title: Camarines Sur

text: Known centuries ago as the "Tierra de Camarines", the province is distinctly Spanish-founded settlement. Its name having been derived from "camaronchones" or "camarines", a Spanish word for "kamalig" referring to small nipa or bamboo-made huts by the natives.


title: Camarines Sur

text: In 1574, Governor General Guido de Lavezaris referred Camarines Sur to the King of Spain as "Los Camarines", after the abundance of "camarin"s-rice granaries – which were conspicuous features of the area.


title: Camarines Sur

text: Spanish colonizers later subjugated its people and denominated the area into two distinct aggrupations.


title: Camarines Sur

text: "Partido de Camarines" was partitioned into "Camarines Sur" and "Camarines Norte" in 1829, and thereafter underwent fusion, annexations and re-partitions until 19 March 1919, when two provinces, jointly called "Ambos Camarines", were finally separated with their present boundaries by decree of the First Philippine Legislature.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The Philippine Revolution started in Ambos Camarines when Elías Ángeles and Félix Plazo, Filipino corporals in the Spanish Army, sided with revolutionists and fought the local Spanish forces on 17 September 1898. Governor Vicente Zaidín capitulated to the revolutionists on the following day. With the arrival of General Vicente Lukbán, the revolutionary government in the Bicol Region was established.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The American forces occupied the Bicol Peninsula in January 1900. In March of the same year. General John M. Bell was made the military governor of the southeastern Luzon. Civil government was finally established in Ambos Camarines in April 1901.


title: Camarines Sur

text: During World War II, Camarines Sur came under Japanese occupation in late December 1941, following the capture of Naga City on 18 December, a few days after the Japanese invasion of Legaspi. Guerrilla units were organized by Wenceslao Q. Vinzons that waged underground operations against the Japanese troops stationed in Camarines Sur. After the capture of Vinzons on 8 July 1942, the guerrilla movement was carried on by Lieutenant Francisco Boayes and by the Tangcong Vaca Guerrilla Unit organized by Elías Madrid, Juan Miranda and León Aureus. In April 1945, Camarines Sur was finally liberated from the Japanese invaders against the combined Filipino and American troops in 1945.


title: Camarines Sur

text: On 8 March 1942, the famous Tangcong Vaca Guerrilla Unit (TVGU) was organized in San Nicolás, Canaman, with Juan Miranda as the Commanding Officer, León Aureus as the Executive Officer and Elìas Madrid as the Finance Officer. Among the numerous Canamanons who joined-up soon afterwards either in the unit's intelligence or combat components were José and Antonio Madrid, Mamerto Sibulo, Andrés Fortaleza, Marcos Severo, Dámaso Avenilla, Federico Crescini, Nicolás Vargas, Venancio Begino, Eugenio Ragodón, Juan Pachica, Santiago Amaro, José Gervás, Pedro Ángeles, Aproniano López, Andrés Alzate, Modesto Sánchez, Blas Alcántara, Andrés Aguilar, Florencio Frondozo, Alfredo de la Torre, and Flaviano Estrada.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The military general headquarters and military camp bases of the Philippine Commonwealth Army were active from 3 January 1942 until 30 June 1946, and the Philippine Constabulary was active from 28 October 1944 to 30 June 1946, in the province of Camarines Sur. The Filipino soldiers of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary were spearheading the local military special operations in Bicol Region with the Bicolano guerrilla units decisively aiding them.


title: Camarines Sur

text: In 1945, Filipino and American troops along with the Bicolano guerrillas, liberated Camarines Sur from the Japanese forces towards the end of WWII. Local Filipino troops of the 4th, 5th, 52nd, 53rd, 55th, 56th and 57th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the 5th Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary were involved in the liberation efforts.


title: Camarines Sur

text: Naga, the former capital of Camarines Sur, was founded in 1573 as Nueva Cáceres, named after the city in Spain. It was among the original five royal cities of the colony. It was designated as the provincial capital by virtue of "Philippine Legislative Act No. 2711" approved on 10 March 1917. On 6 June 1955, however, Pili, the adjoining town, was declared the provincial capital by virtue of "Republic Act 1336". Pili functions as the provincial capital up to the present.


title: Camarines Sur

text: Camarines Sur covers a total area of occupying the central section of the Bicol Region in Luzon. The province borders Camarines Norte and Quezon to the northwest, and Albay to the south. To the east lies the Maqueda Channel.


title: Camarines Sur

text: Camarines Sur occupies the central section of the Bicol Peninsula. With a land area of , it is the largest province in the Bicol Region. At the center of the province is the Bicol Plain, surrounded by mountains which include Mount Bernacci (Tangcong Vaca), Mount Isarog and Mount Iriga. The eastern portion of the province lies on the mountainous Caramoan Peninsula, which faces the island of Catanduanes to the east.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The Bicol River drains the central and southern parts of the province into the San Miguel Bay. Mount Asog is surrounded by three lakes: Buhi, Bato, and Baao.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The climate in Camarines Sur, like most of the rest of the country, is very tropical. It is dry from March to May and wet the rest of the year Annual average rainfall is . Camarines Sur has an average temperature of and a relative humidity of 25.8%, based from Aera Tranquilo.


title: Camarines Sur

text: During the May 2010 census, there were 1,822,371 residents in Camarines Sur, making it the most populous in the region. The census also stated that Camarines Sur had 288,172 households with an average household size of 5.37 persons, significantly higher than the national average of 4.99. The annual growth rate was 1.86%, much lower than the national growth rate of 2.36%. This rate of growth will double the population of Camarines Sur in 8 years.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The religion of the province is predominantly Roman Catholicism followed by 93% of the population. Other religions professed by the people include the Iglesia Filipina Independiente or Aglipayan Church, Iglesia Ni Cristo (INC), Baptist, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Jehovah's Witnesses, Methodists and other smaller Christian groups. Islam is also present in the province with their mosques stood in large population areas. Sikhism and Taoism is present in the province as well. Some do not practice religion or identify as Agnostic.


title: Camarines Sur

text: Prior to colonization, the region had a complex religious system which involved various deities. Among these deities include:


title: Camarines Sur

text: The main languages spoken in Camarines Sur are the Coastal Bikol (especially Central Bikol) and Inland Bikol group of languages. The latter is a group of languages that includes Albay Bikol group and Rinconada Bikol, while the former just consists dialects.


title: Camarines Sur

text: A dialect of Coastal Bikol, called "Coastal Bikol-Partido" is used in the eastern portion of the province around Lagonoy Gulf, and another dialect called "Coastal Bikol-Central" is spoken around Naga City.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The Canaman dialect of Central Bikol variant of "Coastal Bikol" spoken in Canaman, Camarines Sur is said to be the "purest" form of Bikol (according to Jesuit anthropologist Frank Lynch, S.J.), though most linguists just consider it as the standard form of Central Bikol language since other Coastal Bikol languages, Rinconada Bikol and Buhinon (both Inland Bikol) are separate languages.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The Rinconada Bikol also known as Riŋkonāda (under the umbrella of Inland Bikol group of languages), is used by most people in the Rinconada area or district of the province especially in Nabua, Iriga City and by people of Rinconada in diaspora. "Buhinon" (one of the languages of Albay Bikol group, another member of Inland Bikol), is a minority language spoken in the town of Buhi and around Lake Buhi. Most inhabitants of Camarines Sur understand Tagalog and English.


title: Camarines Sur

text: In 2010, UNESCO released its 3rd world volume of Endangered Languages in the World, where 3 critically endangered languages were in the Philippines. One of these languages in the "Isarog Agta" language which has an estimated 5 speakers in the year 2000. The language was classified as "Critically Endangered", meaning the youngest speakers are grandparents and older, and they speak the language partially and infrequently and hardly pass the language to their children and grandchildren anymore. If the remaining 150 people do not pass their native language to the next generation of Isarog Agta people, their indigenous language will be extinct within a period of 1 to 2 decades.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The Isarog Agta people live within the circumference of Mount Isarog, though only 5 of them still know their indigenous language. They are one of the original Negrito settlers in the entire Philippines. They belong to the Aeta people classification, but have distinct language and belief systems unique to their own culture and heritage.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The economy of Camarines Sur is mostly agriculture-based. 29 of the 35 towns are agricultural and produce rice, corn, feedmeal, freshwater fish, livestock, coconut, sugar, abacá, and water-lily.


title: Camarines Sur

text: Entrepreneurs engage in trading, often branching out towards neighboring provinces in the south as local demand might be limited by the 3rd to 5th income-class municipalities. Handicrafts are the major source of rural income, providing a fairly large share in the small-scale industries of the province. Forestry and papermaking are other sources of livelihood. The manufacture of abacá products such as Manila hemp, hats, bags, mats, and slippers is one of the main sources of income in the rural areas. Fishing is also done along both shores of the province. Tourism, primarily because of Caramoan and Mount Isarog, also generates income for Camarines Sur.


title: Camarines Sur

text: Naga and several towns have a tri-economy or three-base economy: commerce, industry, and agriculture. As the main center in the Bicol Region, all of the products from other provinces in the region are brought to Naga. It has four major industries: the manufacture of jewelry and gifts/toys/housewares, and processing of pineapple and coconut. Naga also has vast cornfields, rice fields, and water lily farms all over the city.


title: Camarines Sur

text: Calabanga, Cabusao, Libmanan and Sipocot have similar economies to Naga City. Calabanga has commerce from goods moving out of Naga, and is the trade center for the towns of Tinambac, Goa, and Siruma. Calabanga also has fishing from the Quipayo Fishing Center (the largest in Bicol), and vast productions of corn, sugar, and rice, which benefit from a large granary. Libmanan has 156 hectares of ricefields and cornfields, and fishing along its coastline connecting the towns of Ragay and Pasacao; Libmanan also has a commercial district. Sipocot has an agricultural base economy, with an abundant stock of native chicken (Sipocot's OTOP) and wide production of calamansi and other vegetables, while also serving as trading post for towns of Cabusao,Lupi, Del Gallego, Libmanan Ragay and Mercedes (Camarines Norte) Tagkawayan (Quezon Province) . Fish products from these towns are received by Sipocot. Other towns not mentioned have a fishing industry as the main base of their economy.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The towns of Nabua, Goa, Calabanga, Libmanan, Pasacao, Sipocot, Baao are also taking successful steps towards urbanization and competitiveness.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The rest of the province takes a long time to urbanize due to lack of major roads, or isolation from business centers.


