title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: After East Midtown was rezoned in 2014, city officials said a skyscraper could be developed on the site of the Roosevelt Hotel, although PIA had not proposed a new building there. PIA proposed selling the Roosevelt yet again in 2017 as part of a plan to raise $3.5 billion. Venture capitalist Shahal M. Khan expressed interest in buying the hotel, telling "The Real Deal" magazine that he planned to offer at least $500 million. Pakistani prime minister Shahid Khaqan Abbasi rejected PIA's attempt to sell the hotel in December 2017. Early the next year, PIA officials indicated that they were considering leasing out the hotel for three or four decades. PIA refinanced the Roosevelt in 2018, obtaining a $105 million mortgage loan from JPMorgan Chase.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City in March 2020, most of the hotel's employees were furloughed, and occupancy rates dropped significantly. By July 2020, officials of the Aviation Division of Pakistan indicated that the hotel might have to be closed permanently that December, as the hotel was losing $37 million per month. The same month, Pakistan's Cabinet Committee on Privatization decided to run the hotel through a joint venture rather than privatizing it. Trump, who by then was U.S. president, subsequently expressed interest in buying the hotel from PIA. In September 2020, Pakistan's Economic Coordination Council gave $142 million to the Roosevelt Hotel Corporation to settle outstanding debts and pay severance to employees. The next month, PIA announced that the hotel would permanently close due to continued financial losses associated with the pandemic. At the time, nearly three-quarters of New York City's luxury hotels had not reopened.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: The hotel closed on December 18, 2020. The Pakistani Air Ministry refused to divulge its plans for the Roosevelt, which was boarded up, although the ministry said it was not planning to sell the hotel. One year after the Roosevelt closed, PIA had still not paid $7 million in severance to the hotel's workers, as was required by New York City law. This prompted the Hotel Trades Council to file a lawsuit against the New York City government, claiming that the city had failed to enforce the law. By November 2021, PIA was paying severance to roughly 500 workers that had been furloughed. However, the airline was seeking an injunction against another city law, which required hotels with more than 100 rooms to pay each employee up to $500 per week while they were closed. The following April, a federal judge denied PIA's request for an injunction.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: By early 2022, Australian mining firm Tethyan Copper sought to acquire the hotel after the Pakistani government reneged on a mineral-rights agreement with Tethyan Copper. In addition, local politicians were advocating for the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission to designate the hotel building as a landmark. The Qatar Investment Authority also showed interest in purchasing the hotel in August 2022, offering to buy a 25 percent stake in the hotel. At the time, Pakistan's aviation minister Ghulam Sarwar Khan denied reports that PIA was planning to sell some shares in the hotel to Qatar. By that September, Pakistani officials were considering either reopening the hotel or leasing it out as a mixed-use development.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: In its first five years, the hotel hosted such events as music recitals; national singing auditions; the National Association of Manufacturers' annual meetings; an annual exhibit by car company Packard; and a benefit for the Authors League. The hotel's events in the 1930s included luncheons for athletes, as well as a pet show sponsored by the New York Women's League for Animals. By the mid-20th century, the Roosevelt was hosting events such as National Federation of Music Clubs meetings, coin exhibits, dog shows, and tennis conferences. Over the years, the Roosevelt has also hosted city real estate auctions, where the New York City government sold off properties that it had acquired through foreclosure.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: The Roosevelt has hosted several awards ceremonies. For instance, at least during the 1940s, the Peabody Awards for radio and television were hosted at the Roosevelt. Columbia University hosted its first Mike Berger Awards in Journalism at the hotel in 1961, and the George Polk Memorial Award was also being distributed at the Roosevelt by the 1970s. The Roosevelt also hosted the National Football League Draft between 1976 and 1978, when the NFL Draft was still a relatively low-profile event.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: Guy Lombardo began leading the house band of the Roosevelt Grill in 1929. Lombardo held an annual New Year's Eve radio broadcast at the hotel with his band, the Royal Canadians; this tradition gave rise to the popularity of "Auld Lang Syne" during New Year's Eve. Lombardo's band typically performed in the Grill during the winter, while the Grill was closed during the summer (typically in May). The Grill was open year-round by the early 1940s, and the Royal Canadians' program was also broadcast on television starting in 1943. Lombardo performed at the Grill every year until 1962, except during 1959. According to "The New York Times", many Major League Baseball teams visited the Grill during Lombardo's time at the Grill. Lawrence Welk began his career at the Roosevelt Hotel while performing with the Royal Canadians.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: Jan Garber's band started playing in the Grill in 1962. The Grill Room was briefly closed from December 1964 to January 1965, when an all-female orchestra led by Joan Fairfax began performing there. Other performers included jazz musician Si Zentner, who appeared at the Grill Room in 1961.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: During the mid-20th century, several Republican Party candidates and campaigns used the Roosevelt Hotel. For example, the National Republican Congressional Committee opened an office at the hotel in 1930, and Fiorello La Guardia operated a campaign office at the Roosevelt during the 1941 New York City mayoral election. Between 1943 and 1954, the New York state government maintained an office at the Roosevelt Hotel for governor Thomas E. Dewey, who occupied suites 1525 through 1531 at the Roosevelt. Dewey's campaign for the 1944 United States presidential election was headquartered on the 10th floor, and Dewey, his family, and his staff listened to election returns from his 15th-floor suite during the 1948 presidential election. Although Dewey retired as New York's governor in 1954, he continued to visit the Roosevelt's barbershop every Tuesday until he died.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: The hotel also contained the national campaign offices of numerous Republican U.S. presidential candidates, and it housed Dwight D. Eisenhower's New York campaign offices during the 1952 presidential election. In addition, John Lindsay had an office at the Roosevelt in 1958, during his candidacy for the House of Representatives; when Lindsay won the 1965 New York City mayoral election, his staffers celebrated in the Roosevelt's ballroom. By the early 1970s, Republican politicians no longer frequented the Roosevelt. Even so, the New York County Republican Committee was headquartered within Dewey's former suites in 1971, remaining there until at least the 1980s.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: The Roosevelt Hotel has appeared in several films and TV shows. Part of the 2012 thriller "Man on a Ledge" was filmed on the hotel's roof, while a scene from the 1987 drama film "Wall Street" was shot inside the ballroom. The films "Boiler Room", "Monday Night Mayhem", "Hoax", "1408", "Hanky Panky", "French Connection", and "Quiz Show" were also partially filmed in the hotel. In addition, the majority of the 2012 film "Man on a Ledge" was shot on the Roosevelt's roof; a replica of a hotel room had to be hoisted to the roof during filming. The television series "The Bachelor" was shot at the Roosevelt Hotel. The hotel also frequently appeared in the TV series "Mad Men"; according to "The New York Times", "executives and secretaries [met] for midday romps" in the series. In 2012, to celebrate the series' fifth season, the Roosevelt began selling "Mad Men"-themed vacation packages.


title: The Roosevelt Hotel (Manhattan)

text: In the 2000s, a critic for "New York" magazine wrote of the hotel: "Still, the highlight of the Roosevelt remains the architecture itself." Another critic, writing for "Gothamist", said that the lobby "has managed to keep its grandeur. There are chandeliers, massive vases filled with flowers, a grand piano, and detailing you only really see in old architecture—Hilton called it, 'a fine hotel with grand spaces'." After the hotel's bar appeared in season 1, episode 8, of "Mad Men", one newspaper described the Roosevelt's bar as "just as cozy and sombre as a place dedicated to illicitness should be".


title: Stoney (album)

text: Stoney is the debut studio album by American rapper and singer Post Malone. It was released on December 9, 2016, by Republic Records. The album features guest appearances from Justin Bieber, Kehlani, and Quavo. The deluxe edition was released on the same day. It features an additional guest appearance from 2 Chainz. The production on the album was handled by Malone himself, Mustard, Metro Boomin, Vinylz, Frank Dukes, Illangelo, Charlie Handsome, Rex Kudo, Foreign Teck, and Pharrell Williams, among others. Malone generally sing-raps on the album, which is noted for its woozy, contemporary R&B-hip hop production. The album also features influence from Country and Outlaw country.


title: Stoney (album)

text: "Stoney" debuted at number six on the "Billboard" 200 and later peaked at number four on the chart. The album was certified 5× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). The single "Congratulations", which features Quavo, was certified Diamond (11× platinum) by the RIAA and was Malone's biggest "Billboard" Hot 100 hit at the time.


title: Stoney (album)

text: On August 14, 2015, Post Malone released his debut single, "White Iverson". The single became his breakthrough song. Due to his success with that single, Malone got the attention of a number of prominent rappers such as Kanye West and Young Thug, among others. Malone and Canadian singer Justin Bieber verged into a friendship, when Bieber made Malone as one of the opening acts for his Purpose World Tour to support the release of his fourth studio album, "Purpose" (2015).


title: Stoney (album)

text: On June 9, 2016, Malone made his national television debut on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", performing the song, "Go Flex". In June 2016, "XXL" editor-in chief Vanessa Satten, revealed that Malone was considered to be on "XXL"s "2016's Freshmen Class" magazine cover, however, she was "told by his camp that he wasn't paying attention to hip hop so much. He was going into more of a rock / pop / country direction." Malone denied these claims, saying: "My love of music should never be questioned... I shouldn't be chastised for expressing myself in whichever way I see fit." He went on to explain that his mixtape, as well as his then-upcoming album are both hip hop: "I have a hip-hop album coming out in August... I made a HIP HOP mixtape promoting my HIP HOP album."


