title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The reduced armed resistance prompted the Indonesian government in 1988 to open up East Timor to improve its commercial prospects, including a lifting of the travel ban on journalists. The new policy came from foreign minister Ali Alatas. Alatas and other diplomats swayed Suharto in favor of the policy as a response to international concerns despite concerns among the military leadership that it would lead to a loss of control. In late 1989, hardline military commander Brigadier General Mulyadi was replaced by Brigadier General Rudolph Warouw who promised a more "persuasive" approach to anti-integrationists. Restrictions on travel within the territory were reduced, groups of political prisoners were released, and the use of torture in interrogation became less frequent. Warouw attempted to increase military discipline; in February 1990 an Indonesian soldier was prosecuted for unlawful conduct in East Timor, the first such action since the invasion.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The reduced fear of persecution encouraged the resistance movements; anti-integration protests accompanied high-profile visits to East Timor, including that of Pope John Paul II in 1989. Additionally, the end of the Cold War removed much of the justification for western support of Indonesia's occupation. The resulting increase in international attention to self-determination and human rights put further pressure on Indonesia. Subsequent events within East Timor in the 1990s helped to dramatically raise the international profile of East Timor, which in turn significantly boosted the momentum of the resistance groups.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: During a memorial mass on 12 November 1991 for a pro-independence youth shot by Indonesian troops, demonstrators among the 2,500-strong crowd unfurled the Fretilin flag and banners with pro-independence slogans and chanted boisterously but peacefully. Following a brief confrontation between Indonesian troops and protesters, 200 Indonesian soldiers opened fire on the crowd killing at least 250 Timorese.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The testimonies of foreigners at the cemetery were quickly reported to international news organisations, and video footage of the massacre was widely broadcast internationally, causing outrage. In response to the massacre, activists around the world organised in solidarity with the East Timorese, and a new urgency was brought to calls for self-determination. TAPOL, a British organisation formed in 1973 to advocate for democracy in Indonesia, increased its work around East Timor. In the United States, the East Timor Action Network (now the East Timor and Indonesia Action Network) was founded and soon had chapters in ten cities around the country. Other solidarity groups appeared in Portugal, Australia, Japan, Germany, Malaysia, Ireland, and Brazil.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Coverage of the massacre was a vivid example of how the growth of new media in Indonesia was making it increasingly difficult for the "New Order" to control information flow in and out of Indonesia, and that in the post-Cold War 1990s, the government was coming under increasing international scrutiny. Several pro-democracy student groups and their magazines began to openly and critically discuss not just East Timor, but also the "New Order" and the broader history and future of Indonesia.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Sharp condemnation of the military came not just from the international community, but from within parts of the Indonesian elite.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The massacre ended the governments 1989 opening of the territory and a new period of repression began. Warouw was removed from his position and his more accommodating approach to Timorese resistance rebuked by his superiors. Suspected Fretilin sympathisers were arrested, human rights abuses rose, and the ban on foreign journalists was reimposed.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Hatred intensified amongst Timorese of the Indonesian military presence. Major General Prabowo's, "Kopassus" Group 3 trained militias gangs dressed in black hoods to crush the remaining resistance.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: On 20 November 1992, Fretilin leader Xanana Gusmão was arrested by Indonesian troops. In May 1993 he was sentenced to life imprisonment for "rebellion", but his sentence was later commuted to 20 years. The arrest of the universally acknowledged leader of the resistance was a major frustration to the anti-integration movement in East Timor, but Gusmão continued to serve as a symbol of hope from inside the Cipinang prison. Nonviolent resistance by East Timorese, meanwhile, continued to show itself. When President Bill Clinton visited Jakarta in 1994, twenty-nine East Timorese students occupied the US embassy to protest US support for Indonesia.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: At the same time, human rights observers called attention to continued violations by Indonesian troops and police. A 1995 report by Human Rights Watch noted that "abuses in the territory continue to mount", including torture, disappearances, and limitations on fundamental rights. After a series of riots in September and October 1995, Amnesty International criticised Indonesian authorities for a wave of arbitrary arrests and torture.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The report indicates detainees were beaten with iron bars, kicked, lacerated, and threatened with death.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: In 1996 East Timor was suddenly brought to world attention when the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos-Horta "for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor". The Nobel Committee indicated in its press release that it hoped the award would "spur efforts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict in East Timor based on the people's right to self-determination". As Nobel scholar Irwin Abrams notes:Diplomats from Indonesia and Portugal, meanwhile, continued the consultations required by the 1982 General Assembly resolution, in a series of meetings intended to resolve the problem of what Foreign Minister Ali Alatas called the "pebble in the Indonesian shoe".