title: Camarines Sur

text: The Pan-Philippine Highway (N1/AH26), is the highway backbone network, and the secondary and tertiary roads interconnect most cities and municipalities in Sipocot, Libmanan, Pamplona, San Fernando, Milaor, Naga City, Pili, Bula, Baao, Nabua before ending at Bato.


title: Camarines Sur

text: In order to spur development in the province, There will be two expressways in Camarines Sur that will be proposed:


title: Treviso

text: Treviso ( , ; ) is a city and "comune" in the Veneto region of northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Treviso and the municipality has 84,669 inhabitants (as of September 2017). Some 3,000 live within the Venetian walls ("le Mura") or in the historical and monumental center; some 80,000 live in the urban center while the city hinterland has a population of approximately 170,000.


title: Treviso

text: The city is home to the headquarters of clothing retailer Benetton, Sisley, Stefanel, Geox, Diadora and Lotto Sport Italia, appliance maker De'Longhi, and bicycle maker Pinarello.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso is also known for being the original production area of Prosecco wine and radicchio, and is thought to have been the origin of the popular Italian dessert Tiramisù.


title: Treviso

text: Some believe that Treviso derived its name from the Celtic word "tarvos" mixed with the Latin ending "isium" forming "Tarvisium", of the tarvos. Tarvos means bull in Celtic mythology, though the same word can relate to the lion, or Leo, in Eastern astrology. Others believe it comes from a word from the language of a tribe who first came to Treviso.


title: Treviso

text: Tarvisium, then a city of the Veneti, became a "municipium" in 89 BC after the Romans added Cisalpine Gaul to their dominions. Citizens were ascribed to the Roman tribe of Claudia. The city lay in proximity of the Via Postumia, which connected Opitergium to Aquileia, two major cities of Roman Venetia during Ancient and early medieval times. Treviso is rarely mentioned by ancient writers, although Pliny writes of the "Silis", that is the Sile River, as flowing "ex montibus Tarvisanis".


title: Treviso

text: During the Roman period, Christianity spread to Treviso. Tradition records that St. Prosdocimus, a Greek who had been ordained bishop by St. Peter, brought the Catholic faith to Treviso and surrounding areas. By the 4th century, the Christian population grew sufficient to merit a resident bishop. The first documented bishop was John the Pious who began his episcopacy in 396 AD.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso went through a demographic and economic decline similar to the rest of Italy after the fall of the Western Empire; however, it was spared by Attila the Hun, and thus, remained an important center during the 6th century. According to tradition, Treviso was the birthplace of Totila, the leader of Ostrogoths during the Gothic Wars. Immediately after the Gothic Wars, Treviso fell under the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna until 568 AD when it was taken by the Lombards, who made it one of 36 ducal seats and established an important mint. The latter was especially important during the reign of the last Lombard king, Desiderius, and continued to churn out coins when northern Italy was annexed to the Frankish Empire. People from the city also played a role in the founding of Venice.


title: Treviso

text: Charlemagne made it the capital of a border march, i.e. the "Marca Trevigiana", which lasted for several centuries.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso joined the Lombard League, and gained independence after the Peace of Constance (1183). This lasted until the rise of seignories in northern Italy. In 1214, Treviso was the scene of the Castle of Love that turned into a war between Padua and Venice. Among the various families who ruled over Treviso, the Da Romano reigned from 1237 to 1260. Struggles between Guelph and Ghibelline factions followed, with the first triumphant in 1283 with Gherardo III da Camino, after which Treviso experienced significant economic and cultural growth which continued until 1312. Treviso and its satellite cities, including Castelfranco Veneto (founded by the Trevigiani in contraposition to Padua), had become attractive to neighbouring powers, including the da Carrara and Scaligeri. After the fall of the last Caminesi lord, Rizzardo IV, the Marca was the site of continuous struggles and ravages (1329–1388).


title: Treviso

text: Treviso notary and physician Oliviero Forzetta was an avid collector of antiquities and drawings; the collection was published in a catalog in 1369, the earliest such catalog to survive to this day.


title: Treviso

text: After a Scaliger domination in 1329–1339, the city gave itself to the Republic of Venice, becoming the first notable mainland possession of the Serenissima. From 1318 it was also, for a short time, the seat of a university. Venetian rule brought innumerable benefits; however, Treviso necessarily became involved in the wars of Venice. In 1381 the city was given to the duke of Austria, and between 1384 and 1388 it was ruled by the despotic Carraresi. Having returned to Venice, the city was fortified and given a massive line of walls and ramparts, still existing; these were renewed in the following century under the direction of Fra Giocondo, two of the gates being built by the Lombardi. The many waterways were exploited with several waterwheels which mainly powered mills for milling grain produced locally. The waterways were all navigable and "barconi" would arrive from Venice at the Port of Treviso (Porto de Fiera) pay duty and offload their merchandise and passengers along Riviera Santa Margherita. Fishermen were able to bring fresh catch every day to the Treviso fish market, which is held still today on an island connected to the rest of the city by two small bridges at either end.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso was taken in 1797 by the French under Mortier, who was made duke of Treviso. French domination lasted until the defeat of Napoleon, after which it passed to the Austrian Empire. The citizens, still at heart loyal to the fallen Venetian Republic, were displeased with imperial rule and in March 1848, drove out the Austrian garrison. However, after the town was bombarded, the people were compelled to capitulate on the following 14 June. Austrian rule continued until Treviso was annexed with the rest of Veneto to the Kingdom of Italy in 1866.


title: Treviso

text: During World War I, Treviso held a strategic position close to the Austrian front. Just north, the Battle of Vittorio Veneto helped turn the tide of the War.


title: Treviso

text: During World War II, one of several Italian concentration camps was established for Slovene and Croatian civilians from the Province of Ljubljana in Monigo, near Treviso. The Monigo camp was disbanded with the Italian capitulation in 1943.


title: Treviso

text: The city suffered several bombing raids during World War II. A large part of the medieval structures of the city center were destroyed—including part of the Palazzo dei Trecento, later rebuilt—causing the death of about 1,600 people.


title: Treviso

text: In January 2005, a bomb enclosed in a candy egg and attributed to the so-called Italian Unabomber detonated on a Treviso street.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso stands at the confluence of Botteniga with the Sile, north of Venice, east of Vicenza, north-east of Padua, and south of Cortina d'Ampezzo.


title: Treviso

text: The city is situated some south-west the right bank of the Piave River, on the plain between the Gulf of Venice and the Alps.


title: Treviso

text: Climate in Treviso has mild differences between highs and lows, and has adequate rainfall year-round. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "" (temperate Humid subtropical climate).


title: Treviso

text: As early as 1231 the city was looking for a doctor able to teach a course in Treviso, but it was not until 1269 that the canon Florio de' Dovari of Cremona was appointed, probably the first professor of law. In 1313-1314, it is recorded that the municipality guaranteed the presence of two Law professors, an ordinary and an extraordinary one, a third professor to teach Canonic Law and a fourth to teach Medicine. Even though the city had its own university in the Middle Ages, only in recent times the University of Padua, Ca’ Foscari and the IUAV of Venice established their own university campuses, giving once again the status of “university city” to Treviso. Classes are held at the former hospital of Battuti and the former Military District. In 2015 the University IUAV of Venice closed its campuses in Treviso, moving its degree courses to Venice.


title: Treviso

text: The public library has five locations, three of which are located in the city centre. There are also some private foundations, such as the documentation center of the Fondazione Benetton Studi e Ricerche with a library annex, at Palazzo Caotorta, the Biblioteca Capitolare and the Biblioteca del Seminario. The Liceo Canova also has an interesting library on the ground floor of its main headquarters, in Via San Teonisto.


title: Treviso

text: In addition to various museums, the city also offers important exhibition areas such as Palazzo dei Trecento, the city council’s headquarters, Ca’ dei Carraresi, owned by the Fondazione Cassamarca, and Palazzo Bomben, the headquarters of the Fondazione Benetton Studi e Ricerche.


title: Treviso

text: Going in order, the most typical appetizer is the soppressa, a soft cured meat cut into thick slices, usually accompanied by polenta and radicchio. Among the first courses, the ""risi"" (with liver or accompanied by seasonal vegetables such as asparagus, radicchio, peas or ""bisi""...) and soups (in particular the simple capon broth with tortellini, the bean soup and the sopa coada) can be mentioned. As for the main course, feathered game and poultry stand out: roasted guinea fowl with ""pevarada"" (a sauce made with liver and anchovy paste), boiled chicken, goose (often seasoned with celery), spit roasted duck and capon stew.


title: Treviso

text: There is also fresh-water fish and in particular eel, ""bisatto"" in dialect, fried or stewed with polenta, fresh-water shrimp, trout and codfish (in Treviso and in the Triveneto commonly called "baccalà"). Even vegetables are often protagonists of the Trevisan table, and in particular, the famous Red Radicchio of Treviso. Although the province is rich in cheeses (Montasio, Asiago, Taleggio, Morlacco), the most typical is perhaps the soft Casatella of Treviso, a fresh cheese with protected designation of origin status prepared with pasteurized cow’s milk.


title: Treviso

text: Among the most cultivated fruits in the province are the Marrone of Combai, cherries, especially from the Hills of Asolo, and grapes. The most characteristic dessert is definitely the Tiramisù, which according to the tradition was prepared for the first time in the restaurant "Alle Beccherie". Other desserts that can be cited are the ""Fregolotta"” cake and seasonal desserts such as frittelle, crostoli and castagnole for Carnival, the Easter ""fugassa con le mandorle"", the Favette dei Morti. The most famous white wine is certainly Prosecco, and in addition to it, the Tocai, the Verduzzo and those made with white, grey Pinot and Chardonnay grapes as far as white wines are concerned and Cabernet, Merlot, Pinot noir and Raboso as far as red wines are concerned.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso is home to several notable Italian sport teams, thanks to the presence of the Benetton family, who owns and sponsors:


title: Treviso

text: The local football team, A.S.D. Treviso 2009, played for the first time in the Italian Serie A in 2005. Its home stadium is the Omobono Tenni.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso is a popular stop on the professional cyclo-cross racing circuit and served as the site of the 2008 UCI Cyclo-cross World Championships.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso is a popular area for cycling enthusiasts. From the city center there is an cycling path along the Sile river with connecting paths all the way to Jesolo, a seaside resort on the Adriatic sea. For road cyclists, Treviso is also a starting/finishing point for tours to the Montello hill and further into the hills of the area around Conegliano and Valdobbiadene.