title: Stoney (album)

text: On May 12, 2016, in preparation for the release of "Stoney", Malone released his debut mixtape, "August 26th". The title of the mixtape was a reference to the original release date of the album.


title: Stoney (album)

text: On December 9, 2021, which was the album's fifth anniversary, Malone released "Stoney (Complete Edition)" on streaming platforms. The updated version of the album included instrumentals of every song on the album besides "White Iverson" and "Feeling Whitney."


title: Stoney (album)

text: The album's lead single, "White Iverson", was released on August 14, 2015. The song was solely produced by Malone himself. It peaked at number 14 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and was certified 8× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).


title: Stoney (album)

text: The album's second single, "Too Young", was released on October 9, 2015. The song was produced by Foreign Teck, Rico Evans, and Justin Mosley. It was certified platinum by the RIAA.


title: Stoney (album)

text: The album's third single, "Go Flex", was released on April 21, 2016. The song was produced by Rex Kudo and Charlie Handsome. It peaked at number 76 on the Hot 100 and was certified 4× platinum by the RIAA.


title: Stoney (album)

text: The album's fourth single, "Deja Vu", which features Canadian singer Justin Bieber, was released on September 9, 2016. The song was produced by Frank Dukes and Vinylz. It peaked at number 75 on the Hot 100 and was certified platinum by the RIAA.


title: Stoney (album)

text: The fifth single, "Congratulations", which features American rapper Quavo, was sent to rhythmic radio on January 31, 2017. It was originally released as a promotional single on November 4, 2016. The song was produced by Metro Boomin and Frank Dukes, and additionally produced by Louis Bell. It peaked at number eight on the Hot 100 and was certified 11× platinum by the RIAA, surpassing diamond certification (10× platinum) and becoming Malone's biggest and first international hit.


title: Stoney (album)

text: The album's sixth and final single, "I Fall Apart", was sent to rhythmic radio on October 17, 2017. The song was solely produced by Illangelo. peaked at number 16 on the Hot 100 and was certified 7× platinum by the RIAA.


title: Stoney (album)

text: The album's first promotional single, "Patient", was released on November 18, 2016. The song was solely produced by Louis Bell. It was certified platinum by the RIAA.


title: Stoney (album)

text: The album's second promotional single, "Leave", was released on December 2, 2016. The song was produced by Rex Kudo, Charlie Handsome, and Cashio.


title: Stoney (album)

text: Comparing the album to Malone's debut single, "White Iverson", Glenn Gamboa of "Newsday" wrote that he "follows through with that style on "Stoney", but it generally pales in comparison to the inventiveness and the surprise of that track." Neil Z. Yeung of AllMusic commented that "Stoney" is "competent and listenable, but many others have tread this same path already. Post Malone has a way to go before standing out with his own unique voice, but there are signs on "Stoney" that it could happen."


title: Stoney (album)

text: "Stoney" debuted at number six on the US "Billboard" 200 with 58,000 album-equivalent units, of which 19,000 were pure album sales. In its second week, the album dropped to number 23 on the chart, selling an additional 30,000 units. On June 6, 2018, the album was certified three-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for combined sales and album-equivalent units of over three million units. On the week of October 28, 2017, the album peaked at number four on the US "Billboard" 200. By the end of 2017, "Stoney" had sold 1,564,000 album-equivalent units with 128,000 being pure sales. By September 2018, "Stoney" had sold 1,044,000 album-equivalent units that year.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: The game was developed for over a year on the Sega Model 2 arcade hardware. Targeting an adult audience, AM1 devised a story and atmosphere inspired by Western horror films. AM1's plans for detailed environments, non-linear level designs, and a gory aesthetic were challenged — and often limited — by the Model 2 hardware and other factors.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: "The House of the Dead" was well-received by critics. It has been, along with "Resident Evil", credited with popularising zombie video games, as well as re-popularising zombies in wider popular culture from the late 1990s onwards, leading to renewed interest in zombie films during the 2000s. The game has also been credited with introducing fast running zombies, which became popular in zombie films and video games during the 2000s.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: A remake of the game was developed by MegaPixel Studio and published by Forever Entertainment for Nintendo Switch, Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Stadia and Xbox One in April 2022, and for Xbox Series X/S in September 2022.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: "The House of the Dead" is a rail shooter light gun game. Players use a light gun (or mouse, in the PC version) to aim and shoot at approaching zombies. The characters' pistols use magazines which hold 6 rounds; players reload by shooting away from the screen. When a player sustains damage or shoots an innocent, one point of health is removed. The continue screen appears when all health is lost. If the player runs out of continues, the game is over. First-aid packs are available throughout the game which restore one point of health; some can be obtained from rescued hostages, while others are hidden inside certain breakable objects. Special items can be found within other breakables, granting a bonus to the player who shoots them. The player can earn additional health power-ups at the end of each level based on the number of hostages rescued.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: Throughout the course of the game, players are faced with numerous situations in which their action (or inaction) will have an effect on the direction of gameplay. This is exemplified in the opening stage of the game when a hostage is about to be thrown from the bridge to his death. If the player saves the hostage, they will enter the house directly through the front door; however, if the player fails to rescue the hostage, the character is redirected to an underground route through the sewers. If the player rescues all hostages, a secret room full of lives and bonuses is revealed toward the end of the game.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: The renowned biochemist and geneticist Dr. Curien becomes obsessed with discovering the nature of life and death. While supported by the DBR Corporation and its own team of scientists, Curien's behaviour becomes more erratic and his experiments take a gruesome turn. The Curien Mansion in Europe, which serves as his home and laboratory, experiences an outbreak.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: On December 18, 1998, AMS Agent Thomas Rogan receives a distress call from his fiancée Sophie Richards from the Curien Mansion. Rogan and his partner "G" fly to Europe and arrive at the estate, finding it overrun with undead creatures, which Curien unleashed. A mortally wounded man gives them a journal containing information about Curien's creations and their weaknesses. Rogan and G reach Sophie, only to witness her being carried away by a gargoyle-like creature called the Hangedman. They later find Sophie, before she is attacked by the Chariot, a heavily armoured mutant armed with a bardiche. After killing the mutant, Rogan and G attend to Sophie, who tells them they must stop Curien or else "something terrible will happen," before passing out. A furious Rogan goes after the Hangedman to the rooftops surrounding the courtyard. After a lengthy battle, Rogan and G shoot it down. The two eventually confront Curien who is protected by an armoured, spider-like creature called The Hermit. After killing it, Rogan and G continue to proceed.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: Arriving at the mansion's laboratory, Curien unleashes his masterpiece, The Magician, a humanoid creature with pyrokinetic abilities. However, the Magician refuses to serve any master and mortally wounds its creator. Curien expresses his confusion regarding his creation's loyalty before succumbing to his injuries. Rogan and G battle the Magician until it explodes, and then they leave the mansion.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: There are three different endings, with which one players see determined by their score rank. In what the developers called the "bad ending", Sophie is reanimated and becomes a zombie. What the developers have referred to as the "true ending" is only seen if the players get the highest rank: Sophie is alive, having survived her injuries. In the third ending, a far view of the mansion is shown and Sophie is absent (leaving it unknown if she survived or not).


