paleontologists Stephen and Sylvia Czerkas in 1990 in a caption to an illustration, is an early name for "Einiosaurus". "S. borealis" is an early informal name for "S. parksi".


title: Styracosaurus

text: A species, "Styracosaurus ovatus", from the Two Medicine Formation of Montana, was described by Gilmore in 1930, named for a partial parietal under the accession number USNM 11869. Unlike "S. albertensis", the longest parietal spikes converge towards their tips, instead of projecting parallel behind the frill. There also may only have been two sets of spikes on each side of the frill, instead of three. As estimated from the preserved material, the spikes are much shorter than in "S. albertensis", with the longest only long. An additional specimen from the Two Medicine Formation was referred to "Styracosaurus ovatus" in 2010 by Andrew McDonald and John Horner, having been found earlier in 1986 but not described until that year. Known from a premaxilla, the nasal bones and their horncore, a postorbital bone and a parietal, the specimen Museum of the Rockies 492 was considered to share the medially-converging parietal spikes with the only other specimen of "S. ovatus", the holotype. Following this additional material, the species was added to a phylogenetic analysis where it was found to group not with "Styracosaurus albertensis", but in a clade including "Pachyrhinosaurus", "Einiosaurus" and "Achelousaurus", and therefore McDonald and Horner gave the species the new genus name "Rubeosaurus". Another specimen, the partial immature skull USNM 14768, which was earlier referred to the undiagnostic genus "Brachyceratops", was also referred to "Rubeosaurus ovatus" by McDonald and colleagues in 2011. While the medial spikes of USNM 14768 were too incomplete to show if it shared the convergence seen in other "R. ovatus" specimens, it was considered to be the same species as it was also found in the older deposits of the Two Medicine Formation, and had a unique combination of parietal features only shared completely with the other specimens of the species.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Though it was originally found to nest closer to "Einiosaurus" and later centrosaurines by McDonald and colleagues in both 2010 and 2011, revisions of phylogenetic analyses in 2013 by Scott Sampson and colleagues, and further expansions and modifications of the same dataset, instead placed "Rubeosaurus ovatus" as the sister taxon of "Styracosaurus albertensis", as had been originally considered when the species was first named, though the two species were not moved into the same genus as originally named. A review of the variability within known "Styracosaurus" specimens by Robert Holmes and colleagues in 2020 found that USNM 11869, the type specimen of "Rubeosaurus ovatus", fell within the variation seen in other specimens from the older deposits of the Dinosaur Park Formation "S. albertensis" is known from. While no phylogenetic analysis was conducted, previous results of updated analyses showed that "Rubeosaurus ovatus" and "Styracosaurus albertensis" were not distantly related, so the justification for naming the genus "Rubeosaurus" was not present, and the variability in "Styracosaurus albertensis" specimens also did not support the distinction of "Styracosaurus ovatus", with Holmes "et al." considering the latter a junior synonym of the former. The conclusion of Holmes and colleagues was supported by a later 2020 study authored by Caleb Brown, Holmes, and Philip J. Currie, who described a new juvenile "Styracosaurus" specimen and determined that there were several specimens that are otherwise consistent with "S. albertensis" have been found with inward angled midline frill spikes, though not the same degree as "S. ovatus". Though they considered that "S. ovatus" represented an extreme end of the "S. albertensis" variation not only in morphology but also as it was stratigraphically younger, they cautioned that at the least the current diagnosis of "S. ovatus" was inadequate.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Later in 2020, the supposed specimen MOR 492 was redescribed by John Wilson and colleagues, who reinterpreted its anatomy in a way that contrasted McDonald and Horner who referred it to "Styracosaurus ovatus". While Wilson "et al." agreed that the close relationship between "S. albertensis" and "S. ovatus" meant that the genus name "Rubeosaurus" should be abandoned, they cautioned against synonymization. MOR 492 was moved into its own taxon, "Stellasaurus ancellae", which nested alongside "Einiosaurus", "Achelousaurus" and "Pachyrhinosaurus" in a similar result to McDonald and Horner when the specimen was included as part of the "S. ovatus" hypodigm. Wilson and colleagues also suggested that the new taxon may have been ancestral to the later forms it was found related to, suggesting that gradual evolution through anagenesis could be the reason for the intermediate morphologies of many specimens and species found in the Two Medicine Formation, possibly also including "S. ovatus". As the holotype of "Styracosaurus ovatus" was found in deposits much younger than the remainder of "Styracosaurus" specimens, and was considered to have the most extreme morphology while still falling within plausible variation as Holmes "et al." had concluded, Wilson and colleagues advised that "S. ovatus" was retained as a separate, probably directly descended from "S. albertensis", species of "Styracosaurus". The immature specimen USNM 14768, referred to "S. ovatus" by McDonald "et al." in 2011, was considered too immature to be diagnostic, and thus "S. ovatus" was limited to its holotype USNM 11869.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Individuals of the genus "Styracosaurus" were approximately long as adults and weighed about . The skull was massive, with a large nostril, a tall straight nose horn, and a parietal squamosal frill (a neck frill) crowned with at least four large spikes. Each of the four longest frill spines was comparable in length to the nose horn, at long. The nasal horn was estimated by Lambe at long in the type specimen, but the tip had not been preserved. Based on other nasal horn cores from "Styracosaurus" and "Centrosaurus", this horn may have come to a more rounded point at around half of that length.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Aside from the large nasal horn and four long frill spikes, the cranial ornamentation was variable. Some individuals had small hook-like projections and knobs at the posterior margin of the frill, similar to but smaller than those in "Centrosaurus". Others had less prominent tabs. Some, like the type individual, had a third pair of long frill spikes. Others had much smaller projections, and small points are found on the side margins of some but not all specimens. Modest pyramid-shaped brow horns were present in subadults, but were replaced by pits in adults. Like most ceratopsids, "Styracosaurus" had large fenestrae (skull openings) in its frill. The front of the mouth had a toothless beak.


title: Styracosaurus

text: The bulky body of "Styracosaurus" resembled that of a rhinoceros. It had powerful shoulders which may have been useful in intraspecies combat. "Styracosaurus" had a relatively short tail. Each toe bore a hooflike ungual which was sheathed in horn.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Various limb positions have been proposed for "Styracosaurus" and ceratopsids in general, including forelegs which were held underneath the body, or, alternatively, held in a sprawling position. The most recent work has put forward an intermediate crouched position as most likely.


title: Styracosaurus

text: "Styracosaurus" is a member of the Centrosaurinae. Other members of the clade include "Centrosaurus" (from which the group takes its name), "Pachyrhinosaurus", "Avaceratops", "Einiosaurus", "Albertaceratops", "Achelousaurus", "Brachyceratops", and "Monoclonius", although these last two are dubious. Because of the variation between species and even individual specimens of centrosaurines, there has been much debate over which genera and species are valid, particularly whether "Centrosaurus" and/or "Monoclonius" are valid genera, undiagnosable, or possibly members of the opposite sex. In 1996, Peter Dodson found enough variation between "Centrosaurus", "Styracosaurus", and "Monoclonius" to warrant separate genera, and that "Styracosaurus" resembled "Centrosaurus" more closely than either resembled "Monoclonius". Dodson also believed one species of "Monoclonius", "M. nasicornis", may actually have been a female "Styracosaurus". However, most other researchers have not accepted "Monoclonius nasicornis" as a female "Styracosaurus", instead regarding it as a synonym of "Centrosaurus apertus". While sexual dimorphism has been proposed for an earlier ceratopsian, "Protoceratops", there is no firm evidence for sexual dimorphism in any ceratopsid.