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Renewed United Nations-brokered mediation efforts between Indonesia and Portugal began in early 1997.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Independence for East Timor, or even limited regional autonomy, was never going to be allowed under Suharto's New Order. Notwithstanding Indonesian public opinion in the 1990s occasionally showing begrudging appreciation of the Timorese position, it was widely feared that an independent East Timor would destabilise Indonesian unity. The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, however, caused tremendous upheaval in Indonesia and led to Suharto's resignation in May 1998, ending his thirty-year presidency. Prabowo, by then in command of the powerful Indonesian Strategic Reserve, went into exile in Jordan and military operations in East Timor were costing the bankrupt Indonesian government a million dollars a day. The subsequent ""reformasi"" period of relative political openness and transition, included an unprecedented debate about Indonesia's relationship with East Timor. For the remainder of 1998, discussion forums took place throughout Dili working towards a referendum. Foreign Minister Alatas, described plans for phased autonomy leading to possible independence as "all pain, no gain" for Indonesia. On 8 June 1998, three weeks after taking office, Suharto's successor B. J. Habibie announced that Indonesia would soon offer East Timor a special plan for autonomy.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: In late 1998, the Australian government of John Howard drafted a letter to Indonesia advising of a change in Australian policy and advocating for the staging of a referendum on independence within a decade. President Habibie saw such an arrangement as implying "colonial rule" by Indonesia, and he decided to call a snap referendum on the issue.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Indonesia and Portugal announced on 5 May 1999 that it had agreed to hold a vote allowing the people of East Timor to choose between the autonomy plan or independence. The vote, to be administered by the United Nations Mission in East Timor (UNAMET), was initially scheduled for 8 August but later postponed until 30 August. Indonesia also took responsibility for security; this arrangement caused worry in East Timor, but many observers believe that Indonesia would have refused to allow foreign peacekeepers during the vote.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: As groups supporting autonomy and independence began campaigning, a series of pro-integration paramilitary groups of East Timorese began threatening violence—and indeed committing violence—around the country. Alleging pro-independence bias on the part of UNAMET, the groups were seen working with and receiving training from Indonesian soldiers. Before the May agreement was announced, an April paramilitary attack in Liquiça left dozens of East Timorese dead. On 16 May 1999, a gang accompanied by Indonesian troops attacked suspected independence activists in the village of Atara; in June another group attacked a UNAMET office in Maliana.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Indonesian authorities claimed to be helpless to stop the violence between rival factions among the East Timorese, but Ramos-Horta joined many others in scoffing at such notions. In February 1999 he said: "Before [Indonesia] withdraws it wants to wreak major havoc and destabilization, as it has always promised. We have consistently heard that over the years from the Indonesian military in Timor."


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: As militia leaders warned of a "bloodbath", Indonesian "roving ambassador" Francisco Lopes da Cruz declared: "If people reject autonomy there is the possibility blood will flow in East Timor." One paramilitary announced that a vote for independence would result in a "sea of fire", an expression referring to the Bandung Sea of Fire during Indonesia's own war of independence from the Dutch. As the date of the vote drew near, reports of anti-independence violence continued to accumulate.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The day of the vote, 30 August 1999, was generally calm and orderly. 98.6% of registered voters cast ballots, and on 4 September UN secretary-general Kofi Annan announced that 78.5% of the votes had been cast for independence. Brought up on the "New Order"'s insistence that the East Timorese supported integration, Indonesians were either shocked by or disbelieved that the East Timorese had voted against being part of Indonesia. Many people accepted media stories blaming the supervising United Nations and Australia who had pressured Habibie for a resolution.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Within hours of the results, paramilitary groups had begun attacking people and setting fires around the capital Dili. Foreign journalists and election observers fled, and tens of thousands of East Timorese took to the mountains. Islamic gangs attacked Dili's Catholic diocese building, killing two dozen people; the next day, the headquarters of the ICRC was attacked and burned to the ground. Almost one hundred people were killed later in Suai, and reports of similar massacres poured in from around East Timor. The UN withdrew most of its personnel, but the Dili compound had been flooded with refugees.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Four UN workers refused to evacuate unless the refugees were withdrawn as well, insisting they would rather die at the hands of the paramilitary groups. At the same time, Indonesian troops and paramilitary gangs forced over 200,000 people into West Timor, into camps described by Human Rights Watch as "deplorable conditions".


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: When a UN delegation arrived in Jakarta on 8 September, they were told by Indonesian president Habibie that reports of bloodshed in East Timor were "fantasies" and "lies". General Wiranto of the Indonesian military insisted that his soldiers had the situation under control, and later expressed his emotion for East Timor by singing the 1975 hit song "Feelings" at an event for military wives.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The violence was met with widespread public anger in Australia, Portugal and elsewhere and activists in Portugal, Australia, the United States and other nations pressured their governments to take action. Australian prime minister John Howard consulted United Nations secretary-general Kofi Annan and lobbied US president Bill Clinton to support an Australian led international peacekeeper force to enter East Timor to end the violence. The United States offered crucial logistical and intelligence resources and an "over-horizon" deterrent presence but did not commit forces to the operation. Finally, on 11 September, Clinton announced:


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: I have made clear that my willingness to support future economic assistance from the international community will depend upon how Indonesia handles the situation from today.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Indonesia, in dire economic straits, relented. President BJ Habibie announced on 12 September that Indonesia would withdraw Indonesian soldiers and allow an Australian-led international peacekeeping force to enter East Timor.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: On 15 September 1999, the United Nations Security Council expressed concern at the deteriorating situation in East Timor and issued UNSC Resolution 1264 calling for a multinational force to restore peace and security to East Timor, to protect and support the United Nations mission there, and to facilitate humanitarian assistance operations until such time as a United Nations peacekeeping force could be approved and deployed in the area.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The International Force for East Timor, or INTERFET, under the command of Australian Major General Peter Cosgrove, entered Dili on 20 September and by 31 October the last Indonesian troops had left East Timor. The arrival of thousands of international troops in East Timor caused the militia to flee across the border into Indonesia, from whence sporadic cross-border raids by the militia against INTERFET forces were conducted.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) was established at the end of October and administered the region for two years. Control of the nation was turned over to the government of East Timor, and independence was declared on 20 May 2002. On 27 September of the same year, East Timor joined the United Nations as its 191st member state.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The bulk of the military forces of INTERFET were Australian—more than 5,500 troops at its peak, including an infantry brigade, with armoured and aviation support—while eventually, 22 nations contributed to the force which at its height numbered over 11,000 troops. The United States provided crucial logistic and diplomatic support throughout the crisis. At the same time, the cruiser USS Mobile Bay protected the INTERFET naval fleet and a US Marine infantry battalion of 1,000 men—plus organic armour and artillery—was also stationed off the coast aboard the USS Belleau Wood to provide a strategic reserve in the event of significant armed opposition.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Indonesia used fear of communism to garner varying degrees of support among western countries, including the United States and Australia, for its East Timor invasion and occupation. The invasion and suppression of East Timor's independence movement caused great harm to Indonesia's reputation and international credibility. Criticism from the developing world undermined efforts in the 1980s to secure the Non-Aligned Movement chair which Suharto strongly desired for Indonesia and condemnation of Indonesia continued through the 1990s.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: In September 1974, Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam met with Suharto and indicated that he would support Indonesia if it annexed East Timor. On 11 November 1975, the Whitlam government was dismissed.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: This placed restrictions on the caretaker government of Fraser. Until the results of the 13 December election were known, any action required approval from both political parties and the governor-general. On 4 December 1975 Australia unsuccessfully sought a UN resolution to determine the independence of East Timor, and the Australian government evacuated Australians and other foreign nationals from Dili.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: José Ramos-Horta arrived in Darwin on 5 December saying that aid agencies the Australian Red Cross and Australian Society for Intercountry Aid Timor (ASIAT) had been banned from East Timor. In the same news conference, Horta said that the Fretilin government in East Timor would not accept any UN assistance that included Australia.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: After winning the December elections, the Fraser government took the approach that trade with Southeast Asia and political ties with Southeast Asia were too important to be put at risk for what was seen as a lost cause. Australia abstained from the 1976 and 1977 UN General Assembly Resolutions, and by 1978 became the only government to recognise East Timor officially as a province of Indonesia.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: One year later, Australia and Indonesia began drafting a treaty to share resources in the Timor Gap. The treaty was signed in December 1989, with estimates ranging from one to seven billion barrels of oil to be secured. This agreement, along with general economic partnership with Indonesia, is frequently cited as a crucial factor for the Australian government's position. However, given that nearly 60,000 East Timorese had died during the fighting between Australian and Japanese forces that followed the invasion of Timor by the Japanese during the Pacific War, some Australians believed their government owed a special debt to the former Portuguese colony. James Dunn, a senior Foreign Affairs adviser to the Australian Parliament before and during the occupation, condemned the government's position, saying later: "What had been of vital strategic value in 1941 was, in 1974, irrelevant and dispensable." Some Australian World War II veterans protested the occupation for similar reasons.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Successive Australian governments saw good relations and stability in Indonesia (Australia's largest neighbour) as providing an important security buffer to Australia's north, but the East Timor issue complicated co-operation between the two nations. Australia provided important sanctuary to East Timorese independence advocates like José Ramos-Horta, who based himself in Australia during his exile.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Australia's trade with Indonesia grew through the 1980s, and the Keating Labor government signed a security pact with Indonesia in 1995 and gave relations with Jakarta a high priority. The fall of Indonesian president Suharto and a shift in Australian policy by the Howard government in 1998 helped precipitate a proposal for a referendum on the question of independence for East Timor. In late 1998, Prime Minister John Howard and Foreign Minister Alexander Downer drafted a letter to Indonesia setting out a change in Australian policy, suggesting that East Timor be given a chance to vote on independence within a decade.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The letter upset Indonesian president B. J. Habibie, who saw it as implying Indonesia was a "colonial power," and he decided to announce a snap referendum. A UN-sponsored referendum held in 1999 showed overwhelming approval for independence but was followed by violent clashes and a security crisis instigated by the anti-independence militia. Australia then led a United Nations-backed International Force for East Timor to end the violence, and order was restored. While the intervention was ultimately successful, Australian-Indonesian relations would take several years to recover.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The Australian Labor Party altered its East Timor policy in 1999 and adopted a policy of support for East Timorese independence and opposition to the Indonesian presence there through its Foreign Affairs spokesperson Laurie Brereton. Breretons' credibility was attacked by the governing Liberal-National Coalition government and its Foreign Affairs Minister Alexander Downer, and Prime Minister Howard. They were assisted in their campaign by the then-Labor-backbencher Kevin Rudd (who would later lead the Labor Party to victory in the 2007 Australian federal election).