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: Development started in December 1995 and took one year and three months. None of the development team could speak English, so they arrived at the name "The House of the Dead" by taking various horror-themed phrases in Japanese and picking the one where the English translated text had the most "cool" visual, without concern for what sort of connotations the phrase might have to English speakers. The team saw people in their 20s and 30s as their target audience, and hoped that the game would primarily be experienced as a two-player game.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: "The House of the Dead" was built on the "Virtua Cop" game engine. The developers wanted to have a more complex system of path branches, and to have the system impact the game's story, but eventually realized these ideas were too ambitious to fulfill within the time allotted to make the game.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: The enemy designs were drafted quickly, going from idea directly to design drawing without any rough sketches. Anticipating that foreign markets, particularly Germany, would require the violence be toned down, they built in an option for operators to change the color of the game's blood, with green, purple, and blue available in addition to the traditional red. Several enemies were cut from the game, including a female zombie because they felt she looked too much like a normal elderly woman, which could provoke controversy given that the player is encouraged to shoot the zombies. The Chariot was animated by using motion capture with an actor wielding a broom, but the other enemies were all animated manually, using motion capture for reference only.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: Sega AM4 designed the game's cabinet using screenshots and illustrations given to them by AM1. "The House of the Dead" came in two cabinet formats, both upright: one with a 50-inch monitor and one with a 29-inch monitor.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: In late 1997 Sega confirmed that work had begun on a port to Sega Saturn, as an early version had been delivered to them. The port was handled by Tantalus Interactive and released in 1998, with a port to Windows (PC-CD) by Sega arriving the same year. Extra game modes were added to both ports, which include selectable characters with different weapons and a boss rush mode.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: Both the Sega Saturn and PC editions have slightly remixed soundtracks. On Chapter 2, there is a reference to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, as the words "Challenger, go at throttle up", spoken by Richard O. Covey from the mission control room only seconds before the explosion, can be heard three times before the music loops. These words do not appear in the arcade version; a snickering laugh is heard instead. The title, and boss themes are reversed on the PC port as well.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: A version for mobile phones was released in Japan, and aimed to recreate the gameplay and locations from the arcade version. The pre-installed trial version containing the game's first chapter was included with Vodafone V603SH in February 2005, and utilized the phone's accelerometer functionality to control the camera.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: In April 2021, it was announced that a remake of the game was to be released for the Nintendo Switch. "The House of the Dead: Remake" was developed by MegaPixel Studio and published by Forever Entertainment under license from Sega. In January 2022 news outlets reported that the game was expected to be launch in March 2022, but it was ultimately released on April 7, 2022. The ports for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Stadia and Xbox One followed on April 28, 2022. The game was also released for Xbox Series X/S on September 23, 2022.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: Sega reportedly lost the source code to the arcade version of "The House of the Dead", requiring MegaPixel Studio to remake the entire game from scratch in the Unity game engine. Due to licensing issues, the original soundtrack by composer Tetsuya Kawauchi was replaced by a new soundtrack that is heavily inspired by the original.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: Like the original home versions before, the remake uses an analog controlled crosshair for aiming. The Switch version also includes an alternative control by utilizing the controller’s built in “gyro aiming” system to emulate the use of a light gun. The Switch version of the remake received "mixed or average" reviews from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic, with criticism for its controls and lack of a light gun peripheral.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: In Japan, "Game Machine" listed "The House of the Dead" on their May 1, 1997, issue as being the second most-successful dedicated arcade game of the month. The arcade game was also a major hit overseas. It went on to be the highest-grossing dedicated arcade game of 1998 in Japan. By 1998, it had sold 8,600 arcade cabinets worldwide, including 1,600 in Japan and 7,000 overseas.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: The 1996 arcade version of "The House of the Dead" received positive reviews upon release. "Computer and Video Games" magazine called it "the best shooting game ever!" "Next Generation" reviewed the arcade version of the game, rating it four stars out of five, and stated that "Overall, this is an excellent take on the light-gun genre - a sheer bloody scream." The review praised the branching levels, story, creature design, graphics, and destructible environments. In a retrospective review, "AllGame" awarded it 4.5 out of 5 stars, likewise praising the story, graphics, and destructible environments, but particularly focused on the game's intelligent challenge. The reviewer dubbed it "one of the best shooting games to hit arcades in the late 1990s."


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: The Saturn version of "The House of the Dead" garnered generally favorable reviews. It had a 71% rating on review aggregation website GameRankings based on five online reviews.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: The 2022 Nintendo Switch remake received negative reviews, with fans calling it a downgrade compared to the original 1996 game, especially noting how slow and weak the final boss The Magician was in the remake compared to the original game.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: According to Kim Newman in the book "Nightmare Movies" (2011), the "zombie revival began in the Far East" during the late 1990s with the Japanese zombie games "Resident Evil" and "The House of the Dead". The success of these two 1996 zombie games inspired a wave of Asian zombie films, such as "Bio Zombie" (1998) and "Versus" (2000). The zombie revival later went global following the worldwide success of "Resident Evil" and "The House of the Dead", which inspired a wave of Western zombie films during the 2000s, such as "28 Days Later" (2002) and "Shaun of the Dead" (2004). In 2013, George Romero said it was the video games "Resident Evil" and "House of the Dead" "more than anything else" that popularised his zombie concept in early 21st-century popular culture.


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: "The House of the Dead" has also been credited with introducing a new type of zombie distinct from Romero's classic slow zombie: the fast running zombie. After appearing in "The House of the Dead", they became popular in zombie films and video games during the 2000s, including the "Resident Evil" games and films, "The House of the Dead" film adaptation, and the films "28 Days Later" (2002) and "Dawn of the Dead" (2004).


title: The House of the Dead (video game)

text: When the American city of Indianapolis attempted to ban violent video games in 2000, it argued that "The House of the Dead" was "obscene" and so unprotected by the First Amendment. This required U.S. Appeals Court Judge Richard Posner to review the game at length, ultimately finding Indianapolis' ban was unconstitutional. Unimpressed by the graphics, Judge Posner wrote "The most violent game in the record, "The House of the Dead", depicts zombies being killed flamboyantly, with much severing of limbs and effusion of blood; but so stylized and patently fictitious is the cartoon-like depiction that no one would suppose it 'obscene' in the sense in which a photograph of a person being decapitated might be described as 'obscene.' It will not turn anyone's stomach."


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: The Committee of Public Safety () was a committee of the National Convention which formed the provisional government and war cabinet during the Reign of Terror, a violent phase of the French Revolution. Supplementing the Committee of General Defence created after the execution of King Louis XVI in January 1793, the Committee of Public Safety was created in April 1793 by the National Convention. It was charged with protecting the new republic against its foreign and domestic enemies, fighting the First Coalition and the Vendée revolt. As a wartime measure, the committee was given broad supervisory and administrative powers over the armed forces, judiciary and legislature, as well as the executive bodies and ministers of the Convention.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: As the committee, restructured in July, raised the defense ("levée en masse") against the monarchist coalition of European nations and counter-revolutionary forces within France, it became more and more powerful. In December 1793, the Convention formally conferred executive power upon the committee. Between August 1793 and July 1794, the committee's power grew to dictatorial heights as it organised the Reign of Terror. Among the members, the radical Jacobin Maximilien Robespierre emerged as a leader. After the arrest and execution of the rival factions of Hébertists and Dantonists, sentiment in the Convention eventually turned against Robespierre, who was executed in July 1794. In the following Thermidorian Reaction, the committee's influence diminished and it was abolished in 1795.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: The French Revolution brought about an immense shift in society in which citizens desired to bring about a new age of critical rationality, egalitarianism, and patriotism amongst French men. Revolutionary ideals were spread throughout France and a belief in democracy and civilian government was heralded as the new era of French civilization. 1793 would bring a new republican constitution, drafted by the National Assembly. The French Constitution of 1793 and its subsequent government would bring sweeping reforms to French politics and the French social order. Major reforms included comprehensive education, the recognition of rights for illegitimate children, the abolition of slavery, and improved rights for married women.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: The French Constitution of 1793 outlined the prevailing Enlightenment era ideology of the French government at this stage of the revolutionary period. The constitution outlines a right to the resistance of oppression as well as the right to personal liberty. The equality of all French men is detailed as is the structure of the French Republic. The new constitution and the shift into a republican government centered on the National Assembly created the atmosphere for a radicalized governing authority to take power. Members of the French common classes such as the Sans-Culottes turned to radicalism and inspired militant activism among the French populace.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: On 5 April 1793, the French military commander and former minister of war General Charles François Dumouriez defected to Austria following the publication of an incendiary letter in which he threatened to march his army on the city of Paris if the National Convention did not accede to his leadership. News of his defection caused alarm in Paris, where imminent defeat by the Austrians and their allies was feared. A widespread belief held that revolutionary France was in immediate peril, threatened not only by foreign armies and by recent revolts in the Vendée, but also by foreign agents who plotted the destruction of the nation from within. Dumouriez's defection lent greater credence to this belief. In light of this threat, the Girondin leader Maximin Isnard proposed the creation of a nine-member Committee of Public Safety. Isnard was supported in this effort by Georges Danton, who declared: "This Committee is precisely what we want, a hand to grasp the weapon of the Revolutionary Tribunal".


