title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In the time of their arrival, the predominant cultural influence on the Southern states was that of the English colonists who established the original English colonies in the region. In the 17th century, most were of Southern English origins, mostly from regions such as Kent, East Anglia and the West Country who settled mostly on the coastal regions of the South but pushed as far inland as the Appalachian mountains by the 18th century. In the 18th century, large groups of Scots lowlanders, Northern English and Ulster-Scots (later called the Scots-Irish) settled in Appalachia and the Piedmont. Following them were larger numbers of English indentured servants from across the English Midlands and Southern England, they would be the largest group to settle in the Southern Colonies during the colonial period. They were often called "crackers", a derogatory epithet applied to rural, non-elite whites of south Georgia and north Florida. Before the American Revolution, the term was applied by the English, as a derogatory epithet for the non-elite settlers of the southern backcountry. This usage can be found in a passage from a letter to the Earl of Dartmouth, "I should explain ... what is meant by Crackers; a name they have got from being great boasters; they are a lawless set of rascals on the frontiers of Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia, who often change their places of abode." Most European Southerners today are of partial or majority English and Scots-Irish ancestry. In previous censuses, over a third of Southern responders identified as being of English or partly English ancestry with 19,618,370 self-identifying as "English" on the 1980 census, followed by 12,709,872 identifying as Irish, 11,054,127 as Afro-American, and 10,742,903 as German. It should also be noted that those who did identify themselves of German ancestry were almost exclusively found in the northern border areas of the region which are adjacent to the American Mid-West. Those from the Tidewater area of Virginia and the Tidewater region of North Carolina identified themselves almost exclusively as of English origins, while those from the Piedmont areas were a mixture of English, Scotch-Irish, Scottish and Irish origins. South Georgia has a large Irish presence, the ancestors of whom were largely at one time Roman Catholic; however, many were converted to various Protestant sects due to the lack of a missionary presence of the Catholic Church in the 18th and 19th centuries. The predominance of Irish surnames in South Georgia has been noted by American historians for some time. Meanwhile, a community of Scottish highlanders settled around what is now Fayetteville in North Carolina. Gaelic was spoken in this region into the nineteenth century.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: People of many nationalities established communities in the American South. Some examples are the German American population of the Edwards Plateau of Texas, whose ancestors arrived in the region in the 1840s. German cultural influence continues to be felt in cities like New Braunfels, Texas near Austin and San Antonio Much of the population of East Texas, Louisiana, coastal Mississippi and Alabama, and Florida traces its primary ancestry to French and/or Spanish colonists of the 18th century. Also important is the French community of New Orleans dating back to the 1880s.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Another primary population group in the South is made up of the African American descendants of enslaved Africans brought into the South. African Americans comprise the United States' second largest racial minority, accounting for 13.6 percent of the total population according to the 2010 census. They accounted for nearly 45% of the Southern population during the Antebellum period through the early 20th century. Despite Jim Crow era outflow to the North and Midwest (see Great Migration), the majority of the black population has remained concentrated in the southern states from Virginia to Texas. Since the end of formal segregation, blacks have been returning to the South in large numbers (see New Great Migration).


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: A sizable fraction of the Southern population is also made of Hispanic Americans, especially immigrants from Central American countries which border on the US's southernmost states. The Hispanic population of the South has expanded considerably in recent years, both due to natural population growth and immigration.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Part of the South is known as the "Bible Belt", because of the prevalence there of evangelical Protestantism. South Florida has a large Jewish element that migrated from New York. Immigrants from Southeast Asia and South Asia have brought Buddhism and Hinduism to the region as well. In the colonial period and early 19th century the First Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening transformed Southern religion. The evangelical religion was spread by religious revivals led by local lay Baptist ministers or itinerant Methodist ministers. They fashioned the nation's "Bible Belt."


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: After the Revolution, the Anglican Church of England was disestablished (meaning it no longer received local tax money) and was reorganized as the nationalised Protestant Episcopal Church of the USA. The Revolution turned more people toward Methodist and Baptist preachers in the South. The Cane Ridge Revival and subsequent "camp-meetings" on the Kentucky and Tennessee frontiers were the impetus behind the Restoration Movement. Traveling preachers used music and song to convert new members. Shape-note singing became a fundamental part of camp meetings in frontier regions. In the early decades of the 18th century, the Baptists in the South reduced their challenge to class and race. Rather than pressing for freedom for slaves, they encouraged planters to improve treatment of them, and ultimately used the Bible to justify slavery.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In 1845, the Southern Baptist Convention separated from other regions. Baptist and Methodist churches proliferated across the Tidewater region, usually attracting common planters, artisans and workers. The wealthiest planters continued to be affiliated with the Episcopal Church. By the beginning of the Civil War, the Baptist and Methodist churches had attracted the most members in the South, and their churches were most numerous in the region.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Historically Catholic colonists were primarily those from Spain and France who settled in coastal areas of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. Today, there are significant Catholic populations along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico (especially the port cities of New Orleans, Biloxi, Pensacola and Mobile), which preserve the continuing (and broadly popularized) Catholic traditions of Carnival at the beginning of Lent in Mardi Gras parades and related customs. Elsewhere in the region, Catholics are typically a minority and of mainly Irish, German and French or modern Hispanic ancestry. As of 2013, Catholics comprised 42% of the population in the New Orleans Metropolitan area based on numbers presented by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Atlanta, in comparison to some other Southern cities, had a relatively small Catholic population prior to the 1990s. Catholics comprised 1.7% of the population in 1960, and 3.1% of the population in 1980. The population has been growing rapidly since then. The number of Catholics grew from 292,300 members in 1998 to 900,000 members in 2010, an increase of 207 percent. The population was expected to top 1 million by 2011. The increase is fueled by Catholics moving to Atlanta from other parts of the U.S. and the world, and from newcomers to the church. About 16 percent of all metropolitan Atlanta residents are Catholic, comparable to many of Midwestern metropolitan areas.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Raleigh, North Carolina also has a rapidly growing number of Catholics, with Catholicism having the largest number of affiliates out of any other religious group (11.3%) and the second largest number in Wake County (22%).


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Maryland, which was settled by the British, is historically Catholic as well and many historians believe it was named after the Queen Henrietta Maria by Cecilius Calvert, 2nd Baron of Baltimore. Maryland was the only Roman Catholic British colony in the Americas, and was considered a refuge for England's Roman Catholic minority which was being persecuted by the Church of England. When William of Orange rose to power in England, Catholicism was outlawed in Maryland, causing a decrease in the number of practicing Catholics. In the 1840s, the Catholic population rebounded with the mass immigration of Irish due to the Great Famine of Ireland. Maryland also became home to many Polish and Italian immigrants.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In general, the inland regions of the Deep South and Upper South, such as Arkansas, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama were less attractive to immigrants and have stronger concentrations of Baptists, Methodists, Churches of Christ and other Protestant or non-Catholic fellowships. Eastern and northern Texas are heavily Protestant, while the southern and western parts of the state are predominantly Catholic.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The city of Charleston, South Carolina, has had a significant Jewish population since the colonial period. The first were Sephardic Jews who had been living in London or on the island of Barbados. They were connected to Jewish communities in New England as well. The community figured prominently in the history of South Carolina. Richmond also had a large Sephardic Jewish community before the Revolution and still has a notable Jewish community today. They built the first synagogue in Virginia about 1791. New Orleans also historically (and in the present day) has a significant Jewish community.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The South Florida area is home to the nation's second largest concentration of Jewish Americans outside New York, most of them early 20th century migrants and descendants from the Northeast. They were descendants of Ashkenazi Jews from Germany, Russia, Poland and other parts of Eastern Europe. Twentieth-century migration and business development have brought significant Jewish and Muslim communities to most major business and university cities, such as Miami, Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, and more recently, Charlotte.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Southern American English is a group of dialects of the English language spoken throughout the Southern states of the United States, from West Virginia and Kentucky to the Gulf Coast, and from the mid-Atlantic coast to throughout most of Texas and Oklahoma.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Southern dialects make up the largest accent group in the United States. Southern American English can be divided into different sub-dialects, with speech differing between regions. African American Vernacular English (AAVE) shares similarities with Southern dialect due to African Americans' strong historical ties to the region.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: It has been said that Southerners are most easily distinguished from other Americans by their speech, both in terms of accent and idiom. However, there is no single "Southern Accent." Rather, Southern American English is a collection of dialects of the English spoken throughout the South. Southern American English can be divided into different sub-dialects, with speech differing between, for example, that of Appalachian region and the coastal "low country" around Charleston, South Carolina. Folklorists in the 1920s and later argued that because of the region's isolation, Appalachian language patterns more closely mirrored Elizabethan English than other accents in the United States.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: While traces of African linguistic features remain in AAVE, there are a few distinctively African dialect groups in the South, the Gullah the most famous among them.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Gullah is still spoken by some African Americans in the Low Country of South Carolina, Georgia, southeastern North Carolina, and Northeast Florida, particularly the older generation. Also called Geechee in Georgia, the language and a strongly African culture developed because of the people's relative isolation in large communities, and continued importation of slaves from the same parts of Africa. As the enslaved people on large plantations were relatively undisturbed by whites, Gullah developed as a creole language, based on African forms. Similarly the people kept many African forms in religious rituals, foodways and similar transportable culture, all influenced by the new environment in the colonies. Other, less known African American dialect groups are the rural blacks of the Mississippi Basin, and Africatown near Mobile, Alabama, where the last known ship to arrive in the Americas with slaves was abandoned in 1860.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: There are several other unique linguistic enclaves in the American South. Among them is that of Tangier Island, Virginia, as well as the Outer Banks North Carolina, which some scholars claim preserves a unique English dialect from the colonial period. The New Orleans or "Yat" dialect is similar to Northeastern port city accents because of an influx of German and Irish immigrants similar to those of the Northeast. Many are familiar with the French-based Cajun French that is spoken in the southern half of Louisiana.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Other distinct languages include Cajun French (Louisiana) and Isleño Spanish (Louisiana, see also Canarian Spanish).