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Owing to its strong relation with Indonesia, the Philippines initially was cold on the issue. In fact, not only that it denied José Ramos-Horta entry in 1997 when he was supposed to give a lecture to the University of the Philippines Diliman, then President Fidel V. Ramos even included him in the immigration blacklist.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: However, with the widespread support from various countries, the Philippines finally changed its policy. After Timorese Independence, the Philippines contributed medical and logistics personnel to Interfet, rather than ground troops. In 2000 the UN named a Filipino, Lieutenant General Jaime de los Santos, to command the full-fledged UN Interfet.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Sharing the same Roman Catholic heritage, the Philippines became a natural ally and has maintained a good relationship with East Timor since. It has also removed José Ramos-Horta from the blacklist; he frequently gives lectures in various universities in the Philippines, most notably in the University of the Philippines Diliman, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, De La Salle University and Ateneo de Davao University.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The day after the invasion, Portugal cut diplomatic ties with Indonesia and went on to support UN resolutions condemning the invasion. However, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Portuguese government appeared reluctant to push the issue; American Indonesia specialist, Benedict Anderson suggests this stemmed from uncertainty at the time over its application to the European Community. Portugal's criticism mounted sharply from the mid-1980s, and due to public pressure, the country became one of the highest-profile campaigners in international forums for East Timorese self-determination. Throughout the 1990s, Portugal took part in UN-brokered mediations with Indonesia.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: In 1975, the United States was completing a retreat from Vietnam. A staunchly anti-communist Indonesia was considered by the United States to be an essential counterweight, and friendly relations with the Indonesian government were considered more important than a decolonisation process in East Timor. The United States also wanted to maintain its access to deep water straits running through Indonesia for undetectable submarine passage between the Indian and Pacific oceans.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: On the day before the invasion, US president Gerald R. Ford and US secretary of state Henry A. Kissinger met with Indonesian president Suharto and reportedly gave their approval for the invasion. In response to Suharto saying "We want your understanding if it was deemed necessary to take rapid or drastic action [in East Timor]." Ford replied, "We will understand and will not press you on the issue. We understand the problem and the intentions you have." Kissinger similarly agreed, though he had fears that the use of U.S.-made arms in the invasion would be exposed to public scrutiny, talking of their desire to "influence the reaction in America" so that "there would be less chance of people talking in an unauthorised way." The US also hoped the invasion would be swift and not involve protracted resistance. "It is important that whatever you do succeeds quickly," Kissinger said to Suharto.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The U.S. supplied weapons to Indonesia during the invasion and the subsequent occupation. A week after the invasion of East Timor, the National Security Council prepared an analysis which found widespread use of US-supplied military equipment. Although the US government said they would delay new arms sales from December 1975 to June 1976 pending a review by the State Department to determine whether Indonesia had violated a bilateral agreement stipulating that Indonesia could only use U.S.-supplied arms for defensive purposes, military aid continued to flow, and Kissinger chastised members of his State Department staff for suggesting arms sales be cut. Kissinger was worried about reactions to his policies from the U.S. public, including the Congress, deploring that "Everything on paper will be used against me". Between 1975 and 1980, when the violence in East Timor was at its climax, the United States furnished approximately $340 million in weaponry to the Indonesian government.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: US military aid and arms sales to Indonesia increased from 1974 and continued through to the Bush and Clinton years until it was stopped in 1999. US arms provisions to Indonesia between 1975 and 1995 amounted to approximately $1.1 billion. The Clinton administration, under the Pentagon's JCET program, trained the Indonesian Kopassus special forces in urban guerrilla warfare, surveillance, counter-intelligence, sniper tactics and 'psychological operations'.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) stated in the "Responsibility" chapter of its final report that US "political and military support were fundamental to the Indonesian invasion and occupation" of East Timor between 1975 and 1999.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The report (p. 92) also stated that "U.S. supplied weaponry was crucial to Indonesia's capacity to intensify military operations from 1977 in its massive campaigns to destroy the Resistance in which aircraft supplied by the United States played a crucial role."


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Fretilin has claimed that the degree of US support for the Indonesian government's efforts in East Timor may have extended beyond that of diplomatic support and material assistance.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: A UPI report from Sydney, Australia dated 19 June 1978, quoted a Fretilin press release, which stated: "American military advisers and mercenaries fought alongside Indonesian soldiers against FRETILIN in two battles ... In the meantime, American pilots are flying OV-10 Bronco aircraft for the Indonesian Air Force in bombing raids against the liberated areas under FRETILIN control."


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The United States abstained from most of the UN resolutions censuring the Indonesian invasion. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, the US Ambassador to the UN at the time, wrote later in his memoirs: "The Department of State desired that the United Nations prove utterly ineffective in whatever measures it undertook. This task was given to me, and I carried it forward with no inconsiderable success."