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: After a proposal by Bertrand Barère on 18 March the Committee was created on 6 April 1793. Closely associated with the leadership of Danton, it was initially known as the Danton Committee. Danton steered the Committee through the 31 May and 2 June 1793 "journées" that saw the violent expulsion of the Girondins and through the intensifying war in the Vendée. When the Committee was recomposed on 10 July 1793, Danton was not included. Nevertheless, he continued to support the centralization of power by the Committee.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: On 27 July 1793, Maximilien Robespierre was elected to the Committee. At this time, the Committee was entering a more powerful and active phase, which would see it become a dictatorship alongside its powerful partner, the Committee of General Security. The role of the Committee of Public Safety included the governance of the war (including the appointment of generals), the appointing of judges and juries for the Revolutionary Tribunal, the provisioning of the armies and the public, the maintenance of public order and oversight of the state bureaucracy.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: The Committee was also responsible for interpreting and applying the decrees of the National Convention and thus for implementing some of the most stringent policies of the Terror — for instance, the "levée en masse" passed on 23 August 1793, the Law of Suspects passed on 17 September 1793 and the Law of the General Maximum passed on 29 September 1793. The broad and centralized powers of the Committee were codified by the Law of 14 Frimaire (also known as the Law of Revolutionary Government) on 4 December 1793.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: On 5 December 1793, journalist Camille Desmoulins began publishing "Le Vieux Cordelier" with the approval of Robespierre and the Committee"." This newspaper was initially aimed against the ultrarevolutionary Hébertist faction, whose extremist demands, anti-religious fervor and propensity for sudden insurrections troubled the Committee. However, Desmoulins quickly turned his pen against the Committee of Public Safety and the Committee of General Security, comparing their reign to that of the Roman tyrants chronicled by Tacitus and expounding the indulgent views of the Dantonist faction.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: Consequently, though the Hébertists were arrested and executed in March 1794, the Committees had Desmoulins and Danton arrested as well. Hérault de Séchelles, a friend and ally of Danton, was expelled from the Committee of Public Safety, arrested and tried alongside them. On 5 April 1794, the Dantonists went to the guillotine.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: The elimination of the Hébertists and the Dantonists made evident the strength of the Committees to control and silence opposition. The creation in March 1794 of a General Police Bureau — reporting nominally to the Committee of Public Safety— served to increase the power of the Committee of Public Safety.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: The Law of 22 Prairial, proposed by the Committee and enacted by the Convention on 10 June 1794, went further in establishing the iron control of the Revolutionary Tribunal and above it the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. The law enumerated various forms of public enemies, required their denunciation, and severely limited the legal recourse available to those accused. The punishment for all crimes under this law was death; from its inception to the fall of Robespierre on 27 July 1794, more people were condemned to death than in the entire previous history of the Revolutionary Tribunal.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: However, even as the Terror reached its height and with it the Committee's political power, discord was growing within the revolutionary government. Members of the Committee of General Security resented the autocratic behavior of the Committee of Public Safety and particularly the encroachment of the General Police Bureau upon their own brief. Arguments within the Committee of Public Safety itself had grown so violent that it relocated its meetings to a more private room to preserve the illusion of agreement. Robespierre, a fervent supporter of the theistic Cult of the Supreme Being, found himself frequently in conflict with anti-religious Committee members Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne. Moreover, Robespierre's increasingly extensive absences from the Committee due to illness (he all but ceased to attend meetings in June 1794) created the impression that he was isolated and out of touch.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: When it became evident in mid-July 1794 that Robespierre and Saint-Just were planning to strike against their political opponents Joseph Fouché, Jean-Lambert Tallien and Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier (the latter two members of the Committee of General Security), the fragile truce within the government was dissolved. Saint-Just and his fellow Committee of Public Safety member Bertrand Barère attempted to keep the peace between the Committees of Public Safety and General Security. However, Robespierre delivered a speech to the National Convention on 26 July 1794 in which he emphasized the need to "purify" the Committees and "crush all factions". In a speech to the Jacobin Club that night, he attacked Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, who had refused to allow the printing and distribution of his speech to the Convention.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: On the following day, 27 July 1794 (or 9 Thermidor according to the Republican calendar), Saint-Just began to speak before the Convention, planning to denounce Collot d'Herbois, Billaud-Varenne and other members of the Committee of Public Safety. However, he was almost immediately interrupted by Tallien and by Billaud-Varenne, who accused him of intending to "murder the Convention". Barère, Vadier and Stanislas Fréron joined the accusations against Saint-Just and Robespierre. The Convention ordered the arrest of Robespierre, his brother Augustin, and Saint-Just, along with that of their supporters Philippe Le Bas and Georges Couthon.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: A period of intense civil unrest ensued, during which the members of the Committees of Public Safety and General Security were forced to seek refuge in the Convention. The Robespierre brothers, Saint-Just, Le Bas and Couthon ensconced themselves in the Hôtel de Ville, attempting to incite an insurrection. Ultimately, faced with defeat and arrest, Le Bas committed suicide, while Saint-Just, Couthon, and Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre were arrested and guillotined on 28 July 1794.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: The ensuing period of upheaval, dubbed the Thermidorian Reaction, saw the repeal of many of the Terror's most unpopular laws and the restriction of the Committees of General Security and Public Safety. The Committees ceased to exist under the Constitution of the Year III (1795), which marked the beginning of the Directory.


title: Committee of Public Safety

text: During the May 1958 crisis in France, an army junta under General Jacques Massu seized power in Algiers on the night of 13 May 1958 and General Salan assumed leadership of a body calling itself the Committee of Public Safety.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The monarchy of New Zealand is the constitutional system of government in which a hereditary monarch is the sovereign and head of state of New Zealand. The current monarch, King Charles III, ascended the throne following the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II, on 8 September 2022. The King's eldest son, William, Prince of Wales, is the heir apparent.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The Treaty of Waitangi between Queen Victoria and Māori chiefs () was signed in 1840, and as a result, the British sovereign became New Zealand's head of state. New Zealand gradually became independent from Britain and the monarchy evolved to become a distinctly New Zealand institution, represented by unique symbols. The New Zealand monarch is currently shared with 14 other countries (realms) within the Commonwealth of Nations, all independent and the monarchy of each being legally distinct. As a result, the current monarch is officially titled "King of New Zealand" () and, in this capacity, he, and other members of the royal family undertake various public and private functions across New Zealand. The King is the only member of the royal family with any constitutional role.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: All executive authority is vested in the monarch, and royal assent is required for parliament to enact laws and for letters patent and Orders in Council to have legal effect. The monarch's authority is subject to the conventional stipulations of constitutional monarchy, and their direct participation in these areas of governance is limited. Most of the related powers are instead exercised by the elected members of parliament, the ministers of the Crown generally drawn from amongst them, and the judges and justices of the peace. Other powers vested in the monarch, such as the appointment of a prime minister, are significant but are treated only as reserve powers and as an important security part of the role of the monarchy.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Since the monarch resides in the United Kingdom (the oldest Commonwealth realm), most of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties within the Realm of New Zealand are typically carried out by his or her representative, the governor-general of New Zealand.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The role of the monarchy is a recurring topic of public discussion. Some New Zealanders think New Zealand should become a republic with a New Zealand resident as the head of state, while others wish to retain the monarchy.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: New Zealand is one of the Commonwealth realms, 15 independent members of the Commonwealth of Nations that share the same person as sovereign and head of state, and have in common the same royal line of succession. The monarch, currently King Charles III, resides in the oldest and most populous realm, the United Kingdom; however, he and his family have toured New Zealand on occasion.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: This arrangement emerged during the course of the 20th century. Since the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931 the pan-national Crown has had both a shared and separate character, and the sovereign's role as monarch of New Zealand has been distinct to his or her position as monarch of the United Kingdom. As a result of this development, the monarchy has ceased to be an exclusively British institution, and in New Zealand has become a New Zealand establishment. Nonetheless, for historical reasons, the monarchy is still termed "British" in both legal and common language; this conflicts with not only the New Zealand Government's recognition of a distinctly New Zealand Crown, but also the sovereign's distinct New Zealand title.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Effective with the Constitution Act 1986, no British government minister can advise the sovereign on any matters pertaining to New Zealand, meaning that on all matters of the New Zealand state, the monarch is advised solely by New Zealand ministers of the Crown. One of these state duties carried out on the formal advice of the prime minister is the appointment of the governor-general. As the monarch lives outside of New Zealand, the governor-general personally represents the Monarch and performs most of his or her domestic duties in their absence, in accordance with Letters Patent 1983. All royal powers in New Zealand may be carried out by both the monarch and governor-general and, in New Zealand law, the two offices are fully interchangeable, mention of one always simultaneously including the other. , the current Governor-General is Dame Cindy Kiro.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The sovereign did not possess a title unique to New Zealand until the New Zealand Parliament enacted the Royal Titles Act in 1953, altering the style borne by Queen Elizabeth II and giving her the title of "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Her Other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith". Since the passage of the Royal Titles Act 1974, the monarch's title in New Zealand is presently "King Charles the Third, By the Grace of God King of New Zealand and of His Other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith".