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The US South also contains many indigenous languages from the Native American Muskogean, Caddoan, Siouan–Catawban, Iroquoian, Algonquian, Yuchi, Chitimacha, Natchez, Tunica, Adai, Timucua, and Atakapa families. The historical record seems to suggest a picture of great linguistic diversity (similar to California) although most languages mentioned were not documented. Several southeastern languages have become extinct and all are endangered. The influence of native languages has led to distinct Indian varieties of English.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: There continues to be debate about what constitutes the basic elements of Southern culture. This debate is influenced partly because the South is such a large region. As a result, there are a number of cultural variations among states in the region.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Southern Alabama north of Mobile was settled predominately by large plantation owners and slaves moved west from their original settlements on the coasts of South Carolina and Georgia. These settlers originally had slave plantations in Barbados and sought to expand their plantation based economy. This region is mainly known for its large African American population and historic cultivation of wheat, cotton, and rice. It is the epitome of what is considered the Deep South. Today, this region is the poorest in the state and one of the poorest regions in the country. It still remains mostly rural and has seen minimal development.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Unlike the rest of southern Alabama, which was settled by British plantation owners, Mobile and the Gulf Coast was settled by Spanish and French settlers much earlier than the rest of the state. Mobile likely has more in common with New Orleans than it does with the rest of the state. Today, Mobile still retains some of its French traditions, such as having a large Catholic presence and annual celebrations of Mardi Gras, which first began in the United States in the city.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Northern Alabama was settled by Northern English and Scots Irish settlers who came to the United States. These Appalachian settlers were mostly small farmers--who did not own any slaves and had little voting power due to the rich planters in the South, who controlled the government. Today this region is still mostly rural, but is developing urban areas, such as cities like Birmingham and Huntsville attracting outsiders for work.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: With its northern border at the boundary of the Upper South and the Midwest, Kentucky demonstrates multiple cultural influences. A study in the 1990s revealed that 79% of Kentuckians agreed they were living within the south. The study also showed that 84% of Texans and 82% of Virginians believe they live within the south. It also showed between 80 and 90% of residents in Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama, Tennessee, Arkansas, Georgia and the Carolinas described themselves as southerners. This is likely because regional identification often varies dramatically within Kentucky. For example, many consider Northern Kentucky to be the most Midwestern region, as it shares culture with Cincinnati. Studies show that a significant minority of people in Northern Kentucky identify with the South. Conversely, southern Ohio and southern Indiana are highly Southern in comparison to most of the Midwest, as is the "Little Egypt" region of southern Illinois.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Some sources treat Southern Indiana as essentially the upper tip of Upland South culture, while others maintain that Southern culture, while significant, is not dominant in the region. Louisville is viewed as culturally and economically Midwestern in some analyses, because of how it rapidly industrialized during the late 19th century (although not to the same extent as most northern cities), as opposed to the slow industrialization that occurred in the South. Other observers consider Louisville to be southern culturally, due to dialect and various other aspects of culture. It is often described as both "the Gateway to the South" and "the northernmost Southern city and southernmost Northern city." Unlike the remainder of the state, Louisville, Covington, and Newport received large numbers of German immigrants due to manufacturing interests on the Ohio river, thus making the culture there somewhat distinct from the rest of the state. Had Kentucky been a free-state, prior to the Civil War, it would have likely drawn more German immigration, as there was usually a relatively small number of slaves in the areas where Germans did settle. As of the 1980s, the only counties in the United States where over half of the population cited "English" as their only ancestry group were all in the hills of eastern Kentucky (and made up virtually every county in this region). In the 1980 census, 1,267,079 Kentuckians out of a total population of 2,554,359 cited that they were of English ancestry, making them 49 percent of the state at that time.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: While varying degrees of southern cultural influence can be found in Kentucky inside the Cincinnati area and Louisville, smaller cities such as Owensboro, Bowling Green, Hopkinsville and Paducah, together with most of the state's rural areas, have continued to be more distinctly Southern in character. Outside of those two specific areas, southern culture, dialect, mannerisms, etc. are prominent in Kentucky. Southern cuisine is also quite common across the state. Western Kentucky is famous for a regional style of southern barbecue, and other forms of southern food such as catfish, country ham, and greens beans. Today most of the state, outside of Northern Kentucky, shares a cultural identity with Tennessee and the rest of the Upland South in ancestry, dialect, and various other aspects of culture.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The Charlotte and Raleigh–Durham areas have attracted many new residents due to economic growth. This includes the banking/finance industries in Charlotte, along with the universities and high-tech industries in Raleigh-Durham. Wilmington has also become a center of Midwestern and Northern migration for its temperate coastal climate and growing business community. Meanwhile, Asheville and its surrounding area has tended to attract more progressively minded transplants, due to its longstanding reputation as a center of liberal thought and open-minded attitudes, and retirees settle here due to its scenic mountain setting.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In addition to an influx of Northerners, the job markets in North Carolina's three largest metropolitan regions—Charlotte, Raleigh-Durham and the Greensboro–Winston-Salem–High Point Piedmont Triad—have also attracted large and growing Latino and Asian American immigration and migration. A report released by the Brookings Institution in May 2006 entitled "Diversity Spreads Out", noted that the Charlotte metro area ranked second nationally with a 49.8% growth rate in its Hispanic population between 2000 and 2004. The Raleigh-Durham metro area followed in third place with a 46.7% rate of growth.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Settlement of the Oklahoma territory began as a direct result of the Civil War. Southerners escaping Reconstruction, largely populated the southern and eastern regions of the state. The term "Little Dixie" was first used in reference to southeastern Oklahoma during the 20th century. Italian laborers began arriving in eastern Oklahoma in the 1870s.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In the 1980 United States census, the largest ancestry group reported in Texas was English, with 3,083,323 Texans who identify as being of English ancestry forming roughly 27% of the population at the time. Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original thirteen colonies and for this reason many of them today simply claim "American" ancestry. Because of its size and unique history, particularly having once been Mexican territory, and later a nation in its own right (i.e. the Republic of Texas), Texas' modern-day relationship to the rest of the South is often a subject of debate and discussion. It has been described as "a Southern state, certainly, yet not completely in or of the South." The size and cultural distinctiveness of Texas prohibit easy categorization of the entire state into any recognized region. Geographic, economic and cultural diversity among regions of the state preclude treating Texas as a region in its own right. Notable extremes range from East Texas, which is often considered an extension of the Deep South, to Far West Texas, which is generally acknowledged to be part of the interior Southwest.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The upper Texas Panhandle and the South Plains areas of West Texas, do not easily fit into either category. The former has much in common both culturally and geographically with Midwestern states like Kansas and Nebraska. The South Plains, though originally settled primarily by Anglo Southerners, has become a blend of both Southern and Southwestern culture due to rapidly increasing Hispanic population.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The larger cities of Texas, such as Austin, Dallas, and Houston—with their burgeoning knowledge-based economies—have attracted migrants from other regions of the United States, particularly the Midwest and West Coast. Combined with the influence of increasing numbers from an African American New Great Migration, and also from Latin America and Asia, the historic "Southern culture" has been transformed.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: However—partly due to its membership in the Confederacy and history as part of the Solid South—and the fact much of the state lies within the Bible Belt—it is usually considered more of a Southern than Western state. Also, linguistic maps of Texas place most of it within the spheres of upper, mid- and Gulf- Southern dialects, helping to further identify the state as being Southern (use of Southern colloquialisms such as "y'all" and "ain't" are still very much widespread in Texas).


