title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Ostensibly related to this curtailment of magisterial power, Clodius also introduced a law that threatened exile to any public official who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. This measure was squarely aimed at Cicero, who as consul in 63 had suppressed Catiline's conspiracy, and ordered the execution of its leading members before they could stand trial. Cicero argued that the "senatus consultum ultimum" empowering him to deal with the conspiracy indemnified him from punishment, and he sought the support of various senators and the consuls, especially Pompeius, to avoid the consequences of Clodius' legislation. In the spring of 58 BC, when it had become clear that help was not forthcoming, Cicero went into exile in Greece, arriving at Thessalonica on May 29. On the very day that Cicero departed Italy, Clodius proposed another law which forbade Cicero from approaching within of Italy, and confiscated his property. The bill was passed, and Cicero's house on the Palatine Hill was destroyed by Clodius' supporters, as were his villas in Tusculum and . Clodius ordered the confiscation and auction of Cicero's property in Rome, and had a temple dedicated to Libertas built on the site of his rival's house, so that if Cicero ever returned from exile, he could not reclaim the site. To his disappointment, Clodius was unable to find buyers for Cicero's other property.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Having observed that violence and physical force had become a viable means of achieving dominance in Roman politics, Clodius devised an ingenious plan for acquiring the support of various "collegia", consisting of local trade associations, social and political clubs, which he intended to use as private gangs. He restored the Compitalia, a religious festival for which these collegia had traditionally organized street parties. These associations had been banned by the senate in the preceding decade, and by legalizing them again Clodius obtained the loyalty of their members. Clodius thus acquired a private force of thugs that he used to control the streets of Rome, and drive off the supporters of his political opponents. These gangs attacked any politician who dared confront their patron, employing various forms of harassment, including accosting and beating in the streets, loud booing, showering their targets with filth at the games, besieging their houses by throwing rocks and other weapons, or even attempting to burn them. Thus, opposition to Clodius was muted, and he became the "king of the Roman streets".


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: With Cicero out of the way, and the backing of ordinary Romans, Clodius had rapidly become a formidable power in Roman politics. However, his dominance was not unchecked. Pompeius, Crassus, and Caesar had formed a political alliance that would become known as the First Triumvirate. All three had been consul; Pompeius and Caesar were formidable military leaders, while Crassus was perhaps the wealthiest man in Rome. Although he received little notice from Pompeius, Clodius had benefitted directly from Crassus' support, which had helped him escape punishment in the "Bona Dea" scandal, and for Caesar's forebearance on the same occasion, although Clodius had done him a substantial injury. Thus, it lay in Clodius' interest to comply with the wishes of the triumvirate. At the beginning of his tribunate, Clodius had vetoed a speech of Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, in a gesture of support for Caesar, who was departing the consulship.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Clodius soon found an opportunity to act more decisively in favour of the triumvirate, and in the process gain a measure of personal revenge, when he passed a bill terminating the kingship of Ptolemy of Cyprus, and annexing the island to the Roman Republic. Clodius had never forgiven Ptolemy for the insult to his dignity, when he had been held captive by pirates a decade earlier, and Ptolemy had offered an insignificant ransom for his release. The members of the triumvirate suggested that Cato the Younger be appointed propraetor to take possession of the island and its royal treasures, and to preside over the administrative incorporation of Cyprus into the Roman province of Cilicia. Clodius readily agreed, as the appointment worked in his interests, as well as those of the triumvirate. Cato was a potential opponent for both Clodius and the triumvirs, and his duties would keep him from Rome for more than two years. At the same time, the prestige and opportunity afforded Cato by the appointment rendered him amenable to Clodius' actions, and led Cato, a skilled orator, to oppose Clodius' rivals when they attacked his legitimacy.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: However, Clodius' relationship with the triumvirate deteriorated when Pompeius criticised his policies, and suggested the possibility of recalling Cicero from exile. Infuriated, Clodius began to harass Pompeius, reputedly with the secret approval of Crassus. When the general began to discuss the possibility of recalling Cicero with another of the tribunes, Clodius organised an attempt to assassinate him. In August of 58 BC, Clodius' gangs set up a blockade of Pompeius' house, forcing him to stay at home until the end of the year. Frustrated by his failure to eliminate one opponent, Clodius turned against Caesar by declaring illegal his consular legislation of the previous year. However, this act set the recall of Cicero in motion. When Clodius vetoed a bill for his rival's recall, which was supported by eight other tribunes, Caesar agreed to support the bill if it were renewed after Clodius' term of office expired in December. In January of 57, one of the new tribunes tried to pass the bill, but his attempt was thwarted by violent acts on the part of Clodius' gangs. Pompeius chose to fight fire with fire, and gave his approval for the tribunes Titus Annius Milo and Publius Sestius to raise their own forces in order to oppose Clodius' thugs. These new gangs were trained and led by experienced gladiators. Street fighting continued through the first half of the year, but Clodius' attempt to prevent Cicero's recall eventually failed.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: When the orator returned from exile, workmen were assigned to rebuild his house at public cost. Clodius had the builders attacked, assaulted Cicero in the street, and set fire to the house of his brother, Quintus. The following year, 56 BC, Clodius was serving as "curule aedile", and charged Milo, a close friend of Cicero, with "vi", or public violence, for defending his house against Clodius' thugs, and with keeping armed bands in his service, while a private citizen. Attempts to bring Milo to trial were repeatedly hindered by street violence, and at last Clodius dropped the matter.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: In the elections of 53 BC, when Milo was a candidate for the consulship and Clodius for the praetorship, violent clashes erupted in the streets of Rome between the gangs of Clodius and Milo, twice delaying the election.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: On January 18, 52 BC, Clodius was returning to Rome by way of the Appian Way from a visit to Aricia, some 16 miles (25 km) south-east of Rome. Clodius was travelling lightly with a band of 30 armed slaves and, uncommonly for him, without his wife. By chance, Milo was travelling the other way with his wife as well as an escort which included gladiators, and the two groups passed each other near Bovillae, 11 miles from Rome. The encounter between the two groups passed without incident until the last pair at the back of each train began a scuffle. It was then believed that Clodius turned back and was wounded by a javelin thrown by one of the gladiators in Milo's party. He was brought to a nearby inn for his wounds, and his slaves were killed or driven off.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Milo made the decision that a live political enemy was more dangerous than a dead one and ordered his gladiators to kill the injured Clodius. The body was discovered by a passing senator and sent back to Rome. There, Clodius' wife and two tribunes rallied his supporters to use the Curia as Clodius' funeral pyre, which resulted in the destruction of the Curia Hostilia. That action and the need to restore order in Rome are cited as the key reasons for the Senate's appointment of Pompey as sole consul.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: The later trial of Milo would become famous for Cicero's defense of the accused Milo with his famous speech, "Pro Milone", which ultimately failed to save Milo from exile, since the interruptions and catcalls from Clodius's supporters made it difficult for him to be heard. Additionally, in the presence of the soldiers, the jurors were pressured to decide according to Pompey's wishes.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: After Clodius' death, Fulvia married first Gaius Scribonius Curio, tribune of the plebs in 50 BC; and subsequently Marcus Antonius, the triumvir; both marriages produced children.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Clodius' son, Publius Claudius Pulcher, was probably born between 62 and 59 BC. He achieved little in public life: Valerius Maximus describes him as a lethargic nonentity, who rose to the praetorship only through the influence of the second triumvirate, and died amid scandals of luxurious excess and an obsessive attachment to a common prostitute, probably after 31 BC. An inscription of ownership on an expensive Egyptian alabaster vase once owned by Clodius' son has survived to attest his short official career. It includes an unusual triple filiation, which confirms the literary evidence to the effect that Clodius was the son of Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 79 BC, and grandson of Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul in 143 BC.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Clodius' daughter, Claudia, was probably born between 57 and 55 BC. About 43 or 42, while still quite young, she was married to the young Octavian. This was a political marriage, arranged in order to reconcile Octavian to Claudia's stepfather, Marcus Antonius, as the two men and their followers contended with several other factions for the control of the Roman state. However, in 41 BC, Claudia's mother, Fulvia, joined her brother-in-law, the consul Lucius Antonius, in raising eight legions against Octavian, in what became known as the Perusine War. The resulting enmity between the triumvirs gave Octavian an excuse to divorce Claudia in 40 BC. She was still living in 36 BC, but her subsequent fate is unknown.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: "If the Republic must be destroyed by someone", Cicero fulminates against Clodius in mock resignation, "let it at least be destroyed by a real man" (Latin "vir"). Clodius' transvestitism in the Bona Dea incident was to supply Cicero with invective ammunition for years. Like other popularist politicians of his time, as embodied by Caesar and Marcus Antonius, Clodius was accused of exerting a sexual magnetism that was attractive to both women and men and enhanced his political charisma: "The sexual power of Clodius, his suspected ability to win the wife of Caesar, might be read as indicating the potency of his political influence".