title: Styracosaurus

text: The evolutionary origins of "Styracosaurus" were not understood for many years because fossil evidence for early ceratopsians was sparse. The discovery of "Protoceratops", in 1922, shed light on early ceratopsid relationships, but several decades passed before additional finds filled in more of the blanks. Fresh discoveries in the late 1990s and 2000s, including "Zuniceratops", the earliest known ceratopsian with brow horns, and "Yinlong", the first-known Jurassic ceratopsian, indicate what the ancestors of "Styracosaurus" may have looked like. These new discoveries have been important in illuminating the origins of horned dinosaurs in general, and suggest that the group originated during the Jurassic in Asia, with the appearance of true horned ceratopsians occurring by the beginning of the late Cretaceous in North America.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Goodwin and colleagues proposed in 1992 that "Styracosaurus" was part of the lineage leading to "Einiosaurus", "Achelousaurus" and "Pachyrhinosaurus". This was based on a series of fossil skulls from the Two Medicine Formation of Montana. The position of "Styracosaurus" in this lineage is now equivocal, as the remains that were thought to represent "Styracosaurus" have been transferred to the genus "Rubeosaurus".


title: Styracosaurus

text: "Styracosaurus" is known from a higher position in the formation (relating specifically to its own genus) than the closely related "Centrosaurus", suggesting that "Styracosaurus" displaced "Centrosaurus" as the environment changed over time and/or dimension. It has been suggested that "Styracosaurus albertensis" is a direct descendant of "Centrosaurus" ("C. apertus" or "C. nasicornis"), and that it in turn evolved directly into the slightly later species "Rubeosaurus ovatus". Subtle changes can be traced in the arrangement of the horns through this lineage, leading from "Rubeosaurus" to "Einiosaurus", to "Achelousaurus" and "Pachyrhinosaurus". However, the lineage may not be a simple, straight line, as a pachyrhinosaur-like species has been reported from the same time and place as "Styracosaurus albertensis".


title: Styracosaurus

text: In 2020, during the description of "Stellasaurus", Wilson "et al." found "Styracosaurus" (including "S. ovatus") to be the earliest member of a single evolutionary lineage that eventually developed into "Stellasaurus", "Achelousaurus", and "Pachyrhinosaurus".


title: Styracosaurus

text: "Styracosaurus" and other horned dinosaurs are often depicted in popular culture as herd animals. A bonebed composed of "Styracosaurus" remains is known from the Dinosaur Park Formation of Alberta, about halfway up the formation. This bonebed is associated with different types of river deposits. The mass deaths may have been a result of otherwise non-herding animals congregating around a waterhole in a period of drought, with evidence suggesting the environment may have been seasonal and semi-arid.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Paleontologists Gregory Paul and Per Christiansen proposed that large ceratopsians such as "Styracosaurus" were able to run faster than an elephant, based on possible ceratopsian trackways which did not exhibit signs of sprawling forelimbs.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Styracosaurs were herbivorous dinosaurs; they probably fed mostly on low growth because of the position of the head. They may, however, have been able to knock down taller plants with their horns, beak, and bulk. The jaws were tipped with a deep, narrow beak, believed to have been better at grasping and plucking than biting.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Ceratopsid teeth, including those of "Styracosaurus", were arranged in groups called batteries. Older teeth on top were continually replaced by the teeth underneath them. Unlike hadrosaurids, which also had dental batteries, ceratopsid teeth sliced but did not grind. Some scientists have suggested that ceratopsids like "Styracosaurus" ate palms and cycads, while others have suggested ferns. Dodson has proposed that Late Cretaceous ceratopsians may have knocked down angiosperm trees and then sheared off leaves and twigs.


title: Styracosaurus

text: The large nasal horns and frills of "Styracosaurus" are among the most distinctive facial adornments of all dinosaurs. Their function has been the subject of debate since the first horned dinosaurs were discovered.


title: Styracosaurus

text: Early in the 20th century, paleontologist R. S. Lull proposed that the frills of ceratopsian dinosaurs acted as anchor points for their jaw muscles. He later noted that for "Styracosaurus", the spikes would have given it a formidable appearance. In 1996, Dodson supported the idea of muscle attachments in part and created detailed diagrams of possible muscle attachments in the frills of "Styracosaurus" and "Chasmosaurus", but did not subscribe to the idea that they completely filled in the fenestrae. C. A. Forster, however, found no evidence of large muscle attachments on the frill bones.


title: Styracosaurus

text: It was long believed that ceratopsians like "Styracosaurus" used their frills and horns in defence against the large predatory dinosaurs of the time. Although pitting, holes, lesions, and other damage on ceratopsid skulls are often attributed to horn damage in combat, a 2006 study found no evidence for horn thrust injuries causing these forms of damage (for example, there is no evidence of infection or healing). Instead, non-pathological bone resorption, or unknown bone diseases, are suggested as causes.


title: Styracosaurus

text: However, a newer study compared incidence rates of skull lesions in "Triceratops" and "Centrosaurus" and showed that these were consistent with "Triceratops" using its horns in combat and the frill being adapted as a protective structure, while lower pathology rates in "Centrosaurus" may indicate visual rather than physical use of cranial ornamentation, or a form of combat focused on the body rather than the head; as "Centrosaurus" was more closely related to "Styracosaurus" and both genera had long nasal horns, the results for this genus would be more applicable for "Styracosaurus". The researchers also concluded that the damage found on the specimens in the study was often too localized to be caused by bone disease.


title: Styracosaurus

text: The large frill on "Styracosaurus" and related genera also may have helped to increase body area to regulate body temperature, like the ears of the modern elephant. A similar theory has been proposed regarding the plates of "Stegosaurus", although this use alone would not account for the bizarre and extravagant variation seen in different members of the Ceratopsidae. This observation is highly suggestive of what is now believed to be the primary function, display.


title: Styracosaurus

text: The theory of frill use in sexual display was first proposed in 1961 by Davitashvili. This theory has gained increasing acceptance. Evidence that visual display was important, either in courtship or in other social behavior, can be seen in the fact that horned dinosaurs differ markedly in their adornments, making each species highly distinctive. Also, modern living creatures with such displays of horns and adornments use them in similar behavior.


title: Styracosaurus

text: The use of the exaggerated structures in dinosaurs as species identification has been questioned, as no such function exists in vast majority of modern species of tetrapods (terrestrial vertebrates).


title: Styracosaurus

text: A skull discovered in 2015 from a "Styracosaurus" indicates that individual variation was likely commonplace in the genus. The asymmetrical nature of the horns in the specimen has been compared to deer, which often have asymmetrical antlers in various individuals. The study carried out may also indicate that the genus "Rubeosaurus" may be synonymous with "Styracosaurus" as a result.