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Britain, Canada, Japan, and other nations supported Indonesia during the occupation of East Timor. Britain abstained from all of the UN General Assembly resolutions relating to East Timor and sold arms throughout the occupation. In 1978 Indonesia purchased eight BAE Hawk jet trainers, which were used during the "encirclement and annihilation" campaign. Britain sold dozens of additional jets to Indonesia in the 1990s. Canada abstained from early General Assembly resolutions about East Timor and opposed three. The Canadian government regularly sold weapons to Indonesia during the occupation, and in the 1990s approved over CDN$400 million in exports for spare weapons parts. Japan voted against all eight General Assembly resolutions regarding East Timor.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: The Indian government also supported Indonesia, likening the occupation to its own seizure of Goa in 1961. Some analysts remarked that Indonesia's delayed action also prevented a peaceful transfer of East Timor to it, similar to how the French transferred Pondicherry to India in 1962.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Member nations of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), consistently voted against the General Assembly resolutions calling for self-determination in East Timor.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Precise estimates of the death toll are difficult to determine. The 2005 report of the UN's Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor (CAVR) reports an estimated minimum number of conflict-related deaths of 102,800 (+/- 12,000). Of these, the report says that approximately 18,600 (+/-1,000) were either killed or disappeared and that approximately 84,000 (+/-11,000) died from hunger or illness in excess of what would have been expected due to peacetime mortality. These figures represent a minimum conservative estimate that CAVR says is its scientifically based principal finding. The report did not provide an upper bound. However, CAVR speculated that the total number of deaths due to conflict-related hunger and illness could have been as high as 183,000. The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70% of the violent killings.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Researcher Ben Kiernan says that "a toll of 150,000 is likely close to the truth," although one can throw out an estimate of 200,000 or higher. The Center for Defense Information also estimated a total close to 150,000. A 1974 Catholic church estimate of the population of East Timor was 688,711 people; in 1982 the church reported only 425,000. This led to an estimate of 200,000 people killed during the occupation, which was widely reported around the world. Other sources such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch also support an estimate of over 200,000 killed.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: According to specialist Gabriel Defert based on statistical data available from the Portuguese and Indonesian authorities, and from the Catholic Church, between December 1975 and December 1981, approximately 308,000 Timorese lost their lives; this constituted about 44% of the pre-invasion population. Similarly, Indonesian Professor George Aditjondro, formerly of Salatiga University in Java, concluded from his study of Indonesian Army data that in fact 300,000 Timorese had been killed in the early years of the occupation.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Robert Cribb of the Australian National University argues that the toll was significantly exaggerated. He argues that the 1980 census that counted 555,350 Timorese, although "the most reliable source of all," was probably a "minimum" rather than a maximum estimate for the total population. "It is worth recalling that hundreds of thousands of East Timorese disappeared during the violence of September 1999, only to reappear later," he writes. The 1980 census becomes more improbable in the face of the 1987 census that counted 657,411 Timorese – this would require a growth rate of 2.5% per year, nearly identical to the very high growth rate in East Timor from 1970 to 1975, and a highly unlikely one given the conditions of the brutal occupation, including Indonesian efforts to discourage reproduction. Noting the relative lack of personal accounts of atrocities or of traumatised Indonesian soldiers, he further adds that East Timor "does not appear—on the basis of news reports and academic accounts—to be a society traumatized by mass death...the circumstance leading up to the Dili massacre of 1991...indicate a society which retained its vigour and indignation in a way which would probably not have been possible if it had been treated as Cambodia was treated under Pol Pot." Even Indonesian military strategy was based on winning the "hearts and minds" of the population, a fact that does not support charges of mass killing.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Kiernan, starting from a base population of 700,000 Timorese in 1975 (based on the 1974 Catholic Church census), calculated an expected 1980 population of 735,000 Timorese (assuming a growth rate of only 1% per year as a result of the occupation). Accepting the 1980 count that Cribb regards as at least 10% (55,000) too low, Kiernan concluded that as many as 180,000 might have died in the war. Cribb argued that the 3% growth rate suggested by the 1974 census was too high, citing the fact that the church had previously postulated a growth rate of 1.8%, which would have produced a figure in line with the Portuguese population estimate of 635,000 for 1974.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Although Cribb maintained that the Portuguese census was almost certainly an underestimate, he believed it to be more likely correct than the church census, since any church attempt to extrapolate the size of the total population "must be seen in light of its incomplete access to society" (less than half of Timorese were Catholic). Assuming a growth rate in line with the other nations of South East Asia, then, would yield a more accurate figure of 680,000 for 1975, and an expected 1980 population of slightly over 775,000 (without accounting for the decline in the birth rate resulting from the Indonesian occupation). The deficit remaining would be almost exactly 200,000. According to Cribb, Indonesian policies restricted the birth rate by up to 50% or more. Thus, around 45,000 of these were not born rather than killed; another 55,000 were "missing" as a result of the Timorese evading the Indonesian authorities who conducted the 1980 census. A variety of factors—the exodus of tens of thousands from their homes to escape FRETILIN in 1974–5; the deaths of thousands in the civil war; the deaths of combatants during the occupation; killings by FRETILIN; and natural disasters—diminish further still the civilian toll attributable to Indonesian forces during this time. Considering all this data, Cribb argues for a much lower toll of 100,000 or less, with an absolute minimum of 60,000, and a mere tenth of the civilian population dying unnaturally, for the years 1975–80.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Kiernan responded, however, by asserting that the influx of migrant workers during the occupation and the increase in the population growth rate typical of a mortality crisis justifies accepting the 1980 census as valid despite the 1987 estimate and that the 1974 church census—though a "possible maximum"—cannot be discounted because the church's lack of access to society might well have resulted in an undercount. He concluded that at least 116,000 combatants and civilians were killed by all sides or died "unnatural" deaths from 1975 to 1980 (if true, this would yield the result that about 15% of the civilian population of East Timor was killed from 1975 to 1980). F. Hiorth separately estimated that 13% (95,000 out of an expected 730,000 when accounting for the reduction in birth rates) of the civilian population died during this period. Kiernan believes that the deficit was most probably around 145,000 when accounting for the reduction in birth rates, or 20% of East Timor's population. The mid-value of the UN report is 146,000 deaths; R.J. Rummel, an analyst of political killings, estimates 150,000.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Many observers have called the Indonesian military action in East Timor an example of genocide. Oxford held an academic consensus calling the event genocide and Yale university teaches it as part of their "Genocide Studies" program. In a study of the word's legal meaning and applicability to the occupation of East Timor, legal scholar Ben Saul concludes that because no group recognized under international law was targeted by the Indonesian authorities, a charge of genocide cannot be applied.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: However, he also notes: "The conflict in East Timor most accurately qualifies as genocide against a ‘political group’, or alternatively as ‘cultural genocide’, yet neither of these concepts is explicitly recognised in international law." The occupation has been compared to the killings of the Khmer Rouge, the Yugoslav wars, and the Rwandan genocide.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Accurate numbers of Indonesian casualties are well-documented. The complete names of around 2,300 Indonesian soldiers and pro-Indonesian militias who died in action as well as from illness and accidents during the entire occupation are engraved into the Seroja Monument located in Armed Forces Headquarters in Cilangkap, East Jakarta.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Saul goes on to discuss prosecutions of responsible parties for "crimes against humanity, war crimes, and other gross violations of human rights". In the years after the end of the occupation, several proceedings have been carried out to such an end. The 1999 UN Security Council resolution authorising UNTAET described the history of "systematic, widespread and flagrant violations of international and human rights law" and demanded "that those responsible for such violence be brought to justice". To achieve these ends, UNTAET established a Serious Crimes Unit (SCU), which has attempted to investigate and prosecute individuals responsible for such violence. However, the SCU has been criticised for accomplishing relatively little, presumably because it is funded inadequately, limited in mandate to crimes committed only in 1999, and for other reasons. Indonesian trials purporting to punish those responsible for the violence were described as "manifestly inadequate" by a UN commission.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Deficiencies in these processes have led some organisations to call for an international tribunal to prosecute individuals responsible for killings in East Timor, similar to those established in Yugoslavia and Rwanda. A 2001 editorial by the East Timor NGO La'o Hamutuk said:An uncountable number of Crimes Against Humanity were committed during the 1975–1999 period in East Timor. Although an international court could not pursue all of them, it ... [would] confirm that the invasion, occupation and destruction of East Timor by Indonesia was a long-standing, systematic, criminal conspiracy, planned and ordered at the highest levels of government.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: Many of the perpetrators continue to wield authority and influence in East Timor’s nearest neighbour. The future of peace, justice and democracy in both East Timor and Indonesia depends on holding the highest-level perpetrators accountable.


title: Indonesian occupation of East Timor

text: In 2005, the Indonesia-Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship was set up with the goal of establishing the truth relating to crimes under the occupation, and healing divisions between the countries. It has received criticism from NGOs and was rejected by the United Nations for offering impunity.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: On 2 July 2018, six-year-old Scottish girl Alesha Sarah MacPhail was abducted from her bed and murdered by 16-year-old Aaron Campbell. Alesha, from Airdrie, North Lanarkshire, was three days into a stay with her grandparents on the Isle of Bute when Campbell entered their unlocked home at approximately 02:00 . The teenager had previously bought cannabis from Alesha's father Robert, who lived in the house, and initially went to steal the drug. Upon finding the child asleep, Campbell picked her up, carried her to an abandoned hotel, then raped and killed her by applying pressure to her face and neck. Alesha was reported missing at 06:23 , and her body was discovered by a member of the public at 08:54 .