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Eleanor Winsor Leach claimed, in her Lacanian analysis "Gendering Clodius", that the frequency and intensity of Cicero's word plays on the "cognomen" Pulcher ("handsome, lovely") show a certain fascination that masqueraded under rebuke. Leach calls Cicero's description of Clodius' attire when he intruded on the rites amounts to a verbal striptease, as the privative Latin preposition "a" ("from") deprives the future tribune of his garments and props one by one:


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Publius Clodius, out from his saffron dress, from his headdress, from his Cinderella slippers and his purple ribbons, from his breast band, from his dereliction, from his lust, is suddenly rendered a democrat.


title: Publius Clodius Pulcher

text: Cicero's accusations of sexual profligacy against Clodius, including the attempt to seduce Caesar's wife into adultery and his incestuous relations with his sisters fail to enlarge in scope over time, as Clodius' marriage to the formidable Fulvia appears to have been an enduring model of fidelity until death cut it short. At the same time, even devotion to one's wife could be construed by the upholders of traditional values as undermining one's manhood since it implied dependence on a woman.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Betrayal is a play written by Harold Pinter in 1978. Critically regarded as one of the English playwright's major dramatic works, it features his characteristically economical dialogue, characters' hidden emotions and veiled motivations, and their self-absorbed competitive one-upmanship, face-saving, dishonesty, and (self-) deceptions.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Inspired by Pinter's clandestine extramarital affair with BBC Television presenter Joan Bakewell, which spanned seven years, from 1962 to 1969, the plot of "Betrayal" integrates different permutations of betrayal relating to a seven-year affair involving a married couple, Emma and Robert, and Robert's "close friend" Jerry, who is also married, to a woman named Judith. For five years Jerry and Emma carry on their affair without Robert's knowledge, both cuckolding Robert and betraying Judith, until Emma, without telling Jerry she has done so, admits her infidelity to Robert (in effect, betraying Jerry), although she continues their affair. In 1977, four years after exposing the affair (in 1973) and two years after their subsequent break up (in 1975), Emma meets Jerry to tell him that her marriage to Robert is over. She then lies to Jerry in telling him that, "last night", she had to reveal the truth to Robert and that he now knows of the affair. The truth however, is that Robert has known about the affair for the past four years.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Pinter's particular usage of reverse chronology in structuring the plot is innovative: the first two scenes take place after the affair has ended, in 1977; the final scene ends when the affair begins, in 1968; and, in between 1977 and 1968, scenes in two pivotal years (1977 and 1973) move forward chronologically. As Roger Ebert observes, in his review of the 1983 film, based on Pinter's own screenplay, "The "Betrayal" structure strips away all artifice. In this view, the play shows, heartlessly, that the very capacity for love itself is sometimes based on betraying not only other loved ones, but even ourselves." Still, drawing on the frequently commented influence of Proust's "In Search of Lost Time" and Pinter's work on 1977's "The Proust Screenplay" on "Betrayal", more emotionally complex interpretations are possible based on a stress on dual motions, one forward in calendar time toward disillusion and one backward toward the redemptive recovery of time, in each work.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: The years between 1968 and 1977 occur in reverse order; scenes within years 1977 and 1973 move forward.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2013, director Ciro Zorzoli staged the play in Picadero theatre. The characters were played by Paola Krum (Emma), Daniel Hendler (Jerry), Diego Velázquez (Robert) and Gabriel Urbani (Waiter).


title: Betrayal (play)

text: David Berthold directed a production of "Betrayal", designed by Peter England, at the Sydney Theatre Company, from 10 March through 17 April 1999; it starred Paul Goddard, Robert Menzies, and Angie Milliken.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2015 State Theatre Company of South Australia and Melbourne Theatre Company staged a production of "Betrayal" directed by Geordie Brookman and starring Alison Bell.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: "Betrayal" was first produced by the National Theatre in London on 15 June 1978. The original cast featured Penelope Wilton as Emma, Michael Gambon as Jerry, Daniel Massey as Robert, and Artro Morris as the waiter; Wilton and Massey were married at the time. It was designed by John Bury and directed by Peter Hall.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 1991, "Betrayal" ran at the Almeida Theatre directed by David Leveaux with Bill Nighy playing Jerry, Martin Shaw playing Robert and Cheryl Campbell playing Emma.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: The play was revived in the Lyttleton at the National Theatre in November 1998, directed by Trevor Nunn and starring Douglas Hodge, Imogen Stubbs, and Anthony Calf.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2003, Peter Hall directed a production of "Betrayal" at the Duchess Theatre starring Janie Dee, Aden Gillett, and Hugo Speer,


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2007, Roger Michell staged a revival of "Betrayal" at the Donmar Warehouse theatre starring Toby Stephens as Jerry, Samuel West as Robert, and Dervla Kirwan as Emma. Pinter reportedly lunched with the actors, attended an early "readthrough" and provided some advice, which, according to Stephens, included the instruction to ignore some of Pinter's famous pauses (Lawson).


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2011, a new West End production was mounted at the Comedy Theatre, directed by Ian Rickson and starring Kristin Scott Thomas, Douglas Henshall, and Ben Miles.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2019, Jamie Lloyd directed Tom Hiddleston as Robert, Zawe Ashton as Emma and Charlie Cox as Jerry in a revival of the play at The Harold Pinter Theatre.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: "Betrayal" was revived at The Crucible Theatre, Sheffield – from 17 May 2012 to 9 June 2012 – as the climax of Sheffield Crucible's 40th anniversary season. It starred John Simm as Jerry, Ruth Gemmell as Emma, Colin Tierney as Robert and Thomas Tinker as the waiter.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: "Betrayal" was performed at Brighton Fringe in 2019 by Pretty Villain Productions at The Rialto Theatre, receiving a 'Highly Recommended' review and a 5* review.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2004, Theatre de R&D staged "Betrayal"s Cantonese version as the first production of this theatrical group. With the script translated to Chinese by Lucretia Ho, this production was directed by Yankov Wong, starring Lucretie Ho as Emma, Johnny Tan as Jerry, Karl Lee as Robert, and Kenneth Cheung as the Waiter.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: A reader's theatre format of "Betrayal" was produced by the Hong Kong Repertory Theatre and directed by Yankov Wong on 6 March 2010.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In September 2010, theatrical group We Draman put the show on stage with a translated script by Cancer Chong, featuring renowned stage actress Alice Lau as Emma.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 1980, director Bill Alexader mounted the play at the Cameri Theatre, Tel Aviv. Translator: Avraham Oz; with Oded Teomi as Jerry, Gita Munte as Emma, and Ilan Dar as Robert.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2009 Italian actor and director Andrea Renzi brought the play to life in Italy. Famed Italian actress Nicoletta Braschi stars as Emma. Tony Laudadio plays the character of Robert. Enrico Ianniello plays the part of Jerry. Nicola Marchi plays the part of a waiter. The play was very successful, and toured in Italy for over two years. It was scheduled to return again in early 2012 with the same cast.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Staged in 2007 by the Kuala Lumpur Performing Arts Centre (klpac), the play featured Bernice Chauly (Emma), Vernon Adrian Emuang (Robert), and Ari Ratos (Jerry), and was directed by filmmaker James Lee.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: "Betrayal" was staged as EJA Productions' sophomore production in 2015, directed by Alexis Wong, with Amanda Ang as Emma, Dinesh Kumar as Robert, and Cheah UiHua as Jerry.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2017, Allnighter Productions produced a self-described "feminist" staging of the play, highlighting the oft-debated question of domestic violence in the marriage between Emma and Robert. The production starred Vinna Law (Emma), Phraveen Arikiah (Robert), and Shawn Loong (Jerry), and was directed by Asyraf Dzahiri.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Also in 2017, The Actors Studio Seni Teater Rakyat staged dual-language parallel versions of the play, alternating between English and Bahasa Malaysia for each performance, while maintaining all other aspects of the production. The production(s) starred Stephanie van Driesen as Emma, Omar Ali as Robert, Razif Hashim as Jerry, and was directed by Joe Hasham.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: The play was staged in 2011 in Teatro Español, with Alberto San Juan, Cecilia Solaguren and Will Keen.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Adapted by Pablo Remón and directed by Israel Elejalde, it was scheduled to be staged in Madrid at the Pavón Teatro Kamikaze from 12 March 2020 to 19 April 2020.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Translated by Haluk Bilginer in Turkish and for the first time in Turkey in 1990–1991 season, it was staged at as the production of Theater Studio by Ahmet Levendoğlu.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In the 2016–2017 season, it was started to be staged by the management of Ahmet Levendoğlu again at IMM City Theaters.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: The characters were played by Şebnem Köstem (Emma), Gökçer Genç (Jerry), Burak Davutoğlu (Robert) and Direnç Dedeoğlu (Waiter).


title: Betrayal (play)

text: The American premiere took place on Broadway on 5 January 1980 at the Trafalgar Theatre, and ran for 170 performances until it closed on 31 May 1980. The show was directed by Peter Hall, was designed by John Bury, the production stage manager was Marnel Sumner, the stage manager was Ian Thomson, and press was by Seymour Krawitz and Patricia McLean Krawitz. Raul Julia starred as Jerry, Blythe Danner as Emma, Roy Scheider as Robert, Ian Thomson as the Barman, and Ernesto Gasco as the Waiter.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: A 2000 Broadway revival was staged at the American Airlines Theatre with Juliette Binoche, Liev Schreiber, and John Slattery.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: A 2013 revival directed by starring Daniel Craig as Robert, Rachel Weisz as his wife Emma (they were in fact married to each other), and Rafe Spall as Jerry, ran from October 2013 to January 2014 at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre, and set the Broadway record for highest weekly gross the week ending 19 December 2013. It was also the last production that Mike Nichols would ever direct.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: The 2019 West End production directed by Jamie Lloyd transferred to Broadway, once again starring Tom Hiddleston, Zawe Ashton and Charlie Cox. It ran at the Bernard B. Jacobs Theatre, with previews beginning 14 August 2019, and the official opening on 5 September 2019, closing its limited run on 8 December 2019.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Pinter adapted "Betrayal" as a screenplay for the 1983 film directed by David Jones, starring Jeremy Irons (Jerry), Ben Kingsley (Robert), and Patricia Hodge (Emma).


title: Betrayal (play)

text: "Betrayal" was inspired by Pinter's seven-year affair with television presenter Joan Bakewell, who was married to the producer and director Michael Bakewell, while Pinter was married to actress Vivien Merchant. The affair was known in some circles; when "Betrayal" premiered in 1978, Lord Longford (father of Antonia Fraser), who was in the audience, commented that Emma appeared to be based on Joan Bakewell; but the affair only became public knowledge after it was confirmed by Pinter in Michael Billington's 1996 authorised biography, and further confirmed in Joan Bakewell's later memoir "The Centre of the Bed".