title: Styracosaurus

text: "Styracosaurus" is known from the Dinosaur Park Formation, and was a member of a diverse and well-documented fauna of prehistoric animals that included horned relatives such as "Centrosaurus" and "Chasmosaurus", duckbills such as "Prosaurolophus", "Lambeosaurus", "Gryposaurus", "Corythosaurus", and "Parasaurolophus", tyrannosaurids "Gorgosaurus", "Daspletosaurus", and armored "Edmontonia" and "Euoplocephalus".


title: Styracosaurus

text: The Dinosaur Park Formation is interpreted as a low-relief setting of rivers and floodplains that became more swampy and influenced by marine conditions over time as the Western Interior Seaway transgressed westward. The climate was warmer than present-day Alberta, without frost, but with wetter and drier seasons. Conifers were apparently the dominant canopy plants, with an understory of ferns, tree ferns, and angiosperms.


title: Styracosaurus

text: "Styracosaurus" was featured in the lost pit scene in "King Kong" (1933). Although the original footage is now lost, a similar, fictional ceratopsian called "Ferrucutus" based on "Styracosaurus" and "Pachyrhinosaurus" can be seen in Peter Jackson's recreation.


title: Tiger salamander

text: The tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum) is a species of mole salamander and one of the largest terrestrial salamanders in North America.


title: Tiger salamander

text: These salamanders usually grow to a length of with a lifespan of around 12–15 years. They are characterized by having markings varying in color on the back of their head, body, and tail. The coloring of these spots range from brownish yellow to greenish yellow, while the rest of their back is black or dark brown. They have short snouts, thick necks, strong legs, and lengthy tails. Their diet consists largely of small insects, snails, slugs, frogs, and worms, although it is not rare for an adult to turn cannibalistic and consume its own kind. Cannibalism in these salamanders can almost always be traced back to a large volume of competing predators and lack of prey in the area. If the opportunity presents itself, tiger salamanders will even feed on other smaller salamander species, lizards, snakelets (baby snakes), and newborn mice.


title: Tiger salamander

text: Illinois citizens voted for the eastern tiger salamander as state amphibian in 2004, and the legislature enacted it in 2005.


title: Tiger salamander

text: Tiger salamanders habitats range from woodlands crowded with conifer and deciduous trees to grassy open fields. These amphibians are secretive creatures who spend most of their lives underground in burrows, making them difficult to spot. One significant requirement these salamanders need to thrive is loose soil for burrowing. Tiger salamanders are almost entirely terrestrial as adults, and usually only return to the water to breed. The ideal breeding condition for tiger salamanders ranges from wetlands, such as cattle ponds and vernal pools, to flooded swamps. This species is most commonly found on the Atlantic coast from New York down to Florida. They are known, however, to be the widest ranging species of salamander in North America and have been found in smaller populations from coast to coast. "Ambystoma tigrinum" populations occurring in northern and eastern regions of the United States are thought to be native populations as evidence from a study uncovered the species in these regions seem to be from relict populations. The species which occur on the west coast of the United States are not necessarily native occurring to the region and occur as a result of introduction for sport fishing bait, which has resulted in hybridization.


title: Tiger salamander

text: Though tiger salamanders are not indicators of an ecosystem, they are good indicators of a healthy environment because they need good moist soil to burrow in. But pond disturbance, invasive fish, and road construction threaten the annual population.


title: Tiger salamander

text: Like all ambystomatids, they are extremely loyal to their birthplaces, and will travel long distances to reach them. However, a single tiger salamander has only a 50% chance of breeding more than once in its lifetime. In a study conducted in South Carolina, breeding migrations of adult tiger salamanders began in late October or November for males and November through February for females. The tiger salamander's ideal breeding period is somewhere between the late winter and early spring, once the ground is warm enough and the water is thawed. Males nudge a willing female to initiate mating, and then deposit a spermatophore on the lake bottom. About 48 hours after insemination, the female is ready to deposit her eggs in the breeding pool. One female can lay up to 25–30 eggs per egg mass. She carefully attaches the eggs to secure twigs, grass, and leaves at the bottom of the pool to ensure her eggs safety. In about 12–15 days time, the eggs will be fully hatched and ready to mature in the pool. It takes a tiger salamander approximately three months to reach full maturity and leave the breeding pool. Large-scale captive breeding of tiger salamanders has not been accomplished, for unknown reasons.


title: Tiger salamander

text: The larva is entirely aquatic, and is characterized by large external gills and a prominent caudal fin that originates just behind the head, similar to the Mexican axolotl. Limbs are fully developed within a short time of hatching. Some larvae, especially in seasonal pools and in the north, may metamorphose as soon as feasible. These are known as small morph adults. Other larvae, especially in ancestral pools and warmer climates, may not metamorphose until fully adult size. These large larvae are usually known as 'waterdogs', and are used extensively in the fishing bait and pet trades. Some populations may not metamorphose at all, and become sexually mature while in their larval form. These are the neotenes, and are particularly common where terrestrial conditions are poor.


title: Tiger salamander

text: Although immune themselves, tiger salamanders transmit "Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis", which is a major worldwide threat to most frog species by causing the disease chytridiomycosis. Tiger salamanders also carry ranaviruses, which infect reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Using tiger salamander larvae as fishing bait appears to be a major source of exposure and transport to wild populations. Severe mortality of tiger salamander larvae sometimes occurs from recurring ranavirus infections.


title: Tiger salamander

text: The California tiger salamander ("Ambystoma californiense") (listed at Vulnerable), the barred tiger salamander ("A. mavortium"), and the plateau tiger salamander ("A. velasci") were all once considered subspecies of "A. tigrinum", but are now considered separate species. Genetic studies made it necessary to break up the original "A. tigrinum" population, though some hybridization between groups occurs.


title: Tiger salamander

text: The California tiger salamander is now federally listed as an endangered species mostly due to habitat loss; however, very few studies have been performed on this species.


title: Tiger salamander

text: The axolotl is also a relative of the tiger salamander. Axolotls live in a paedomorphic state, retaining most characteristics of their larval stage for their entire lifespans. While they never metamorphose under natural conditions, metamorphosis can be induced in them, resulting in a form very similar to the plateau tiger salamander. This is not, however, their natural condition, and dramatically shortens their lifespan.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Andrew Piran Bell (born 11 August 1970) is a British singer, songwriter, musician, record producer, and DJ. He is one of two vocalists and guitarists of the English rock band Ride, and was formerly the bassist of Oasis from 1999 until their breakup in 2009. Bell was also a member of Hurricane #1 as well as Liam Gallagher's post-Oasis project Beady Eye.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: With Ride, Bell helped pioneer shoegaze, an alternative rock subgenre which reached its peak popularity in the early 1990s. Bell also wrote at least one song on each of Oasis' final three albums.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell formed Ride with Mark Gardener (guitarist), whom he met at Cheney School in Oxford and Laurence Colbert (drummer) and Steve Queralt (bassist), whom he met doing Foundation Studies in Art and Design at Banbury in 1988. While still at Banbury the band produced a tape demo including the tracks "Chelsea Girl" and "Drive Blind". In February 1989, Ride were asked to stand in for a cancelled student union gig at Oxford Polytechnic (now Oxford Brookes University) that brought them to the attention of Alan McGee. After supporting The Soup Dragons in 1989 McGee then signed them to Creation Records. This was a key musical event in Bell's life.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: With Ride, Bell released three EPs between January and September 1990, entitled 'Ride', 'Play' and 'Fall'. While the EPs achieved a degree of chart success per release, enough critical praise was received to make Ride the darlings of music journalists. The first two EPs were eventually released together as 'Smile' in 1992, while the 'Fall' EP was later incorporated into CD releases of their debut LP, 'Nowhere', released in October 1990, which was hailed as a critical success, with the media dubbing Ride "the brightest hope" for 1991. On 'Nowhere' (1990) Bell contributed "Seagull", "Kaleidoscope", "In a Different Place", Polar Bear", "Dreams Burn Down", "Paralysed", and "Vapour Trail".