title: Treviso

text: Treviso Centrale railway station has Trenitalia trains to Venice, Padua, Belluno, Portogruaro, Vicenza, Udine and Trieste.


title: Treviso

text: MOM is the major transport company in the city and provides for urban and suburban services in the Province of Treviso.


title: Jats

text: The Jat people ((), ()) are a traditionally agricultural community in Northern India and Pakistan. Originally pastoralists in the lower Indus river-valley of Sindh, Jats migrated north into the Punjab region in late medieval times, and subsequently into the Delhi Territory, northeastern Rajputana, and the western Gangetic Plain in the 17th and 18th centuries. Of Hindu, Muslim and Sikh faiths, they are now found mostly in the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan and the Pakistani provinces of Sindh and Punjab.


title: Jats

text: The Jats took up arms against the Mughal Empire during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Gokula, a Hindu Jat landlord was among the earliest rebel leaders against the Mughal rule during Aurangzeb's era. The community played an important role in the development of the martial Khalsa "panth" of Sikhism. The Hindu Jat kingdom reached its zenith under Maharaja Suraj Mal (1707–1763). By the 20th century, the landowning Jats became an influential group in several parts of North India, including Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi. Over the years, several Jats abandoned agriculture in favour of urban jobs, and used their dominant economic and political status to claim higher social status.


title: Jats

text: The Jats are a paradigmatic example of community- and identity-formation in early modern Indian subcontinent. "Jat" is an elastic label applied to a wide-ranging community from simple landowning peasants to wealthy and influential Zamindars.


title: Jats

text: By the time of Muhammad bin Qasim's conquest of Sind in the eighth century, Arab writers described agglomerations of Jats in the arid, the wet, and the mountainous regions of the conquered land of Sindh. The Arab rulers, though professing a theologically egalitarian religion, maintained the position of Jats and the discriminatory practices against them that had been put in place in the long period of Hindu rule in Sind. Between the eleventh and the sixteenth centuries, Jat herders at the Sind migrated up along the river valleys, into the Punjab, which may have been largely uncultivated in the first millennium. Many took up tilling in regions such as western Punjab, where the sakia (water wheel) had been recently introduced. By early Mughal times, in the Punjab, the term "Jat" had become loosely synonymous with "peasant", and some Jats had come to own land and exert local influence. The Jats had their origins in pastoralism in the Indus valley, and gradually became agriculturalist farmers. Around 1595, Jat Zamindars controlled a little over 32% of the Zamindaris in the Punjab region.


title: Jats

text: According to historians Catherine Asher and Cynthia Talbot, Over time the Jats became primarily Muslim in the western Punjab, Sikh in the eastern Punjab, and Hindu in the areas between Delhi Territory and Agra, with the divisions by faith reflecting the geographical strengths of these religions.


title: Jats

text: During the decline of Mughal rule in the early 18th century, the Indian subcontinent's hinterland dwellers, many of whom were armed and nomadic, increasingly interacted with settled townspeople and agriculturists. Many new rulers of the 18th century came from such martial and nomadic backgrounds. The effect of this interaction on India's social organization lasted well into the colonial period. During much of this time, non-elite tillers and pastoralists, such as the Jats or Ahirs, were part of a social spectrum that blended only indistinctly into the elite landowning classes at one end, and the menial or ritually polluting classes at the other. During the heyday of Mughal rule, Jats had recognized rights. According to Barbara D. Metcalf and Thomas R. Metcalf:


title: Jats

text: As the Mughal empire faltered, there were a series of rural rebellions in North India. Although these had sometimes been characterized as "peasant rebellions", others, such as Muzaffar Alam, have pointed out that small local landholders, or "zemindars", often led these uprisings. The Sikh and Jat rebellions were led by such small local zemindars, who had close association and family connections with each other and with the peasants under them, and who were often armed.


title: Jats

text: These communities of rising peasant-warriors were not well-established Indian castes, but rather quite new, without fixed status categories, and with the ability to absorb older peasant castes, sundry warlords, and nomadic groups on the fringes of settled agriculture. The Mughal Empire, even at the zenith of its power, functioned by devolving authority and never had direct control over its rural grandees. It was these zemindars who gained most from these rebellions, increasing the land under their control. The triumphant even attained the ranks of minor princes, such as the Jat ruler Badan Singh of the princely state of Bharatpur.


title: Jats

text: In 1669, the Hindu Jats, under the leadership of Gokula, rebelled against the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Mathura. The community came to predominate south and east of Delhi after 1710. According to historian Christopher Bayly


title: Jats

text: The Jats had moved into the Gangetic Plain in two large migrations, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries respectively. They were not a caste in the usual Hindu sense, for example, in which Bhumihars of the eastern Gangetic plain were; rather they were an umbrella group of peasant-warriors. According to Christopher Bayly:


title: Jats

text: By the mid-eighteenth century, the ruler of the recently established Jat kingdom of Bharatpur, Raja Surajmal, felt sanguine enough about durability to build a garden palace at nearby Deeg. According to historian, Eric Stokes,


title: Jats

text: When Arabs entered Sindh and other Southern regions of current Pakistan in the seventh century, the chief tribal groupings they found were the Jats and the Med people. These Jats are often referred as "Zatts" in early Arab writings. The Muslim conquest chronicles further point at the important concentrations of Jats in towns and fortresses of Lower and Central Sindh. Today, Muslim Jats are found in Pakistan and India.


title: Jats

text: While followers important to Sikh tradition like Baba Buddha were among the earliest significant historical Sikh figures, and significant numbers of conversions occurred as early as the time of Guru Angad (1504–1552), the first large-scale conversions of Jats is commonly held to have begun during the time of Guru Arjan (1563–1606). While touring the countryside of eastern Punjab, he founded several important towns like Tarn Taran Sahib, Kartarpur, and Hargobindpur which functioned as social and economic hubs, and together with the community-funded completion of the Darbar Sahib to house the Guru Granth Sahib and serve as a rallying point and center for Sikh activity, established the beginnings of a self-contained Sikh community, which was especially swelled with the region's Jat peasantry. They formed the vanguard of Sikh resistance against the Mughal Empire from the 18th century onwards.


title: Jats

text: It has been postulated, though inconclusively, that the increased militarization of the Sikh panth following the martyrdom of Guru Arjan (beginning during the era of Guru Hargobind and continuing after) and its large Jat presence may have reciprocally influenced each other.


title: Jats

text: At least eight of the 12 Sikh "Misls" (Sikh confederacies) were led by Jat Sikhs, who would form the vast majority of Sikh chiefs.


title: Jats

text: According to censuses in gazetteers published during the colonial period in the early 20th century, further waves of Jat conversions, from Hinduism to Sikhism, continued during the preceding decades. Writing about the Jats of Punjab, the Sikh author, Khushwant Singh opined that their attitude never allowed themselves to be absorbed in the Brahminic fold :


title: Jats

text: According to anthropologist Sunil K. Khanna, Jat population is estimated to be around 30 million (or 3 crore) in South Asia in 2010. This estimation is based on statistics of the last caste census and the population growth of the region. The last caste census was conducted in 1931, which estimated Jats to be 8 million, mostly concentrated in India and Pakistan. Deryck O. Lodrick estimates Jat population to be over 33 million (around 12 million and over 21 million in India and Pakistan, respectively) in South Asia in 2009 while noting the unavailability of precise statistics in this regard. His estimation is based on a late 1980s population projection of Jats and the population growth of India and Pakistan. He also notes that some estimates put their total population in South Asia at approximately 43 million in 2009.


title: Jats

text: In India, multiple 21st-century estimates put Jats' population share at 20–25% in Haryana state and at 20–35% in Punjab state. In Rajasthan, Delhi, and Uttar Pradesh, they constitute around 9%, 5%, and 1.2% respectively of the total population.


title: Jats

text: In the 20th century and more recently, Jats have dominated as the political class in Haryana and Punjab. Some Jat people have become notable political leaders, including the sixth Prime Minister of India, Charan Singh and the sixth Deputy Prime Minister of India, Chaudhary Devi Lal.


title: Jats

text: Consolidation of economic gains and participation in the electoral process are two visible outcomes of the post-independence situation. Through this participation they have been able to significantly influence the politics of North India. Economic differentiation, migration and mobility could be clearly noticed amongst the Jat people.


title: Jats

text: Jats are classified as Other Backward Class (OBC) in seven of India's thirty-six States and UTs, namely Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. However, only the Jats of Rajasthan – excluding those of Bharatpur district and Dholpur district – are entitled to reservation of central government jobs under the OBC reservation. In 2016, the Jats of Haryana organized massive protests demanding to be classified as OBC in order to obtain such affirmative action benefits.


title: Jats

text: Many Jat Muslim people live in Pakistan and have dominant roles in public life in the Pakistani Punjab and Pakistan in general. Jat communities also exist in Pakistani-administered Kashmir, in Sindh, particularly the Indus delta and among Seraiki-speaking communities in southern Pakistani Punjab, the Kachhi region of Balochistan and the Dera Ismail Khan District of the North West Frontier Province.


title: Jats

text: Many Jat people serve in the Indian Army, including the Jat Regiment, Sikh Regiment, Rajputana Rifles and the Grenadiers, where they have won many of the highest military awards for gallantry and bravery. Jat people also serve in the Pakistan Army especially in the Punjab Regiment.