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Pinter wrote the play while engaged in another long-running affair, this time with Antonia Fraser, which became a marriage in 1980 after he divorced Merchant. However, Pinter explained to Billington that although he wrote the play while "otherwise engaged" with Fraser, the details were based on his relationship with Bakewell.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: "The Betrayal" (1997), episode 8 of the 9th (final) season of the NBC television series "Seinfeld" (Sony Pictures), alludes overtly to Pinter's play and film "Betrayal", which appears to have inspired it. Apart from the title, "The Betrayal", and the name of one-off character Pinter Ranawat who appears in the episode, the episode is structured and runs in reverse chronological order and also features love triangles as one of its central themes. According to Kent Yoder, all of these allusions were deliberate.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: In 2017 a play first written by Bakewell in 1978 in response to "Betrayal", entitled "Keeping in Touch", was premiered on BBC Radio 4.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: "The Betrayal". "Episode Guide" for "Seinfeld". Sony Pictures, 2009. World Wide Web. 11 March 2009. (Includes a video clip.)


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Billington, Michael. "Harold Pinter". Rev. and expanded ed. 1996. London: Faber and Faber, 2007. Print.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Bryden, Mary. Rev. of "Betrayal" (One from the Heart at The Camberley Theatre, February 2002). 204–06 in ""The Caretaker" and "Betrayal". "The Pinter Review: Collected Essays 2003 and 2004". Ed. Francis Gillen and Steven H. Gale. Tampa: U of Tampa P, 2004. 202–06. (10). (13). Print.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Canby, Vincent. "Movie Review: Betrayal (1983): Pinter's 'Betrayal,' Directed by David Jones". "New York Times", Movies. New York Times Company, 20 February 1983. Web. 11 March 2009.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Ebert, Roger. "Movies: 'Betrayal' ". "Chicago Sun-Times" 18 March 1983. "RogerEbert.com", 2009. Web. 11 March 2009.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Lawson, Mark. "Prodigal Son". "Guardian.co.uk". Guardian Media Group, 31 May 2007. Web. 11 March 2009.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Merritt, Susan Hollis. ""Betrayal" in Denver" (Denver Center Theatre Company, Denver Center for the Performing Arts, Denver, CO. 29 May 2002). "The Pinter Review: Collected Essays 2003 and 2004". Ed. Francis Gillen and Steven H. Gale. Tampa: U of Tampa P, 2004. 187–201. (10). (13). Print.


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Pinter, Harold. "Betrayal". 1978. New York: Grove Press, 1979. (10). (13). (10). (13). Print. (Parenthetical references in the text are to this edition, . Pinter indicates pauses by three spaced dots of ellipsis; editorial ellipses herein are unspaced and within brackets.)


title: Betrayal (play)

text: Quigley, Austin E. "Pinter: "Betrayal"". Chapter 11 of "The Modern Stage and Other Worlds". New York: Methuen, 1985. 221–52. (10). (13). Print. Chapter 11: "Pinter: "Betrayal"" in Limited preview at Google Books (omits some pages). Web. 11 March 2009.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: From Beyond is a 1986 American science-fiction body horror film directed by Stuart Gordon, loosely based on the short story of the same name by H. P. Lovecraft. It was written by Dennis Paoli, Gordon and Brian Yuzna, and stars Jeffrey Combs, Barbara Crampton, Ken Foree and Ted Sorel.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: "From Beyond" centers on a pair of scientists attempting to stimulate the pineal gland with a device called the Resonator, with the unforeseen result of their perceiving creatures from another dimension. The creatures drag the head scientist into their world, returning him as a grotesque shape-shifting monster that preys upon the others at the laboratory.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Scientist Dr. Edward Pretorius has developed the Resonator, a machine that allows whoever is within range to see beyond normal perceptible reality. His assistant, Dr. Crawford Tillinghast, activates the machine and sees strange creatures in the air. He is bitten by one of them. He notifies Pretorious about the machine's functionality. Pretorius, driven by lust for power and knowledge, turns the machine on and becomes mad with the feelings the Resonator causes. The Resonator malfunctions at full power, causing Crawford to panic and flee. When the police arrive, they find Pretorius decapitated, yet no blood. Crawford is arrested for murder.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Crawford is committed to a psychiatric ward, where he is treated by Dr. Katherine McMichaels. After Crawford gives his account of Pretorius' death, Katherine orders that Crawford undergo a CT scan, showing that Crawford's pineal gland is enlarged and growing. Convinced of Crawford's innocence, Katherine has him released to her custody, and takes him back to Pretorius' house and the Resonator. They are accompanied by Detective Bubba Brownlee, who investigated Pretorius' death.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Katherine and Crawford rebuild the Resonator. Crawford reactivates the machine, which causes more creatures to appear along with a naked Dr. Pretorius. His consciousness now altered and expanded, Pretorius tells of a world beyond that is more pleasurable than normal reality, and that his death was a means of ascending to this realm. Pretorious attacks Crawford, Bubba, and Katherine with slime-covered arms. Crawford shuts off the Resonator, making Pretorius and the creatures vanish.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Katherine thinks the Resonator could shed light on victims of schizophrenia and brain damage and suggests they turn it back on, but Bubba and Crawford disagree. While Bubba and Crawford are asleep, Katherine gets up and turns it back on, bringing forth the now-mutated Pretorius. Pretorius grabs Katherine, preparing to eat her mind and take her to the world of beyond. Crawford and Bubba go down into the basement to shut off the power, but encounter a giant worm-like monster, which attacks Crawford. Bubba succeeds in shutting off the power, rescuing Crawford and Katherine and sending Pretorius away.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Bubba decides they should leave the house. Pretorius somehow returns and the Resonator turns back on, as all three of them run up into the attic to deactivate it. Katherine and Crawford are attacked by bee-like creatures, and as Bubba pushes them out of the way, he is devoured to the bone. Crawford fights off Pretorius and frees Katherine, but then his enlarged pineal gland pops out of his forehead. Katherine short circuits the machine by spraying it repeatedly with a fire extinguisher.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: She takes Crawford back to the hospital, where she is evaluated for insanity and schizophrenia, since her story was just like Crawford's. As Katherine is being prepared for shock treatment by a sadistic staff member, Crawford develops an overwhelming hunger for human brains and kills Katherine's superior Dr. Bloch. Katherine escapes and drives back to the house with a bomb. A crazed Crawford follows her.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Katherine places a timed bomb on the Resonator. Crawford attacks her. As he is about to eat her brain, she bites off his pineal gland, reverting him to his senses. Dr. Pretorius' will reconnects the severed wires of the Resonator and fixes the short circuit damage. Pretorius returns and swallows Crawford whole. Before Pretorius can do the same to Katherine, Crawford's consciousness fights for control within Pretorius, the opposing consciousnesses tearing their shared body apart. Katherine escapes through the attic window just as the bomb explodes, destroying the Resonator and killing both Pretorius and Crawford.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Landing outside, Katherine breaks her leg and the neighbors gather around her as she suffers a mental breakdown, saying "It ate him!" in between mad laughter and crying.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Director Stuart Gordon had previously worked with actors Jeffrey Combs and Barbara Crampton on "Re-Animator", and he cast them in part because he had become used to working with a company of actors during his time in theater, and felt that doing the same thing with Lovecraft movies would allow the actors to adapt more quickly to his direction. He was interested in the possibility of making a series of H. P. Lovecraft films with the same cast, like Roger Corman's Edgar Allan Poe adaptations. Gordon, Combs, and Crampton would work together on a third Lovecraft adaptation in 1995, the direct-to-video "Castle Freak", and Gordon would later direct versions of two more of Lovecraft's works: the film "Dagon" in 2001, and the second episode of the "Masters of Horror" television series, "H. P. Lovecraft's Dreams in the Witch-House", in 2005. Many members of the production staff for "Re-Animator" also held similar roles in the production of "From Beyond", including screenwriter Dennis Paoli, producer Brian Yuzna, executive producer Charles Band, director of photography Mac Ahlberg, and special effects artists John Carl Buechler and John Naulin.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Albert Band, who served as the production manager of "From Beyond", also makes an uncredited appearance as a wino. Gordon's then-wife Carolyn Purdy-Gordon was cast in a small role in many of Gordon's films, and in "From Beyond" she played Dr. Bloch, the subject of the notorious eyeball-sucking scene.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: "From Beyond" was shot in Italy with an Italian crew in order to save money. Gordon says that the film would have cost fifteen million dollars to make in the United States, whereas the foreign production enabled him to hold costs to approximately two and a half million dollars. It was shot on a soundstage called Dinocitta just outside Rome. Dinocitta was originally constructed by Dino DeLaurentiis, but was seized by the government for nonpayment of taxes, and then sold to Empire Studios. "From Beyond" was one of the first films shot at that venue during its period of ownership by Empire. Gordon shot his film "Dolls" at the same time, and it was released the following year.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: As with his earlier film "Re-Animator", Gordon made use of medical advisors to be sure that the actions taken by the doctors and nurses of the film followed proper medical procedures. Four separate special effects teams worked on the effects for "From Beyond". According to Yuzna, the production ran out of money before the effects on the finale could be finished.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: According to Gordon, securing an "R" rating from the MPAA was a challenging ordeal, because the MPAA told him that it was the cumulative effect of the graphic content rather than any specific content in his first presented cut of the film that went beyond what audiences would expect from an "R" rated film, making it difficult for him to know what he needed to cut in order to get an "R" rating. He submitted multiple cuts of the film to the MPAA, each time making small trims without removing any entire sequences, before they at last sent him a message that if he cut a single specific frame, they would give it an "R". He later said that this process ended up making the film stronger, since the final cut left more to the viewer's imagination and gave viewers less time to study the special effects and figure out how they were done.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: MGM released an unrated cut of "From Beyond", containing the footage which was deleted from the film in order to get it an "R" rating. "From Beyond" had previously only been released in its original R-rated form. This longer, "director's cut" version aired on the Monsters HD Channel and was subsequently released on DVD by MGM on September 11, 2007.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: On March 26, 2013, Scream Factory released a Collector's Edition of the unrated "director's cut" of "From Beyond" on a Blu-ray/DVD combo pack.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: The film received generally positive reviews from critics. On the review website Rotten Tomatoes, the film maintains a 79% approval rating from critics, with an average rating of 6.8/10 based on 19 reviews as of November 2022.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and wrote that it "lacks the single-minded weirdness of Gordon's first film, but it does establish him in the tradition of Hollywood horror directors who really try - directors including James Whale, Tod Browning and Roger Corman. At a time when almost any exploitation movie can make money if its ads are clever enough, this is a movie that tries to mix some satire and artistry in with the slime." "Variety" noted, "Less wigged-out and somewhat more conventional than his wild debut feature, "Re-Animator", Stuart Gordon's H.P. Lovecraft followup, "From Beyond", still stands as an effectively gruesome horror entry that should please fans of the genre." A generally negative review from Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" reported that the film "sounds rather more entertaining than it is to watch" and described the monsters as "less scary than technically arresting." Patrick Goldstein, film critic for the "Los Angeles Times", said that while "From Beyond" is more conventional than "Re-Animator", lacking its comedic angle, it has similarly excellent pacing, visual symbolism, and gruesomeness. He wrote, ""From Beyond" is a horror movie with some deliciously slimy tricks for the kids, but some shocking treats for grown-ups too." Gene Siskel, film critic with the "Chicago Tribune", also enjoyed the movie, awarding it three stars out of four and calling it "a decent enough low-budget horror film that delivers what audiences have every reason to expect - a funny, horrific grossout." William Wolf with the Gannett News Service rated the film half-a-star out of four. He criticized the movie for its strong gore content as well as the sado-masochistic treatment of women. In his review Wolf wrote, "The gore gets progressively more stomach-turning without much cleverness, and after a while "From Beyond" just becomes overkill, more revolting than scary or funny."