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: There was a rumour that as part of the Great British Music Weekend concert in early 1991 that Robert Smith (The Cure) refused to appear unless Ride were also in the list of acts playing. Ride did appear along with The Wedding Present, Carter USM and The Cure. "Nowhere" was followed in March 1992 with "Going Blank Again". The twin rhythm guitars of Bell and Gardener, both distorted, both using Wah-wah pedals and both feeding back on each other was seen as the highlight of the album's critical and chart success. On 'Going Blank Again' (1992) Bell contributed "Not Fazed", "Chrome Waves", "Time Of Her Time", "Cool Your Boots" and "Making Judy Smile".


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Despite having a solid fanbase and some mainstream success, the lack of a breakthrough contributed to intra-band tension, especially between Gardener and Bell. Their third LP, 'Carnival of Light', was released in 1994, after shoegazing had given way to Britpop. On 'Carnival Of Light', (1994) Bell contributed "Birdman", "Crown Of Creation", "Endless Road", "Magical Spring", "Rolling Thunder" and "I Don’t Know Where It Comes From". The band were joined at Creation Records by Oasis, who shot to fame in 1994 with their debut 'Definitely Maybe'. As label mates, Bell was an early fan of the band and became friendly with the Gallagher brothers.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: 1995 saw the dissolution of the band while recording their fourth album, 'Tarantula', due to creative and personal tensions between the two guitarists. Bell penned several of the songs for the album, one of which – "Castle on the Hill" – has been interpreted as a lament for the band's situation. Additionally, Bell contributed "Black Nite Crash", "Sunshine / Nowhere To Run", "Dead Man", "Walk On Water", "Mary Anne", "The Dawn Patrol", "Burnin", and "Starlight Motel". Upon release of the album, it was announced that it would be deleted after one week.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Since the break-up, both Bell and Gardener have been more reflective on the reasons why the group disintegrated, with Bell especially admitting his own part in the process.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: In 2014 it was announced that Ride had re-formed and tour for eight months throughout in Europe and North America in 2015. This took in two headline shows at Primavera Sound and London’s Field Day. November 2016 brought further news many Ride fans have been anticipating: there would be a new album in 2017. Producer and DJ Erol Alkan broke the news on Twitter that he had been in the studio with the band, with their first album in 20 years released in Summer 2017. 'Weather Diaries', Ride's fifth studio album, was released on 16 June 2017 on Wichita Recordings.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: In August 2019, Ride released their sixth studio album, 'This Is Not a Safe Place', which reached number 7 in the UK charts. The release has been supported with a world tour.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell returned in 1997 with Hurricane #1, another Creation signing. Inspired by Oasis, Bell had drafted in a more gutsy singer, Alex Lowe, who would sing the songs Bell wrote for him. The same year, they released their first album, also called 'Hurricane #1'. Their first single, "Step into My World", reached number 29 in the UK charts (a re-mix reached number 19 that year), and other less successful singles "Just Another Illusion" and "Chain Reaction".


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Their second album, "Only the Strongest Will Survive", was released in 1998 and the title track was released as a single reaching number 19. Notably, this album contains the only Hurricane #1 song not written by Bell, "What Do I Know?", which was written by Alex Lowe.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Hurricane No. 1 drew attention for their similarity to Oasis. Bell himself said "Hurricane No. 1 is not so much influenced by Oasis, it's inspired by Oasis". Their albums did not sell well in comparison to Ride. In 1999, it was reported in the music press that Bell would be touring as guitarist with the band Gay Dad. But this never happened because Bell had by that time been asked to join Oasis.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: During 1999 with Hurricane #1 on hiatus, Bell moved from Oxford to live with his wife and daughter in Sweden. Bell was invited to join Oasis because they were looking for replacements for founding members Bonehead and Guigsy. At the last minute Bell had to learn to play bass as well as the entire Oasis catalogue before his first Oasis gig.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: While with Oasis, Bell regularly made songwriting contributions to the band. On "Heathen Chemistry", Bell wrote the song "A Quick Peep". His song "Thank You For the Good Times" was featured as the B-side of "Stop Crying Your Heart Out" from the same album. On "Don't Believe The Truth", he wrote "Turn Up the Sun" (which also opened every live show on that Oasis tour) and "Keep the Dream Alive". On "Dig Out Your Soul", he wrote "The Nature of Reality".


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Noel Gallagher quit Oasis in August 2009, following an argument with his brother. Following the end of Oasis, Bell and the other former members formed Beady Eye. Bell changed from playing bass to guitar, his main instrument before joining Oasis, both live and in the studio for the band. Beady Eye's debut album "Different Gear, Still Speeding" contains four songs written by Bell: "Four Letter Word", "Millionaire", "Kill for a Dream", and "The Beat Goes On". Bell also contributed "World Outside My Room", the B-side of "Four Letter Word".


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell played guitar and keyboards and provided backing vocals on Beady Eye's second album, 2013's "BE". It contained three songs written by Bell: "Face the Crowd", "Soon Come Tomorrow", and "I'm just Saying", and also co-wrote "Flick of the Finger". He also contributed "Dreaming of Some Space" to the B-side of "Second Bite of the Apple". Beady Eye disbanded in October 2014.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: In addition to being a songwriter and musician, Bell has for a number of years actively been involved in record production. He receives co-production credit for both albums recorded by Hurricane #1, namely the eponymous "Hurricane#1" and "Only The Strongest Will Survive".