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Based on a study from the late 1990s, 82% of Virginians believe they live in the South and most identify more with the South than with any other region. They uphold many traditions and beliefs of the South and take pride in their heritage. However, areas such as Northern Virginia, Richmond, and the Hampton Roads region have attracted many internal migrants coming for job opportunities with the federal government, military, and related businesses during and since World War II. Northern Virginia also connects to the emergence and expansion of the Northeast Megalopolis. More expansion resulted from the dot-com bubble around the start of the 21st century. Economically linked to Washington, D.C. and having a large migrant presence, residents of urban areas in Virginia tend to consider its culture more Mid-Atlantic than Southern.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Virginian culture was spread across the Chesapeake region during colonial times by settlers and strongly influenced the culture of the Lowland South through the transport of slaves. Virginia's coastal areas were heavily plantation based, relying on tobacco production for its economic base. Prior to the Civil War, Virginia was the largest slave state population wise and profited greatly from breeding and selling slaves to the Deep South. These slaves were thoroughly integrated into colonial Virginian culture and brought their traditions from Virginia to the Deep South where they blended with Gullah and Creole traditions. Following the Civil War and Reconstruction, Virginia went through the dark period of Jim Crow laws and faced the era of Massive Resistance to school desegregation. However, cities like Richmond and Norfolk have always been much more progressive and urban in culture than many rural areas of the state. They were known early on for having large Free Black, Quaker, and Jewish populations, much industry, and significant immigration from Eastern Europe up until the Civil War, in which Richmond was made the Confederate capital despite voting against secession. Today, Richmond and Norfolk are often considered the border between the Mid-Atlantic and Upper South, having distinct Southern characteristics and also ties to the Northeast Megalopolis. These remain the only two large cities in the country in which old fashioned Chesapeake Bay style culture is found with the distinctive Tidewater accent and many historic plantations still prevalent throughout the region.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Modern Virginia has seen an ongoing tendency for Northeasterners who move to the state to identifying separately from the rest of the South politically and culturally. However, they choose to remain in Virginia for better economic opportunities than those available further North, as well as the low tax rates.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: West Virginia was formed during the American Civil War in 1863 from 50 western counties of Virginia and is currently composed of 55 counties. Many of the counties in the new state had supported Virginia and the Confederacy during the war but were included for territorial reasons, which resulted in a "Redeemer" government in 1876.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Many legacies of its Virginia heritage remain, such as county and local place names. The state constitution is based on the antebellum constitution of Virginia. As recently as 2007 an 1849 Virginia statute was used in a county prosecution. Historic plantation houses are found throughout the state, legacies of its antebellum origins. West Virginia was the last slave state admitted to the Union. The state legislature consists of a senate and a house of delegates. The state government belongs to the Southern Governors Association and the Southern Legislative Conference.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: It is the 7th most Protestant state and the 7th most religious state in the United States. Out migration has been a steady phenomenon, beginning after the Civil War when ex-Confederates moved into southern Ohio to escape the political sanctions in their new home state. In the 20th century out migration increased as West Virginians moved north for jobs in industry.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: West Virginia has a high rate of family owned farms and the state produces large numbers of poultry, corn, apples and peaches. Tobacco production peaked in 1909 at 14,400,000 pounds, and was the second most valuable crop as recently as 1983 but is no longer a popular commodity.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Many southern dishes are common in the state; biscuits and sausage gravy, chicken and dumplings, sweet tea, cornbread and beans and condiments such as cole slaw and chow chow accompany barbecued meats. The southern diet has been blamed for health problems such as obesity and diabetes and smoking is among the highest rates in the United States. Southern Appalachian dialect can be heard in much of the state though mostly south of Clarksburg.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Country music is one of the most popular genres in the state, WWVA Jamboree out of Wheeling was the second oldest venue for country music after the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville. Charleston is one of the highest per capita markets for country music. Some of West Virginia's notable musicians include Little Jimmy Dickens, Brad Paisley, Hazel Dickens, Red Sovine, Hawkshaw Hawkins, Molly O'Day, and the rockabilly musician Hasil Adkins.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Similar to other Border States, Maryland has regions that are culturally Southern, and it is situated below the Mason–Dixon line. Prior to the second half of the 20th century, Maryland was largely Southern with strong connections to northern industry as Baltimore served as a center for grain trading. However, economic growth and demographic shifts of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s overshadowed Maryland's Southern culture. The growing service economy and ensuing southward migration of New Englanders and more solidly Northeastern workers, transformed the I-95 corridor and the Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area into robustly Mid-Atlantic areas. Suburbs of Washington, D.C., have also become more Mid-Atlantic in nature, and less culturally southern than before.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Portions of Maryland, specifically Southern Maryland and the Eastern Shore of Maryland remain largely culturally Southern, driven by agriculture and commercial fishing. Most of the land is rural and there are but a few large population centers. Many local restaurants in these two areas still serve sweet tea and dishes including or composed entirely of greens, in addition to menus heavy with fried food. Many dialectic studies show that St. Mary's County in Southern Maryland and Dorchester County, Somerset County, Wicomico County, and Worcester County in the Eastern Shore have southern accents.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Western Maryland is considered Appalachian, and is largely rural. The region is very similar to the neighboring West Virginia, Virginia, and Pennsylvania.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In a manner similar to Maryland, Delaware exhibits characteristics of both the Northeast and South. Unlike other surrounding states which are either north or south of the Mason–Dixon line, Delaware is uniquely situated east of the line (as the line takes a vertical turn along the state's western border). Generally, the rural Southern (or "Slower Lower") regions of Delaware below the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal embody a Southern culture, while densely-populated Northern Delaware above the canal—particularly Wilmington, a part of the Philadelphia metropolitan area—has more in common with that of the Northeast.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Missouri is classified as a Midwestern state by the Census Bureau and some of its residents. St. Louis was known as the "Gateway to the West" when settlement was expanding. The northern edge of the Ozark Plateau was settled chiefly by mid-to-late 19th century German immigrants, who founded numerous vineyards and wineries. Due to this, Missouri was the second-largest wine-producing state before Prohibition, which destroyed the industry. Wineries have been rebuilt since the later decades of the 20th century, and Missouri wineries are competing well in national festivals. Part of the Missouri River valley, from beyond St. Louis suburbs in St. Charles County to east of Jefferson City, is known as the Missouri Rhineland because of the extensive vineyards and wineries based on German immigrant tradition and descendants.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In the antebellum years, many settlers from Upper South states, such as Virginia and Kentucky, migrated to the counties of central and western Missouri along the Missouri River, where they could cultivate tobacco and hemp. Because these southerners brought their culture and slaveholding practices with them, Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slaveholding state. During the mid-20th century, this area became known as Little Dixie. Before the Civil War, six of the counties included in this area had populations in which more than 25% were enslaved African Americans, the highest concentrations in the state outside the cotton plantations in the Mississippi Delta. Antebellum houses typical of the South, still stand in some of Little Dixie. All the crops grown there today are corn, soybeans and wheat, for which the area was better suited than for Southern crops like cotton or tobacco. Rural southern Missouri in the Ozark Plateau and the bootheel, are definitively southern in culture.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Many areas of New Mexico, Arizona, and California were predominantly settled by European American southerners as they moved west in the 19th and early 20th centuries. For instance, pro-Confederate governments were established in what is now Arizona and New Mexico during the Civil War and, at one point, southern California was on the cusp of breaking away from northern California and joining the Confederacy.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In the aftermath of the Civil War, several freedmen's towns were founded by emancipated African Americans from the south.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Southerners migrated to industrial cities in the Midwest for work before and after World War II. They went to states such as Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio, as well as Missouri and Illinois. During the Great Depression and Dust Bowl crisis, a large influx of migrants from areas such as Oklahoma, Arkansas and the Texas Panhandle settled in California. These "Okie" and "Arkie" migrants and their descendants remain a strong influence on the culture of the Central Valley of California, especially around the cities of Bakersfield and Fresno.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: More than 6.5 million African Americans left the segregated South for the industrial cities of the Midwest and West Coast during the Great Migration, beginning in World War I and extending to 1970. Many migrants from Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas moved to California during and after World War II because of jobs in the defense industry. As a result, many African Americans, as well as European Americans, have "Northern" and "Southern" branches of their families. Significant parts of African-American culture, such as music, literary forms and cuisine, have been rooted in the South, but have changed with urban northern and western influences as well.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: As an important feature of Southern culture, the cuisine of the South is often described as one of its most distinctive traits. Popular sayings include "Food is Love" and "If it ain't fried it ain't cooked". Southern culinary culture has readily adopted Native American influences. Corn meal cereal known as "grits", corn fritters, cornbread, brunswick stew, and barbecue are a few of the more common examples of foods adopted directly from southeastern native-American communities. Nevertheless, a great many regional varieties have also developed. The variety of cuisines range from Tex-Mex cuisine, Cajun and Creole, traditional antebellum dishes, all types of seafood, along with Carolina, Virginia (which shares strong similarities with North Carolina) and Memphis styles of barbecue.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Traditional African American Southern food is often called soul food. While not typically as spicy as cajun food, it incorporates a variety of herbs, flour, and can also be called stick-to-your-ribs food. Of course, most Southern cities and even smaller towns now offer a wide variety of cuisines of other origins such as Chinese, Italian, Japanese, French, and Middle Eastern foods, as well as restaurants still serving primarily Southern specialties, so-called "home cooking" establishments. Some notable "home cooking" meals include fried chicken, corn on the cob, greens with pot liquor, vegetable stew, chicken and dumplings, and chicken fried steak.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Iced tea is commonly associated with the South. Specifically, sweet tea, or brewed iced tea sweetened with granulated sugar, has traditionally been served in the South. In fact, most southern restaurants serve sweet tea in addition to "unsweet tea", whereas most restaurants in other regions serve only (unsweetened) iced tea.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Many of the most popular American soft drinks originated in the South (Coca-Cola, Pepsi-Cola, Mountain Dew, Cheerwine, Big Red, Dr Pepper, RC Cola, and RC Cola's Nehi brand products). In much of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, Texas, and other parts of the South, the term "soft drink" or "soda" is discarded in favor of "Coke" (see Genericized trademark). Some people use the term "co-cola", shortened from Coca-Cola, when ordering a soft drink.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Official support for Prohibition existed in the Southern states before and after the 18th Amendment was in force in the US. Due to widespread restrictions on alcohol production, illegally distilled liquor or moonshine has long been associated (often rather stereotypically) with working-class and poor people in much of the region, especially in southern Appalachia. Many southern states are control states that monopolize and highly regulate the distribution and sale of alcoholic beverages. Many counties in the South, particularly outside of the large metropolitan areas, are dry counties that do not allow for alcohol sales in retail outlets. However, many dry counties still allow for "private clubs" often with low daily fees to serve alcohol on the premises.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: New Orleans is known as "the City that Care Forgot", epitomized by the saying "laissez les bons temps rouler" (let the good times roll). The Crescent City's culture revolves around food, drink, and community celebrations. Hurricanes are a famous French Quarter drink, as are sazerac cocktails and absinthe.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The Upper South, specifically Kentucky, is known for its production of bourbon whiskey, which is a popular base for cocktails. As of 2005, Kentucky was credited with producing 95% of the world's bourbon, which has been referred to as America's only native spirit. The mint julep is traditionally depicted as a popular beverage among more affluent Southerners. Many other bourbons are produced in Kentucky including Evan Williams, Wild Turkey, and Bulleit. Southern Comfort is a flavored distilled spirit modeled after bourbon and made in Louisiana.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Another form of spirit produced in the South is Tennessee Whiskey, with Jack Daniel's, made in Lynchburg, Tennessee being the number one selling whiskey in the world. George Dickel, is produced in nearby Tullahoma, Tennessee.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Born in the Boonslick region of Missouri to parents who had recently emigrated from Tennessee, Mark Twain is often placed within the pantheon of great Southern writers. Many of his works demonstrate his extensive knowledge of the Mississippi River and the South; also included in his works as a frequent theme were the injustice of slavery and the culture of Protestant public morality.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: One of the best known southern writers of the 20th century is William Faulkner, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1949. Faulkner brought new techniques such as stream of consciousness and complex techniques to American writing (such as in his novel "As I Lay Dying"). Faulkner was part of the Southern Renaissance movement.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The Southern Renaissance (also known as Southern Renascence) was the reinvigoration of American Southern literature that began in the 1920s and 1930s with the appearance of writers such as Faulkner, Caroline Gordon, Elizabeth Madox Roberts, Katherine Anne Porter, Allen Tate, Tennessee Williams, and Robert Penn Warren, among others.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The Southern Renaissance was the first mainstream movement within Southern literature to address the criticisms of Southern cultural and intellectual life that had emerged both from within the Southern literary tradition and from outsiders, most notably the satirist H. L. Mencken. In the 1920s Mencken led the attack on the genteel tradition in American literature, ridiculing the provincialism of American intellectual life. In his 1920 essay "The Sahara of the Bozart" (a pun on a Southern pronunciation of 'beaux-arts') he singled out the South as the most provincial and intellectually barren region of the US, claiming that since the Civil War, intellectual and cultural life there had gone into terminal decline. This created a storm of protest from within conservative circles in the South. However, many emerging Southern writers who were already highly critical of contemporary life in the South were emboldened by Mencken's essay. On the other hand, Mencken's subsequent bitter attacks on aspects of Southern culture that they valued amazed and horrified them. In response to the attacks of Mencken and his imitators, Southern writers were provoked to a reassertion of Southern uniqueness and a deeper exploration of the theme of Southern identity.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Other well-known Southern writers include Erskine Caldwell, Edgar Allan Poe, Joel Chandler Harris, Sidney Lanier, Cleanth Brooks, Pat Conroy, Harper Lee, Zora Neale Hurston, Eudora Welty, Ralph Ellison, Thomas Wolfe, William Styron, Flannery O'Connor, Carson McCullers, James Dickey, Willie Morris, Tom Wolfe, Truman Capote, Walker Percy, Charles Portis, Barry Hannah, Alice Walker, Cormac McCarthy, Anne Rice, Shelby Foote, John Grisham, Charlaine Harris, James Agee, Hunter S. Thompson, Wendell Berry, Bobbie Ann Mason, Harry Crews, and the authors known as the Southern Agrarians.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Possibly the most famous Southern novel of the 20th century is "Gone with the Wind" by Margaret Mitchell, published in 1937. Another famous Southern novel, "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee, won the Pulitzer Prize after it was published in 1960.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The musical heritage of the South was developed by both whites and blacks, both influencing each other directly and indirectly.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The South's musical history actually starts before the Civil War, with the songs of the African slaves and the traditional folk music brought from Britain and Ireland. Blues was developed in the rural South by African Americans at the beginning of the 20th century. In addition, old-time music, gospel music, spirituals, country music, rhythm and blues, soul music, funk, rock and roll, beach music, bluegrass, jazz (including ragtime, popularized by Southerner Scott Joplin), zydeco, and Appalachian folk music were either born in the South or developed in the region.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: In general, country music is based on the folk music of white Southerners, and blues and rhythm and blues is based on African American southern forms. However, whites and blacks alike have contributed to each of these genres, and there is a considerable overlap between the traditional music of blacks and whites in the South, especially in gospel music forms. A stylish variant of country music (predominantly produced in Nashville) has been a consistent, widespread fixture of American pop since the 1950s, while insurgent forms (i.e. bluegrass) have traditionally appealed to more discerning sub-cultural and rural audiences. Blues dominated the African American music charts from the advent of modern recording until the mid-1950s, when it was supplanted by the less guttural and forlorn sounds of rock and R&B. Nevertheless, unadulterated blues (along with early rock and roll) is still the subject of reverential adoration throughout much of Europe and cult popularity in isolated pockets of the United States.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Zydeco, Cajun and swamp pop, despite having never enjoyed greater regional or mainstream popularity, still thrive throughout French Louisiana and its peripheries, such as Southeastern Texas. These unique Louisianan styles of folk music are celebrated as part of the traditional heritage of the people of Louisiana. Conversely, bluegrass music has acquired a sophisticated cachet and distinct identity from mainstream country music through the fusion recordings of artists like Bela Fleck, David Grisman, and the New Grass Revival; traditional bluegrass and Appalachian mountain music experienced a strong resurgence after the release of 2001's "O Brother, Where Art Thou?".