title: Jats

text: The Jat people were designated by officials of the British Raj as a "martial race", which meant that they were one of the groups whom the British favoured for recruitment to the British Indian Army. This was a designation created by administrators that classified each ethnic group as either "martial" or "non-martial": a "martial race" was typically considered brave and well built for fighting, whilst the remainder were those whom the British believed to be unfit for battle because of their sedentary lifestyles. However, the martial races were also considered politically subservient, intellectually inferior, lacking the initiative or leadership qualities to command large military formations. The British had a policy of recruiting the martial Indians from those who has less access to education as they were easier to control. According to modern historian Jeffrey Greenhunt on military history, "The Martial Race theory had an elegant symmetry. Indians who were intelligent and educated were defined as cowards, while those defined as brave were uneducated and backward". According to Amiya Samanta, the martial race was chosen from people of mercenary spirit (a soldier who fights for any group or country that will pay him/her), as these groups lacked nationalism as a trait. The Jats participated in both World War I and World War II, as a part of the British Indian Army. In the period subsequent to 1881, when the British reversed their prior anti-Sikh policies, it was necessary to profess Sikhism in order to be recruited to the army because the administration believed Hindus to be inferior for military purposes.


title: Jats

text: The Indian Army admitted in 2013 that the 150-strong Presidential Bodyguard comprises only people who are Hindu Jats, Jat Sikhs and Hindu Rajputs. Refuting claims of discrimination, it said that this was for "functional" reasons rather than selection based on caste or religion.


title: Jats

text: Deryck O. Lodrick estimates religion-wise break-up of Jats as follows: 47% Hindus, 33% Muslims, and 20% Sikhs.


title: Jats

text: There are conflicting scholarly views regarding the varna status of Jats in Hinduism. Some sources state that Jats are regarded as Kshatriyas, while others assign Vaishya or Shudra varna to them.


title: Jats

text: According to the political scientist Shailendra Sharma, cultivating castes such as Jat and the Bhumihar in Uttar Pradesh and Haryana are of "upper shudra status".


title: Jats

text: According to the Indian Anthropologist Indera Paul Singh, Brahmins demoted the varna status of Jats from Kshatriya to "Sat Shudra" (clean Shudra) in the Vedic period for challenging the authority of Brahmins. According to Irfan Habib, Jats were a "pastoral Chandala-like tribe" in Sindh during the eighth century. Their 11th-century status of Shudra varna changed to Vaishya varna by the 17th century, with some of them aspiring to improve it further after their 17th-century rebellion against the Mughals.


title: Jats

text: The Rajputs refused to accept Jat claims to Kshatriya status during the later years of the British Raj and this disagreement frequently resulted in violent incidents between the two communities. The claim at that time of Kshatriya status was being made by the Arya Samaj, which was popular in the Jat community. The Arya Samaj saw it as a means to counter the colonial belief that the Jats were not of Aryan descent but of Indo-Scythian origin.


title: Jats

text: During colonial period, many communities including Hindu Jats were found to be practicing female infanticide in different regions of Northern India.


title: Jats

text: In Jat society, it has been observed that differential treatment is given to woman in comparison to man, birth of a male child in a family is celebrated and is considered as auspicious over the birth of a girl child where the family affair is subdued. In villages, female members are supposed to get married at a younger age and they are expected to work in fields as subordinate to the male members. There is general bias against education for the girl child in the society though the trends to it are changing with urbanisation. Purdah system is practiced by women in Jat villages which act as hindrance to their overall emancipation. The village Jat councils which are male-dominated mostly don't allow female members to head their councils as the common opinion on it is that women are inferior, incapable and less intelligent to men.


title: Jats

text: The Jat people are subdivided into numerous clans, some of which overlap with other groups. Hindu and Sikh Jats practice clan exogamy.


title: Jats

text: Jats are part of Punjabi and Haryanvi culture and are often portrayed in Indian and Pakistani films and songs.


title: Éver Banega

text: Éver Maximiliano David Banega (born 29 June 1988) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays for Saudi Arabian club Al Shabab as a central midfielder.


title: Éver Banega

text: He started his career with Boca Juniors, and signed with Valencia in 2008 where he remained for several years, appearing in 162 official games and winning the 2008 Copa del Rey. After joining Sevilla in 2014, he conquered three Europa League trophies over two separate spells.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega represented Argentina at the 2018 World Cup. Additionally, he won an Olympic medal in 2008 and appeared in three Copa América tournaments, helping the team to the final of the 2015 and 2016 editions.


title: Éver Banega

text: Born in Rosario, Santa Fe, Banega came through the youth ranks at Boca Juniors, reaching the first team at 18, and winning immediate recognition thanks to his passing average and his performances in the Primera División. After teammate midfielder Fernando Gago moved to Real Madrid in January 2007, he was named as his successor despite his young age.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega made his professional debut in the 4–0 win against Banfield on 10 February 2007. On 1 April, just a few matches afterwards, he was given an ovation when he left the field.


title: Éver Banega

text: On 5 January 2008, Banega signed with Spanish side Valencia on a -year deal, for a fee of around €20 million. He made his debut on the 13th in a 0–1 loss at Atlético Madrid, coming on as a half-time substitute.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega was loaned to Atlético Madrid for 2008–09. He made his official debut as a substitute during the "Colchoneros"'s 3–0 away victory over PSV Eindhoven, in the first group stage match of the season's UEFA Champions League. However, he failed to settle in the team's starting XI, also being sent off in away draws against Villarreal and Almería.


title: Éver Banega

text: Following his return from Atlético, it appeared that Banega was to join English club Everton, but a move did not materialise due to problems acquiring a visa. He subsequently returned for the 2009–10 campaign, and assisted both goals in Valencia's opening game against Sevilla. He scored his first goal for the "Che" on 17 January 2010 in a 4–1 defeat of neighbouring Villarreal.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega played 28 matches in 2010–11 (19 starts, two goals), as Valencia finished third and qualified to the Champions League. On 19 February 2012, however, he prolonged an existing spell on the sidelines – he had recently returned from a knee injury – after he was run over by his own car. As a result, he fractured his left ankle and broke the tibia and fibula in his left leg, according to Valencia team doctor Enrique Gastaldi. He required ankle surgery, going on to miss the remainder of the season; the club only confirmed that the player had been hurt in an accident involving his own car after leaving training, however Spanish media had reported that the injury occurred when he failed to put the handbrake on at a petrol station and, after the car moved, his leg was caught between the wheel and the curb.


title: Éver Banega

text: On 31 January 2014, Banega was loaned to Newell's Old Boys in his country, until the end of the campaign.


title: Éver Banega

text: On 19 August 2014, Banega joined Sevilla for an undisclosed fee, crediting his decision to move clubs to manager Unai Emery, who had managed him at Valencia. He made his official debut four days later, replacing Aleix Vidal for the final 20 minutes of a 1–1 draw against his former team.


title: Éver Banega

text: On 27 May 2015, Banega started for Sevilla in the 2015 UEFA Europa League Final defeat of Dnipro at Poland's National Stadium, being named player of the match in the process. On 11 August, in the ensuing edition of the UEFA Super Cup, he scored the fastest ever goal in the competition through a third-minute free kick, but in a 4–5 loss to Barcelona.


title: Éver Banega

text: Even though he had been deemed surplus to requirements the year before by the same manager, Banega continued to be an undisputed starter in 2015–16, netting nine times in 46 competitive appearances. He played the full 90 minutes in the Europa League final, won 3–1 against Liverpool. In his last game for the Andalusians, the final of the Copa del Rey on 22 May 2016, he was sent off for a 90th-minute tackle on Neymar in an eventual 2–0 defeat to Barcelona after extra time.


title: Éver Banega

text: On 16 May 2016, it was announced that Banega would sign for Inter Milan as a free agent, with the move being made effective on 1 July. In his first interview, he stated: "I'm very excited to play for a club like Inter", adding "I cannot wait to play for Inter." He was officially presented on 12 August, being given squad number 19.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega made his Serie A debut on 21 August 2016, starting and playing 70 minutes in a 0–2 away loss against ChievoVerona. On 11 September, at newly promoted Pescara, he provided the first goal of Mauro Icardi in an eventual 2–1 comeback win for the first three points of the season.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega was named in Inter's Europa League squad, starting in their first match against Hapoel Be'er Sheva, which finished in a 0–2 defeat at the San Siro. He scored his first goal for the "nerazzurri" on 2 October, but in a 1–2 away loss to Roma.


title: Éver Banega

text: During the first part of the campaign, Banega started mostly but was also benched on occasion, which led to rumours of a possible move in the winter transfer window. On 5 March 2017 he returned to the starting XI for the league match against Cagliari, assisting Ivan Perišić and scoring himself a free kick in a 5–1 away victory. One week later, he netted his first hat-trick as a professional in the 7–1 home thrashing of Atalanta, which set a new league personal best at six goals.


title: Éver Banega

text: On 27 June 2017, a mere 13 months after leaving the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium, Banega returned to Sevilla. He was sent off in his first league game in his second spell for allegedly insulting the referee, immediately after being booked for committing a foul in the last minutes of the 1–1 home draw against Espanyol.


title: Éver Banega

text: In January 2020, it was announced that Banega would join Al Shabab of the Saudi Professional League when the Europa League, in which Sevilla were winners, ended.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega was selected for the Argentine under-20 team, alongside Sergio Agüero, for the 2007 FIFA World Cup in Canada, appearing in all seven games for the eventual champions.


title: Éver Banega

text: Soon after joining Valencia in January 2008 he made his debut for the full side, in a 5–0 friendly win over Guatemala on 6 February, which he started. During that summer, he appeared for the nation at the Summer Olympics, helping conquer the gold medal.


title: Éver Banega

text: In spite of a solid season with Valencia, Banega was not selected for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa by manager Diego Maradona. He was however a member of the 2011 Copa América squad, playing the first two group matches as the hosts reached the quarter-finals under Sergio Batista. On 26 March 2013 he scored his first goal, finishing a Clemente Rodríguez cross to equalise in a 1–1 draw away to Bolivia in the 2014 World Cup qualifiers, but was not chosen for the squad that appeared in the finals.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega was selected by coach Gerardo Martino for the 2015 Copa América, starting in the team's opening fixture against Paraguay in La Serena. He was one of two players to miss his penalty shootout attempt in the final, a 1–4 loss to Chile, with Claudio Bravo saving it.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega started all the games in the Copa América Centenario in the United States, lost 2–4 in the same fashion to the same opponent. Previously, in the opening match of the group stage, he had scored in a 2–1 win over the same team, also setting up Ángel Di María's first goal.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega was included in the final squad for the 2018 World Cup. He made his debut in the competition on 16 June, playing 36 minutes in the 1–1 group stage draw against Iceland after replacing Lucas Biglia. In the final group match against Nigeria at the Krestovsky Stadium, he assisted Lionel Messi's opening goal with a long ball over the defence; the match eventually ended in a 2–1 victory, which saw his team progress to the second round as group runners-up behind Croatia, and he also featured the entire 3–4 round-of-16 defeat to France.