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: During late 1995, after the sessions for "Tarantula" were completed but prior to the official announcement of Ride's break-up, Bell undertook production duties on Britpop band The Kynd's debut single "Egotripper", which was released in October 1996.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell also undertook production duties for the fifth studio album "Fear & Love" by Swedish band Weeping Willows, released in 2007. Weeping Willows draws upon early Roy Orbison and The Smiths as their main influences. On "Fear & Love", Bell brought some English folk music influences, and some 1960s styled British Invasion sounds. The album was more or less recorded live in the studio, by playing the songs until the band got them right with minimal digital post-production. Weeping Willows prior two albums relied on extensive post-production and remix styled studio techniques. Reaching number 2 in the Swedish charts, Scandinavian music critics have given "Fear & Love" a warm welcome and compared some songs to The Coral, The Verve, Talk Talk and Oasis.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell has been good friends with Magnus Carlson, the lead singer in Weeping Willows, and together they have embarked on some musical projects. Bell and Carlsson were resident DJs at Swedish club, Bangers 'n' Mash during the mid-noughties. Bell also undertakes occasional DJ sets in UK clubs, for example, "This Feeling" nightclub in London. In 2003, Bell collaborated with the Stockholm based Irish-Swedish electronica/acid house duo, DK7, by providing guitar on the tracks "Heart Like a Demon" and "White Shadow" for their "Disarmed" album. During the autumn of 2006 Carlson and Bell teamed up with Janne Schaffer and performed at an event dedicated to the late 1970s singer-songwriter, Ted Gärdestad. In addition to his role as producer, Bell played a number of instruments on eight of the twelve tracks on the 2007 album "Fear & Love" by Weeping Willows, ranging from glockenspiel and piano to guitar. He has also performed solo gigs at smaller Swedish summer festivals including the 2006 'Fest-i-val' in Umeå Sweden.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: On May 10, 2007, Bell played the bass on "Arnold Layne" with Pink Floyd regulars David Gilmour, Richard Wright, Nick Mason and Jon Carin at The Madcap’s Last Laugh, a tribute concert to Pink Floyd's recently deceased founding member, Syd Barrett, at Barbican Hall in London.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: In July 2007, Bell appeared with friend and former fellow Ride member Mark Gardener onstage with Californian rock band The Brian Jonestown Massacre at the Oxford "Truck" Music Festival On 19 December 2007, Bell joined Weeping Willows on stage for an event called "An Evening With Weeping Willows at Chinateatern" He lined up with other prominent guests such as The Soundtrack of Our Lives' Martin Hederos, Echo & the Bunnymen vocalist Ian McCulloch and Jens Lekman.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell has worked with Swedish band The Most on various recordings and contributed guitars and vocals on the song "Now I Feel" from the EP "Moderation in Moderation" (a title suggested by Bell).


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell has on several occasions stated his intention to record and release a solo album. He said, "I will get around to it, it's just waiting for the songs to turn up that suit my voice. I've got one so far, give me about five years and I'll have an album's worth."


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: During 2008, Bell collaborated with British-American electronica group SPC ECO on the track "Silver Clouds", on which he plays an electronic sitar drone machine and an old custom dulcimer, as well as devising the song's lyrics. The song was made available in 2009 as a bonus track to the Japanese edition of SPC ECO's album "3-D".


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: 2009 saw Bell release his first solo recording under the Grapefruit name, an instrumental track also entitled "Grapefruit" which he contributed to the "One by One: KZK Adidas Originals by Originals" compilation album, a Japan only release via Sony Music.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell released his first solo single "Plastic Bag" on 23 October 2019 on 7 inch clear vinyl as a subscription for the Sonic Cathedral Singles Club.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell's second solo single, and the first single from his debut solo album, was "Love Comes in Waves" and was released on 11 August 2020.


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: In 2015, Bell scored the short film "Midnight of My Life" and also did some production work on Dave Galafassi's track "Hello Halo", which was performed by actress Toni Collette for the soundtrack to the romantic comedy film "Miss You Already".


title: Andy Bell (musician)

text: Bell was previously married to Swedish singer Idha Övelius. They have two children, a daughter, Leia, and a son, Leon. He currently resides in London and has been married to Shiarra, a label rep from Universal Music, since 2010.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: The cedar waxwing (Bombycilla cedrorum) is a member of the family Bombycillidae or waxwing family of passerine birds. It is a medium-sized, mostly brown, gray, and yellow. This bird is named for its wax-like wing tips. It is a native of North and Central America, breeding in open wooded areas in southern Canada and wintering in the southern half of the United States, Central America, and the far northwest of South America. Its diet includes cedar cones, fruit, holly berries, and insects. The cedar waxwing is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: The genus name "Bombycilla" comes from the Ancient Greek "bombux", "silk" and the Modern Latin "cilla", "tail"; this is a direct translation of the German "Seidenschwanz", "silk-tail", and refers to the silky-soft plumage of these birds. The specific "cedrorum" is Latin for "of the cedars".


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Cedar waxwings are medium-sized birds approximately long and weighing roughly . Wingspan ranges from 8.7-11.8 in (22-30 cm). They are smaller and browner than their close relative, the Bohemian waxwing (which breeds farther to the north and west). Their markings are a "silky, shiny collection of brown, gray, and lemon-yellow, accented with a subdued crest, rakish black mask, and brilliant-red wax droplets on the wing feathers." These droplets may be the same color as the madrone berries they are known to eat. These birds' most prominent feature is this small cluster of red wax-like droplets on tips of secondary flight feathers on the wings, a feature they share with the Bohemian waxwing (but not the Japanese waxwing). These wax-like droplets are attributed to the pigmented and medullary layers of the secondary tip being surrounded by a transparent cuticle. The wings are "broad and pointed, like a starling's." The tail is typically yellow or orange depending on diet. Birds that have fed on berries of introduced Eurasian honeysuckles while growing tail feathers will have darker orange-tipped tail-feathers. The tail is somewhat short, and square-tipped. Adults have a pale yellow belly. The waxwing's crest often "lies flat and droops over the back of the head." It has a short and wide bill. The waxwing's black mask has a thin white border. Immature birds are streaked on the throat and flanks, and often do not have the black mask of the adults. Males and females look alike.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: The flight of waxwings is strong and direct, and the movement of the flock in flight resembles that of a flock of small pale European starlings. Cedar waxwings fly at and fly at an altitude of .


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Cedar waxwings are also known as the southern waxwing, Canada robin, cedar bird, cherry bird, or recellet.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: The two common calls of these birds include very high-pitched whistles and buzzy trills about a half second long often represented as "see" or "sree". Its call can also be described as "high, thin, whistles." They call often, especially in flight.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Preferred habitat consists of trees at the edge of wooded areas, or forests, especially those that provide access to berry sources as well as water. They are frequently seen in fruiting trees. Waxwings are attracted to the sound of running water and like to bathe in and drink from shallow creeks. In urban or suburban environments, waxwings often favor parkland with well-spaced trees;