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Rock n' roll largely began in the South in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Early rock n' roll musicians from the South include Jerry Lee Lewis, Buddy Holly, Little Richard, Fats Domino, Bo Diddley, Elvis Presley, Ray Charles, James Brown, Otis Redding, and Carl Perkins, among many others. Hank Williams, Charlie Feathers, and Johnny Cash, while generally regarded as "country" singers, also had a significant role in the development of rock music, giving rise to the "crossover" genre of rockabilly. In the 1960s, Stax Records emerged as a leading competitor of Motown Records, laying the groundwork for later stylistic innovations in the process.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The South has continued to produce rock music in later decades. In the 1970s, a wave of Southern rock and blues rock groups, led by The Allman Brothers Band, Lynyrd Skynyrd, ZZ Top, and 38 Special, became popular. Macon, Georgia-based Capricorn Records helped to spearhead the Southern rock movement, and was the original home to many of the genre's most famous groups. At the other end of the spectrum, along with the aforementioned Brown and Stax, New Orleans' Allen Toussaint and The Meters helped to define the funk subgenre of rhythm and blues in the 1970s.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Many who got their start in the regional show business in the South eventually banked on mainstream national and international success as well: Elvis Presley and Dolly Parton are two such examples of artists that have transcended genres.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Many of the roots of alternative rock are often considered to come from the South as well, with bands such as R.E.M., Pylon, the B-52s, and Indigo Girls forever associated with the musically fertile college town of Athens, Georgia. Cities such as Austin, Knoxville, Chapel Hill, Nashville and Atlanta also have thriving indie rock and live music scenes. Austin is home to the long-running South by Southwest music and arts festival, while several influential independent music labels (Sugar Hill, Merge, Yep Rock and the now-defunct Mammoth Records) were founded in the Chapel Hill area. Several influential death metal bands have recorded albums at Morrisound Recording in Temple Terrace, Florida and the studio is considered an important touchstone in the genre's development.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: There is a large underground heavy metal scene in the Southern United States. Death metal can trace some of its origins to Tampa, Florida. Bands such as Deicide, Morbid Angel, Six Feet Under, and Cannibal Corpse, among others, have come out of this scene. The South is also where sludge metal was born, and where its pioneering acts, Eyehategod and Crowbar, come from, as well as other notable bands of the style such as Down and Corrosion of Conformity. Other well known metal bands from the South include Crossfade, Pantera, Hellyeah, Lamb of God, and Mastodon. This has helped coin the term southern metal which is well received by the vast majority in metal circles around the world. Other heavy metal and hardcore punk subgenres, including metalcore and post-hardcore, have also become increasingly popular in this region.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Since the late 1980s, the spread of rap music has led to the rise of the musical subgenre of the Dirty South. Atlanta, Houston, Memphis, Miami, and New Orleans have long been major centers of hip hop culture.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: While the South has National Football League (NFL) franchises in Dallas, Houston, Miami, Atlanta, New Orleans, Tampa, Jacksonville, Charlotte, and Nashville, the region is noted for the intensity with which people follow college football teams, especially those in the Southeastern Conference (SEC), Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), and Big 12 Conference (Big 12). In states such as Texas and Oklahoma, high school football, particularly in smaller communities, is a dominating activity.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Basketball is also popular, particularly college basketball. The Duke Blue Devils and North Carolina Tar Heels enjoy one of the great rivalries in American sports. As of 2019, Kentucky as a state has 11 national championships won by two schools, the University of Louisville and the University of Kentucky; North Carolina has 13 statewide national championships, coming from the combined victories of Duke, UNC, and NC State. The National Basketball Association (NBA) is well-represented in the South as well, with franchises in Atlanta, Charlotte, Orlando, Miami, Memphis, New Orleans, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, and Oklahoma City.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Taking advantage of warmer late-winter weather, many professional baseball teams began training in Florida in the spring, starting in the 1920s and 15 teams continue to train there each year. Regular season Major League Baseball (MLB) in Atlanta began in 1966, when the Milwaukee Braves transferred its franchise to the city. Expansion teams were added to Texas with the Houston Astros and Texas Rangers in the 1960s and 70s, while Florida became home to the Miami Marlins in 1993 and Tampa Bay Rays in 1998. At one time, a number of minor league baseball leagues flourished in the South. The region is still home to more minor league teams than any other region of the United States.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Normally associated with cold climates, five National Hockey League (NHL) franchises are based in the south: the Dallas Stars, Tampa Bay Lightning, Florida Panthers, Nashville Predators, and Carolina Hurricanes (six if the Washington Capitals are counted as Southern).