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Although the King's New Zealand title includes the phrase 'Defender of the Faith', neither the King nor the governor-general has any religious role in New Zealand; there has never been an established church in the country. This is one of the key differences from the King's role in England, where he is Supreme Governor of the Church of England.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Succession is, for persons born before 28 October 2011, governed by male-preference cognatic primogeniture and, for those born after 28 October 2011, by absolute primogeniture—wherein succession passes to an individual's children according to birth order, regardless of gender. The succession is governed by the Act of Settlement 1701, Bill of Rights 1689, and Royal Succession Act 2013, legislation that also limits the succession to the biological, legitimate descendants of Sophia of Hanover, and stipulates that the monarch cannot be a Roman Catholic and must be in communion with (i.e. a member of) the Church of England upon ascending the throne. Though, via adopting the Statute of Westminster (later repealed in New Zealand) and the Imperial Laws Application Act 1988, these constitutional documents as they apply to New Zealand now lie within the full control of the New Zealand Parliament, New Zealand also agreed not to change its rules of succession without the unanimous consent of the other realms, unless explicitly leaving the shared monarchy relationship; a situation that applies symmetrically in all the other realms, including the United Kingdom, and has been likened to a treaty amongst these countries. Thus, New Zealand's line of succession remains identical to that of the United Kingdom. As such, the rules for succession are not fixed, but may be changed by a constitutional amendment. The Constitution Act 1986 specifies that should a regent be installed in the United Kingdom, that individual will carry out the functions of the monarch of New Zealand.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Upon a demise of the Crown (the death or abdication of a monarch), the late sovereign's heir immediately and automatically succeeds, without any need for confirmation or further ceremony—hence arises the phrase "The King is dead. Long live the King!" It is customary, though, for the accession of the new monarch to be publicly proclaimed by the governor-general. Following an appropriate period of national mourning, the monarch is also crowned in the United Kingdom in an ancient ritual, but one not necessary for a sovereign to reign. Other than a transfer of all royal powers and functions to the new monarch from his or her predecessor, no other law or office is affected, as all references in legislation to previous monarchs, whether in the masculine (e.g. "His Majesty") or feminine (e.g. "the Queen"), continue to mean the reigning sovereign of New Zealand. After an individual ascends the throne, he or she typically continues to reign until death, being unable to unilaterally abdicate.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The sovereign only draws from New Zealand funds for support in the performance of their duties when in New Zealand or acting as Monarch of New Zealand abroad; New Zealanders do not pay any money to the King or any other member of the royal family, either towards personal income or to support royal residences outside of New Zealand. Normally, tax dollars pay only for the costs associated with the governor-general as instruments of the King's authority, including travel, security, residences, offices, ceremonies, and the like. Supporters of the monarchy argue it costs New Zealand taxpayers only a small outlay for royal engagements and tours and the expenses of the governor-general's establishment. Monarchy New Zealand states "[t]his figure is about one dollar per person per year", about $4.3 million per annum. An analysis by New Zealand Republic (a republican advocacy group) of the 2010 budget claimed the office of governor-general costs New Zealand taxpayers about $7.6 million in ongoing costs and $11 million for Government House upgrades, figures Monarchy New Zealand claimed had been "arbitrarily inflated" by New Zealand Republic.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The sovereign of New Zealand also serves as monarch to Cook Islands and Niue, territories in free association with New Zealand within the larger Realm of New Zealand. The New Zealand monarchy is unitary throughout all jurisdictions in the realm, with the headship of state being a part of all equally. As such, the sovereignty of Cook Islands and Niue is passed on not by the governor-general or parliament of New Zealand but through the overreaching Crown itself as part of executive, legislative and judicial operations in all three areas.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The self-government provisions for the Cook Islands within the Realm of New Zealand allow the King to be directly represented as head of state in Cook Islands affairs by the King's representative, while the governor-general of New Zealand represents the monarch in matters pertaining to the entire realm. The governor-general (themselves represented by state services commissioner) represents the monarch in Niue, carrying out all the monarch's constitutional and ceremonial duties of state on their behalf. The administrator of the territory of Tokelau is a government official appointed by New Zealand's minister of foreign affairs to represent the New Zealand Government—not the monarch personally.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: As the living embodiment of the Crown, the sovereign is regarded as the personification, or legal personality, of the New Zealand state, with the state therefore referred to as "His Majesty The King in Right of New Zealand", or "The Crown". As such, the monarch is the employer of all government staff (including judges, members of the Defence Force, police officers, and parliamentarians), as well as the owner of all state land and buildings ("Crown property" including "Crown land"), state-owned companies and agencies ("Crown entities"), and the copyright for all government publications ("Crown copyright").


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: As the embodiment of the state, the monarch is the locus of Oaths of Allegiance, required of many employees of the Crown, as well as by new citizens, as per the Oath of Citizenship laid out in the Citizenship Act. This is done in reciprocation to the sovereign's Coronation oath; at the coronation of Elizabeth II in 1953, she made a "solemn promise" to "govern the Peoples of" her realms, including New Zealand, "according to their respective laws and customs."


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: New Zealand's constitution is made up of a variety of statutes and conventions that are either British or New Zealand in origin, and together give New Zealand a parliamentary system of government wherein the role of the King is both legal and practical. The Crown is regarded as a corporation sole, with the sovereign, in the position of head of state, as the centre of a construct in which the power of the whole is shared by multiple institutions of government acting under the sovereign's authority.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The vast powers that belong to the Crown are collectively known as the Royal Prerogative, the exercise of which does not require parliamentary approval, though it is not unlimited; for example, the monarch does not have the prerogative to impose and collect new taxes without the authorisation of an Act of Parliament. The consent of the Crown must be obtained before parliament may even debate a bill affecting the sovereign's prerogatives or interests, and no Act of Parliament binds the King or his rights unless the Act expressly provides that it does.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The New Zealand Government (formally termed "His Majesty's Government") is defined by the Constitution Act as the monarch acting on the advice of the Executive Council. One of the main duties of the Crown is to ensure that a democratic government is always in place. This involves appointing a prime minister to thereafter head the Cabinet, a committee of the Executive Council charged with advising the Crown on the exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and legally required to keep the governor-general up to date on state affairs.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: In the construct of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, the ministerial advice tendered is typically binding, a situation described as "The [King] "reigns", but the government "rules", so long as it has the support of the House of Representatives." The Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown and not to any of the ministers, and the monarch or governor-general may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional constitutional crisis situations, thereby allowing the monarch to make sure that the Government conducts itself in compliance with the constitution. There are also a few duties which must be specifically performed by, or bills that require assent by, the sovereign; these include applying the royal sign-manual and Seal of New Zealand to the appointment papers of governors-general, the confirmation of awards of New Zealand royal honours, and the approval of any change in is New Zealand title.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The Royal Prerogative also extends to foreign affairs: the governor-general conducts treaties, alliances and international agreements on the advice of the Cabinet. Prior to the Lomé Convention in 1975, the monarch, rather than the governor-general, would sign treaties on behalf of New Zealand. Following the signing of the convention, it was decided that the governor-general could sign such instruments. The governor-general, on behalf of the monarch, also accredits New Zealand high commissioners and ambassadors, and receives similar diplomats from foreign states. The letters of credence and recall were formerly issued by the monarch, but now are issued in the name of the incumbent governor-general (instead of following the usual international process of the letters being from one head of state to another). The issuance of passports falls under the Royal Prerogative, and all New Zealand passports are issued in the monarch's name and remain his property.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The sovereign is one of the two components of the New Zealand Parliament. The monarch and governor-general do not participate in the legislative process save for the granting of the Royal Assent, which is necessary for a bill to be enacted as law; either figure or a delegate may perform this task; this is now a matter of convention. The Crown is further responsible for summoning and dissolving the parliament, after which the governor-general usually calls for a general election. The new parliamentary session is marked by either the monarch or the governor-general reading the Speech from the Throne; as they both are traditionally barred from the House of Representatives (the elected component of parliament), this ceremony takes place in the Legislative Council Chamber. Queen Elizabeth II personally opened parliament on seven occasions: January 1954, February 1963, March 1970, February 1974, February 1977, February 1986, and February 1990.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Despite the sovereign's exclusion, members of parliament must still express their loyalty to him and defer to his authority, as the Oath of Allegiance must be recited by all new parliamentarians before they may take their seat. Further, the official opposition is traditionally referred to as "His Majesty's Loyal Opposition", illustrating that, while its members are opposed to the incumbent government, they remain loyal to the sovereign (as personification of the state and its authority).