title: Cedar waxwing

text: golf courses, cemeteries, or other landscaping with well-spaced trees; bushes that provide berries; and a nearby water source such as a fountain or birdbath. Also look for them near farms, orchards, and gardens, particularly ones with fruiting trees or shrubs.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Outside the breeding season, cedar waxwings often feed in large flocks numbering hundreds of birds. This species is nomadic and irruptive, with erratic winter movements, though most of the population migrates farther south into the United States and beyond, sometimes reaching as far as northern South America. They will move in huge numbers if berry supplies are low. Rare vagrants have reached western Europe, and there are two recorded occurrences of cedar waxwing sightings in Great Britain. Individual Bohemian waxwings will occasionally join large winter flocks of cedar waxwings.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Cedar waxwings are sociable, seen in flocks year round. They are non-territorial birds and "will often groom each other." They move from place to place depending on where they can find good sources of berries.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Mating season for this bird begins around the end of spring and runs through late summer. The male will do a "hopping dance" for the female. If she is interested, she'll hop back. During courtship the male and female will sit together and pass small objects back and forth, such as flower petals or an insect. Mating pairs will sometimes rub their beaks together. The nest is a loose open cup built with grass and twigs, lined with softer materials and supported by a tree branch averaging above ground but, at times, considerably higher. It takes around five or six days for the female waxwing to build the nest and can take up to 2,500 trips back and forth. Sometimes the female will steal nest material from other species' nests. The outer diameter of the nest is approximately . Usually 5 or 6 eggs are laid and the female incubates them for 11 to 13 days. The eggs are oval shaped with a smooth surface and very little, if any, gloss. The egg shells are of various shades of light or bluish grey with irregular, dark brown spots or greyish-brown splotches. Both parents build the nest and feed the young. Typically, there are one or two broods during the mating season. Young leave the nest about 14 to 18 days after hatching.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Cedar waxwings eat berries and sugary fruit year-round, including dogwood, serviceberry, cedar, juniper, hawthorn, and winterberry, with insects becoming an important part of the diet in the breeding season. Its fondness for the small cones of the eastern redcedar (a kind of juniper) gave this bird its common name. They eat berries whole. They sometimes fly over water to catch insects. The cedar waxwing is sometimes responsible for significant damage to commercial fruit farms and thus can be considered a pest, especially because it feeds in large groups.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: When the end of a twig holds a supply of berries that only one bird at a time can reach, members of a flock may line up along the twig and pass berries beak to beak down the line so that each bird gets a chance to eat.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Sometimes, cedar waxwings will eat fruit that is overripe and has begun to ferment, intoxicating the bird.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Cedar waxwings are a highly specialized frugivorous species, exhibiting almost full reliance on sugary fruits, unlike other fruit-eating passerines that exhibit only opportunistic frugivory when other food sources are in poor supply. Their efficient digestion of fruits containing simple sugars allows them to persist off of fruit alone, while other fruit-eating passerines found subsisting on fruit alone to be a fatal task. Reliance on primarily fruit alone occurs until fruit cessation in the spring when the birds start to feed on insects and flowers in which an intestinal analysis revealed stomach contents of 84% fruit, 12% invertebrates, and 4% flowers, among 212 individuals involved in the study.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Despite the advantage of frugivorous specialization, they did lose body mass when experimentally fed one fruit type alone ("Viburnum opulus"), but gained body mass when fed pollen-rich catkins as well ("Populus deltoides"). Many fleshy fruits are energy rich, however, they are deficient in nitrogen (protein) levels required by cedar waxwings (1.7%). The nutrient deficit of sugary fruits alone is mitigated through flower and subsequent pollen consumption that is rich in protein. This response to food diversity illustrates the importance of multiple food sources in order to acquire the precise nutrients needed to maintain bodily metabolism.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Even though they displayed efficient rates of digestion, they also exhibited relatively quick passage rates which are indicative of their low utilization efficiency (36.5%) as fruit skins appeared undigested in feces. The low utilization efficiency of fruits digested by Cedar Waxwings not only indicates the necessity of consuming large quantities of fruits, but viable seeds found in feces also suggests the important role they may play in seed dispersal.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: The presence of seeds in feces is also indicative of the digestive limitations associated with eating seed-rich fruits, specifically fruits laden with smaller seeds that pass much slower through the digestive tract. A positive correlation between seed defecation and fruit consumption is seen as rates of ingestion increased only when rates of seed processing also increased. Studies have shown that when seeds were observed being regurgitated or expelled, activity and ingestion increased as opposed to when seeds were consumed and passed through the digestive tract, limiting further activity and foraging in which waxwings exhibited a period of “loafing” characterized by stretches of inactivity after a meal. This limitation of fruit processing poses potential issues for Cedar Waxwings observed consuming nutrient-poor fruits and their seeds as the ingestion of seeds prevents them from increasing consumption efforts to mitigate this low-quality diet.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Ingestion of seeds by cedar waxwings is alleviated via efficient rates of seed processing in which seeds are separated from and defecated before the pulp of the fruit. This allows them to still exhibit relatively high digestion efficiencies in spite of the gut processing limitations that are associated with eating seeds. The digestive strategies employed by these birds allow them to subside off of a predominately fruit-based diet.


title: Cedar waxwing

text: Waxwings are evaluated as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species. Populations are increasing in their range partly because fields are being allowed to grow into forests and shrublands, and fruiting trees like mountain ash are being planted as landscaping. On the other hand, cedar waxwings do sometimes crash into windows, and get hit by cars while foraging along roadsides.


title: Bear attack

text: A bear attack is an attack by a bear on another animal, although it usually refers to a bear attacking a human or domestic pet such as a dog. Bear attacks are of particular concern for those who are in bear habitats. They can be fatal and often hikers, dogs, hunters, fishers, and others in bear country take precautions against bear attacks.


title: Bear attack

text: Stephen Herrero, a Canadian biologist, reports that during the 1990s, bears killed around three people a year in the U.S. and Canada, as compared to the 30 to 50 people killed every year by dogs.


title: Bear attack

text: Almost all recorded bear attacks in the wild have resulted from the human surprising the bear. Hunters are the people most at risk of bear attacks because, as Tom Smith, a U.S. Geographical Survey research biologist, describes, "Hunters typically aren't making any noise, and they sleuth around while wearing camo." Hunters try to be silent and, though many hunters wear reflective clothing so as not to become targets for other hunters, they try to hide their movements so as not to startle game. Most bear attacks result from hunters suddenly appearing in front of them, startling a bear into an instinctive act of aggression.


title: Bear attack

text: A bear's first reaction upon detecting a human is to run away. Fergus lists a few possible causes for this instinctive reaction, each a speculation or theory based more on intuition rather than physical evidence. Some speculate that bears inherit their cautious nature from thousands of years ago when they had to be wary of larger and more dangerous carnivores. Some believe that bears have come to relate a human presence to firearms, or other weaponry, that they have come to fear. Still others think that hunters tend to target more aggressive bears, thus leaving only the more shy and timid bears to reproduce, creating a population of bears less hostile than before.


title: Bear attack

text: One of the most dangerous situations that leads to bear attacks is when a bear perceives a threat to her offspring. Sow bears are very protective of their young, devoting, on their own without any participation of the male bear, many years of their lives just to raise their cubs and teach them to hunt, hence the term "mama bear" to refer to extremely reactive and protective mothers of humans, particularly those who do this without paternal care. While solo bears will usually retreat, a mother bear protecting her cubs is most likely to attack any sudden threat. Black bears present something of an exception to this, however, as mother black bears sometimes urge their cubs to climb trees for safety instead of remaining on the ground to protect their young.


title: Bear attack

text: Another dangerous situation is when a human is faced with a hungry bear that has lost its natural fear of humans. With the decrease of hunting grounds and food crops such as berries and bark, bears often become more desperate and aggressive. However, this hunger has also triggered an unexpected reaction: bears began to follow gunfire because they associate it with dead animals that they can eat.


title: Bear attack

text: Once a bear claims an animal carcass, it becomes very protective of its kill. This becomes a problem when a bear claims a hunter's kill, as the hunter may not wish to kill the bear as well. By avoiding a bear over a carcass, the risk of attack is reduced by around fifty percent.


title: Bear attack

text: Bears may act aggressively toward humans, even when they are not hungry, protecting a kill, or protecting their young. Most fatal attacks by black bears have been judged as predatory. Bear researcher Stephen Herrero determined that in black bear attacks, the bear acted as a predator in 88 percent of fatal incidents.