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Police Scotland charged Campbell with abduction, rape and murder on 5 July 2018. He denied any involvement and pleaded "not guilty" when his trial began on 11 February 2019. He logged a "special defence of incrimination" by claiming that Robert's girlfriend, Toni McLachlan, was responsible for murdering the child and framing him. Campbell was tied to the crime by CCTV footage, DNA, and fibres from his clothing, and the jury returned a guilty verdict after three hours of deliberation. A ban on publicly naming Campbell was lifted following his conviction. On 21 March 2019, he was handed a life sentence with a minimum term of 27 years; subsequently reduced to 24 years on appeal. He confessed to the crime before his sentencing, adding that he was "quite satisfied with the murder".


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: The case generated a large amount of media interest in the United Kingdom, with the presiding judge Lord Matthews stating that he "could not think of a crime in recent times that has attracted such revulsion". The perceived safety of the Isle of Bute contributed to the public's shock, while the young age of the culprit prompted discussion and debate around the nature of underage murderers.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Alesha MacPhail was born in Glasgow Royal Infirmary. She lived in Airdrie, North Lanarkshire, with her mother Georgina Lochrane (aged 23 in 2018) and her younger sister Courtney (aged 4 in 2018). She attended Chapelside School and had recently completed Primary Two at the time of her death. She was described by her headteacher as a "smiley and happy young girl" who "loved being at school and enjoyed all aspects of literacy, in particular writing." Her favourite activities included gymnastics and cake baking.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: MacPhail's parents separated when she was three months old. Her father Robert (aged 26 in 2018) lived in Rothesay, the principal town on the Isle of Bute, with his parents and his girlfriend Toni McLachlan (aged 17 in 2018). Alesha would visit her father and grandparents every other weekend. On 28 June 2018, at six years old, she joined her family in Rothesay for what was meant to be three weeks of the school summer break.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Aaron Thomas Campbell was born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England on 7 May 2002. He moved to the Isle of Bute when he was four or five years old with his mother Janette, father Christopher, and a younger sister.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Campbell's upbringing included elements of physical and emotional abuse, and he often argued with his alcoholic mother. He was tested for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and had a history of self harming and depression. Campbell attended Rothesay Academy and was popular among his friends, with whom he regularly drank alcohol and attended parties. He was fit and active, while also keen on gaming; he wished to be a YouTube star and posted several videos to the website.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: When he was aged 15, Campbell began to consider "doing something excessive" such as rape. In 2017, he sent a Facebook message saying that he "might kill 1 day for the lifetime experience". He was entered into a rehabilitation programme when he was caught starting fires.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Campbell was acquainted with Robert MacPhail and Toni McLachlan, and claimed to have had a casual sexual relationship with McLachlan in the winter of 2017, although McLachlan denies this. He purchased cannabis from the couple on multiple occasions, but these interactions ceased in early 2018 following a disagreement and intervention from Campbell's mother.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: On 1 July 2018, three days into her summer visit, MacPhail was put to bed in her room at her grandparents' seafront home with a "Peppa Pig" DVD playing. At around 23:00, McLachlan checked on the child and noticed that she was asleep. The key was left in the front door, as was common in Rothesay.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: The same evening, 16 year-old Campbell invited fifteen friends to his house, where he became drunk. The party finished before midnight, but at 00:30 on 2 July, a friend returned and found Campbell in bed and "suicidal". Campbell claimed, "I was quite upset as my mum had been arguing with me most of the night." The friend was "quite worried for him" and offered to stay over, but Campbell declined and said he was going to "get stoned". He sent messages to several people asking if they were available to sell him cannabis, including Robert MacPhail. At 01:47 and 01:48 he called McLachlan but received no response.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Intending to steal cannabis, Campbell left his house at 01:54 armed with a kitchen knife. He entered the MacPhail property, roughly a five-minute walk away, where MacPhail's room was closest to the front door. When he found the sleeping girl, Campbell saw a "moment of opportunity", later claiming, "All I thought about was killing her once I saw her." He lifted a drowsy MacPhail from her bed, left the house without anyone noticing, and walked with her along the ocean shore. The child awoke in his arms during this walk and asked who he was; Campbell replied that he knew her father and was taking her home. He carried MacPhail to a secluded location then raped and murdered her. He threw his clothes into the sea, went home for a shower, then returned to the murder site to retrieve his phone.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: At 06:00 on 2 July, Calum MacPhail awoke for work to find that his granddaughter was not in her bed and determined that she was nowhere in the house. She had never run away before, and her bike remained in the garden. Alesha's grandmother, Angela King, notified the police at 06:23 while the rest of the family began searching the local area and spreading word of her disappearance. King also made a plea on Facebook, encouraging members of the public to help. McLachlan noticed the missed calls from Campbell and tried phoning him. At 09:01 Campbell responded "Sorry doesn't matter" with two laughing emojis. When asked to look out for Alesha, he wrote, "Oh damn. Am sure she's not went too far x".