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The sovereign is responsible for rendering justice for all his subjects, and is thus traditionally deemed the "fount of justice". He does not personally rule in judicial cases; instead the judicial functions of the Royal Prerogative are performed in trust and in the King's name by judges and justices of the peace. The monarch is immune from criminal prosecution, the notion in common law being that the sovereign "can do no wrong"; the monarch cannot be prosecuted in his own courts for criminal offences. The monarch, and by extension the governor-general, also grants immunity from prosecution, exercises the "royal prerogative of mercy", and may pardon offences against the Crown, either before, during, or after a trial.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Members of the royal family have been present in New Zealand since the late 1800s, their reasons including participating in military manoeuvres or undertaking official royal tours. Usually important milestones, anniversaries, or celebrations of New Zealand culture will warrant the presence of the monarch, while other royals will be asked to participate in lesser occasions. Official duties involve the sovereign representing the New Zealand state at home or abroad, or their relations as members of the royal family participating in government organised ceremonies either in New Zealand or elsewhere. The advice of the New Zealand Cabinet is the impetus for royal participation in any New Zealand event. Such events have included centennials and bicentennials; Waitangi Day; the openings of Commonwealth and other games; anniversaries of Māori treaty signings; awards ceremonies; anniversaries of the monarch's accession; and the like. Conversely, unofficial duties are performed by royal family members on behalf of New Zealand organisations of which they may be patrons, through their attendance at charity events, visiting with members of the New Zealand Defence Force as colonel-in-chief, or marking certain key anniversaries.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Since 1869, when Prince Alfred, one of Queen Victoria's sons, arrived on New Zealand's shores, dozens of tours of New Zealand by a member of the royal family have taken place, though only five of those occurred before 1953. After Alfred came the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York (later King George V and Queen Mary) in 1901; The Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII), in 1920; the Duke and Duchess of York (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother) in 1927; and Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, from 1934 to 1935. Queen Elizabeth II was the first reigning monarch of New Zealand to tour the country, becoming such when she arrived during her 1953–1954 global tour; she broadcast from Government House in Auckland her annual Royal Christmas Message.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Queen Elizabeth II also toured New Zealand on a number of other occasions: between 6 and 18 February 1963, she attended celebrations at Waitangi and the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council was founded as the nation's gift to the monarch; from 12 to 30 March 1970, the Queen, accompanied by Prince Charles and Princess Anne, participated in the James Cook bicentenary celebrations; between 30 January and 8 February 1974, and she attended and closed that year's Commonwealth Games in Christchurch and participated in New Zealand Day events at Waitangi. As part of a Commonwealth-wide tour for her Silver Jubilee, Elizabeth was in New Zealand from 22 February to 7 March 1977; she made a brief visit, between 12 and 20 October 1981, following a Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Melbourne; marked the centennial of the New Zealand Police during a tour from 22 February to 2 March 1986; the Queen closed the Commonwealth Games in Auckland and, with her son, Prince Edward, took part in events marking the sesquicentennial of the Treaty of Waitangi between 1 and 16 February 1990; between 1 and 10 November 1995, she attended the CHOGM in Auckland and opened the newly refurbished parliament buildings; and, as part of her global tour for her Golden Jubilee, Elizabeth was in New Zealand from 22 to 27 February 2002.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Some of the royal tours undertaken by more junior members of the royal family include the 1990 visit of Princess Anne to commemorate the 75th anniversary of the Gallipoli landings on Anzac Day, and when Prince William represented the Queen of New Zealand at VE and VJ Day commemorations in 2005, as part of an 11-day tour, and opened the new Supreme Court of New Zealand building in early 2010. Prince Edward spent two terms of the 1982 academic year as a house tutor and junior master at the Wanganui Collegiate School.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Apart from New Zealand, the King and his family regularly perform public duties in the other 14 Commonwealth realms of which he is head of state. This situation can mean members of the royal family will be promoting one nation and not another. On some occasions Queen Elizabeth II had represented the United Kingdom, while her governor-general represented New Zealand, with both in attendance at the same event.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The Crown sits at the pinnacle of the New Zealand Defence Force. The governor-general is commander-in-chief and under the Defence Act 1990 is authorised to "raise and maintain armed forces", consisting of the New Zealand Army, Royal New Zealand Navy, and Royal New Zealand Air Force. The sovereign's position as head of the Defence Force is reflected in New Zealand's naval vessels bearing the prefix "His Majesty's New Zealand Ship" ("Her Majesty's New Zealand Ship" in the reign of a female monarch), and in the requirement that all members of the armed forces swear their allegiance to the sovereign and his or her heirs and successors. The governor-general commissions officers to command the forces.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Though the monarch and members of his family also act as colonels-in-chief of various regiments in the military, these posts are only ceremonial in nature, reflecting the Crown's relationship with the military through participation in military ceremonies both at home and abroad. The country's only currently ranked Admiral of the Fleet, Field Marshal and Marshal of the Royal New Zealand Air Force is Charles III. The ranks were also formerly held by Prince Philip, the consort of Queen Elizabeth II. Various regiments have also received a "royal" prefix, such as the Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers, the Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment, and the Royal New Zealand Army Logistic Regiment.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Māori interaction with the Crown dates back to 1832, when King William IV of the United Kingdom appointed James Busby as British resident, to address concerns on the part of Māori in the Bay of Islands over expanding European settlements in that area. On 28 October 1835, Busby oversaw a (forum) held at Waitangi, at which a flag was selected for New Zealand and a declaration of independence written by Busby was signed by 36 Māori chiefs; both were acknowledged the following year by the King in a letter from Lord Glenelg.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: As a result, the declaration's ratification by the British Parliament in 1836, officials in the Colonial Office determined in 1839 that a treaty of cessation would need to be signed with Māori for the British Crown to acquire sovereignty over New Zealand. The Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840 by representatives of the British Crown and over 500 Māori chiefs, and is considered the founding document of the nation. The Treaty identifies the Crown's right to , or "governorship", leading one Māori academic to argue that , or His Majesty's Government in New Zealand, is party to the treaty.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Since the treaty's implementation, a number of petitions have been made by Māori directly to the sovereign in London, whom they felt they had a special relationship, the first coming from northern chiefs in 1852. This and all subsequent appeals were directed back to the sovereign's New Zealand ministers for advice on how to proceed. The results were not always favourable to Māori, who have communicated their discontent to the monarch or other royals; in response to a refusal by the Executive Council in 1981 to allow Mana Motuhake direct access to the Queen, Māori activist Dun Mihaka offered a traditional rebuke by baring his buttocks at the Prince and Princess of Wales. In a later incident Mihaka attempted to crash into the Queen's motorcade; he was intercepted by police before this happened.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: In the Māori language, Queen Elizabeth II is sometimes referred to as , meaning "the white heron of a single flight"; in Māori proverb, the rare white heron is a significant bird seen only once in a lifetime. In 1953, for her coronation, Elizabeth was given a kiwi feather korowai cloak, which she wore when attending a , or Māori welcoming ceremony, also speaking partly in Māori.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: References to the monarchy are commonplace in public life in New Zealand and represent one of the most recognisable ways the head of state is incorporated into New Zealand's national identity. Royal symbols may specifically distinguish institutions that derive their authority from the Crown (such as parliament), establishments with royal associations, or merely be ways of expressing loyal or patriotic sentiment.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign—Queen Elizabeth II, , is still depicted on all coins, the twenty-dollar banknote, and postage stamps such as the Queen Elizabeth II definitive stamp. There are references to St Edward's Crown, on New Zealand's coat of arms, on various medals, and awards. These latter cases reflect the monarch's place as the formal head of the New Zealand royal honours system. As such, only he can approve the creation of an honour, which he does as requested by the New Zealand Government. Though the monarch herself formally appoints members to the various orders, the governor-general administers most other responsibilities relating to New Zealand honours on the sovereign's behalf (such as investitures).


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Similar to coats of arms, flags are utilised to represent royal authority. A personal flag for use by the Queen in New Zealand was adopted in 1962. It features the shield design of the New Zealand coat of arms in the form of an oblong or square. Superimposed in the centre is a dark blue roundel bearing an initial 'E' surmounted by a crown, all within a gold chaplet of roses. The current monarch, King Charles III, has not adopted a personal flag for New Zealand.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Music and song are utilised in various ways as reminders and identifiers of the sovereign. New Zealand inherited the anthem "God Save the King" (or, alternatively, "God Save the Queen") from Britain. It remains one of the two national anthems, along with "God Defend New Zealand", but has been generally restricted to official occasions where the monarch, a member of the royal family, or the governor-general is in attendance for a particular purpose. The right to declare a song a national anthem currently rests with the sovereign.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: As in other Commonwealth realms, the King's Birthday is a public holiday and, in New Zealand, is observed on the first Monday in June (not on the date of the monarch's actual birth). Celebrations are mainly official, including the Birthday Honours list and military ceremonies.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: To receive patronage, an organisation must prove to be long lasting, and to be of the highest standard in their field. These organisations, such as the Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association, signified by the prefix "royal", have received patronage from various monarchs and their families. Royal patronage is the royal individual's decision to make, though the Ministry for Culture and Heritage will help organisations to seek patronage.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Despite a similar level of political involvement by the monarchy in both countries, there is less agitation for ending the monarchy of New Zealand and creating a New Zealand republic than in neighbouring Australia, where the republicanism movement is stronger. Past public opinion polls have shown that while the majority of Australians are in favour of a republic, New Zealanders on average favour retaining the monarchy. Supporters of the monarchy claim that for New Zealand, "...monarchy summarises the inheritance of a thousand years of constitutional government and our links with a glorious past".