title: From Beyond (film)

text: AllMovie's review of the film was favorable, writing "Gordon is that rare breed who truly finds inspiration in another creator and uses that inspiration to craft a film that captures the essence of that creator while still being totally and uniquely his own", calling it a "gory thrill ride of a movie."


title: From Beyond (film)

text: The film score by Richard Band won the award for Best Original Soundtrack at the Sitges - Catalan International Film Festival in Sitges, Spain.


title: From Beyond (film)

text: In their book "Lurker in the Lobby: A Guide to the Cinema of H. P. Lovecraft", Andrew Migliore and John Strysik write that ""From Beyond" is a visual treat," but add that the film's "gross sexual excess may displease hardcore Lovecraft fans."


title: From Beyond (film)

text: In 2021, a miniseries directed and written by William Butler titled 'The Resonator: Miskatonic U' was released to the Full Moon Features App and Amazon Prime Video, before making its way to Blu-ray and DVD that same year. It began airing on Pluto's Sci-fi Channel on September 23, 2021. On September 30, 2021, CEO of Full Moon Charles Band announced that future episodes would start releasing all the way into 2022.


title: Betsy Drake

text: Betsy Drake (September 11, 1923 – October 27, 2015) was an American actress, writer, and psychotherapist. She was the third wife of actor Cary Grant.


title: Betsy Drake

text: Betsy Drake, the eldest child of two American expatriates, was born in Paris. Her grandfather, Tracy Drake, and his brother had opened the Drake Hotel in Chicago on New Year's Eve in 1920. The Drakes lost their money in the 1929 stock-market crash. As a result, she returned to the U.S. on the with her parents, brothers, and a nanny. She grew up in Chicago; Westport, Connecticut; Washington, DC; Virginia; North Carolina; and New York City. She went to 12 different schools, both private and public, before concentrating on theater and acting at National Park Seminary.


title: Betsy Drake

text: She began looking for work as an actress in New York City, supporting herself by working as a Conover model. She met the playwright Horton Foote, who offered her a job as an understudy in his play "Only the Heart", which enabled her to join the Actors' Equity Association and thus become a professional actress.


title: Betsy Drake

text: After coming to the attention of the producer Hal Wallis, Drake was pressured by her agent to sign a Hollywood contract. She hated Hollywood and managed to be released from the contract by declaring herself insane. She returned to New York City and, in 1947, read for the director Elia Kazan for the lead role in the London company of the play "Deep Are the Roots". Later that year, Drake was selected by Kazan as one of the founding members of the Actors Studio.


title: Betsy Drake

text: Cary Grant first spotted her in 1947 while she was performing in London. The two, who both happened to be returning to the U.S. on the , struck up an instant rapport. At the insistence of Grant, Drake was subsequently signed to a film contract by RKO Pictures and David Selznick, where she appeared, opposite Grant, in her first film, the romantic comedy "Every Girl Should Be Married" (1948). "New York Times" film critic Bosley Crowther called her performance “foxily amusing”.


title: Betsy Drake

text: On Christmas Day 1949, Drake and Grant married in a private ceremony organized by Grant's best man, Howard Hughes, and deliberately chose a low-key, introspective private life. They delved into transcendentalism, mysticism, and yoga. She took up causes including the plight of homeless children in Los Angeles. In 1954, they bought the "Las Palomas" estate in the Movie Colony neighborhood of Palm Springs, California.


title: Betsy Drake

text: The couple co-starred in the radio series "Mr. and Mrs. Blanding" (1951). They appeared together in the comedy drama "Room for One More" (1952), and Drake appeared in a number of leading roles in England and the U.S., and a supporting role in the satiric comedy film "Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter?" (1957).


title: Betsy Drake

text: Drake wrote the original script for the film "Houseboat" (1958) under a pseudonym, basing it on an unpublished story she had written. Starring Grant, Drake anticipated a co-starring role in the film. Grant, however, who began an affair with Sophia Loren while filming "The Pride and the Passion" (1957), arranged for Loren to take Drake's place in "Houseboat" with a rewritten script for which Drake did not receive credit. The affair ended in bitterness before "The Pride and the Passion"s filming ended, causing problems on the "Houseboat" set.


title: Betsy Drake

text: Drake subsequently gave up acting and pursued other career interests. She earned a Master of Education degree from Harvard University and became a children's therapist. Drake was a director of psychodrama at the UCLA Neuropsychiatric Institute, worked at Cedars-Sinai Hospital, and maintained a private therapy practice. She taught at UCLA, Pepperdine University, and presented research at the 52nd Annual Meeting American Orthopsychiatric Association in 1975. Under the name Betsy Drake Grant, her novel "Children, You Are Very Little" (1971) was published by Atheneum Books.


title: Betsy Drake

text: Drake's last screen appearance was in the documentary film "Cary Grant: A Class Apart" (2005), in which she reflected on Grant and their time together, and denied rumors alleging he was bisexual.


title: Betsy Drake

text: In July 1956, Drake survived the sinking of the Italian ocean liner SS "Andrea Doria". At the time, she had been visiting Grant in Spain and was returning to the United States. She boarded the "Doria", along with dozens of other wealthy travelers and tourists, at Gibraltar, which was one of many stops the ship made between her home port of Genoa and her final destination of New York. Drake sailed as a first-class passenger, occupying a single cabin on the ship's boat deck. When the "Doria" collided with the "Stockholm", Drake waited with the other passengers for rescue, as the ship's severe list rendered half the "Doria"'s lifeboats useless. She was among more than 700 people rescued from the "Doria" by the famed French passenger liner "Île de France".


title: Betsy Drake

text: Grant and Drake separated in 1958, remaining friends, and divorced in 1962. Their marriage constituted his longest union. Grant credited her with broadening his interests beyond his career and with introducing him to the then-legal LSD therapy and to hypnosis. Later, Drake took LSD as a way of recovering from the trauma of divorce. Drake did not have children with Grant and did not remarry.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: The Jammu–Baramulla line is a railway track being laid to connect the Kashmir Valley in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir with Jammu railway station and thence to the rest of the country. The 356 km railway track will start from Jammu and end at Baramulla. It comes under the jurisdiction of the Firozpur railway division of Indian Railways' Northern zone. The tall Chenab Bridge lies on this line, which is the tallest railway bridge in the world. The total project cost in 2022 was INR28,000 crore (~US$3.5 billion).