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The South is also the birthplace of NASCAR auto racing. Journalist Ben Shackleford says it flourishes there because "the violence and danger of the sport resonated with growing idealization of the traditional Southern culture." Race tracks that host NASCAR sanctioned events are found in several different locations in the South, including Martinsville, Virginia, Talladega, Alabama, Bristol, Tennessee, Darlington, South Carolina, Dover, Delaware, Sparta, Kentucky, Daytona, Florida, Charlotte, Atlanta, Miami, Richmond, Virginia, and Fort Worth, Texas.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Other popular sports in the South include golf (which can be played almost year-round because of the South's mild climate), fishing, soccer (which is the fastest growing sport in the South), and hunting wild game. Augusta, Georgia is the host city of The Masters (one of golf's premier tournaments held each spring) and home to 15 golf courses. It is considered to be the golf capital of the world.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Many critically acclaimed movies have been set in the cultural background of the South. A partial list of these films follows – for a more complete listing of Southern cinema, see list of films set in the Southern United States.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Following the boom of television in the 1950s, many shows were set in the South and/or became very popular with Southerners. They included:


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: By 1971, sponsors had shifted for this formula and CBS consequently cancelled all of its Southern shows. (Only "Hee Haw" survived, in syndication.) In 1976, Jimmy Carter was elected as the first President of the United States from the Deep South subregion. The election resulted in reporters swarming into Carter's small southern town of Plains, Georgia. Speculation about his lifestyle and Southern Baptist faith, renewed interest in Southern culture.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Critics point out that some of these shows and films, stereotype Southerners as "hapless hicks" or "a universally simple and often silly group of inhabitants", especially in contrast to the far more complex literary portrayals, and argue that they do not fairly represent Southerners' culture.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Many anime characters with Kansai accents, speak with Southern accents in English-language adaptations.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Since the early 19th century, Southerners have been the subject of stereotypes, epithets and ridicule. Traces remain in the media, usually in humorous form, as in the 1960s TV series, "The Beverly Hillbillies", a situation comedy, which depicts the cultural dissonance of a poor backwoods family that moves to upscale California after striking oil on their land. Many poor Southern whites make fun of the stereotypes. Images typically depict Southerners as laid-back, hospitable, jolly and carefree—and lazy. The hostile epithet "white trash" originated among house slaves in the 1830s to ridicule whites of low income or low morality.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: During the early periods of the South, travelers often emphasized the backward, uneducated, uncouth, dirty or unhygienic, impoverished, and violent aspects of Southern life. A favorite theme especially regarding Appalachia and the Ozarks, portrayed "hicks" isolated from modern culture as shiftless male hunters, violently feuding clans like the Hatfields and McCoys, degraded women smoking corncob pipes, religious snake handlers, and compulsive banjo players.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The national stereotype of the South in 1917 can be glimpsed in a study of tobacco usage in the late 19th century written by a Northern historian who paid close attention to class and gender:


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The chewing of tobacco was well-nigh universal. This habit had been widespread among the agricultural population of America both North and South before the war. Soldiers had found the quid a solace in the field and continued to revolve it in their mouths upon returning to their homes. Out of doors where his life was principally led the chewer spat upon his lands without offense to other men, and his homes and public buildings were supplied with spittoons. Brown and yellow parabolas were projected to right and left toward these receivers, but very often without the careful aim which made for cleanly living. Even the pews of fashionable churches were likely to contain these familiar conveniences. The large numbers of Southern men, and these were of the better class (officers in the Confederate army and planters, worth $20,000 or more, and barred from general amnesty) who presented themselves for the pardon of President Johnson, while they sat awaiting his pleasure in the ante-room at the White House, covered its floor with pools and rivulets of their spittle. An observant traveller in the South in 1865 said that in his belief seven-tenths of all persons above the age of twelve years, both male and female, used tobacco in some form. Women could be seen at the doors of their cabins in their bare feet, in their dirty one-piece cotton garments, their chairs tipped back, smoking pipes made of corn cobs into which were fitted reed stems or goose quills. Boys of eight or nine years of age and half-grown girls smoked. Women and girls "dipped" in their houses, on their porches, in the public parlors of hotels and in the streets.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: The Progressive Era (1896–1916) brought attention to the problems the South faced. An influential scholarly study was Horace Kephart's "Our Southern Highlanders" (1913), which portrayed an isolated and culturally inert people. The bleak image inspired northern philanthropy, such as the Rockefeller foundations, to intervene using modern public health techniques and to promote better schooling.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Since the 1930s, however, Hollywood has used stereotypes of the South to contrast virtues of simple rural life, with the corruption that can be found in the city.


title: Culture of the Southern United States

text: Comic strips dealt with northern urban experiences until 1934, when Al Capp introduced "L'il Abner", the first strip based in the South. Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years teaching the world about Dogpatch, reaching 60 million readers in over 900 American newspapers and 100 foreign papers in 28 countries. Inge says Capp, "had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South." Other popular strips on Southern life included "Pogo", "Snuffy Smith" and "Kudzu". Cultural historian Anthony Harkins argues that Dogpatch's hillbilly setting "remained a central touchstone, serving both as a microcosm and a distorting carnival mirror of broader American society."


title: Ferrite bead

text: A ferrite bead (also known as a ferrite block, ferrite core, ferrite ring, EMI filter, or ferrite choke) is a type of choke that suppresses high-frequency electronic noise in electronic circuits.


title: Ferrite bead

text: Ferrite beads employ high-frequency current dissipation in a ferrite ceramic to build high-frequency noise suppression devices.


title: Ferrite bead

text: Ferrite beads prevent electromagnetic interference (EMI) in two directions: "from" a device or "to" a device. A conductive cable acts as an antenna – if the device produces radio-frequency energy, this can be "transmitted" through the cable, which acts as an unintentional radiator. In this case the bead is required for regulatory compliance, to reduce EMI. Conversely, if there are other sources of EMI, such as household appliances, the bead prevents the cable from acting as an antenna and "receiving" interference from these other devices. This is particularly common on data cables and on medical equipment.


title: Ferrite bead

text: Large ferrite beads are commonly seen on external cabling. Various smaller ferrite beads are used internally in circuits—on conductors or around the pins of small circuit-board components, such as transistors, connectors and integrated circuits.


title: Ferrite bead

text: On wires intended to be DC conductors, beads can block low level unintended radio frequency energy by acting as a low pass filter. On unbalanced coax transmission lines (for instance, USB cables and video cables) the cable is designed to contain the signal, and beads can be used to block stray common mode current from using the cable as an antenna while not interfering with the signal carried inside the cable. In this use, the bead is a simple form of a balun.


title: Ferrite bead

text: Ferrite beads are one of the simplest and least expensive types of interference filters to install on preexisting electronic cabling. For a simple ferrite ring, the wire is simply wrapped around the core through the center, typically five or seven times. Clamp-on cores are also available, which attach without wrapping the wire: this type of ferrite core is usually designed so that the wire passes only once through it. If the fit is not snug enough, the core can be secured with cable ties or, if the center is large enough, the cabling can loop through one or more times. (Note, however, that although each loop increases the impedance to high frequencies, it also shifts the frequency of the highest impedance to a lower frequency.) Small ferrite beads can be slipped over component leads to suppress parasitic oscillation.


title: Ferrite bead

text: Surface-mount ferrite beads are available. These are soldered into a gap in the printed circuit board trace, just like any other surface-mount inductor. Inside the bead component, a coil of wire runs between layers of ferrite to form a multi-turn inductor around the high-permeability core.


title: Ferrite bead

text: Ferrite beads are used as a passive low-pass filter, by dissipating radio frequency (RF) energy as heat, by design.


title: Ferrite bead

text: Pure inductors on the other hand have no resistance and hence do not dissipate energy as heat. Pure inductors only have inductive reactance, which reduces the flow of high frequency signals by returning some of their energy back towards the signal source (possibly reducing the amount of energy drawn) rather than dissipating that energy as heat (as done by the resistance in ferrite beads). Note that while an inductor's reactance may commonly be referred to simply as "impedance", impedance in general can be any combination of resistance and reactance.


title: Ferrite bead

text: The geometry and electromagnetic properties of coiled wire over the ferrite bead result in an impedance for high-frequency signals, attenuating high-frequency EMI/RFI electronic noise. The energy is either reflected back up the cable, or dissipated as low-level heat. Only in extreme cases is the heat noticeable.


title: Ferrite bead

text: A ferrite bead can be added to an inductor to improve, in two ways, its ability to block unwanted high frequency noise. First, the ferrite concentrates the magnetic field, increasing inductance and therefore reactance, which filters out the noise. Second, if the ferrite is so designed, it can produce an additional loss in the form of resistance in the ferrite itself. The ferrite creates an inductor with a very low Q factor. This loss heats the ferrite, normally by a negligible amount. While the signal level is large enough to cause interference or undesirable effects in sensitive circuits, the energy blocked is typically quite small. Depending on the application, the resistive loss characteristic of the ferrite may or may not be desired.


title: Ferrite bead

text: A design that uses a ferrite bead to improve noise filtering must take into account specific circuit characteristics and the frequency range to block. Different ferrite materials have different properties with respect to frequency, and manufacturer's literature helps select the most effective material for the frequency range.


title: The Magic School Bus Rides Again

text: The Magic School Bus Rides Again is an animated children's web series, based on the book series of the same name by Joanna Cole and Bruce Degen. It also serves as a continuation of the 1994–97 PBS Kids series "The Magic School Bus", with Lily Tomlin reprising her role as Ms. Frizzle. The series premiered on Netflix on September 29, 2017. The second season premiered on April 13, 2018.


title: The Magic School Bus Rides Again

text: Three 45-minute specials, "Kids in Space", "The Frizz Connection", and "In the Zone", premiered on Netflix in 2020. They were dedicated to Joanna Cole, the author of the original books, who died that year.