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Neither National nor Labour, the two major political parties currently in parliament, have a stated policy of creating a republic. The National Party's declared principles include "Loyalty to... our Sovereign as Head of State". In 2008, former Prime Minister John Key, then Leader of the Opposition, said he is "not convinced [a republic] will be a big issue in the short term," but does believe that a republic is "inevitable." Former Deputy Prime Minister Michael Cullen declared that he supported the monarchy, stating in 2004 he was "a sort of token monarchist in the Cabinet these days." In 2010 he repudiated that stance, taking the view that New Zealand should move towards a republic once the Queen's reign ends. There are two special-interest groups representing both sides of the debate in New Zealand and arguing the issue in the media from time to time: Monarchy New Zealand and New Zealand Republic.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: There are a number of legal issues to be addressed in order to abolish the monarchy, though individuals on both sides of the argument take a different view of the level of difficulty faced. Much of the unsurety involves the reserve powers of the sovereign; the relationship between the various regions of the Realm of New Zealand sharing the same sovereign (the absence of these matters from republican arguments having been criticised as a "self-centredness of republican discussions in New Zealand"); and effects on the relationship between the Crown and Māori, specifically, the continued legal status of the Treaty of Waitangi and its claims and settlements. Some academics expressed concern that governments could use republicanism to evade treaty responsibilities, while others, such as Professor Noel Cox, Chairman-Emeritus of Monarchy New Zealand, have argued a republic would not absolve the Government of its obligations under the treaty.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The institution enjoys the support of most New Zealanders, particularly those born before the Second World War. With the popular approval of Queen Elizabeth II, and the position of the Treaty of Waitangi under a republic remaining a concern to Māori and other New Zealanders alike, as well as the question of what constitutional form a republic might take unresolved, support for a republic has been no higher than one third to 40 per cent of the population. Polls indicate that many New Zealanders see the monarchy as being of little day-to-day relevance; a One News/Colmar Brunton poll in 2002 found that 58 per cent of the population believed the monarchy has little or no relevance to their lives. "National Business Review" poll in 2004 found 57 per cent of respondents believed New Zealand would become a republic "in the future". On 21 April 2008, New Zealand Republic released a poll of New Zealanders showing 43 per cent support the monarchy should Prince Charles become king of New Zealand, and 41 per cent support a republic under the same scenario. A poll by "The New Zealand Herald" in January 2010, before a visit by Prince William to the country, found 33.3 per cent wanted Prince Charles to be the next monarch, with 30.2 per cent favouring Prince William. 29.4 per cent of respondents preferred a republic in the event Queen Elizabeth died or abdicated.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: On 14 October 2009, a bill put forward in parliament by Keith Locke to bring about a referendum on the monarchy was drawn from the ballot of members' bills and introduced into the legislative chamber. It had been presumed that this bill would have been binding in New Zealand only, having no effect in the Cook Islands or Niue. On 21 April 2010 the bill was defeated at its first reading 68–53, and did not continue through to select committee.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: On the eve of a royal tour by Prince Charles and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall, 10 November 2012, a One News/Colmar Brunton poll reported 70 per cent of people questioned responded they wanted to "keep The Queen as head of state", while only 19 per cent supported a republic. Following the tour, a poll by Curia Market Research commissioned by New Zealand Republic found 51 per cent of respondents wanted Charles as King once the Queen's reign ends, while 41 per cent supported a republic.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Support for the monarchy in New Zealand tends to increase during times where there is considerable focus on the royal family, whether this be due to royal tours or significant events such as a royal wedding.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Lieutenant James Cook first sailed to New Zealand in 1769. There he mapped the entire coastline and tentatively claimed the land for King George III of the United Kingdom. Beginning in 1790, an increasing number of European settlers came to New Zealand. In 1833, with growing lawlessness amongst traders and settlers, the British government appointed James Busby as British Resident to protect British trading interests. Despite Busby's presence, trouble increased. In 1840, the British government sent Captain William Hobson to New Zealand as lieutenant governor; he was instructed to negotiate a voluntary transfer of sovereignty from the Māori to the British Crown. The resultant Treaty of Waitangi was signed on 6 February 1840, at Waitangi in the Bay of Islands. Following the Treaty, the islands of New Zealand became a Crown colony and Queen Victoria became the monarch over New Zealand.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: In the early 19th century, some Māori who visited London were introduced to royalty. The first, Moehanga (or Te Mahanga) met King George III and Queen Charlotte in 1806. Other chiefs () to meet the monarch include Hongi Hika, who met King George IV in 1820.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: In 1852, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 was passed, establishing responsible government in New Zealand. The Act reserved significant constitutional powers for the monarch, including the right to refuse assent.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Queen Victoria's second son, Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, became the first British royal to visit New Zealand. He landed in Wellington on 11 April 1869, aboard his ship HMS Galatea.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: In 1907, New Zealand achieved the status of 'Dominion', which denoted that it was a country of the British Empire (and later the Commonwealth of Nations) with autonomy in domestic and foreign affairs. In 1917, letters patent of King George V set out the powers, duties and responsibilities of the governor-general and the Executive Council. The governor-general remained an appointee of the British Crown on the advice of the British Cabinet.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The concept of a fully independent New Zealand sharing the person of the sovereign with the United Kingdom and other countries only emerged gradually over time through constitutional convention. A series of Imperial Conferences held in London, from 1917 on, resulted in the Balfour Declaration of 1926, which provided that the United Kingdom and the Dominions were to considered as "autonomous communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate to one another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown". The governor-general of New Zealand, as with all the other governors-general of the Dominions, became the direct representative of the monarch in person, rather than a diplomatic channel between the New Zealand and British governments.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: The Crown was further separated amongst its Dominions by the Statute of Westminster in 1931, an Act of the British parliament, which gave New Zealand and other Dominions the authority to make their own laws in all matters, while requiring them all to seek each other's assent for changes to monarchical titles and the common line of succession. The British Parliament specifically gave up any claim to legislate for a Dominion, save at its own request. New Zealand ratified the Statute in 1947, after the passing of the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947. A convention persisted that New Zealand prime ministers consulted the British government on the appointment of governors-general until 1967.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Although the New Zealand monarchy is now independent, there remains a strong association with the British monarchy and its history. For example, there are many portraits of earlier (pre-1840) English kings and queens in New Zealand government buildings, including Government House, Wellington. Several royal portraits were gifted by Governor-General Lord Norrie.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: One of the first post-Second World War examples of New Zealand's status as an independent monarchy was the alteration of the monarch's title in 1953. For the first time, the official New Zealand title mentioned New Zealand separately from the United Kingdom and the other realms, to highlight the sovereign's role specifically as king/queen of New Zealand under the concept of the 'divisible crown'. Elizabeth II's title at that time was "Queen of the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Her Other Realms and Territories". Accordingly, the name of the country in official usage was also changed to the Realm of New Zealand. The Royal Titles Act 1974 further revised the monarch's New Zealand title to remove the reference to the United Kingdom.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: More recently, the Constitution Act 1986 has become the principal formal statement of New Zealand's constitution. This law formally establishes that the sovereign (in Right of New Zealand) is the head of state of New Zealand and that the governor-general is his representative; each can, in general, exercise all the powers of the other.


title: Monarchy of New Zealand

text: Listed here are the seven monarchs who have reigned over New Zealand—the British colony of New Zealand, from 1840; followed by the Dominion of New Zealand, beginning in 1907; and finally the present-day sovereign state of New Zealand. Originally, these monarchs reigned in their right as British sovereigns.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The president of the Reich () was the German head of state under the Weimar constitution, which was officially in force from 1919 to 1945. In English he was usually simply referred to as the president of Germany.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The Weimar constitution created a semi-presidential system in which power was divided between president, cabinet and parliament. The "Reichspräsident" was directly elected under universal adult suffrage for a seven-year term. It was intended that the president would rule in conjunction with the Reichstag (legislature) and that his emergency powers would be exercised only in extraordinary circumstances, but the political instability of the Weimar period, and a paralysing factionalism in the legislature, meant that the president came to occupy a position of considerable power, capable of legislating by decree and appointing and dismissing governments at will.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: In 1934, after the death of President Hindenburg, Adolf Hitler, already chancellor, assumed the powers of the presidency as "Führer und Reichskanzler" ("Leader and Chancellor"), highlighting the positions he already held in party and government. In his last will in April 1945, Hitler named Joseph Goebbels his successor as chancellor but named Karl Dönitz as "Reichspräsident", thus reviving the presidential office. However, this revival only lasted until shortly after the German surrender in May 1945.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany established the office of Federal President ("Bundespräsident"), which is, however, a chiefly ceremonial post largely devoid of political power.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: Under the Weimar constitution, the President was directly elected by universal adult suffrage for a term of seven years; reelection was not limited.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The law provided that the presidency was open to all German citizens who had reached 35 years of age. The direct election of the president occurred under a form of the two round system. If no candidate received the support of an absolute majority of votes cast (i.e. more than half) in a first round of voting, a second vote was held at a later date. In this round the candidate who received the support of a plurality of voters was deemed elected. A group could also nominate a substitute candidate in the second round, in place of the candidate it had supported in the first.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The President could not be a member of the Reichstag (parliament) at the same time. The constitution required that on taking office the president swore the following oath (the inclusion of additional religious language was permitted):


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: Only two regular presidential elections under the provisions of the Weimar Constitution actually occurred, in 1925 and 1932:


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The first office-holder, the Social Democrat Friedrich Ebert was elected by the National Assembly on 11 February 1919 on a provisional basis.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: Ebert intended to stand in presidential elections in 1922 when the outcry about assassination of Walther Rathenau seemed to generate a pro-republican atmosphere. However, National Liberal politician Gustav Stresemann persuaded the other centrist parties that the situation was still too turbulent to hold elections. Hence, the Reichstag extended Ebert's term to June 30, 1925 in late 1922, which required a constitutional change. However, Ebert died in office in February 1925.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The first presidential election was held in 1925. After the first ballot had not resulted in a clear winner, the right-wing parties urged their candidate, Karl Jarres, to drop out in favour of Paul von Hindenburg, who won a plurality on the second ballot. The decision of the Communist Party of Germany to run their candidate Ernst Thälmann in the second round in 1925 (widely considered to have been a spoiler candidate throwing the election to Hindenburg) was controversial at the time and later officially declared a mistake by the Komintern and East German historiography. Hindenburg served a full term and was reelected in 1932, this time nominated by the pro-republican parties, who thought only he could prevent the election of Adolf Hitler to the office. Hindenburg died in office in August 1934, a little over two years after his reelection, having since appointed Hitler as Chancellor. Hitler then assumed the powers of the Presidency, though not the actual office. Prior to his suicide in 1945, Hitler named Karl Dönitz his successor as President. Neither Hitler's nor Dönitz's accession to the presidency occurred within the bounds of constitutional legality and the title "President" was virtually never used in Nazi Germany regardless, Hitler preferring to go by "Führer".