title: Éver Banega

text: A tactically intelligent and versatile playmaker, Banega is mostly known for his technical skills, dribbling ability, quick feet, vision and accurate passing, which enables him to retain possession, dictate the tempo of his team's play in midfield and create goalscoring opportunities for his teammates. Although he is usually deployed as a central midfielder, he can also be deployed as an attacking one; whilst at Boca Juniors, he operated as a defensive midfielder, or as a deep-lying playmaker due to his creativity, work-rate, and ball-winning abilities, and he is also an accurate set-piece taker.


title: Éver Banega

text: Banega's former Internazionale coach Roberto Mancini said of him: "Banega is a midfielder who likes to mix it up a lot. He can start by playing off the front man and drop deep to pick up the ball. He plays for Argentina, he's got quality and charisma and I'm sure he'll be very useful to us."


title: Stop codon

text: In molecular biology (specifically protein biosynthesis), a stop codon (or termination codon) is a codon (nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA) that signals the termination of the translation process of the current protein. Most codons in messenger RNA correspond to the addition of an amino acid to a growing polypeptide chain, which may ultimately become a protein; stop codons signal the termination of this process by binding release factors, which cause the ribosomal subunits to disassociate, releasing the amino acid chain.


title: Stop codon

text: While start codons need nearby sequences or initiation factors to start translation, a stop codon alone is sufficient to initiate termination.


title: Stop codon

text: There are variations on the standard genetic code, and alternative stop codons have been found in the mitochondrial genomes of vertebrates, "Scenedesmus obliquus", and "Thraustochytrium".


title: Stop codon

text: The nuclear genetic code is flexible as illustrated by variant genetic codes that reassign standard stop codons to amino acids.


title: Stop codon

text: In 1986, convincing evidence was provided that selenocysteine (Sec) was incorporated co-translationally. Moreover, the codon partially directing its incorporation in the polypeptide chain was identified as UGA also known as the opal termination codon. Different mechanisms for overriding the termination function of this codon have been identified in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes. A particular difference between these kingdoms is that cis elements seem restricted to the neighborhood of the UAG codon in prokaryotes while in eukaryotes this restriction is not present. Instead such locations seem disfavored albeit not prohibited.


title: Stop codon

text: In 2003, a landmark paper described the identification of all known selenoproteins in humans: 25 in total. Similar analyses have been run for other organisms.


title: Stop codon

text: Distribution of stop codons within the genome of an organism is non-random and can correlate with GC-content. For example, the "E. coli" K-12 genome contains 2705 TAA (63%), 1257 TGA (29%), and 326 TAG (8%) stop codons (GC content 50.8%). Also the substrates for the stop codons release factor 1 or release factor 2 are strongly correlated to the abundance of stop codons. Large scale study of bacteria with a broad range of GC-contents shows that while the frequency of occurrence of TAA is negatively correlated to the GC-content and the frequency of occurrence of TGA is positively correlated to the GC-content, the frequency of occurrence of the TAG stop codon, which is often the minimally used stop codon in a genome, is not influenced by the GC-content.


title: Stop codon

text: Recognition of stop codons in bacteria have been associated with the so-called 'tripeptide anticodon', a highly conserved amino acid motif in RF1 (PxT) and RF2 (SPF). Even though this is supported by structural studies, it was shown that the tripeptide anticodon hypothesis is an oversimplification.


title: Stop codon

text: Stop codons were historically given many different names, as they each corresponded to a distinct class of mutants that all behaved in a similar manner. These mutants were first isolated within bacteriophages (T4 and lambda), viruses that infect the bacteria "Escherichia coli". Mutations in viral genes weakened their infectious ability, sometimes creating viruses that were able to infect and grow within only certain varieties of "E. coli".


title: Stop codon

text: They were the first set of nonsense mutations to be discovered, isolated by Richard H. Epstein and Charles Steinberg and named after their friend and graduate Caltech student Harris Bernstein, whose last name means "amber" in German ("cf." Bernstein).


title: Stop codon

text: Viruses with amber mutations are characterized by their ability to infect only certain strains of bacteria, known as amber suppressors. These bacteria carry their own mutation that allows a recovery of function in the mutant viruses. For example, a mutation in the tRNA that recognizes the amber stop codon allows translation to "read through" the codon and produce a full-length protein, thereby recovering the normal form of the protein and "suppressing" the amber mutation.


title: Stop codon

text: Thus, amber mutants are an entire class of virus mutants that can grow in bacteria that contain amber suppressor mutations. Similar suppressors are known for ochre and opal stop codons as well.


title: Stop codon

text: tRNA molecules carrying unnatural aminoacids have been designed to recognize the amber stop codon in bacterial RNA. This technology allows for incorporation of orthogonal aminoacids (such as p-azidophenylalanine) at specific locations of the target protein.


title: Stop codon

text: It was the second stop codon mutation to be discovered. Reminiscent of the usual yellow-orange-brown color associated with amber, this second stop codon was given the name of "ochre", an orange-reddish-brown mineral pigment.


title: Stop codon

text: Ochre mutant viruses had a property similar to amber mutants in that they recovered infectious ability within certain suppressor strains of bacteria. The set of ochre suppressors was distinct from amber suppressors, so ochre mutants were inferred to correspond to a different nucleotide triplet. Through a series of mutation experiments comparing these mutants with each other and other known amino acid codons, Sydney Brenner concluded that the amber and ochre mutations corresponded to the nucleotide triplets "UAG" and "UAA".


title: Stop codon

text: The third and last stop codon in the standard genetic code was discovered soon after, and corresponds to the nucleotide triplet "UGA".


title: Stop codon

text: To continue matching with the theme of colored minerals, the third nonsense codon came to be known as "opal", which is a type of silica showing a variety of colors. Nonsense mutations that created this premature stop codon were later called opal mutations or umber mutations.


title: Stop codon

text: Nonsense mutations are changes in DNA sequence that introduce a premature stop codon, causing any resulting protein to be abnormally shortened. This often causes a loss of function in the protein, as critical parts of the amino acid chain are no longer assembled. Because of this terminology, stop codons have also been referred to as nonsense codons.


title: Stop codon

text: A nonstop mutation, also called a stop-loss variant, is a point mutation that occurs within a stop codon. Nonstop mutations cause the continued translation of an mRNA strand into what should be an untranslated region. Most polypeptides resulting from a gene with a nonstop mutation lose their function their extreme length and the impact on normal folding. Nonstop mutations differ from nonsense mutations in that they do not create a stop codon but, instead, delete one. Nonstop mutations also differ from missense mutations, which are point mutations where a single nucleotide is changed to cause replacement by a different amino acid. Nonstop mutations have been linked with many inherited diseases including endocrine disorders, eye disease, and neurodevelopmental disorders.


title: Stop codon

text: Hidden stops are non-stop codons that would be read as stop codons if they were frameshifted +1 or −1. These prematurely terminate translation if the corresponding frame-shift (such as due to a ribosomal RNA slip) occurs before the hidden stop. It is hypothesised that this decreases resource wastage on nonfunctional proteins and the production of potential cytotoxins. Researchers at Louisiana State University propose the "ambush hypothesis", that hidden stops are selected for. Codons that can form hidden stops are used in genomes more frequently compared to synonymous codons that would otherwise code for the same amino acid. Unstable rRNA in an organism correlates with a higher frequency of hidden stops.


title: Stop codon

text: Stop-codons and hidden stops together are collectively referred as stop-signals. Researchers at University of Memphis found that the ratios of the stop-signals on the three reading frames of a genome (referred to as translation stop-signals ratio or TSSR) of genetically related bacteria, despite their great differences in gene contents, are much alike. This nearly identical genomic-TSSR value of genetically related bacteria may suggest that bacterial genome expansion is limited by their unique stop-signals bias of that bacterial species.


title: Stop codon

text: Stop codon suppression or translational readthrough occurs when in translation a stop codon is interpreted as a sense codon, that is, when a (standard) amino acid is 'encoded' by the stop codon. Mutated tRNAs can be the cause of readthrough, but also certain nucleotide motifs close to the stop codon. Translational readthrough is very common in viruses and bacteria, and has also been found as a gene regulatory principle in humans, yeasts, bacteria and drosophila. This kind of endogenous translational readthrough constitutes a variation of the genetic code, because a stop codon codes for an amino acid. In the case of human malate dehydrogenase, the stop codon is read through with a frequency of about 4%. The amino acid inserted at the stop codon depends on the identity of the stop codon itself: Gln, Tyr, and Lys have been found for the UAA and UAG codons, while Cys, Trp, and Arg for the UGA codon have been identified by mass spectrometry. Extent of readthrough in mammals have widely variable extents, and can broadly diversify the proteome and affect cancer progression.


title: Stop codon

text: In 2010 when Craig Venter unveiled the first fully functioning, reproducing cell controlled by synthetic DNA he described how his team used frequent stop codons to create watermarks in RNA and DNA to help confirm the results were indeed synthetic (and not contaminated or otherwise), using it to encode authors' names and website addresses.


title: Serco

text: Serco Group plc is a British company with headquarters based in Hook, Hampshire, England. Serco primarily derives income as a contractor for the provision of government services, most prominently in the sectors of health, transport, justice, immigration, space, defence and citizens services.


title: Serco

text: Approximately 55% of the company's revenue and some 75% of its profit is generated from overseas. The company also operates in Continental Europe, the Middle East, the Asia Pacific region (including Australia), and North America. Serco manages over 500 contracts worldwide, employing over 50,000 people. It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 250 Index.