title: The Magic School Bus Rides Again

text: In the sequel to "Scholastic's The Magic School Bus", the flagship Dr. Valerie Frizzle (now Professor Frizzle) gets her Ph.D and retires from teaching at Walkerville Elementary School. She then hires her younger sister, Miss Fiona Frizzle, to teach the class, and passes the keys of the Magic School Bus over to her. The kids journey on exciting new field-trips, discovering new locations, creatures, time periods and more to learn about the wonders of science, educating viewers along the way, on the eponymous Bus.


title: The Magic School Bus Rides Again

text: In 2014, the series was first announced by Netflix and Scholastic Media, and was titled "The Magic School Bus 360°". The new iteration of the franchise features a modernized "Ms. Frizzle" (replacing Valerie with her younger sister Fiona) and a high-tech bus that stresses modern inventions such as robotics, wearables and camera technology. The hope is to captivate children's imaginations and motivate their interest in the sciences. It was produced by 9 Story Media Group. Producer Stuart Stone, who voiced Ralphie in the original series, stated that "The Magic School Bus 360°" will feature some of the original voice actors in different roles. The show's voice cast is based in Los Angeles, California, United States and Toronto, Ontario, Canada with Susan Blu as the Los Angeles voice director and Alyson Court as the Toronto voice director. In February 2017, Kate McKinnon was cast in the role of Ms. Frizzle (without clarifying it was Fiona, the younger sister of Valerie, now Professor Frizzle, still voiced by Tomlin). The series then changed its name to "The Magic School Bus Rides Again". The series was released on Netflix on September 29, 2017. The second season was released on April 13, 2018.


title: The Magic School Bus Rides Again

text: Lin-Manuel Miranda of "Hamilton" sings the theme song. Phoebe Terese, a character from the original series, is replaced by a new student named Jyoti, as it was revealed that Phoebe transferred back to her old school. The episode endings feature question and answer sessions with Professor Frizzle, echoing the segments about viewers calling the producer which accompanied the original series on commercial-free channels. Despite clarifying some creative license taken in the episode, these scenes are still set in a universe with magical vehicles. Among other changes, the students still wear the same clothes every day but they do not resemble those from the original series. Three 45–minute specials were released in 2020: the first special "The Magic School Bus Rides Again: Kids in Space" was released on August 7, the second named "The Magic School Bus Rides Again: The Frizz Connection" on October 20 and a third titled "The Magic School Bus Rides Again: In the Zone" on December 26. The artstyle was changed for the specials as the characters have no outlines and the lighting and shading are more detailed.


title: The Magic School Bus Rides Again

text: After the series' announcement and the release of its trailer, there was initial resistance to the new art style, absence of Lily Tomlin as Ms. Frizzle, and fear it would not live up to the original series. AOL accused the show of giving Ms. Frizzle a nose job. Bustle put this down to fans of the show being "protective of its legacy".


title: The Magic School Bus Rides Again

text: Despite this speculation, the series has been critically acclaimed upon release. "Common Sense Media" deemed the show a worthy successor to its 1990s sister series, praising its gender and ethnic diversity and its commitment to teaching children about STEM subjects. "Christianity Today" argues that the show managed to keep the "genius of the franchise", which is that the children are almost more intrigued by the complexity and order of the natural world rather than the magic of the titular school bus. "Daily Dot" praised the series' premiere for addressing the change to the show's structure, putting viewers at ease through the transition, adding that the science was made "approachable". "The Houstonian" found the episodes' scenarios to be "pretty interesting", commenting on the academical and moral lessons. The AV Club felt the series lives up to its predecessor, and contains the same "goofy humor and ease with making learning fun". Another AV Club article wrote that the series is "lively, fast-paced, and exceedingly tolerable for adults", and full of enough science to allow them to park their kids in front of it guilt-free.


The National Football League 100th Anniversary All-Time Team was voted on by a panel consisting of media members, former players and league personnel in 2019 to honor the greatest players of the first 100 years of the National Football League (NFL). Tom Brady, Larry Fitzgerald, and Adam Vinatieri were the only active players when the team was revealed, while Bill Belichick was the only active head coach to be selected. Only Tom Brady is still on NFL rosters as of the 2021 season’s end. Johnny Unitas, Jim Brown, Gale Sayers, Don Hutson, Gino Marchetti, Ray Nitschke, and Dick "Night Train" Lane are also part of the NFL 50th Anniversary All-Time Team and the NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team.


title: National Football League 100th Anniversary All-Time Team

text: The team was chosen by a panel of 26 voters made up of coaches, team and front office executives, former players and members of the media between April and June 2018. New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick and Pro Football Hall of Fame head coach and former color commentator John Madden were also two of the voters and were in charge of looking over film and issuing a report to the committee on players in the early years of the league. There was a vote to trim the list to 160 in mid-May 2018, after considering the "Golden Era" players recommended by Belichick and Madden. Another debate was held in May with the final votes due on June 15, 2018.


text: Players were selected at each position group, and were voted in no order. There were 10 quarterbacks, 12 running backs, 10 wide receivers, 5 tight ends, 7 tackles, 7 guards, 4 centers, 7 defensive ends, 7 defensive tackles, 6 outside linebackers, 6 middle/inside linebackers, 7 cornerbacks, 6 safeties, 2 kickers, 2 punters, 2 kick/punt returners, and 10 coaches selected to the team. No long snappers were selected.


text: The roster was unveiled over six weeks on NFL Network by host Rich Eisen alongside Cris Collinsworth from NBC Sports and Belichick.


text: On December 21 and December 22, 2019, quarterbacks Joe Montana and Tom Brady were announced as the first two quarterbacks to make it to the 100th Anniversary All-Time Team. On December 23, 2019 the remaining 20 finalists for the 100th Anniversary All-Time Team were announced. They included Troy Aikman, Sammy Baugh, Terry Bradshaw, Drew Brees, John Elway, Brett Favre, Dan Fouts, Otto Graham, Bobby Layne, Sid Luckman, Peyton Manning, Dan Marino, Joe Namath, Aaron Rodgers, Bart Starr, Roger Staubach, Fran Tarkenton, Johnny Unitas, Norm Van Brocklin, and Steve Young.


text: On November 18, 2019, 24 running back finalists were announced. The finalists included Marcus Allen, Jerome Bettis, Jim Brown, Earl Campbell, Earl "Dutch" Clark, Eric Dickerson, Tony Dorsett, Marshall Faulk, Harold "Red" Grange, Franco Harris, Hugh McElhenny, Lenny Moore, Marion Motley, Bronko Nagurski, Walter Payton, Adrian Peterson, Barry Sanders, Gale Sayers, O.J. Simpson, Emmitt Smith, Jim Taylor, Thurman Thomas, LaDainian Tomlinson, and Steve Van Buren.


text: On December 16, 2019, 24 wide receivers were announced as finalists for the 100th Anniversary All-Time Team. They included Lance Alworth, Raymond Berry, Fred Biletnikoff, Cris Carter, Tom Fears, Larry Fitzgerald, Marvin Harrison, Bob Hayes, Elroy "Crazylegs" Hirsch, Don Hutson, Michael Irvin, Calvin Johnson, Charlie Joiner, Steve Largent, Dante Lavelli, James Lofton, Don Maynard, Randy Moss, Terrell Owens, Pete Pihos, Jerry Rice, John Stallworth, Charley Taylor, and Paul Warfield.


text: On December 9, 2019, 12 tight end finalists were announced, including Dave Casper, Mike Ditka, Antonio Gates, Tony Gonzalez, Rob Gronkowski, Ron Kramer, John Mackey, Ozzie Newsome, Charlie Sanders, Shannon Sharpe, Kellen Winslow, and Jason Witten.


text: On December 9, 2019, 40 offensive linemen were announced as finalists. Sixteen of the 40 finalists were tackles, including Bob "The Boomer" Brown, Roosevelt "Rosey" Brown, Lou Creekmur, Dan Dierdorf, Forrest Gregg, Cal Hubbard, Walter Jones, Ron Mix, Anthony Muñoz, Jonathan Ogden, Orlando Pace, Willie Roaf, Art Shell, Bob St. Clair, Joe Thomas, and Ron Yary. Fifteen of the 40 finalists were guards, including Larry Allen, Joe DeLamielleure, Dan Fortmann, John Hannah, Jerry Kramer, Larry Little, Tom Mack, Bruce Matthews, Randall McDaniel, Mike Michalske, Mike Munchak, Jim Parker, Will Shields, Dick Stanfel, and Gene Upshaw. Nine of the 40 finalists were centers, including Dermontti Dawson, Mel Hein, Jim Langer, Jim Otto, Jim Ringo, Dwight Stephenson, Mick Tingelhoff, Clyde "Bulldog" Turner and Mike Webster.


text: On November 25, 2019, 33 defensive linemen were announced as finalists. Seventeen of the 33 defensive linemen were defensive ends, including Doug Atkins, Willie Davis, Carl Eller, Len Ford, Bill Hewitt, Deacon Jones, Howie Long, Gino Marchetti, Julius Peppers, Andy Robustelli, Lee Roy Selmon, Bruce Smith, Michael Strahan, DeMarcus Ware, J. J. Watt, Reggie White, and Jack Youngblood. Sixteen of the 33 defensive linemen were defensive tackles, including Junious "Buck" Buchanan, Curley Culp, Art Donovan, "Mean" Joe Greene, Cortez Kennedy, Bob Lilly, Gene "Big Daddy" Lipscomb, Leo Nomellini, Merlin Olsen, Alan Page, John Randle, Warren Sapp, Tom Sestak, Ernie Stautner, Randy White, and Bill Willis.