title: Bear attack

text: American black bears are abundant in much of North America. In the US and Canada, there were between 10 and 200,000 black bears in most states or provinces as of a 1996 count. In 1996, it was estimated that there were between 735,000 and 941,000 black bears in the United States and Canada combined. Only seven states and one province had none.


title: Bear attack

text: Unlike grizzly bears, which became a subject of fearsome legend among the European settlers of North America, black bears were rarely considered overly dangerous, even though they lived in areas where the pioneers had settled. Black bears rarely attack when confronted by humans, and usually limit themselves to making mock charges, emitting blowing noises and swatting the ground with their forepaws.


title: Bear attack

text: According to Stephen Herrero in his "Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance", 23 people were killed by black bears from 1900 to 1980. The number of black bear attacks on humans is higher than those of brown bears, though this is largely because black bears outnumber brown bears rather than being more aggressive. Compared to brown bear attacks, violent encounters with black bears rarely lead to serious injury and death. However, the majority of black bear attacks tend to be motivated by hunger rather than territoriality, and thus victims have a higher probability of surviving by fighting back rather than submitting. Unlike grizzlies, female black bears do not display the same level of protectiveness toward their cubs, and will seldom attack humans in their vicinity. However, it is a very common occurrence for the American black bear to take food from campsites, and even from time to time break into people's homes to get food.


title: Bear attack

text: The worst recorded fatality incident occurred in May 1978, in which a black bear killed three teenagers fishing in Algonquin Park in Canada. The majority of attacks happened in national parks, usually near campgrounds, where the bears had become habituated to human contact and food. Between 1964 and 1976 in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, there were 1,028 documented incidents of black bears acting aggressively toward people, 107 of which resulted in injury. These incidents occurred mainly in tourist hotspots, where people regularly fed the bears handouts.


title: Bear attack

text: Though usually shy and cautious animals, Asian black bears are more aggressive toward humans than the brown bears of Eurasia. According to Brigadier General R.G. Burton:


title: Bear attack

text: E. T. Vere of Srinagar, Kashmir wrote of how his hospital received dozens of black bear victims annually. He wrote that, when attacking humans, black bears will rear up on their hind legs and knock victims over with their paws. They then make one or two bites on an arm or leg and finish with a snap to the head, this being the most dangerous part of the attack. There are no records of predation on humans by Asiatic black bears in Russia and no conflicts have been documented in Taiwan. However, in India, attacks on humans have been increasing yearly and have occurred largely in the northwestern and western Himalayan region. In the Chamba District of Himachal Pradesh, the number of black bear attacks on humans gradually increased from 10 in 1988–89 to 21 in 1991–92.


title: Bear attack

text: Recent bear attacks on humans have been reported from Junbesi and Langtang National Park in Nepal, and occurred in villages as well as in the surrounding forest. Li Guoxing, the second person in history to have received a facial transplant, was a victim of a black bear attack. Nine people were killed by black bears in Japan between 1979 and 1989, and more recently, in September 2009, it was reported that a black bear attacked a group of tourists, seriously injuring four, while they were waiting at a bus station in the built-up area of Takayama, Gifu in central Japan. The majority of attacks tend to occur when black bears are encountered suddenly, and at close quarters. Because of this, black bears are generally considered more dangerous than sympatric brown bears, which live in more open spaces and are thus less likely to be surprised by approaching humans. They are also likely to attack when protecting food.


title: Bear attack

text: As a rule, brown bears seldom attack humans on sight, and usually avoid people. They are, however, unpredictable in temperament, and will attack if they are surprised or feel threatened. Sows with cubs account for the majority of injuries and fatalities in North America. Habituated or food conditioned bears can also be dangerous, as their long-term exposure to humans causes them to lose their natural shyness, and in some cases associate humans with food. Small parties of one or two people are more often attacked than large groups, with no attacks being recorded against parties of more than seven people. In contrast to injuries caused by American black bears, which are usually minor, brown bear attacks tend to result in serious injury and in some cases death. In the majority of attacks resulting in injury, brown bears precede the attack with a growl or huffing sound, and seem to confront humans as they would when fighting other bears: they rise up on their hind legs, and attempt to "disarm" their victims by biting and holding on to the lower jaw to avoid being bitten in turn. Such a bite can be more severe than that of a tiger, and has been known to crush the heads of some human victims.


title: Bear attack

text: Most attacks occur in the months of July, August and September, the time when the number of outdoor recreationalists, such as hikers or hunters, is higher. People who assert their presence through noises tend to be less vulnerable, as they alert bears to their presence. In direct confrontations, people who run are statistically more likely to be attacked than those who stand their ground. Violent encounters with brown bears usually last only a few minutes, though they can be prolonged if the victims fight back.


title: Bear attack

text: Attacks on humans are considered extremely rare in the former Soviet Union, though exceptions exist in districts where they are not pursued by hunters. East Siberian brown bears for example tend to be much bolder toward humans than their shyer, more frequently hunted European counterparts. In 2008, a platinum mining compound in the Olyotorsky district of northern Kamchatka was besieged by a group of 30 Kamchatka brown bears that killed two guards and prevented workers from leaving their homes. In Scandinavia, only three fatal attacks were recorded in the 20th century. Due to increasing brown bear population in Turkey, attacks still occur in mountainous areas of Northeastern Turkey.


title: Bear attack

text: Native American tribes whose territories overlapped with those of grizzly bears often viewed them with a mixture of awe and fear. North American brown bears were so feared by the Natives that they were rarely hunted, especially alone. When Natives hunted grizzlies, the act was done with the same preparation and ceremoniality as intertribal warfare, and was never done except with a company of 4 to 10 warriors. The tribe members who dealt the killing blow were highly esteemed among their compatriots. Californian Indians actively avoided prime bear habitat, and would not allow their young men to hunt alone, for fear of bear attacks. During the Spanish colonial period, some tribes, instead of hunting grizzlies themselves, would seek aid from European colonists to deal with problem bears. Many authors in the American west wrote of Natives or voyagers with lacerated faces and missing noses or eyes due to attacks from grizzlies. Within Yellowstone National Park, injuries caused by grizzly attacks in developed areas averaged approximately 1 per year during the 1930s through the 1950s, though it increased to 4 per year during the 1960s. They then decreased to 1 injury every 2 years (0.5/year) during the 1970s. Between 1980 and 2002, there were only 2 grizzly bear-caused human injuries in a developed area. However, although grizzly attacks were rare in the back-country before 1970, the number of attacks increased to an average of approximately 1 per year during the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s.


title: Bear attack

text: According to bear biologist Charles Jonkel, one reason for bear attacks is the lack of important foods such as huckleberry, buffalo berry, and white-bark pine nut. Winter freezes may be one reason for the food shortages.


title: Bear attack

text: Polar bears, particularly starving males, will hunt humans for food, though attacks on humans by female bears are rare. Between 1870 and 2014, out of 73 recorded polar bear attacks there were 20 human fatalities and 69 injuries. Polar bears are often judged as the predators in these interactions as nearly all recorded attacks happened to groups of at least two people.


title: Bear attack

text: A polar bear killed one and injured four others on 5 August 2011 in the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard when it attacked a party of university students camped near the Von Post glacier, some 25 miles (40 km) from the settlement of Longyearbyen.