title: Serco

text: Serco was founded in 1929 as RCA Services Limited, a United Kingdom division of the Radio Corporation of America and initially provided services to the cinema industry.


title: Serco

text: RCA Services Limited began providing services to governments after during World War 2. After the onset of the war, RCA Services was contracted by the British War Office due to the company's engineering and technical background to supply the department with equipment which would simulate the sound of warfare to confuse the enemy. In 1952, RCA Services was contracted to produce submarine-detecting sonar equipment for the US Navy. In 1960 RCA Services were awarded the contract to design, install, and maintain the UK Ministry of Defence's Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, including ongoing facility management such as cleaning, transport, and logistical stores.


title: Serco

text: Following the takeover of RCA by General Electric in late 1985, RCA Services Limited was bought out by its local management. It changed its name to Serco in 1987 and has been a London Stock Exchange listed company since 1988.


title: Serco

text: In November 2014 its share price, which stood at 674p before the taxpayer scandal broke in 2013 collapsed to 218.7p, after four profit warnings. The new chief executive Rupert Soames sold off "scores of divisions". He said the company was suffering from ministers’ improved ability at driving a bargain, and claimed that “the Government has got much more adept at writing contracts and transferring risk to the private sector”. On 17 November 2014, it was announced that Alastair Lyons would resign from his position as chairman of Serco. Lyons referred to “operational mis-steps” for which he took “ultimate responsibility”, but said he had not been forced out. Serco made a loss of £991 million in 2014, reducing to a loss of £69.4 million in 2015.


title: Serco

text: John Rishton was appointed as Non-Executive Chairman in Spring 2021, succeeding Sir Roy Gardner who held the position from May 2015. Rishton had been on the Board since September 2016. In September 2017, Serco announced that it would be combining its UK and Europe operations.


title: Serco

text: In August 2022, Serco announced that it would distribute £9 million in one-off payments to about 45,000 non-management staff as the firm lifted its profit guidance and dividend. The sum equated to around £200 for each of its 45,000 workers.


title: Serco

text: Serco held defence contracts in 2004, including the UK Government's contract for the maintenance of the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System at RAF Fylingdales with their contract being extended by the UK Ministry of Defence in October 2022 for three years which will see them providing maintenance, repair, and operational services for the radar in Yorkshire, England; contracts are also held for the operation and maintenance of RAF Brize Norton, RAF Halton, RAF Northolt and RNAS Culdrose in the UK and RAF Ascension Island in the mid-Atlantic. Serco also provides support services to garrisons in Australia. Serco also manages many aspects of operations at the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom in Shrivenham. Serco was one of three partners in the consortium who managed the Atomic Weapons Establishment until June 2021 when it was taken over by the MOD: in July 2015 the Office for Nuclear Regulation issued an improvement notice to the consortium demanding that it demonstrate that it has a long-term strategy for managing Higher Active radioactive Waste in order to reduce the risk to the public and its employees.


title: Serco

text: Serco is a major subcontractor to Airbus Defence and Space on the Skynet military communications satellites PFI contract.


title: Serco

text: Serco Marine Services is responsible for fleet support at the three main UK naval bases, HMNB Portsmouth, HMNB Devonport and HMNB Clyde. In November 2022, the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD) awarded Serco a £200 million follow-on contract, lasting 27 months, to provide marine services for the Royal Navy.


title: Serco

text: In London, Serco has operate the London Cycle Hire Scheme for Transport for London since it was first introduced in 2010 and, in December 2022, Serco signed a three-year contract extension valued at £50 million to continue maintaining and distributing the bikes, including the newly introduced e-Bikes.


title: Serco

text: Serco has operated a number of train operating companies. It has a 50% shareholding in Serco-Abellio that has a concession to operate the Merseyrail franchise in Liverpool until 2028, and previously operated the Northern Rail franchise from December 2004 until March 2016. Serco has a contract in its own right to operate the Caledonian Sleeper between London and Scotland until 2023 when the contract will be terminated.


title: Serco

text: In 1997 Serco purchased the Railtest business as part of the privatisation of British Rail. Included in the sale was a management contract for the Old Dalby Test Track. From 1997 until 2004, Serco operated the National Rail Enquiry Service under contract to the Association of Train Operating Companies. It maintains Network Rail's fleet of infrastructure and maintenance trains at the Railway Technical Centre.


title: Serco

text: In Scotland, Serco has operated the NorthLink Ferries ferry service since July 2012. In September 2018 it commenced operating a bicycle-sharing system under contract to Transport for Edinburgh which closed in September 2021.


title: Serco

text: Serco's Home Affairs division operates speed camera systems throughout the UK and, until November 2013, designed, wrote and tested the software that controls the matrix message signs, signals, emergency roadside telephones (SOS) and traffic monitoring on England's motorway network including, until 2011, the National Traffic Control Centre.


title: Serco

text: Serco was part of a consortium called Trusted Borders, led by Raytheon Systems Limited, to put in place e-Borders under a contract awarded by the UK Home Office in 2007. As a subcontractor to Raytheon, Serco was responsible for delivering the infrastructure and service management of e-Borders; Raytheon had its contract terminated in July 2010 and Serco at the time stated it had fulfilled all its commitments on the contract.


title: Serco

text: Serco is contracted to the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) to provide telephone advice on behalf of DWP to recipients of Support for Mortgage Interest (SMI), which ends in April 2018.


title: Serco

text: Serco managed the UK's National Physical Laboratory until 2015 and also provides IT Services, Industrial Support and Cryogenic Operations Support and Maintenance at CERN. Serco also was part of a consortium running the UK's National Nuclear Laboratory under contract, until October 2013.


title: Serco

text: In Britain Serco supplies electronic tagging devices for offenders and asylum seekers. Serco, as well as its rival G4S, was accused of overcharging the Ministry of Justice on its contract to tag offenders. The firm issued a profit warning for 2014 as a result of the costs of becoming embroiled in an electronic tagging scandal. Serco repaid £68.5 million to the government for its overcharging on the contract. In May 2014 a Survation poll for campaign group We Own It, found that 63% of respondents thought Serco should be banned from bidding for any new public contracts after the firm was investigated for overcharging on government contracts.


title: Serco

text: It runs four prisons, a Young Offenders Institution and a Secure Training Centre. It has also operated two Immigration Removal Centres since 2007. Serco is also responsible for the contracted-out court escort services in the south-east area (formerly a role undertaken by HM Prison Service).


title: Serco

text: In September 2013, Serco was accused of an extensive cover-up over sexual abuse at Yarl's Wood Immigration Removal Centre in Bedfordshire, England In August 2014, Serco was criticised for using immigrant detainees as cheap labour, with some being paid as little as £1 per hour. The decision to give the firm a new £70 million eight-year contract to run Yarl's Wood has been criticised. Natasha Walter, of Women for Refugee Women, said


title: Serco

text: "Serco is clearly unfit to manage a centre where vulnerable women are held and it is unacceptable the government continues to entrust Serco with the safety of women who are survivors of sexual violence."


title: Serco

text: A fine of £19.2m was imposed on Serco following the delayed legal action that began in 2013, for fraud and false accounting over its electronic tagging service for the Ministry of Justice. Serco was also ordered to pay the full amount of the Serious Fraud Office's investigative costs (£3.7m). In his judgment, Mr Justice Davis said: “SGL (Serco Geografix Ltd) engaged in quite deliberate fraud against the Ministry of Justice in relation to the provision of services vital to the criminal justice system." The charged ex-directors of firm’s subsidiary were cleared of fraud and false accounting in April 2021 as the SFO had failed to disclose certain documents to the defense, resulting in issues, which, according to the judge “undermine the process of disclosure to the extent that the trial cannot safely and fairly proceed until they have been remedied”.


title: Serco

text: In 2022 the company supplied food containing maggots to children in a hotel in the Midlands. It subsequently apologised and said it would visit the hotel.


title: Serco

text: In Glasgow, in August 2018, it was disclosed that Serco had been planning to evict asylum seekers before their appeal procedure was completed. Lawyers questioned whether this was legal under Scottish law. Two asylum seekers started hunger striking. Serco confirmed that it was serving a notice of eviction on many tenants causing alarm and lawyers challenged one asylum seeker's eviction at the Scottish Court of Session. Councillor Jennifer Layden, equalities and human rights convener for Glasgow, said, "The lock change announcement by the Home Office and Serco has caused widespread fear and alarm among asylum seekers in Glasgow. There is confusion and panic among the community – some of whom have limited English and who may not be affected by Serco’s announcement. Both Serco and the Home Office have a responsibility to put this vulnerable group at ease".


title: Serco

text: In January 2019, it was reported that Serco had lost the contract to provide housing to asylum seekers in Glasgow.


title: Serco

text: A Freedom of Information request by the Scottish Refugee Council showed that Serco had been charged nearly £3m by the Home Office for repeatedly breaching its contract to house asylum seekers in Glasgow and Northern Ireland.


title: Serco

text: Serco also operate Scatsta Airport in Shetland. In June 2010 Serco signed a £4 million contract to operate all air traffic control services for Coventry Airport.


title: Serco

text: Serco provide facilities management services at the Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, Leicester Royal Infirmary, and Wishaw General Hospital.


title: Serco

text: The company had the contract for out-of-hours GP services in Cornwall from which it withdrew in December 2013 after the company left the county short of doctors. The company also said it would stop running Braintree hospital in Essex as it pulled out of managing GP services and large hospitals.


title: Serco

text: In health services, Serco's failures include the poor handling of pathology labs and fatal errors in patient records. At St Thomas' Hospital, the increase in the number of clinical incidents arising from Serco non-clinical management has resulted in patients receiving incorrect and infected blood, as well as patients suffering kidney damage due to Serco providing incorrect data used for medical calculations. A Serco employee later revealed that the company had falsified 252 reports to the National Health Service regarding Serco health services in Cornwall.


title: Serco

text: It emerged in November 2013, Serco, which won a contract for Suffolk Community Healthcare in 2012, had 72 vacancies after earlier cutting 137 posts. Problems identified by Ipswich and East Suffolk Clinical Commissioning Group include “staff capacity, skill mix, workload, succession planning and morale, training, communication, mobile working, care co-ordination centre processes, incidents and near miss incidents”.