text: On November 25, 2019, 25 linebacker finalists were announced. The finalists included Chuck Bednarik, Bobby Bell, Derrick Brooks, Dick Butkus, Harry Carson, Bill George, Kevin Greene, Jack Ham, Ted Hendricks, Clarke Hinkle, Sam Huff, Luke Kuechly, Jack Lambert, Willie Lanier, Ray Lewis, Von Miller, Ray Nitschke, Dave Robinson, Joe Schmidt, Junior Seau, Mike Singletary, Lawrence Taylor, Derrick Thomas, Brian Urlacher, and Dave Wilcox.


text: On December 2, 2019, 30 defensive back finalists were announced. Sixteen of the 30 defensive back finalists were cornerbacks, including Herb Adderley, Champ Bailey, Lem Barney, Mel Blount, Willie Brown, Darrell Green, Mike Haynes, Jimmy Johnson, Dick "Night Train" Lane, Patrick Peterson, Mel Renfro, Darrelle Revis, Deion Sanders, Aeneas Williams, Charles Woodson, and Rod Woodson. Fourteen of the 30 defensive back finalists were safeties, including Jack Christiansen, Brian Dawkins, Kenny Easley, Ken Houston, Paul Krause, Yale Lary, Ronnie Lott, Troy Polamalu, Ed Reed, Johnny Robinson, Donnie Shell, Emlen Tunnell, Larry Wilson, and Willie Wood.


text: On December 2, 2019, 12 special teams finalists were announced. Four of the 12 special team finalists were kickers, including Morten Andersen, Lou Groza, Jan Stenerud, and Adam Vinatieri. Four of the 12 special team finalists were punters, including Ray Guy, Yale Lary, Shane Lechler, and Jerrel Wilson. Four of the 12 special team finalists were return specialists, including Mel Gray, Devin Hester, Billy "White Shoes" Johnson, and Brian Mitchell.


text: On November 20, 2019, 20 head coaches were announced as finalists, including Bill Belichick, Paul Brown, Guy Chamberlin, Tony Dungy, Weeb Ewbank, Joe Gibbs, Sid Gillman, Bud Grant, George Halas, Curly Lambeau, Tom Landry, Marv Levy, Vince Lombardi, John Madden, Chuck Noll, Steve Owen, Bill Parcells, Fritz Pollard, Don Shula, and Bill Walsh.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: Sanctum is a 2011 3D action-thriller film directed by Alister Grierson and written by John Garvin and Andrew Wight. It stars Richard Roxburgh, Rhys Wakefield, Alice Parkinson, Dan Wyllie, and Ioan Gruffudd. Wight also produced the film, with James Cameron as executive producer.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: The film was released in the United States on 4 February 2011 by Universal Pictures to predominantly mixed reviews from critics and grossed $108 million on a $30 million budget. It also received an AACTA Award nomination for Best Visual Effects. Universal Studios Home Entertainment released "Sanctum" on DVD, Blu-ray Disc, and Blu-ray 3D on 7 June 2011.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: Seventeen-year-old Joshua "Josh" McGuire (Rhys Wakefield), expedition bank-roller Carl Hurley (Ioan Gruffudd) and his girlfriend, Victoria "Vic" Elaine (Alice Parkinson), travel to the Esa'ala Cave, an underwater cave exploration site in Papua New Guinea. Josh's father, Frank (Richard Roxburgh), a master diver, has already established a forward base camp at a lower level inside the cave, where the team has been exploring for weeks. As Josh voices his disdain for his father and his opinions about cave exploration, the team below prepares to dive into an unexplored area of the system.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: While exploring the entrance to the new system, Judes (Allison Cratchley) experiences a problem with her air tank hose. She loses use of her air mask forcing Frank to buddy breathe. After a few exchanges, Judes panics and tries to keep the mask on, but Frank forces the mask off of her knowing he will not have enough air otherwise to make it back to the team. As Judes drowns, Josh watches on a monitor at "forward camp" and presumes the worst of his father. In a struggle to determine who truly was responsible for her death, it is revealed by Frank that Judes had dived in an exhausted state since they previously had to retrieve the extra bailout tanks, a task Josh did not do. Meanwhile, their above-ground crew realises that a very big storm is preparing to hit their location sooner than anticipated. They attempt to warn the team below, but are unsuccessful. Josh expresses his desire to return to the surface and with communications down and an uncertain expedition in front of them, team leader Frank agrees to have his son return to the surface with a buddy climber ahead of them.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: While Josh climbs back towards the surface with Luko, Liz, and J.D, water begins rushing in from their exit. The storm they were trying to avoid had turned into a cyclone, causing flash floods that begin to fill the cave. As J.D. and Liz make their way up through "the elevator" (an area leading up to the main entrance of the cave), Josh is unable to leave his father and the dive team behind to their doom and turns back, accompanied by Luko. As they are making their way back to "forward camp" they discover that Frank and the team have already evacuated their camp and are assisting Victoria as she climbs her way up and out of the cavern. Josh leaps in to help, strapping a rope around a nearby boulder and forming a belay for the team to escape. Unfortunately, the boulder begins to give way leaving Josh to hold Victoria's line and Luko to hold back the boulder. The water rushes through and forces Victoria and Josh to fall back down into the now flooded base camp. Luko is severely injured when the boulder breaks loose, sealing the shaft and throwing him back down into the cavern. He is swept into an underwater tunnel before the team can reach him.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: The team decides to use the unexplored tunnel as an escape route from the rapidly flooding cavern. Victoria, panicked and anxious, refuses to wear Jude's old wetsuit and is given a quick tutorial on how to dive. Before the team can leave, a severely injured and mutilated Luko surfaces in the cavern. Seeing that his friend is in great pain and near death, Frank mercifully drowns him.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: The team presses on and makes it through to the other side of the system. Without a wetsuit, Victoria suffers severely from the cold water. Meanwhile, George—an experienced, veteran diver—has become ill due to the dive and is dying unbeknownst to the rest of the team. After a short rest, the team continues through the system following the flow of water out towards the sea. George realises that he cannot continue and after sharing a few words with Josh relieves himself of his pack and hides himself so as not to burden the rest of the team.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: As the team marches on they arrive at a seemingly dead end. A great hole in the bottom of the cave separates them from the other side of their path. Josh uses his climbing expertise to fish a line across and begins to transfer their gear and each other. As Victoria begins to make her way across she catches her hair in her rope gear she is hung on and loses her grip, leaving her hair as the only thing holding her weight. Using her knife, she attempts to cut away the hair, but severs her rope and falls to her death. At the sight of Victoria's death, Carl becomes emotionally unstable. In a fit of panic, he steals the last remaining rebreather and disappears into the tunnel. Josh and Frank, however, find another way out through a crevasse in the cavern. The tunnel leads them to a sunlit cavern where an unidentified WWII Japanese tank collapsed through the surface years ago. Unfortunately, the hole in the middle of the roof where the tank fell is the only opening and they are unable to climb out. They spend the rest of the day there and proceed back into the cave by night.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: A little later they discover Carl whose state of mind has worsened considerably, having found Victoria's corpse. Carl attempts to murder Frank for Victoria's death but Josh separates the two and temporarily disables Carl. Frank, however, has been gravely injured having fallen on a stalagmite which punctured his back. When Carl wakes, the gravity of his actions is realised and he solemnly disappears into the tunnel. In immense pain, Frank requests that Josh drown him. Josh reluctantly does so, and swims into the tunnel.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: A short distance in, he encounters Carl, who has already drowned looking for the exit. Just as he begins to lose hope, Josh discovers a way out through the cave to open ocean. He emerges from the water and crawls onto the beach, where he is discovered by fishermen.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: "Sanctum" was inspired by the film's co-writer Andrew Wight's experience with a 1988 cave diving expedition in Australia that resulted in 13 cavers becoming trapped in one of the world's largest underwater cave systems in Nullarbor Plain after a freak storm collapsed the entrance. That incident was documented in the film "Nullarbor Dreaming". James Cameron served as executive producer for "Sanctum". Even though the film's plot takes place in Esa'ala Cave, most of the film was shot in Australia (Gold Coast, Queensland). "Sanctum" employs 3D photography techniques Cameron developed to film "Avatar". All of the underwater sequences took place in a large water tank at the Village Roadshow Studios in Queensland. Real caves were also filmed in South Australia's cave-diving region around Mount Gambier. Stunt diver Agnes Milowka, who appears as a double in the already-released film, drowned in one of these caves on 27 February 2011 when she reportedly ran out of air. In striking similarities to the movie script, she also left her spare tank behind, to force the way through the tight restriction, and it is actually her playing Judes' drowning scene. Universal Studios and Relativity Media paid $12 million for rights to distribute the film in the United States and Canada, and in several foreign countries.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: As of March 2011, "Sanctum" was the tenth-highest-grossing Australian film at the international box office. The film also made $3.8 million at the Australian box office.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports that 30% of 171 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 4.6/10. The site's critics consensus reads: ""Sanctum" is beautifully photographed, and it makes better use of 3-D technology than most, but that doesn't make up for its ham-handed script and lifeless cast." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 42 out of 100 based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of C+ on an A+ to F scale.


title: Sanctum (film)

text: "The Age" Jim Schembri gave it 3½ stars out of 5 and said "the drama might be shallow but the visuals are great". The UK's "Daily Express" gave it 3 out of 5, writing: "The action doesn't quite conjure up the claustrophobic intensity you expect but the father-son-storyline is sufficiently muscular".


title: Sanctum (film)

text: Universal Studios Home Entertainment released "Sanctum" on DVD, Blu-ray Disc, and Blu-ray 3D on 7 June 2011.