title: Bear attack

text: In some areas of India and Burma, sloth bears are more feared than tigers, due to their unpredictable temperament. In Madhya Pradesh, sloth bear attacks accounted for the deaths of 48 people and the injuring of 686 others between the years 1989 and 1994, probably due in part to the density of population and competition for food sources. One specimen, known as the sloth bear of Mysore, was single-handedly responsible for the deaths of 12 people and the mutilation of 2 dozen others before being shot by Kenneth Anderson. Sloth bears defend themselves when surprised, with the majority of confrontations occurring at night. They typically charge on all fours with their head held low, before rearing on their hind legs and striking at their attackers with their claws and teeth.


title: Bear attack

text: According to "Wild Bears of the Worlds", by Paul Ward and Suzanne Kynaston, human contact with bears has existed since the time of the Neanderthals and the European cave bear around 200,000 to 75,000 years ago. There is some evidence of cave bear worship during these early years: between the years 1917 and 1922, Emil Bachler discovered a large stone chest filled with cave bear skulls in the Drachenloch Cave in Switzerland, one of the Wildkirchli; between 1916 and 1922, Konrad Hormann found narrow niches filled with five cave bear skulls.


title: Bear attack

text: Ward and Kynaston go on to report that Cro-Magnon humans, who first appeared nearly 35,000 years ago, show more obvious evidence of cave bear worship in the forms of paintings, sculptures, and engravings; however, there is still some doubt as to whether these works specifically depict the cave bear or the European brown bear.


title: Bear attack

text: In the 1900s, bear populations had been decreasing because of increased hunting of bears for sustenance (done mostly by native peoples such as the Inupiat of Alaska and the Inuvialuit of Canada) and for trophy prizes. Polar bear skins became popular as a sign of wealth and prestige, especially in Europe during the Victorian era. Comparatively, the pelts of giant panda, were also highly valued, priced at around 176,000 U.S. dollars. Settlers, indigenous, villagers and farmers defended their families and livestock by killing the local predators, including bears. This practice is still in place where necessary and legal.


title: Bear attack

text: More recently, laws have been instated to protect the dwindling populations of bears; however, as stated in "Return of the Grizzly" by David Whitman, these laws have increased the tensions between bears and humans. While this allows bear populations to recuperate, it also prevents people from killing bears that have invaded their property and killed their livestock.


title: Bear attack

text: The various species of bear are well-developed for survival, both for attaining food and defending against predators, including unarmed humans. The different species all have the same general physical characteristics and senses that allow them to adapt to situations that threaten their survival.


title: Bear attack

text: A bear's fur is often very thick, and it can function much like armor. In situations between bears and other predators, such as humans, this thick fur acts with the bear's thick skin and layers of fat as a buffer against most physical attacks, sometimes buffering to some extent even against firearms. According to Charles Fergus' "Wild Guide: Bears", bear fur is also a source of insulation that allows bears to inhabit almost any habitat, from the hot jungles inhabited by sun bears and sloth bears to the frozen tundra inhabited by polar bears, thus occupying most of the same territory as humanity.


title: Bear attack

text: A bear's muscular structure is highly suited for strength and power. Polar bears are known to swim for kilometers in search of food and to scoop seals out of the water.


title: Bear attack

text: Grizzly bears can bring down prey, such as bison or moose, that outweigh the bear by several hundred kilograms and can steal kills from entire packs of wolves. Their top speed running on all fours has been reported to be around . By comparison, Usain Bolt ran at a record-breaking speed of at the 2008 Summer Olympics. Most people are incapable of reaching speeds even remotely close to this number; thus, it is impossible for a human to outrun a bear.


title: Bear attack

text: Bears have five digits on each dextrous paw, each digit with a long non-retractable claw. The shape of the claw differs between the bear species: black bear claws are strong and curved, which allows them to claw at tree bark; grizzly bear claws are long and straight, ideal for digging, and can be up to long; polar bear claws are thick and sharp for holding the slippery skins of seals.


title: Bear attack

text: The jaws of a bear reflect its omnivorous eating habits. A bear has forty-two teeth, with canines, which can be even longer than those of a tiger. While a bear's canines can pierce flesh and tear meat, a bear's back teeth are relatively flat, better suited for eating plants rather than meat. However, the jaws of bears are controlled by large muscles that are capable of crushing bones, which gives access to the nutritious marrow within. Some grizzly bears have jaws that can bite through pine trees.


title: Bear attack

text: Humans in contrast have thirty-two teeth, sixteen on each jaw, each tooth less than a half-inch long. Of these teeth, there are four incisors, two canines, four premolars, and six molars. While human incisors are capable of biting into meat, bears have more powerful jaw muscles, which make their bite more destructive to flesh. More appropriate comparisons to bear dentition are to those of dogs whose teeth are similar in proportion to those of bears (and of course much smaller, although capable of inflicting much damage even at their smaller size).


title: Bear attack

text: Bears' senses are likely similar to those of dogs, animals that at times have much the same build and dietary habits of bears.


title: Bear attack

text: Bears' sense of smell is dependent on a Jacobson's organ, or vomeronasal organ, which allows the bear to easily detect airborne scents. Bears use this sense of smell not only to hunt, but to detect other bears as well; male bears use smell to stay away from other male bears and to find female bears during mating season. While humans have a sense of olfaction, or smell, and they do use it for communication; its range is low compared to a polar bear that can smell a seal from away.


title: Bear attack

text: Little is known about a bear's hearing, but scientists concluded that it is at least as good as a human's. Some scientists believe that bears may even be able to detect ultrasonic sounds as well.


title: Bear attack

text: Natural observers believe that most bear species are near-sighted, which allows bears to forage for small objects such as berries. However, bears are also capable of discerning faraway movements, helping them hunt prey. The Kodiak bear, when compared to other species, appears to have vision comparable to a human (not near-sighted). Experiments show that black bears can see color, unlike many mammals. With scientists still working to determine exactly how perceptive bear eyes are, it is difficult to compare bear eyesight with human eyesight.


title: Bear attack

text: Aside from the large lacerations, fractures, and other wounds that can result from bear attacks, infections are also physically detrimental. A bear's mouth is full of potentially harmful bacteria, especially if the bear has been feeding on a gut pile or feces. Bear bites can result in infections common to most animal bites, including abscesses, sepsis, and even rabies. Though there is little data, what is available from bear bite statistics indicates that bears do not tend to carry many of the most well-known dangerous anaerobic bacteria strains in their normal oral flora; however, given the circumstances of most bear attacks, wound contamination from the environment is highly likely and means there is risk of tetanus and other external microbial agents.


title: Bear attack

text: Recovery from bear attacks depends on the extent of damage, but often involves long-term medical treatment. As shown in the medical procedure led by Professor Shuzhong Guo, extreme cases of bear attacks have resulted in plastic surgeries and even facial transplants that, while successful, may take several years to complete and are sometimes fatal.


title: Climate variability and change

text: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. C"limate change" may refer to any time in Earth's history, but the term is now commonly used to describe contemporary climate change. Since the Industrial Revolution, the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities.


title: Climate variability and change

text: The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun and radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy and the passage of the energy through the climate system is Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, Earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and Earth experiences cooling.