title: Serco

text: In April 2014 Serco revealed that it would lose almost £18 million on three of its NHS contracts. The firm has made provisions for losses in its Braintree and Cornwall contracts, which were cancelled early. It has also made provisions for losses in its contract for services in Suffolk. The company claims it will take longer to deliver the operational efficiencies it hoped for, despite saying in May 2013 that it expected to make a profit on the three-year, £140 million contract for community services. It said that staff had not recorded activity accurately on the Electronic health record and that activity had increased significantly during the course of the contract.


title: Serco

text: In August 2014 it was reported that the company had decided to withdraw from the clinical health services market in the UK after a review of the cost of delivering “improved service levels” and meeting the performance requirements of several existing contracts.


title: Serco

text: On 24 October 2017, it was reported that Serco was preparing to buy healthcare contracts from facilities management business Carillion. The deal included 15 contracts, with annual revenues of approximately £90m, for which Serco would pay £47.7m, with Carillion losing £1bn from the value of its order book.


title: Serco

text: In May 2020, Serco accidentally shared the personal email addresses of nearly 300 trainee COVID-19 contact tracers.


title: Serco

text: Serco held a ten-year contract with Bradford City Council between 2001 and 2011 to manage and operate the local education authority, providing education support services to the city's schools. This period was marked with "real problems" according to senior council officials and was taken back in house by the local authority after this period. Serco similarly manages and operates Walsall and Stoke-on-Trent local education authorities. Serco is one of Ofsted's three Regional Inspection Service Providers, responsible for school inspections in the English Midlands.


title: Serco

text: Serco Leisure Operating Ltd works with clients throughout the UK, running gyms, swimming pools, cycle hire schemes and National Sports Centres.


title: Serco

text: Serco administered the publicly funded UK Business Link website from 2005 until its closure in 2012. It won a five-year tender in 2007 to run the IT Infrastructure for the London Borough of Southwark.


title: Serco

text: Serco, through a purpose-made division Serco DES, holds a ten-year, $114 million contract with the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario to operate the Ontario's DriveTest driver examination centres. These tests include vision, road, and knowledge tests for all persons seeking to become a licensed automobile driver in the province.


title: Serco

text: In July 2013 Serco was awarded a $1.25 billion contract to manage the implementation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, which makes Serco one of the most highly paid government contractors in the US.


title: Serco

text: Serco provides air traffic control services at airports and some smaller airports in the United States and Canada. Starting in 2004 Serco had a £5m a year contract from the US government to manage airports in Iraq for 18 months.


title: Serco

text: In Auckland, New Zealand, Serco operated the Mount Eden remand prison and in March 2012 was awarded a contract to build and operate a 960-bed prison at Wiri. Serco was heavily criticized for the existence of 'fight clubs' within Mount Eden prison that were not investigated until after they became public knowledge on 16 July 2015 when footage emerged online and was reported by TVNZ. On 24 July 2015, Serco's contract to run the Mount Eden prison was revoked and operation was given back to the New Zealand Department of Corrections. Serco was ordered to pay $8 million to the New Zealand government as a result of problems at Mount Eden Prison while it was under Serco's management. The New Zealand government did not accept that this was a failure of governmental contracting and oversight. It brought in correctional officers from afar to provide adequate staffing at Mount Eden, and by December 2016 had spent NZ$2 million housing up to 40 of them in Auckland hotels.


title: Serco

text: From 1996 until 2005, Serco operated TransAdelaide bus services in Adelaide. In November 1995 Serco commenced a contract to provide transport information services for Transperth and in May 1996, a contract to maintain all of its bus stations.


title: Serco

text: From 1997 until 2015, Serco owned Great Southern Rail that operated "The Ghan", "Indian Pacific" and "The Overland" passenger trains. In March 2015, the business was sold to Allegro Funds.


title: Serco

text: In Sydney, Serco has operated transport information services for Transport for NSW since 1 July 2010.


title: Serco

text: , Serco operates Acacia Prison in Western Australia, Australia's largest prison facility, as well as the Adelaide Remand Centre in South Australia. Serco and its subcontractor, MSS Security, have been criticised for abuses.


title: Serco

text: It ran the Borallon Correctional Centre in Queensland for 22 years between 1990 and 2012, and Wandoo Reintegration Facility in Western Australia from 2012 to 2018.


title: Serco

text: It has also had the national contract for various immigration detention centres since 2009, including Christmas Island and the Villawood detention centre in Sydney. The Union of Christmas Island Workers highlighted the systemic failure by Serco to manage the Christmas Island Immigration Reception and Processing Centre. The centre detained a large number of refugees at its peak around 2013, including 1,000 children. Under Serco, there was an increase of deaths in custody and self-harm in the years leading up to 2013, as well as a deterioration of facilities, leading to the decline of the physical and the mental health of detainees and of staff. Ombudsman Allan Asher said "In the first week of June when I visited Christmas Island, more than 30 incidents of self-harm by detainees held there were reported". Serco, in a staged memo leaked to "The Australian", blamed the detainees for "creating a culture of self-harm", in order to use it as a "bargaining tool". The former manager of the detention centre stated the centre was grossly understaffed.


title: Serco

text: Serco formerly operated the Copenhagen Metro in Copenhagen, Denmark, with Ansaldo STS, until it sold its share with effect on 1 January 2008.


title: Serco

text: Serco secured an eight-year contract in 2013 with its Swedish joint venture partner Strömma Tourism & Maritime to operate four Djurgården ferries on behalf of Stockholm County Council and public ferry company Waxholms Ångfartygs.


title: Serco

text: Serco operates the Dubai Metro and continues to operate the Dubai Tram and the Palm Jumeirah Monorail in Dubai.


title: Serco

text: The 2017 Paradise Papers revealed that Appleby carried out a risk assessment of Serco and noted it had a "history of problems, failures, fatal errors and overcharging" and had faced allegations of fraud and cover-ups.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Rene Alexander Acosta (born January 16, 1969) is an American attorney and politician, who served as the 27th United States Secretary of Labor from 2017 to 2019. President Donald Trump nominated Acosta to be Labor Secretary on , and he was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on .


title: Alexander Acosta

text: A member of the Republican Party, he was appointed by President George W. Bush to the National Labor Relations Board, and later served as the assistant attorney general for civil rights and the U.S. attorney for the Southern District of Florida. He is a former dean of Florida International University College of Law. He has twice been named on the ‘50 most important Hispanics’ list by Hispanic Business Magazine.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: In 2007–2008, as U.S. attorney, Acosta approved a plea deal that allowed child-trafficking ring-leader Jeffrey Epstein to plead guilty to a single state charge of solicitation, in exchange for a federal non-prosecution agreement. After Epstein's arrest in July 2019 on sex trafficking charges, Acosta faced renewed and harsher criticism for his role in the 2008 non-prosecution agreement, as well as criticism and calls for his resignation; he resigned on July 19 and was replaced by Eugene Scalia.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Acosta is the only son of Cuban immigrants. He is a native of Miami, Florida, where he attended the Gulliver Schools. Acosta received a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics from Harvard College in 1990, and received a Juris Doctor degree "cum laude" from Harvard Law School 1994. He is the first member of his family to graduate from college.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Following law school, Acosta served as a law clerk to Samuel Alito, then a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, from 1994 to 1995. Acosta then worked at the office of the law firm Kirkland & Ellis in Washington, D.C., where he specialized in employment and labor issues. While in Washington, Acosta taught classes on employment law, disability-based discrimination law, and civil rights law at the George Mason University School of Law.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: On December 31, 2013, Acosta became the new chairman of U.S. Century Bank, the largest domestically owned Hispanic community bank in Florida and one of the 15 largest Hispanic community banks in the country. During his tenure as chairman, U.S. Century Bank had its first year-end profit since the start of the Great Recession. Acosta was a member of the Board of Trustees of Gulliver Schools, where he served a past term as board chairman.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Acosta served in four presidentially appointed, U.S. Senate-confirmed positions in the George W. Bush administration. From December 2001 to December 2002, he served as Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney General in the Civil Rights Division of the U.S. Department of Justice. From December 2002 to August 2003, he was a member of the National Labor Relations Board for which he participated in or authored more than 125 opinions.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Then, he became Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division on August 22, 2003, where he was known for increasing federal prosecutions against human trafficking. Acosta authorized federal intervention in an Oklahoma religious liberties case to help assure the right to wear hijab in public school, and worked with Mississippi authorities to reopen the investigation of the 1955 murder of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old black youth whose abduction and murder helped spark the civil rights movement. He was the first Hispanic to serve as Assistant Attorney General.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: While leading the Civil Rights division, Acosta allowed his predecessor, Bradley Schlozman, to continue to make decisions on hiring. A report by the inspector general and the Office of Professional Responsibility later found that Schlozman illegally gave preferential treatment to conservatives and made false statements to the Senate Judiciary Committee. Those findings were relayed to the office of the United States attorney for the District of Columbia, but Schlozman was not prosecuted. While it put the primary responsibility on Schlozman, the report also concluded that Acosta "did not sufficiently supervise Schlozman" and that "in light of indications [he and Principal Deputy Assistant Attorney General Sheldon Bradshaw] had about Schlozman's conduct and judgment, they failed to ensure that Schlozman's hiring and personnel decisions were based on proper considerations."