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The Weimar constitution granted the president sweeping powers in the event of a crisis. Article 48 empowered the president, if "public order and security [were] seriously disturbed or endangered" to "take all necessary steps to re-establish law and order". These permissible steps included the use of armed force, the suspension of many of the civil rights guaranteed by the constitution and using his authority to oblige a state government to cooperate if it failed to meet its obligations under the constitution or under federal law. Most importantly, the president issue emergency decrees ("Notverordnungen") which had the same legal force as laws passed by parliament.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The Reichstag had to be informed immediately of any measures taken under Article 48 and had the right to reverse any such measures. Though the article was intended for use only in an extraordinary emergency, it was used to by-pass parliament in the latter years of the Weimar Republic.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The Weimar constitution created a system in which the cabinet was answerable to both the president and the legislature. This meant that the parliament had the power to make a government retreat without the burden to create a new one. Ebert and Hindenburg (initially) both attempted to appoint cabinets that enjoyed the confidence of the Reichstag. Most of the Weimar governments were minority cabinets of the centrist parties tolerated by the social democrats or the conservatives.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: Ebert (especially in 1923) and Hindenburg (from 1930 onwards) supported governments also by presidential decrees. The last four cabinets of the republic (Brüning I and II, Papen, Schleicher) are even called "presidential" cabinets ("Präsidialkabinette") because the presidential decrees more and more replaced the Reichstag legislature. Under Brüning the social democrats still tolerated the government by not supporting motions that revoked the decrees, but after Papen (1932) they refused to do so. This made Hindenburg dismiss the parliament twice, to "buy" time without a functioning Parliament.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The Weimar constitution did not provide for a vice presidency. If the president died or left office prematurely a successor would be elected. During a temporary vacancy, or in the event that the president was "unavailable", the powers and functions of the presidency passed to the chancellor.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The provisions of the Weimar constitution for the impeachment or deposition of the president are similar to those found in the Constitution of Austria. The Weimar constitution provided that the president could be removed from office prematurely by a referendum initiated by the Reichstag. To require such a referendum the Reichstag had to pass a motion supported by at least two-thirds of votes cast in the chamber. If such a proposal to depose the president was rejected by voters the president would be deemed to have been re-elected and the Reichstag would be automatically dissolved.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The Reichstag also had authority to impeach the president before the "Staatsgerichtshof", a court exclusively concerned with disputes between state organs. However it could only do this on a charge of willfully violating German law; furthermore the move had to be supported by a two-thirds majority of votes cast, at a meeting with a quorum of two-thirds of the total number of members.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: The "Reichspräsident" was established as a kind of "Ersatzkaiser", that is, a substitute for the monarch who had reigned in Germany until 1918. The new president's role was therefore informed, at least in part, by that played by the Kaiser under the system of constitutional monarchy being replaced. Hugo Preuss, the writer of the Weimar constitution, is said to have accepted the advice of Max Weber as to the term of office and powers of the presidency, and the method by which the president would be elected. The structure of the relationship between the "Reichspräsident" and Reichstag is said to have been suggested by Robert Redslob.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: On 11 February 1919, the National Assembly elected Friedrich Ebert of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) as the first Reich President by 379 votes to 277. While in office he used emergency decrees on a number of occasions, including to suppress the Kapp Putsch in 1920. His term came to an abrupt end with his death in 1925. In the election that followed, Hindenburg was eventually settled on as the candidate of the political right, while the Weimar coalition united behind Wilhelm Marx of the Centre Party. Many on the right hoped that once in office Hindenburg would destroy Weimar democracy from the inside but in the years that followed his election Hindenburg never attempted to overthrow the Weimar constitution.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: In March 1930, Hindenburg appointed Heinrich Brüning to head the first "presidential cabinet", which did not enjoy the support of the Reichstag. In July Hindenburg adopted the national budget by decree and, when the Reichstag reversed this act, he dissolved the legislature. The years that followed would see an explosion of legislation by decree, where previously this power had been used only occasionally.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: In March 1932, Hindenburg, although suffering from the onset of senility, decided to stand for re-election. Adolf Hitler was his major opponent but Hindenburg won the election by a substantial margin. In June he replaced Brüning as chancellor with Franz von Papen and again dissolved the Reichstag before it could adopt a vote of no confidence. After reconvening it was again dissolved in September.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: After briefly appointing General Kurt von Schleicher as chancellor in December, Hindenburg responded to growing civil unrest and Nazi activism by appointing Hitler as chancellor in January, 1933. A parliamentary dissolution followed after which Hitler's government, with the aid of another party, were able to command the support of a majority in the Reichstag. On 23 March the Reichstag adopted the Enabling Act, which effectively brought an end to democracy. From this point onwards almost all political authority was exercised by Hitler.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: Hitler's government issued a law providing that upon Hindenburg's death (which occurred in August 1934) the offices of President and Chancellor would be merged into one and held by Hitler. However, Hitler styled himself as "Führer und Reichskanzler" ("Leader and Chancellor"), not using the title of Reichspräsident. The law was approved by a staged referendum on 19 August.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945, as World War II in Europe drew to a close. In his Final Political Testament, Hitler intended to split again the two offices he had merged: he appointed Karl Dönitz as new President, and propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels was to succeed him as Chancellor. Goebbels committed suicide shortly after Hitler and within days Dönitz ordered Germany's military (not political) surrender on the 7 May, which ended the war in Europe. He had by then appointed Ludwig von Krosigk as head of government and the two attempted to gather together a government. However this government was not recognised by the Allied powers and was dissolved when its members were captured and arrested by British forces on 23 May at Flensburg.


title: President of Germany (1919–1945)

text: On 5 June 1945, the four occupying powers signed a document creating the Allied Control Council, that did not mention the name of the previous German government.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: Regular season play was held from September 8, 2005 to January 1, 2006. The regular season also saw the first ever regular season game played outside the United States, as well as the New Orleans Saints being forced to play elsewhere due to damage to the Superdome and the entire New Orleans area by Hurricane Katrina.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: The playoffs began on January 7. The New England' streak of 10 consecutive playoff wins and chance at a third straight Super Bowl title was ended in the Divisional Playoff Round by Denver, and eventually the NFL title was won by Pittsburgh, who defeated Seattle in Super Bowl XL at Ford Field in Detroit, Michigan on February 5 for their fifth Super Bowl win. This also marked the first time that a sixth-seeded team, who by the nature of their seeding would play every game on the road, would advance to and win the Super Bowl.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: The season formally concluded with the Pro Bowl, the league's all-star game, at Aloha Stadium in Honolulu, Hawaii on February 12.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: The 2005 NFL Draft was held from April 23 to 24, 2005 at New York City's Jacob K. Javits Convention Center. With the first pick, the San Francisco 49ers selected quarterback Alex Smith from the University of Utah.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: The 2005 season also featured the first ever regular season game played outside the United States when a San Francisco–Arizona game was played at Estadio Azteca in Mexico City on October 2 (the Cardinals won 31–14). The game drew an NFL regular season record of 103,467 paid fans. It was a home game for the Cardinals, mostly because the team rarely sold out at their then-home field, Sun Devil Stadium in Tempe, Arizona. This season was the last year that the Cardinals played at Sun Devil Stadium; the team then moved to their new Cardinals Stadium in nearby Glendale.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: Due to the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina to the Louisiana Superdome and the greater New Orleans area, the New Orleans Saints' entire 2005 home schedule was played at different venues while the Saints set up temporary operations in San Antonio, Texas. The Saints' first home game scheduled for September 18 against New York Giants was moved to September 19 at Giants Stadium, where the Giants won 27–10. The impromptu "Monday Night doubleheader" with the game already scheduled (Washington at Dallas) was a success, and was made a permanent part of the schedule the next year when Monday Night Football made the move to ESPN.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: As a result of the unscheduled doubleheader, the NFL designated its second weekend, September 18 and 19, as "Hurricane Relief Weekend', with fund raising collections at all of the league's games. The Saints' remaining home games were split between the Alamodome in San Antonio and Louisiana State University's Tiger Stadium in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. Being forced to travel to 13 of their 16 games (only 3 of their games were actually played in the same city where they practiced) and practice in substandard facilities and conditions in San Antonio, the Saints finished 3–13, their worst season since 1999.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: The last time an NFL franchise had to play at an alternate site was in 2002, when Chicago played home games in Champaign, Illinois, 120 miles (200 km) away, due to the reconstruction of Soldier Field. The last NFL team to abandon their home city during a season was the hapless 1952 Dallas Texans, whose franchise was returned to the league after drawing several poor crowds at the Cotton Bowl. They played their final "home" game at the Rubber Bowl in Akron, Ohio, against the Bears on Thanksgiving; the Texans stunned the Bears, 27–23, in front of a crowd estimated at 3,000, for their only win of the season.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: The Sunday, October 23 game between Kansas City and Miami at Dolphins Stadium was rescheduled to Friday, October 21 at 7:00 pm EDT to beat Hurricane Wilma's arrival to the Miami, Florida area. The Chiefs won the game, 30–20, and became the first visiting team to travel and play on the same day. Since the game was planned for Sunday afternoon, it is one of the few times in history that the Dolphins wore their road jerseys in a home game played at night.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: The New Orleans Saints played in Baton Rouge's Tiger Stadium for four games and in San Antonio's Alamodome for three games due to Louisiana Superdome damaged by Hurricane Katrina. Tiger Stadium's goalposts did not conform to NFL standards due to (a) two supports instead of one and (b) white paint instead of gold. The NFL granted the Saints dispensation to keep LSU's goalposts in place for their games.


title: 2005 NFL season

text: In addition, with the RCA and Edward Jones domes both removing their AstroTurf surfaces in favor of the newer next-generation FieldTurf surface, the old first-generation AstroTurf surface ceased to be used in the NFL.