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Construction of the route faced natural challenges including major earthquake zones, extreme temperatures and inhospitable terrain. The project has had a long and chequered history, and serious progress was made only after it was declared a National Project of India in 2002. Although scheduled completion date for the project was 15 August 2007, the revised timeline for the completion of remaining Katra–Banihal section of the project is November-December 2022.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: The extension of railway line from Baramulla to Kupwara has also been approved, and revised Detailed Project Report (DPR) for it was submitted in July 2020 by the Railway Board.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Leg 1 has been operational since July 2014. The leg had missed opening dates in the past, including December 2005, December 2006 and May 2009. Work on the section, suspended for two years due to a partial tunnel collapse, resumed in September 2009. Although the section was planned to open by 2 February 2014, passenger service was delayed due to Commission of Railway Safety concerns about one bridge and tunnel. The route includes seven tunnels and 30 bridges. The section was opened on 4 July 2014.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Leg 2, running 111 km from Katra to Banihal is under construction, may be completed in 2022. Construction on the leg has been beset by technical difficulties with alignment and disputes with contractors, and was originally expected to be finished in 2017–18. This is the line's most difficult section of the rail line, with 62 bridges and a number of tunnels totalling 10 km out of total 129 km. It requires 262 km of access roads connecting 147,000 people in 73 villages; 160 km, connecting 29 villages, is completed. In July 2008, work on part of the Katra-Banihal section was suspended for a possible realignment. The alternative alignment, proposed by the railway, reduced the track length from 126 km to 67 km. A committee appointed by the Railway Board recommended abandoning 93 km of the previously-approved alignment. On 12 November 2014, the Delhi High Court directed the central government to appoint a committee to review the 126 km-long section.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: An 18 km stretch of Leg 2, between Quazigund and Banihal, was authorised on 26 June 2013. The stretch includes the 11.215-km (7-mile) Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel, also known as the Banihal railway tunnel. India's longest rail tunnel, it is 8.4 m wide and 7.39 m high. The tunnel includes a 3 m-wide service road for maintenance and emergency use. Its average elevation, 1760 m, is 440 m below the existing road tunnel.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: The tunnel facilitates transportation during winter (when inclement weather closes the Srinagar-Jammu highway), and halves the distance between Quazigund and Banihal (35 km by road and 17.5 km by train). The Banihal railway station is 1,702 m (5,584 ft) above mean sea level, and trains run from Banihal to Qazigund through the tunnel. The 5 km Banganga section was expected to be operational before the completion date of 2017–18 for the entire project.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: This leg contains the construction of two extremely challenging bridges, an arch bridge on the Chenab river and cable-stayed Anji Khad Bridge.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Leg 3 has been operational since October 2009. The line from Baramulla to Banihal, across the Pir Panjal Range, is 130 km long. Since the 25 km-long Udhampur-Katra section was commissioned in October 2013, only the 148 km Katra-Banihal section of Leg 2 remains to be constructed. Until the Katra-Laole section of railway is finished by 2020, travel from Jammu Tawi (or Udhampur) to Banihal by road and from Banihal to Srinagar by rail is possible.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: The Banihal–Baramulla section is also being electrified, and track-electrification work has been in full swing since July 2020.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: In June 2017 Ministry of Railways also laid the foundation stone of five new halt railway stations on the Banihal–Baramulla section i. e. Sangdan, Ratnipora, Razwan, Monghall and Nadigam but civil works of these stations has yet to start.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: The line may be the most difficult rail project undertaken on the Indian subcontinent. The young Himalayas are geologically surprising and problematic. The track's alignment presents one of the greatest railway engineering challenges ever faced; only Tibet's Qingzang Railway, completed in 2006 across permafrost and climbing to over above sea level, is comparable. Although the Indian temperatures are less severe, the region experiences harsh winters with heavy snowfall. In the Pir Panjal Range, most peaks exceed in height.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: The route includes many bridges, viaducts and tunnels. The railway is expected to cross over 750 bridges and pass through over of tunnels, the longest of which is . Engineering challenges include crossing the Chenab River on a bridge above the riverbed and crossing the Anji Khad on a bridge above the riverbed. The Chenab Bridge will be the highest railway structure of its kind in the world, higher than the top of the Eiffel Tower. Both bridges will be simple. Weathering steel is planned for an environmentally-friendly appearance and to eliminate the need for painting. The design and structure is similar to West Virginia's New River Gorge Bridge. The project is managed by the Konkan Railway Corporation. Completion was scheduled for 2012 (four years after the first isolated section of the route was opened for local passenger service), and it requires 26,000 tonnes of steel.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: All tunnels are built with the New Austrian tunnelling method, and a number of challenges have been encountered while tunnelling through the geologically-young, unstable Sivalik Hills. In particular, water entered the Udhampur-to-Katra section; this required drastic solutions with steel arches and several feet of shotcrete. Along with shotcrete, lattice girder support were provided according to different class of rocks found along the entire terrain of mountains in the proposed project.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Although the rail line is being built through a mountainous region, a one-percent ruling gradient has been set to provide a safe, smooth, reliable journey. Bank engines will not be required, making the journey quicker and smoother. It will use broad gauge continuous welded rail laid on concrete sleepers, with a minimum curve radius of 676 m. The maximum speed will be . Provision for future doubling will be made on major bridges. Provisions for future electrification will also be made, although the rail line will use diesel locomotives initially; the region is presently electricity-scarce. There will be 30 stations on the route, initially served by 10–12 trains per day.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Closed-circuit television cameras at major bridges, tunnels and stations are planned, and all major bridges and tunnels are illuminated.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Passenger service will be provided by high-power diesel multiple units and heated, air-conditioned coaches have wide windows, sliding doors and reclining seats. The driver's cabin has a heating and defogging unit, and is fitted with a one-piece glass window for a wider view. A snow-cutting cattle guard is attached to the front of the train to clear snow from the tracks during winter. Due to the valley's cold climate, the 1,400-horsepower diesel engine has a heating system for quick, trouble-free starts. Coaches have a public-information system (display and announcements) and a pneumatic suspension for riding comfort. There is a compartment for the physically disabled, with wider doors.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Freight rolling stock for the route will come from the existing national fleet. Freight service (grain and petroleum products) will run between the 10–12 daily passenger trains. Maintenance will be done at the Badgam workshop, north of Srinagar. Three-aspect colour-light signalling is being installed on the route for safety, and GSM-R equipment may be installed in the future to improve its quality.


title: Jammu–Baramulla line

text: Indian Railways is in charge of the Udhampur-Katra section. The subsidiary Konkan Railway Corporation is in charge of the Katra-Laole section. This is arguably the line's most difficult portion, with over 92 percent tunnels or bridges— of bridges and of tunnels. Ircon International, a public-sector company, is in charge of the Dharam-Qazigund-Baramulla section. One hundred thirty-eight kilometres of the line, including the valley and the Pir Panjal Railway Tunnel, is operational. Hindustan Construction Company built the Pir Panjal tunnel through the range for about ₹900 crore. Afcons Infrastructure Limited and South Korea's Ultra Engineering will design and build the Chenab Bridge for around ₹974 crore. Gammon India and South Africa's Archirodon Construction will build the Anji Khad Bridge for ₹745 crore.


title: The Collector

text: The Collector is a 1963 thriller novel by English author John Fowles, in his literary debut. Its plot follows a lonely, psychotic young man who kidnaps a female art student in London and holds her captive in the cellar of his rural farmhouse. Divided in two sections, the novel contains both the perspective of the captor, Frederick, and that of Miranda, the captive. The portion of the novel told from Miranda's perspective is presented in epistolary form.


title: The Collector

text: Fowles wrote the novel between November 1960 and March 1962. It was adapted into an Academy Award–nominated feature film of the same name in 1965 starring Terence Stamp and Samantha Eggar.


title: The Collector

text: The novel is about a lonely young man, Frederick Clegg, who works as a clerk in a city hall and collects butterflies in his spare time. The first part of the novel tells the story from his point of view.


title: The Collector

text: Clegg is obsessed with Miranda Grey, a middle-class art student at the Slade School of Fine Art. He admires her from a distance but is unable to make any contact with her because he is socially underdeveloped. One day, he wins a large prize in the football pools. He quits his job and buys an isolated house in the countryside. He feels lonely, however, and wants to be with Miranda. Unable to make any normal contact, Clegg decides to add her to his "collection" of pretty, preserved objects, in the hope that if he keeps her captive long enough, she will grow to love him.


title: The Collector

text: After careful preparations, he kidnaps Miranda by drugging her with chloroform and locks her up in the cellar of his house. He is convinced that Miranda will start to love him after some time. However, when she wakes up, she confronts him with his actions. Clegg is embarrassed and promises to let her go after a month. He promises to show her "every respect", pledging not to sexually molest her and to shower her with gifts and the comforts of home, on one condition: she can't leave the cellar.


title: The Collector

text: The second part of the novel is narrated by Miranda in the form of fragments from a diary that she keeps during her captivity. Miranda reminisces over her previous life throughout this section of the novel; and many of her diary entries are written either to her sister or to a man named G.P., whom she respected and admired as an artist. Miranda reveals that G.P. ultimately fell in love with her and consequently severed all contact with her.


title: The Collector

text: At first, Miranda thinks that Clegg has sexual motives for abducting her; but, as his true character begins to be revealed, she realises that this is not true. She begins to pity her captor, comparing him to Caliban in Shakespeare's play "The Tempest" because of his hopeless obsession with her. Clegg tells Miranda that his first name is Ferdinand (eventual winner of Miranda's affections in "The Tempest").


title: The Collector

text: Miranda tries to escape several times, but Clegg stops her. She also tries to seduce him to convince him to let her go. The only result is that he becomes confused and angry. As Clegg repeatedly refuses to release her, she begins to fantasize about killing him. After a failed attempt to do so, Miranda enters a period of self-loathing. She decides that to kill Clegg would lower her to his level. She refrains from any further attempts to do so. Before she can try to escape again, she becomes seriously ill and dies.


title: The Collector

text: The third part of the novel is narrated by Clegg. At first, he wants to commit suicide after he finds Miranda dead; but, after he reads in her diary that she never loved him, he decides that he is not responsible for what happened to her and is better off without her. He buries her corpse in the garden. The book ends with his announcement that he plans to kidnap another girl.


title: The Collector

text: Literary scholars have noted the theme of class in the British caste system as a prominent point of interest in the novel. Critic Hayden Carruth noted that Fowles is preoccupied with "reshuffling classes under British socialism", evoked in the differences in social background between the characters of the working-class Frederick, and Miranda, a member of the bourgeoisie.


title: The Collector

text: Some scholars have compared the power struggle between Frederick and Miranda as exemplifying the Hegelian "master–slave dialectic", and that both exert power over one another—both physically and psychologically—despite their differences in social background. Pamela Cooper writes in her book "The Fictions of John Fowles: Power, Creativity, Femininity", that "The Collector" "dramatizes the clash between a socially entrenched, wealthy middle class and an underprivileged but upwardly mobile working or lower middle class." Additionally, Cooper views the novel as a Gothic-inspired work presenting this class struggle "with an insistence on the tedium of Miranda's ordeal."


title: The Collector

text: In the "Journal of Modern Literature", scholar Shyamal Bagchee attests that the novel possesses an "ironic-absurdist view" and contains a significant number of events which are hinged purely on chance. He compares the world of the novel to the "tragically absurd worlds" of Franz Kafka and Samuel Beckett's novels. "The world of "The Collector", especially towards the end, is "not our world"; however, it is similar to the view of the world we have in our darkest hours."


title: The Collector

text: Bagchee notes the novel's greatest irony being that Miranda seals her own fate by continually being herself, and that through "each successive escape attempt she alienates and embitters Clegg the more." Despite this, Bagchee views "The Collector" as a "horrifying" and "ironic" love story:


title: The Collector

text: Furthermore, Bagchee notes Miranda's evolution as a character only while in captivity as another paradox in the novel: "Her growing up is finally futile; she learns the true meaning of existentialist choice when, in fact, she has very limited actual choice. And she learns to understand herself and her life when, in effect, that life has come to a standstill." Cooper, who interprets the novel as a critique of "masculine sexual idealization", notes another paradox in the way the novel connects both photography and collecting as "twin obscenities in order to show the erotic worshipper, with his puritanical hatred of 'the crude animal thing' and his belief in his 'own higher aspirations', is himself prey to the desires he tries to reject."