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Police Scotland began a hunt for Alesha, utilising a helicopter to help with the search. A coastguard volunteer began searching the shoreline at 06:55, where he discovered the kitchen knife near the MacPhail home. Many members of the public also joined. At 08:54, the police were notified by Jorge Williams, a local man who had seen King's Facebook appeal, that he had discovered Alesha's lifeless and naked body. She was found in a wooded area within the grounds of a former hotel, a fifteen-minute walk from the MacPhail home. Georgina Lochrane, who was away in Airdrie, learned about her daughter's death via King's Facebook page before being escorted to Bute.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: A postmortem examination was conducted on 3 July 2018. The autopsy concluded that MacPhail received 117 injuries, some of which were caused while she was alive and some of which may have been caused by vegetation. Injuries to her neck and face indicated that she had been gripped, while injuries to her nose and mouth indicated that she had been smothered. Her genitalia sustained "catastrophic" injuries. The pathologist determined her death to be "the result of significant forceful pressure to her neck and face”.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Police Scotland opened a murder investigation following the results of the autopsy. Chief Superintendent Hazel Hendren, the local police commander, stated that "Every available resource from across Police Scotland is being made available to this major investigation". Detective Superintendent Stuart Houston made a successful plea for information from the public. The police conducted searches at the MacPhail residence, while heavily patrolling the streets of Bute and making house-to-house inquiries. Several parts of the island were cordoned off while forensic experts searched for evidence. Investigators believed from an early stage that the murderer remained on Bute.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Janette Campbell, the mother of Aaron Campbell, helped with the initial search for Alesha. In response to the police request for information, she checked the CCTV system installed outside her home and found footage of her son leaving and returning twice during the hours that the girl disappeared. When she quizzed him over his whereabouts, Aaron insisted that he knew nothing about the case. Janette was pleased with his response, but nevertheless reported the footage to the police to remove any suspicion.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Aaron Campbell was initially interviewed by Detective Constable Gavin McKellar and Detective Sergeant Steven Hendrie as a possible witness. He co-operated with the questions, showing no signs of worry or intimidation, and claimed that he had been buying and smoking cannabis. He was arrested on suspicion of murder on 4 July, and taken to a police station in Glasgow, where he answered "no comment" to all questions. The following day, he was charged with the murder and rape of Alesha MacPhail and remanded in custody. On 13 July, he appeared at Greenock Sheriff Court and did not submit a plea.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Campbell appeared at the High Court in Glasgow on 10 December 2018 for indictment proceedings. He entered a "not guilty" plea to the charge of abducting, raping, and murdering Alesha MacPhail. A trial was set for February 2019, with Iain McSporran QC acting as prosecutor and Brian McConnachie QC acting as Campbell's defence advocate. A second charge of attempting to defeat the ends of justice was dropped during the trial. Because he was younger than 18, the media were banned from reporting Campbell's name for the duration of the trial.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: The trial began on 11 February 2019, presided over by Judge Lord Matthews. The court was shown CCTV footage, from cameras installed by Campbell's mother, that captured the defendant leaving his house at 01:54 on 2 July, returning at 03:35, then leaving and returning again for two short periods before 04:07 . Additional CCTV footage, supplied by members of the public, showed an individual walking along the shoreline at 02:25 and 02:26, appearing to carry something in his arms. Pathologist John Williams testified that Alesha's feet were clean and uninjured, suggesting she had been carried.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Janette Campbell confirmed that several items recovered from the beach after Alesha's death – a fleece jacket, jogging bottoms, boxer shorts, a t-shirt, and a kitchen knife – belonged to her son and came from her kitchen. Fibres from the trousers were found on Alesha's discarded pyjamas, and forensic scientist Stuart Bailey testified that DNA matching the accused was found on the beach clothing. He further confirmed that a DNA sample taken from Alesha's neck had a billion-to-one chance of coming from anybody but Aaron Campbell. DNA matches were also found on Alesha's face, fourteen parts of her body, and some of her clothing. A cybercrime expert told the court that on 3 July 2018, Campbell used his phone to Google search "How do police find DNA", then visited a webpage titled "Collecting DNA evidence". A 16-year-old girl testified that hours after Alesha's body was discovered, Campbell filmed himself in a Snapchat video, sent to a group of 25 people, with the words "Found the guy who has done it."


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: In his defence, Campbell claimed that he spent the early hours of 2 July procuring cannabis and searching for his lost phone. Two young men testified that they had received messages from the defendant but did not meet him that night. Campbell logged a "special defence of incrimination", in which he argued that McLachlan was responsible for Alesha's death. He took the witness stand and claimed that McLachlan had sex with him in a garage on the night of the killing; he then suggested that she murdered Alesha and used a condom to plant his semen on the child's body. Campbell's lawyer asserted that McLachlan was jealous of the attention the child received and that her relationship with Alesha's father was physically abusive. McLachlan denied all of Campbell's claims, adding that she loved the child "to pieces". Angela King, MacPhail's grandmother, testified that Alesha and McLachlan had a "great" relationship. Unlike the defendant, 18 year-old McLachlan was named in the media throughout the trial.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Campbell answered questions for two hours, offering explanations for the prosecution's evidence while appearing "strikingly composed", "unfazed", and "articulate" according to a journalist for "The Guardian". He told the court that he had never met Alesha and denied murdering her by stating, "Absolutely not. I could never do that." He agreed that placing the blame on an innocent person would be "evil". Campbell confirmed that he could bench press ; the prosecution argued that McLachlan, conversely, did not have the strength to carry Alesha from her house to the murder site.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: The trial lasted nine days. The jury deliberated for three hours before returning a unanimous guilty verdict on 21 February. Lord Matthews described the evidence against Campbell as "overwhelming" and stated that the teenager had committed "some of the most wicked and evil crimes this court has ever heard of in decades of dealing with depravity". Campbell remained emotionless upon hearing his conviction. A group of media outlets made a legal bid for the teenager to be publicly identified, arguing that this transparency was in the public interest. Following the trial, Lord Matthews agreed to reverse the naming restriction – a first in Scottish history – due to the "unique" nature of the case.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Campbell re-appeared before Lord Matthews for his sentencing on 21 March. Reports prepared by Dr. Gary Macpherson, a consultant forensic clinical psychologist, revealed that Campbell had since confessed to the crime in detail. He told Dr. Macpherson that he was "quite satisfied with the murder" and said it took "everything to stop laughing" during points of the trial. The report stated that Campbell "continued to experience thoughts of killing and having sex with children and having sex with dead bodies". Lord Matthews described the teenager as a "cold, calculating, remorseless and dangerous individual ... completely lacking in victim empathy” before handing him a life sentence with a minimum term of 27 years. The judge stated that this term would have been higher for an adult, but observed that "reintegration or rehabilitation are remote possibilities”, perhaps "impossible". He stressed that the claims against McLachlan were a "travesty of the truth" and that the young woman was "completely innocent". Georgina Lochrane shouted abuse at Campbell as the hearing ended, and subsequently told the media, "A life sentence should be a life sentence. He should have no human rights and doesn’t deserve anything because he is inhuman."