title: Chris Van Allsburg

text: Chris Van Allsburg (born June 18, 1949) is an American illustrator and writer of children's books. He has won two Caldecott Medals for U.S. picture book illustration, for "Jumanji" (1981) and "The Polar Express" (1985), both of which he also wrote, and were later adapted as successful motion pictures. He was also a Caldecott runner-up in 1980 for "The Garden of Abdul Gasazi". For his contribution as a children's illustrator, he was a 1986 U.S. nominee for the biennial International Hans Christian Andersen Award, the highest international recognition for creators of children's books. He received the honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters from the University of Michigan in April 2012.


title: Chris Van Allsburg

text: Van Allsburg was born on June 18, 1949 to a Dutch family in East Grand Rapids, Michigan, the second child of Doris Christianen and Richard Van Allsburg. He has a sister named Karen, born in 1947. His family lived in an old farmhouse, but when he was three years old, they moved to a Grand Rapids home near an elementary school that Chris was able to walk to for class. His family moved again to East Grand Rapids where he attended middle school and high school.


title: Chris Van Allsburg

text: Van Allsburg attended the College of Architecture and Design at the University of Michigan, which at that time included an art school. He majored in sculpture, learning bronze casting, wood carving, resin molding, and other techniques.


title: Chris Van Allsburg

text: He graduated from the University of Michigan in 1972 and continued his education at the Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), graduating with a master's degree in sculpture in 1975. After graduation, Van Allsburg set up a sculpture studio.


title: Chris Van Allsburg

text: Van Allsburg struggled for a time with his sculpture studio. At home he began a series of sketches that his wife thought would be suitable for children's books. She showed his work to an editor who contracted his first book, "The Garden of Abdul Gasazi", in 1979.


title: Chris Van Allsburg

text: As of 2022, Van Allsburg has written and/or illustrated 21 books. His art has also been featured on the covers of an edition of C. S. Lewis's series "The Chronicles of Narnia", published by HarperCollins in 1994, as well as in three children's books written by Mark Helprin.


title: Chris Van Allsburg

text: Van Allsburg lives in Beverly, Massachusetts with Lisa Van Allsburg, his wife since 1974. They have two daughters, Sophia and Anna. Van Allsburg converted to Judaism, his spouse's faith.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: Ancient Hawaii is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaii by Kamehameha the Great. Traditionally, researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadically between 400 and 1100 CE by Polynesian long-distance navigators from the Samoan, Marquesas, and Tahiti islands within what is now French Polynesia. In 2010, a study was published based on radiocarbon dating of more reliable samples which suggests that the islands were settled much later, within a short timeframe, in about 1219 to 1266.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: The islands in Eastern Polynesia have been characterized by the continuities among their cultures, and the short migration period would be an explanation of this result. Diversified agroforestry and aquaculture provided sustenance for Native Hawaiian cuisine. Tropical materials were adopted for housing. Elaborate temples (called "heiau") were constructed from the lava rocks available.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: The rich natural resources supported a relatively dense population, organized by a ruling class and social system with religious leaders. Captain James Cook made the first known European contact with ancient Hawaiians in 1778. He was followed by many other Europeans and Americans.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: There have been changing views about initial Polynesian discovery and settlement of Hawai'i. Radiocarbon dating in Hawai'i initially indicated a possible settlement as early as 124 CE. Patrick Vinton Kirch's early books on Hawaiian archeology date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300 CE with more recent suggestions by Kirch of 600 CE. Other theories suggest dating as late as 700–800 CE.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: In 2010, researchers announced new findings using revised, high-precision radiocarbon dating based on more reliable samples than were previously used in many dating studies. This new data indicates that the period of eastern and northern Polynesian colonization took place much later, in a shorter time frame of two waves: the "earliest in the Society Islands c. 1025–1120, four centuries later than previously assumed; then after 70–265 years, dispersal continued in one major pulse to all remaining islands c. 1190–1290." According to this research, settlement of the Hawaiian Islands took place c. 1219–1266. This rapid colonization is believed to account for the "remarkable uniformity of East Polynesia culture, biology and language".


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: According to Hawaiian mythology, there were other settlers in Hawaii: peoples who were forced back into remote valleys by newer arrivals. They claim that stories about "menehune", little people who built "heiau" and fishponds, prove the existence of ancient peoples who settled the islands before the Hawaiians.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: The Wai'ahukini Rockshelter, site H8, lies within a lava tube about 600 feet inland from the shore on the southern part of the island of Hawai'i. Based on the lack of light and space necessary for normal living conditions, it was unlikely that site H8 was used as a dwelling. Excavations of site H8 began in 1954 by William J. Bonk and students from the University of Hawaii, Hilo, and concluded in 1958. Excavation of the site revealed eight fireplaces at varying depths, as well as 1671 artifacts which included faunal remains, fishhooks, and lithic materials made of basalt and volcanic glass. The distribution of artifacts in site H8 indicated that it was continuously used as a fishing shelter until the eruption of Mauna Loa in 1868. An early estimation of the site's initial occupation was A.D. 750 by Emory and Sinoto in 1969, but a more recent study using updated radiocarbon dating methods suggested a much later date, somewhere within the mid-14th century.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: Located on the island of Moloka'i, the Hālawa Dune Site was first discovered in 1964 and consists of two mounds. In the summer of 1970, Patrick Vinton Kirch performed excavations on the larger of the two mounds, Mound B, revealing six major layers. Within the fourth layer were artifacts, faunal remains, and house foundations. Of the 496 artifacts unearthed in this layer, the most significant included fishhooks and adzes. The adzes recovered from Mound B were similar to those found in Nihoa and the Necker Islands and, according to Kirch and McCoy, served as "evidence that the Hālawa Dune Site represented an early phase in the development of Hawaiian material culture." Initial radiocarbon dating for the site by Kirch suggested a range of A.D. 600 to 1200, however a re-dating of samples in 2007 showed the site dated no earlier than A.D. 1300, and was occupied primarily between A.D. 1400 and 1650.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: Early settlers brought along with them clothing, plants (called "canoe plants") and livestock and established settlements along the coasts and larger valleys. Upon their arrival, the settlers grew (taro), (banana), (coconut), (breadfruit), and raised (pork), (chicken), and (poi dog), although these meats were eaten less often than fruits, vegetables, and seafood. Popular condiments included (salt), ground kukui nut, (seaweed), and (sugarcane) which was used as both a sweet and a medicine. In addition to the foods they brought, the settlers also acquired (sweet potato), which began to be cultivated across Polynesia around the year 1000 or earlier, with the earliest evidence of cultivation in Hawaii around 1300AD. The sweet potato is native to South America. Recently, an analysis of the DNA of 1,245 sweet potato varieties from Asia and the Americas was done, and researchers found a genetic link that proves the root made it to Polynesia from the Andes around 1100. The findings, published in the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences", offer more evidence that ancient Polynesians may have interacted with people in South America long before the Europeans set foot on the continent.Article and Maps


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: The Pacific rat accompanied humans on their journey to Hawaiʻi. David Burney argues that humans, along with the vertebrate animals they brought with them (pigs, dogs, chickens and rats), caused many native species of birds, plants and large land snails to become extinct in the process of colonization.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: Estuaries and streams were adapted into fishponds by early Polynesian settlers, as long ago as 500 CE or earlier. Packed earth and cut stone were used to create habitat, making ancient Hawaiian aquaculture among the most advanced of the original peoples of the Pacific. A notable example is the Menehune Fishpond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. At the time of Captain James Cook's arrival, there were at least 360 fishponds producing of fish per year. Over the course of the last millennium, Hawaiians undertook "large-scale canal-fed pond field irrigation" projects for (taro) cultivation.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: The new settlers built (homes) and (temples). Archaeologists currently believe that the first settlements were on the southern end of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi and that they quickly extended northwards, along the seacoasts and the easily accessible river valleys. As the population increased, settlements were made further inland. With the islands being so small, the population was very dense. Before European contact, the population had reached somewhere in the range of 200,000 to 1,000,000 people. After contact with the Europeans, however, the population steeply dropped due to various diseases including smallpox.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: Ancient Hawaii was a caste society developed from Polynesians. In "The overthrow of the kapu system in Hawaii", Stephenie Seto Levin describes the main classes:


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: Hawaiian youth learned life skills and religion at home, often with grandparents. For "bright" children a system of apprenticeship existed in which very young students would begin learning a craft or profession by assisting an expert, or "kahuna". As spiritual powers were perceived by Hawaiians to imbue all of nature, experts in many fields of work were known as "kahuna", a term commonly understood to mean "priest". The various types of "kahuna" passed on knowledge of their profession, be it in "genealogies, or "mele", or herb medicine, or canoe building, or land boundaries", etc. by involving and instructing apprentices in their work. More formal schools existed for the study of "hula", and likely for the study of higher levels of sacred knowledge.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: The "kahuna" took the apprentice into his household as a member of the family, although often "the tutor was a relative". During a religious "graduation" ceremony, "the teacher consecrated the pupil, who thereafter was one with the teacher in psychic relationship as definite and obligatory as blood relationship". Like the children learning from their grandparents, children who were apprentices learned by watching and participating in daily life. Children were discouraged from asking questions in traditional Hawaiian culture.


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: In Hawaiian ideology, one does not "own" the land, but merely dwells on it. The belief was that both the land and the gods were immortal. This then informed the belief that land was also godly, and therefore above mortal and ungodly humans, and humans therefore could not own land. The Hawaiians thought that all land belonged to the gods ("akua").


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: The "alii" were believed to be "managers" of land. That is, they controlled those who worked on the land, the "makaāinana".


title: Ancient Hawaii

text: On the death of one chief and the accession of another, lands were re-apportioned—some of the previous "managers" would lose their lands, and others would gain them. Lands were also re-apportioned when one chief defeated another and re-distributed the conquered lands as rewards to his warriors.