title: The Collector

text: Bagchee notes that the divided narrative structure of the novel—which first presents the perspective of Frederick, followed by that of Miranda (the latter divulged in epistolary form via scattered diary entries)—has the characters mirroring each other in a manner that is "richly ironic and reveals of a sombre and frightening view of life's hazards." Bagchee notes that "the two narrations frequently agree not only about physical descriptions of incidents that take place, but often also in the way two very different characters react similarly to given situations or display similar attitudes."


title: The Collector

text: Scholar Katarina Držajić considers "The Collector" "one of the most prominent novels of the 20th century, [which] may be


title: The Collector

text: study, a modern or postmodern piece of literature. John Fowles is well established as a master of language, using a variety of tools to convey different


title: The Collector

text: Alan Pryce-Jones of "The New York Times" wrote of the novel: "John Fowles is a very brave man. He has written a novel which depends for its effect on total acceptance by the reader. There is no room in it for the least hesitation, the smallest false note, for not only is it written in the first person singular, but its protagonist is a very special case indeed. Mr. Fowles's main skill is in his use of language. There is not a false note in his delineation of Fred." Hayden Carruth of the "Press & Sun-Bulletin" praised the novel as "brisk" and "professional," adding that Fowles "knows how to evoke the oblique horror of innocence as well as the direct horror of knowledge."


title: The Collector

text: In 2014, Mary Andrews of "The Guardian" wrote that "Fowles invites us to defy his main character's excuses and read between the lines, and the facts paint a more chilling picture. Fred doesn't accidentally abduct Miranda, there's a sense that he's been leading up to this event his whole life," and deemed Frederick Clegg "one of literature's most evil characters."


title: The Collector

text: "The Collector" has been adapted as a film and several times as a play. It's also referred to in various songs, television episodes and books; one example is in Stephen King's book "Misery", when the protagonist Paul Sheldon hopes that Annie Wilkes is not familiar with "John Fowles's first novel."


title: The Collector

text: The novel was adapted as a feature film by the same name in 1965. The screenplay was by Stanley Mann and John Kohn, and it was directed by William Wyler, who turned down "The Sound of Music" to direct it. It starred Terence Stamp and Samantha Eggar. The 1980 Tamil language film "Moodu Pani", according to its director Balu Mahendra, is partly based on "The Collector". The novel was also loosely adapted by Filipino director Mike de Leon into a film titled "Bilanggo sa Dilim" ("Prisoner in the Dark") in 1986.


title: The Collector

text: A stage adaptation by the actor Brian McDermott (writing as David Parker) was first performed in 1971; among its earliest productions was a West End presentation at the St Martin's Theatre in 1974, with Marianne Faithfull as Miranda and Simon Williams as Clegg. Another adaptation - written, again, by an actor: Mark Healy - was first performed at Derby Playhouse in October 1998, later appearing at Sweden's Gothenburg English Studio Theatre in April 2007. Yet another adaptation, by Tim Dalgleish and Caz Tricks, was written for Bare Bones Theatre Company (of Wolverton, Milton Keynes) in 1997.


title: The Collector

text: In October 2021, Suntup Editions announced a limited 1000 editions of the novel with an introduction by Bradford Morrow and six illustrations by David Álvarez.


title: The Collector

text: In several cases since the novel was published, serial killers, spree killers, kidnappers, and other criminals have claimed that "The Collector" was the basis, the inspiration, or the justification for their crimes.


title: The Collector

text: In 1985, Leonard Lake and Charles Chi-Tat Ng abducted 18-year-old Kathy Allen and later 19-year-old Brenda O'Connor. Lake is said to have been obsessed with "The Collector." Lake described his plan for using the women for sex and housekeeping in a "philosophy" videotape. The two are believed to have murdered at least 25 people, including two entire families. Although Lake had committed several crimes in the Ukiah, California, area, his "Operation Miranda" did not begin until after he moved to remote Wilseyville, California. The videotapes of his murders and a diary written by Lake were found buried near the bunker in Wilseyville. They revealed that Lake had named his plot "Operation Miranda" after the character in Fowles' book.


title: The Collector

text: Christopher Wilder, a spree/serial killer of young girls, had "The Collector" in his possession when he was killed by police in 1984.


title: The Collector

text: In 1988, Robert Berdella held his male victims captive and photographed their torture before killing them. He claimed that the film version of "The Collector" had been his inspiration when he was a teenager.


title: Pig farming

text: Pig farming or pork farming or hog farming is the raising and breeding of domestic pigs as livestock, and is a branch of animal husbandry. Pigs are farmed principally for food (e.g. pork: bacon, ham, gammon) and skins.


title: Pig farming

text: Pigs are amenable to many different styles of farming: intensive commercial units, commercial free range enterprises, or extensive farming (being allowed to wander around a village, town or city, or tethered in a simple shelter or kept in a pen outside the owner's house). Historically, farm pigs were kept in small numbers and were closely associated with the residence of the owner, or in the same village or town. They were valued as a source of meat and fat, and for their ability to convert inedible food into meat and manure, and were often fed household food waste when kept on a homestead. Pigs have been farmed to dispose of municipal garbage on a large scale.


title: Pig farming

text: All these forms of pig farm are in use today, though intensive farms are by far the most popular, due to their potential to raise a large amount of pigs in a very cost-efficient manner. In developed nations, commercial farms house thousands of pigs in climate-controlled buildings. Pigs are a popular form of livestock, with more than one billion pigs butchered each year worldwide, 100 million in the United States. The majority of pigs are used for human food, but also supply skin, fat and other materials for use in clothing, ingredients for processed foods, cosmetics, and medical use.


title: Pig farming

text: Almost all of the pig can be used as food. Preparations of pig parts into specialties include: sausage (and casings made from the intestines), bacon, gammon, ham, skin into pork scratchings, feet into trotters, head into a meat jelly called head cheese (brawn), and consumption of the liver, chitterlings, and blood (blood pudding or brown pudding).


title: Pig farming

text: Pigs are farmed in many countries, though the main consuming countries are in Asia, meaning there is a significant international and even intercontinental trade in live and slaughtered pigs. Despite having the world's largest herd, China is a net importer of pigs, and has been increasing its imports during its economic development. The largest exporters of pigs are the United States, the European Union, and Canada. As an example, more than half of Canadian production (22.8 million pigs) in 2008 was exported, going to 143 countries. Older pigs will consume eleven to nineteen litres (three to five US gallons) of water per day.


title: Pig farming

text: Among meat animals, pigs have a lower feed conversion ratio than cattle, which can provide an advantage in lower unit price of meat because the cost of animal feed per kilogram or pound of resultant meat is lower. However, there are also many other economic variables in meat production and distribution, so the price differential of pork and beef at the point of retail sale does not always correspond closely to the differential in feed conversion ratios. Nonetheless, the favorable ratio often tends to make pork affordable relative to beef.


title: Pig farming

text: The way in which a stockperson interacts with pigs affects animal welfare which in some circumstances can correlate with production measures. Many routine interactions can cause fear, which can result in stress and decreased production.


title: Pig farming

text: There are various methods of handling pigs which can be separated into those which lead to positive or negative reactions by the animals. These reactions are based on how the pigs interpret a handler's behavior.


title: Pig farming

text: Many negative interactions with pigs arise from stock-people dealing with large numbers of pigs. Because of this, many handlers can become complacent about animal welfare and fail to ensure positive interactions with pigs. Negative interactions include overly heavy tactile interactions (slaps, punches, kicks, and bites), the use of electric goads and fast movements. It can also include killing them. However, it is not a commonly held view that death is a negative interaction. These interactions can result in fear in the animals, which can develop into stress. Overly heavy tactile interactions can cause increased basal cortisol levels (a "stress" hormone). Negative interactions that cause fear mean the escape reactions of the pigs can be extremely vigorous, thereby risking injury to both stock and handlers. Stress can result in immunosuppression, leading to an increased susceptibility to disease. Studies have shown that these negative handling techniques result in an overall reduction in growth rates of pigs.


title: Pig farming

text: "In Canada the Federal government does not regulate the treatment on farms and most provinces have animal cruelty legislation but they typically contain expectations for general agricultural practices." Due to this lack of legislation, this perpetuates to the cruel treatment of swine. "The NFACC codes of practice are developed larger by the industry and are not enforced with third party oversight."


title: Pig farming

text: Various interactions can be considered either positive or neutral. Neutral interactions are considered positive because, in conjunction with positive interactions, they contribute to an overall non-negative relationship between a stock-person and the stock. Pigs are often fearful of fast movements. When entering a pen, it is good practice for a stock-person to enter with slow and deliberate movements. These minimize fear and therefore reduce stress. Pigs are very curious animals. Allowing the pigs to approach and smell whilst patting or resting a hand on the pig's back are examples of positive behavior. Pigs also respond positively to verbal interaction. Minimizing fear of humans allow handlers to perform husbandry practices in a safer and more efficient manner. By reducing stress, stock are made more comfortable to feed when near handlers, resulting in increased productivity.


title: Pig farming

text: Hogs raised in confinement systems tend to produce 23.5 piglets per year. Between 2013 and 2016, sow death rates nearly doubled in the United States, from 5.8 to 10.2 percent. 25 to 50 percent of deaths were caused by prolapse.


title: Pig farming

text: Other probable causes of death include vitamin deficiency, mycotoxins in feed, high density diets or abdominal issues. Iowa's Pork Industry Center collects mortality data in collaboration with the National Pork Board to collect data from over 400,000 sows from 16 U.S. states. The farms range in size and facility types. Increasing death rates are a profit concern to the industry, so money is invested into research to find solutions.


title: Pig farming

text: Pigs were originally bred to rapidly gain weight and backfat in the late 1980s. In a more fat-conscious modern day America, pigs are now being bred to have less back fat and produce more offspring, which pushes the sow's body too far and is deemed one of the causes of the current prolapse epidemic. Researchers and veterinarians are seeking ways to positively impact the health of the hogs and benefit the hog business without taking much from the economy.