title: Alexander Acosta

text: In 2005, Acosta was appointed as the U.S. attorney for Southern District of Florida, where his office successfully prosecuted the lobbyist Jack Abramoff, the terrorism suspect José Padilla, the founders of the Cali Cartel, and Charles McArther Emmanuel, the son of Liberia's former leader.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: The district also targeted white collar crime, prosecuting several bank-related cases, including one against Swiss bank UBS. The case resulted in UBS paying $780 million in fines, and for the first time in history, the bank provided the United States with the names of individuals who were using secret Swiss bank accounts to avoid U.S. federal income taxes.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Other notable cases during his tenure include the corruption prosecution of Palm Beach County Commission chairman Tony Masilotti, Palm Beach County commissioner Warren Newell, Palm Beach County commissioner Mary McCarty, and Broward sheriff Ken Jenne; the conviction of Cali Cartel founders Miguel and Gilberto Rodríguez Orejuela, for the importation of 200,000 kilos of cocaine, which resulted in a $2.1 billion forfeiture; and the white-collar crime prosecutions of executives connected to Hamilton Bank.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Acosta also emphasized health care fraud prosecutions. Under Acosta's leadership the district prosecuted more than 700 individuals, responsible for a total of more than $2 billion in Medicare fraud.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: In 2008, U.S. attorney Acosta approved a federal non-prosecution agreement with Jeffrey Epstein. That secret agreement, conducted without consulting the victims, was later ruled illegal by a federal judge for violating the Crime Victims' Rights Act.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Epstein, ostensibly a wealthy hedge fund manager, was known to have a number of highly influential connections, including British Royal Prince Andrew, Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz, former U.S. president Bill Clinton, future president Donald Trump, Tom Barrack, Leon Black, and Wilbur Ross, among others.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: In March 2005, the Palm Beach Police Department received reports that Epstein had been engaged in sexually-inappropriate behavior with a minor. Police began a 13-month undercover investigation of Epstein, including a search of his home. The police search of Epstein's home found two hidden cameras and large numbers of photos of girls throughout the house, some of whom the police had interviewed in the course of their investigation. Details from the investigation included allegations that 12-year-old triplets were flown in from France for Epstein's birthday, to be sexually abused by the financier.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: After the Palm Beach Chief of Police requested assistance from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), agents identified at least "34 confirmed minors" whose allegations of sexual abuse by Epstein included corroborating details. The FBI investigation resulted in a 53-page indictment in June 2007.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Acosta, then the U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida, agreed to a plea deal, to grant immunity from all federal criminal charges to Epstein, along with four named co-conspirators and any unnamed "potential co-conspirators". That agreement "essentially shut down an ongoing FBI probe into whether there were more victims and other powerful people who took part in Epstein's sex crimes". At the time, this halted the investigation and sealed the indictment.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: The "Miami Herald" reported: "Acosta agreed, despite a federal law to the contrary, that the deal would be kept from the victims." The plea deal was later described as a "sweetheart deal". Epstein would go on to serve only 13 months in a private wing of the county jail, permitted to leave for 12 hours a day as 'work release'.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Acosta has variously stated that he was not directly involved in the unusual agreement, that prosecutors determined it to be the best available solution, and that he "was unduly pressured by Epstein's heavy-hitting lawyers." He also has argued the prosecution team believed conviction by trial in federal court was unlikely, and an agreement would therefore be the best way to put an end to Epstein's exploitation of underage girls.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: According to the "Miami Herald", Acosta took the unusual step of meeting with Epstein's attorney at a hotel 70 miles from the U.S. Attorney's office in Miami, and it was Acosta who finalized the agreement. According to the article: "In email after email, Acosta... acquiesced to Epstein's legal team's demands, which often focused on ways to limit the scandal by shutting out his victims and the media, including suggesting that the charges be filed in Miami, instead of Palm Beach, where Epstein's victims lived."


title: Alexander Acosta

text: According to a source in a "Daily Beast" article, Acosta informed the Trump presidential transition team that he offered a lenient plea deal because he was told that Epstein "belonged to intelligence", was "above his pay grade," and to "leave it alone".


title: Alexander Acosta

text: The federal agreement and Epstein's subsequent lenient treatment while incarcerated by the State of Florida have been the subject of criticism, with the "Miami Herald" calling the agreement "the deal of a lifetime." The fact that the agreement with Epstein also protected unnamed "potential co-conspirators" from federal prosecution drew speculation that perhaps the deal was intended to protect influential people in Epstein's orbit. However, others have described that clause as intended to protect those of Epstein's victims who had been enticed to help him recruit other victims for abuse.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: A federal judge later found that the prosecutors had violated the victims' rights in that they had concealed the agreement from the victims and instead urged them to have "patience".


title: Alexander Acosta

text: The federal agreement with Epstein was not a typical criminal law plea bargain, but instead employed a structure commonly used in regulatory settlements with corporations. In an op-ed, the approach was described by a member of the prosecution team as a method to address the state of Florida's prior decision not to bring felony charges against Epstein for the same activities.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Jeffrey Sloman, one of the prosecutors in the case, defended the agreement in a February 2019 op-ed piece in the "Miami Herald": "Our priorities were to make sure Epstein could not hurt anyone else and to compensate Epstein's victims without retraumatizing them. Our team worked diligently to build a federal case against Epstein. Throughout the investigation, we took care to be respectful of the pain Epstein's victims had endured. As we continued, however, it became clear that most of Epstein's victims were terrified to cooperate against him. Some hired lawyers to avoid appearing before a grand jury. One of the key witnesses moved to Australia and refused to return calls from us. We also researched and discussed significant legal impediments to prosecuting [in federal court] what was, at heart, a local sex abuse case. Given the obstacles we faced in fashioning a robust federal prosecution, we decided to negotiate a resolution... You can disagree with the result we reached, but our whole team — from Alex [Acosta] on down the chain of command — always acted with integrity and in good faith."


title: Alexander Acosta

text: In 2017, Acosta was nominated for Secretary of Labor. His handling of the Epstein case was discussed as part of his confirmation hearing.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: On November 28, 2018, as rumors circulated that Acosta was being considered as a possible successor to Attorney General Jeff Sessions, the "Miami Herald" published an investigation detailing Acosta's role in the Epstein case. That story revealed the extent of collaboration between federal prosecutors and Epstein's attorneys in their efforts to keep victims from learning of the plea deal.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: The "Miami Herald" describes an email from Epstein's attorney after his off-site meeting with Acosta: "'Thank you for the commitment you made to me during our Oct. 12 meeting,' Lefkowitz wrote in a letter to Acosta after their breakfast meeting in West Palm Beach. He added that he was hopeful that Acosta would abide by a promise to keep the deal confidential. 'You ... assured me that your office would not ... contact any of the identified individuals, potential witnesses or potential civil claimants and the respective counsel in this matter,' Lefkowitz wrote."


title: Alexander Acosta

text: The "Miami Herald" article contended that certain aspects of Acosta's non-prosecution agreement violated federal law. "As part of the arrangement, Acosta agreed, despite a federal law to the contrary, that the deal would be kept from the victims. As a result, the non-prosecution agreement was sealed until after it was approved by the judge, thereby averting any chance that the girls — or anyone else — might show up in court and try to derail it." Victims, former prosecutors, and the retired Palm Beach police chief were among those quoted criticizing the agreement and Acosta's role in it.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: After a lawsuit was filed in federal court, in 2019, a court ruled that the non-prosecution agreement was invalid and that prosecutors had violated the victim's rights with their non-prosecution agreement.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: On February 21, 2019, a ruling in federal court returned Acosta's role in the Epstein case to the headlines. The decision to keep the deal with Epstein secret until after it was finalized was found to be a violation of the Crime Victims' Rights Act of 2004 (CVRA), which requires notifying victims of the progress of federal criminal cases. The CVRA was new and relatively untested at the time of the Epstein non-prosecution agreement. In 2008, representatives for two of Epstein's victims filed a lawsuit in federal court aiming to vacate the federal non-prosecution agreement on the grounds that it violated the CVRA. For more than a decade, the U.S. Attorney's office denied that it acted in violation of victims' rights laws and argued that the CVRA did not apply in the Epstein case. The government's contention that the CVRA did not apply was based on questions of timing (whether or not CVRA applied prior to filing of federal charges), relevance (whether the CVRA applied to non-prosecution agreements), and jurisdiction (whether the case should be considered a federal case or a state case under the CVRA). The court rejected those arguments in the February 21, 2019 ruling, finding that the CVRA did in fact apply and that victims should have been notified of the Epstein non-prosecution agreement in advance of its signing, to afford them the opportunity to influence its terms. At the conclusion of his ruling, the federal judge in the case noted that he was "not ruling that the decision not to prosecute was improper," but was "simply ruling that, under the facts of this case, there was a violation of the victims rights [for reasonable, accurate, and timely notice] under the CVRA."


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Because the CVRA does not specify penalties for failure to meet victims notification requirements, the judge offered both parties opportunities to suggest remedies—Epstein's victims who were party to the suit asked for rescission of the federal non-prosecution agreement with Epstein, while the government suggested other approaches, maintaining that other victims were against rescinding the agreement due to privacy concerns and possible impacts to restitution paid under the agreement.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Following the "Herald" investigation and related news coverage, members of Congress submitted a formal request to the U.S. Department of Justice for review of Acosta's role in the Epstein deal, and several editorials called for Acosta's resignation or termination from his then-current position as U.S. Labor Secretary. In February 2019, the Justice Department's Office of Professional Responsibility notified Senator Ben Sasse that it had opened an investigation into Epstein's prosecution.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: On July 6, 2019, Epstein was arrested by the FBI-NYPD Crimes Against Children Task Force on sex trafficking charges stemming from activities alleged to have occurred in 2002–2005. The search of his townhouse turned up evidence of sex trafficking and also found "hundreds – and perhaps thousands – of sexually suggestive photographs of fully – or partially – nude females". Some of the photos were confirmed as those of underage females. In a locked safe, compact discs were found with handwritten labels including the descriptions: "Young [Name] + [Name]", "Misc nudes 1", and "Girl pics nude".


title: Alexander Acosta

text: Amid criticism of his mishandling of the Epstein case, Acosta resigned his role as Secretary of Labor effective July 19, 2019, after a public outcry.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: According to an internal review conducted by the Department of Justice's Office of Professional Responsibility, which was released in November 2020, Acosta showed "poor judgment" in granting Epstein a non-prosecution agreement and failing to notify Epstein's alleged victims about this agreement.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: On July 1, 2009, Acosta became the second dean of Florida International University College of Law. He spearheaded the effort to establish the Master of Studies in Law in banking compliance, Bank Secrecy Act and anti-money-laundering at FIU Law.


title: Alexander Acosta

text: President Donald Trump announced in a press conference on February 16, 2017, that he would nominate Acosta to fill the position of Secretary of Labor after the nomination of Andrew Puzder was withdrawn. Acosta was recommended by White House counsel Don McGahn. Acosta is the first, and – – the only Hispanic person to serve in Trump's cabinet.