title: Pig farming

text: Feces and waste often spread to surrounding neighborhoods, polluting air and water with toxic waste particles. Waste from swine on these farms carry a host of pathogens and bacteria as well as heavy metals. These toxins can leach down through the soil into groundwater, polluting local drinking water supplies. Pathogens can also become airborne, polluting the air and harming individuals when ingested. Contents from waste have been shown to cause detrimental health implications, as well as harmful algal blooms in surrounding bodies of water. Due to Concentrated Animal Feed Operations (CAFOs), those who live in the surrounding areas of pig farms tend to experience health complications. Symptoms included headaches, nausea, and weakness due to the fumes that are emitted from these farms. Those who work directly inside these farms often experience these symptoms more intensely. Typically, workers of these farms experience respiratory issues such as wheezing, coughing, and tightness of the chest as well as eye and nasal irritation. This is in part due to the air quality being poor because of the air particles being contaminated with hog feces.


title: Pig farming

text: Little to no regulation has been written by the EPA and federal legislators surrounding CAFOs to protect the welfare of both the environment and humans from their impacts. The only permit required by federal law on wastewater runoff by CAFOs is the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. NPDES are authorized under the Clean Water Act and aim to reduce dumping of pollutants in water systems. However, one of the most detrimental waste management practices used at swine farms, manure lagoons, have little to no regulations surrounding waste management, as they are not connected to a moving water source and therefore is not seen as an imminent threat to human or environmental health.


title: Pig farming

text: As with other commodities, pork presents challenges in the politics of international trade as national interests compete and seek economic modus vivendi. Changes to policy can upset the existing balances, prompting economic anxiety. For example, in 2020, the hog farming sector in Taiwan was upset by a decision to allow imports from the United States without labeling of ractopamine use. Farmers' views varied on how negative the effects might be. Issues of pride and degree of autarky also figure into such debates; people understandably wonder whether trade competition changes will deeply damage domestic production capability, while accurate quantitative answers are often difficult to find amid the mass of debate.


title: Pig farming

text: Most pigs in the US receive ractopamine which promotes muscle instead of fat, quicker weight gain, and reduced costs and pollutants in the environment. Such pigs consume less feed to reach finishing weight and produce less manure. Ractopamine has not been approved for use by the European Union, China, Russia, and several other countries.


title: Pig farming

text: China once used colistin (an antibiotic) as growth promoter (subtherapeutic antibiotic use) but discovered a colistin-resistant form of "E. coli" bacteria in a pig from a Shanghai farm in 2013. Investigations then led to the identification of "a gene called MCR-1 that allowed bacteria to survive colistin treatment in animals and humans." In 2016, these findings led China to ban colistin as growth promoter.


title: Pig farming

text: A systematic review found that penicillins and tetracyclines were the most commonly used antibiotics in pigs.


title: Pig farming

text: Toxoplasmosis is a constant pressure on pig farming. Worldwide, the percentage of pigs harboring viable "Toxoplasma gondii" parasites has been measured to be 3-71.43%. Surveys of seroprevalence ("T. gondii" antibodies in blood) are more common, and such measurements are indicative of the high relative seroprevalence in pigs across the world. Neonatal piglets have been found to suffer the entire range of severity, including progression to stillbirth. This was especially demonstrated in the foundational Thiptara et al. 2006, reporting a litter birth of three stillborns and six live in Thailand. This observation has been relevant not only to that country but to toxoplasmosis control in porciculture around the world.


title: Pig farming

text: Excessively hygienic raising conditions were found to prevent proper gut microbiota development by Schmidt et al. 2011. Moore et al. 1995 describes the pathology of "Cryptosporidium" infection, a common difficulty in piglet production.


title: Pig farming

text: In an attempt to curb diseases such as African swine fever, a number of Chinese companies have built condominium-style mega complexes multiple stories high to house thousands of pigs. The buildings have been dubbed "hog hotels" and come with strict protocols and advanced cleaning, veterinary, and disposal systems. However, doubt has been raised by policy specialists and animal scientists over the facilities' efficacy in preventing outbreaks. The welfare of the animals has also been a source of concern, and it has been suggested that the poor welfare of the pigs may cause a decline in their immunity.


title: Sky deity

text: The sky often has important religious significance. Many religions, both polytheistic and monotheistic, have deities associated with the sky.


title: Sky deity

text: The daytime sky deities are typically distinct from the nighttime ones. Stith Thompson's "Motif-Index of Folk-Literature" reflects this by separating the category of "Sky-god" (A210) from that of "Star-god" (A250). In mythology, nighttime gods are usually known as night deities and gods of stars simply as star gods. Both of these categories are included here since they relate to the sky. Luminary deities are included as well since the sun and moon are located in the sky. Some religions may also have a deity or personification of the day, distinct from the god of the day lit sky, to complement the deity or personification of the night.


title: Sky deity

text: Daytime gods and nighttime gods are frequently deities of an "upper world" or "celestial world" opposed to the earth and a "netherworld" (gods of the underworld are sometimes called "chthonic" deities). Within Greek mythology, Uranus was the primordial sky god, who was ultimately succeeded by Zeus, who ruled the celestial realm atop Mount Olympus. In contrast to the celestial Olympians was the chthonic deity Hades, who ruled the underworld, and Poseidon, who ruled the sea.


title: Sky deity

text: Any masculine sky god is often also king of the gods, taking the position of patriarch within a pantheon. Such king gods are collectively categorized as "sky father" deities, with a polarity between sky and earth often being expressed by pairing a "sky father" god with an "earth mother" goddess (pairings of a sky "mother" with an earth "father" are less frequent). A main sky goddess is often the queen of the gods and may be an air/sky goddess in her own right, though she usually has other functions as well with "sky" not being her main. In antiquity, several sky goddesses in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Near East were called Queen of Heaven. Neopagans often apply it with impunity to sky goddesses from other regions who were never associated with the term historically.


title: Sky deity

text: Gods may rule the sky as a pair (for example, ancient Semitic supreme god El and the fertility goddess Asherah whom he was most likely paired with). The following is a list of sky deities in various polytheistic traditions arranged mostly by language family, which is typically a better indicator of relatedness than geography.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The Norwegian campaign (8 April 10 June 1940) describes the attempt of the Allies to defend northern Norway coupled with Norwegian forces' resistance to the country's invasion by Nazi Germany in World War II.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Planned as Operation Wilfred and Plan R 4, while the German attack was feared but had not happened, set out from Scapa Flow for the Vestfjorden with twelve destroyers on the 4th of April. British and German naval forces met at the first Battle of Narvik on 9 and 10 April, and the first British forces landed at Åndalsnes on the 13th. The main strategic reason for Germany to invade Norway was to seize the port of Narvik and guarantee the iron ore needed for critical production of steel.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The campaign was fought until 10 June 1940 and saw the escape of King Haakon VII and his heir apparent Crown Prince Olav to the United Kingdom.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: A British, French and Polish expeditionary force of 38,000 soldiers, many days in, landed in the north. It had moderate success, but made a rapid strategic retreat after the German Blitzkrieg invasion of France began in May. The Norwegian government then sought exile in London. The campaign ended with the occupation of the entirety of Norway by Germany, but exiled Norwegian forces escaped and fought on from overseas.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Britain and France had signed military assistance treaties with Poland and two days after the German Invasion of Poland (on 1 September 1939), both declared war against Nazi Germany. However, neither country mounted significant offensive operations and for several months no major engagements occurred in what became known as the Phoney War or "Twilight War". Winston Churchill in particular wished to move the war into a more active phase, in contrast to Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: During this time both sides wished to open secondary fronts. For the Allies, in particular the French, this was based on a desire to avoid repeating the trench warfare of the First World War, which had occurred along the Franco-German border.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Following the outbreak of the Second World War, the Norwegian government had mobilized parts of the Norwegian Army and all but two of the Royal Norwegian Navy's warships. The Norwegian Army Air Service and the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service were also called up to protect Norwegian neutrality from violations by the warring countries. The first such violations were the sinkings in Norwegian territorial waters of several British ships by German U-boats. In the following months aircraft from all the belligerents violated Norwegian neutrality.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Almost immediately after the outbreak of war, the British began pressuring the Norwegian government to provide the United Kingdom with the services of the Norwegian merchant navy, themselves being in dire need of shipping in order to oppose the strength of Nazi forces. Following protracted negotiations between 25 September and 20 November 1939, the Norwegians agreed to charter 150 tankers, as well as other ships with a tonnage of 450,000 gross tons. The Norwegian government's concern for the country's supply lines played an important role in persuading them to accept the agreement.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Norway, although neutral, was considered strategically important for both sides of the war for several reasons. First was the importance of the iron ore from Sweden - upon which Germany depended - that was exported through the Norwegian port of Narvik. This route was especially important during the winter months when much of the Baltic Sea was frozen over. Narvik became of greater significance to the British when it became apparent that Operation Catherine, a plan to gain control of the Baltic Sea, would not be realized. "Großadmiral" Erich Raeder had pointed out several times in 1939 the danger to Germany of Britain seizing the initiative and launching its own invasion in Scandinavia, for if the powerful Royal Navy had bases at Bergen, Narvik and Trondheim, the North Sea would be virtually closed to Germany, and the "Kriegsmarine" would be at risk even in the Baltic.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Controlling Norway would also be a strategic asset in the Battle of the Atlantic. The capture of ports would create gaps in the blockade of Germany, giving access to the Atlantic Ocean. These ports would allow Germany to use its sea power effectively against the Allies. Access to Norwegian air bases would allow German reconnaissance aircraft to operate far over the North Atlantic, while German U-boats and surface ships operating out of Norwegian naval bases would be able to break the British blockade line across the North Sea and attack convoys heading to Great Britain.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: When the Soviet Union started its attack against Finland on 30 November 1939, the Allies found themselves aligned with Norway and Sweden in support of Finland against the much larger aggressor.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: After the outbreak of war between Finland and the Soviet Union, Norway mobilized larger land forces than what had initially been considered necessary. By early 1940 their 6th Division in Finnmark and Troms fielded 9,500 troops to defend against Soviet attack, positioned mostly in the eastern regions of Finnmark. Parts of the 6th Division's forces remained in Finnmark even after the German invasion, guarding against a possible Soviet attack. During the Winter War the Norwegian authorities secretly broke the country's own neutrality by sending the Finns a shipment of 12 Ehrhardt 7.5 cm Model 1901 artillery pieces and 12,000 shells, as well as allowing the British to use Norwegian territory to transfer aircraft and other weaponry to Finland.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: This presented an opportunity to the Allies; offering them the potential to utilize the invasion to also send troop support to occupy ore fields in Sweden and ports in Norway. The plan, promoted by the British General Edmund Ironside, included two divisions landing at Narvik, five battalions somewhere in Mid-Norway, and another two divisions at Trondheim. The French government pushed for action to be taken to confront the Germans away from France.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: This movement caused the Germans concern. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact had placed Finland within the Soviet sphere of interest, and the Germans therefore claimed neutrality in the conflict. This policy caused a rise in anti-German sentiment throughout Scandinavia, since it was commonly believed that the Germans were allied with the Soviets. Fears began to crop up in German high command that Norway and Sweden would then allow Allied troop movement to aid Finland.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The proposed Allied deployments never occurred, after protests from both Norway and Sweden, when the issue of transfers of troops through their territory was suggested. With the Moscow Peace Treaty on 12 March 1940, the Finland-related Allied plans were dropped. The abandonment of the planned landings put immense French pressure on Neville Chamberlain's British government, and eventually led to the Allies laying mines off the Norwegian coast on 8 April.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: It was originally thought by the German High Command that having Norway remain neutral was in its interest. As long as the Allies did not enter Norwegian waters, there would be safe passage for merchant vessels travelling along the Norwegian coast to ship the ore that Germany was importing.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: "Großadmiral" Erich Raeder, however, argued for an invasion. He believed that the Norwegian ports would be of crucial importance for Germany in a war with the United Kingdom.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: On 14 December 1939, Raeder introduced Adolf Hitler to Vidkun Quisling, a pro-Nazi former defence minister of Norway. Quisling proposed a pan-Germanic cooperation between Nazi Germany and Norway. In a second meeting four days later on 18 December 1939, Quisling and Hitler discussed the threat of an Allied invasion of Norway.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: After the first meeting with Quisling, Hitler ordered the "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht" (OKW) to begin investigating possible invasion plans of Norway. Meeting Quisling was central in igniting Hitler's interest in bringing the country effectively into his dominion. The first comprehensive German plan for the occupation of Norway, "Studie Nord", ordered by Hitler on 14 December 1939, was completed by 10 January 1940. On 27 January, Hitler ordered that a new plan, named "Weserübung", be developed. Work on "Weserübung" began on 5 February.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The "Altmark" incident occurred in the late hours of 16 February 1940 when the Royal Navy destroyer entered Norwegian territorial waters, intercepting and boarding the German auxiliary ship in the Jøssingfjord. "Altmark" had spent the prior months as a fleet oiler turned prison ship for the German cruiser while the latter was acting as a commerce raider in the South Atlantic. When she began the return journey to Germany she carried 299 prisoners taken from Allied ships sunk by the "Graf Spee". She rounded the north of Scotland, afar. "Altmark" then entered Norwegian territorial waters near the Trondheimsfjord, flying the Imperial Service Flag ("Reichsdienstflagge"). A Norwegian naval escort served as "Altmark" proceeded southwards, hugging the Norwegian coastline. As "Altmark" was nearing Bergen harbour on 14 February, the Norwegian naval authorities demanded to inspect her cargo. International law did not ban the transfer of prisoners of war through neutral waters and the German captain refused the inspection. This led the commander in Bergen, Admiral Carsten Tank-Nielsen, to deny "Altmark" access to the restricted-access harbour zone. Tank-Nielsen was overruled by his superior, Commanding Admiral Henry Diesen, and she was escorted through. Per Norwegian neutrality regulations, government ships operated by the warring countries were forbidden from such strategically important Norwegian ports. This violation of the regulations was as Diesen feared that the British would intercept "Altmark" if she was forced to steam on further out.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: On 16 February, "Altmark" was spotted by three British aircraft. This led the Royal Navy to send one light cruiser and five destroyers that were patrolling nearby. Under the attack of two British destroyers (HMS "Ivanhoe" and "Intrepid"), "Altmark" fled into the Jøssingfjord. She was escorted by the Norwegian torpedo boat . She was joined later in the fjord by a second – – and patrol boat "Firern". As "HMS Cossack" entered the fjord at 22:20 local time, the Norwegian vessels did not intervene when the British boarded "Altmark" in the late hours of 16 February. The boarding action led to the freeing of 299 Allied prisoners of war held on the German ship. The boarding party killed seven Germans in the process.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Following this, the Germans sent strong protests to Norway. The Norwegians sent protests to Britain. While Norwegian, Swedish and American experts in international law described the British action as a violation of Norwegian neutrality, the United Kingdom declared that the incident was at the most a technical violation that had been morally justified.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The whole incident led to the Germans speeding up planning for invasion of Norway. On 21 February, General Nikolaus von Falkenhorst was placed in charge of its planning and in command of the land-based forces. The official approval for the invasion and occupation of Denmark and Norway was signed by Hitler on 1 March.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: With the end of the Winter War, the Allies determined that any occupation of Norway or Sweden would likely do more harm than good, possibly driving the neutral countries into an alliance with Germany. However, the new French prime minister, Paul Reynaud, took a more aggressive stance than his predecessor and wanted some form of action taken against Germany. Churchill was a strong agitator for action in Scandinavia, because he wanted to cut Germany off from Sweden and push the Scandinavian countries to side with the United Kingdom. This initially involved a 1939 plan to penetrate the Baltic with a naval force. This was soon changed to a plan involving the mining of Norwegian waters to stop iron ore shipments from Narvik and provoke Germany into attacking Norway, where it could be defeated by the Royal Navy.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: It was agreed to utilize Churchill's naval mining plan, Operation Wilfred, designed to remove the sanctuary of the Leads and force transport ships into international waters where the Royal Navy could engage and destroy them. Accompanying this would be Plan R 4, an operation where, upon almost certain German counteraction to Operation Wilfred, the Allies would then proceed to occupy Narvik, Trondheim, Bergen, and Stavanger. The planners hoped that the operation would not provoke the Norwegians to resist the Allies with armed force.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The Allies disagreed over the additional Operation Royal Marine, where mines would also be placed in the Rhine River. While the British supported this operation, the French vetoed it for three months since they also depended on the Rhine and feared German air raids on their aircraft and munitions factories. Because of this delay, Operation Wilfred, originally scheduled for 5 April, was delayed until 8 April when the British agreed to perform the Norwegian operations separately from those on the continent.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Already in low-priority planning for months, Operation Weserübung found a new sense of urgency after the "Altmark" incident. The goals of the invasion were to secure the port of Narvik and the Leads for ore transport, and to control the country to prevent collaboration with the Allies. It was to be presented as an armed protection of Norway's neutrality.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: One subject debated by German strategists was the occupation of Denmark. Denmark was considered vital because its location facilitated greater air and naval control of the area. While some wanted to simply pressure Denmark to acquiesce, it was eventually determined that it would be safer for the operation if Denmark were captured by force.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Another matter that caused additional reworking of the plan was "Fall Gelb", the proposed invasion of northern France and the Low Countries, which would require the bulk of German forces. Because some forces were needed for both invasions, "Weserübung" could not occur at the same time as Gelb, and because the nights were shortening as spring approached, which were vital cover for the naval forces, it therefore had to be sooner. Eventually, on 2 April, the Germans set 9 April as the day of the invasion ("Wesertag"), and 04:15 (Norwegian time) as the hour of the landings ("Weserzeit").


title: Norwegian campaign

text: In Norway, the German plan called for the capture of six primary targets by amphibious landings: Oslo, Kristiansand, Egersund, Bergen, Trondheim and Narvik. Additionally, supporting "Fallschirmjäger" (paratroops) were to capture other key locations such as airfields at Fornebu outside of Oslo and Sola outside of Stavanger. The plan was designed to quickly overwhelm the Norwegian defenders and occupy these vital areas before any form of organized resistance could be mounted. The following forces were thus organized:


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Additionally, the battleships and would escort "Gruppe 1" and "Gruppe 2" as they travelled together, and there would also be several echelons of transports carrying additional troops, fuel and equipment.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: Against Denmark, two motorized brigades would capture bridges and troops; paratroops would capture Aalborg airfield in the north; and heavy fighters of the "Luftwaffe" would destroy the Danish aircraft on the ground. While there were also several naval task groups organized for this invasion, none of them contained any large ships. Unescorted troopships would transport in soldiers to capture the Danish High Command in Copenhagen. The following German naval forces used to invade Denmark were as organized:


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The Germans hoped they could avoid armed confrontation with the native populations in both countries, and German troops were instructed to fire only if fired upon.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The German forces used in the campaign were some 120,000 troops in seven divisions and one "Fallschirmjäger" battalion, as well as panzer and artillery units. Most of the "Kriegsmarine"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s major units were also deployed to the campaign. The Luftwaffe's 10th Air Corps deployed against Norway consisted of 1,000 aircraft, including 500 transport planes and 186 Heinkel He 111 bombers.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The Norwegian Armed Forces fielded around 55,000 combatants involved in the fighting, including 19,000 soldiers, mainly of six infantry divisions. The Allied expeditionary force sent numbered around 38,000 men. The Norwegian Army had around 60,000 trained soldiers, with 3,750 troops per regiment. However by the Germans' speed and surprise, only 52,000 ever saw combat.


title: Norwegian campaign

text: The German invasion began on 3 April 1940, when covert supply vessels began to head out in advance of the main force. The Allies initiated their plans on the following day, with sixteen Allied submarines ordered to the Skagerrak and Kattegat to serve as a screen and give advance warning for a German response to Operation Wilfred, which was launched the following day when Admiral William Whitworth in set out from Scapa Flow for the Vestfjorden with twelve destroyers.