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: On 10 September 2019, Campbell successfully appealed his sentence, reducing the minimum term from 27 years to 24 years; meaning he will be eligible to apply for parole when he is 40. Three judges ruled that the original sentence had been excessive for his age, but they did not dispute Lord Matthews' suggestion that the appellant may never be released. Campbell is imprisoned at HM Young Offenders Institution Polmont and will be moved to an adult prison when he turns 21.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Alesha MacPhail's murder received significant media attention in the United Kingdom: the presiding judge stated that he "could not think of a crime in recent times that has attracted such revulsion". The level of public outrage led to comparisons with the 1993 murder of James Bulger. Initial reports emphasised the unlikelihood of the crime occurring on the small Isle of Bute, which was once a popular tourist destination for Scotland's city dwellers. The local reverend Owain Jones commented, "Bute is one of these places that is incredibly safe, you take all sorts of things for granted here". At the time of the trial he acknowledged the lasting shock within the community, adding that "nothing feels the same". The revelations of casual teenage drinking, sex, and drug use on the island were also a source of surprise; Libby Brooks of "The Guardian" wrote that the MacPhail trial revealed "the reality of life on Bute beyond the picture postcard", where the population is declining and deprivation growing. Local young people were offered counselling services to help them deal with the repercussions of the case.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: A debate around childhood influences arose once the culprit was confirmed to be 16 year-old Campbell. In an effort to make sense of the crime, public and media comments focussed on "[Campbell's] reported obsession with violent video games, in particular the Slender Man meme, lurid analysis of his YouTube posts and speculation that cannabis psychosis was linked to this and other killings." The case also prompted discussions of how to treat young offenders of serious crimes. John Marshall, who assessed Campbell after his conviction, argued that young children should be tested for psychopathic traits so that interventions can start early, a suggestion that caused controversy in the field of child psychology. Campbell's YouTube channel was removed from the website following his conviction.


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: Before the suspect was confirmed to be a local boy, rumours surfaced on social media – spearheaded by the right-wing commentator Katie Hopkins – that the culprit was one of the Syrian refugees housed on the island in 2015. Hopkins was condemned for making the implication without any evidence; Michael Russell MSP described the comments as "an awful, divisive, hate-filled lie", and Alan Smith of "The Herald" wrote that Alesha's "tragic death was being used to further the cause of the far-right".


title: Murder of Alesha MacPhail

text: A candlelit vigil for the victim was held in Rothesay shortly after her murder. The six-year-old's funeral took place in Coatbridge on 21 July 2018, attended by hundreds of mourners. She was buried in Coltswood Cemetery. On 25 May 2019, a pink memorial bench was unveiled on the Rothesay promenade. On 20 June, nearly a year after her death, Alesha's primary school opened a playhouse built in her memory, decorated with artwork designed by the pupils. It was funded with £22,000 donated by the public. MacPhail's family attended a memorial service at the school that included a song and poem written for Alesha.


title: Room 222

text: Room 222 is an American comedy-drama television series produced by 20th Century Fox Television that aired on ABC for 112 episodes, from September 17, 1969 until January 11, 1974. The show was broadcast on Wednesday evenings at 8:30 (EST) for its first two seasons, before settling into Friday evenings at 9:00, following "The Brady Bunch" and "The Partridge Family", and preceding "The Odd Couple" and "Love, American Style".


title: Room 222

text: In 1970, "Room 222" earned the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding New Series, while Michael Constantine and Karen Valentine won for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, respectively.


title: Room 222

text: While the series primarily focuses on an American history class in Room 222 at the fictional Walt Whitman High School, in Los Angeles, California, it also depicts other events in and outside the school, such as the home lives of the racially diverse student body and faculty.


title: Room 222

text: The history class is taught by Pete Dixon (Lloyd Haynes), an idealistic African-American teacher. Other characters featured in the show include:the school's compassionate guidance counselor, Liz McIntyre (Denise Nicholas), who is also Pete's girlfriend; the dryly humorous school principal, Seymour Kaufman (Michael Constantine); the petite and enthusiastic Alice Johnson (Karen Valentine), who is initially a student teacher, later full-time teacher whom Pete mentors; and Principal Kaufman's secretary Miss Hogarth, played by Patsy Garrett. Additionally, many recurring students are featured from episode to episode.


title: Room 222

text: Pete Dixon delivers gentle lessons in tolerance and understanding to his students.and they admire his wisdom, insight, and easygoing manner. The themes of the episodes are sometimes topical, reflecting the contemporary political climate of the late 1960s and early-to-mid1970s, such as the Vietnam War, women's rights, race relations, and Watergate. However, most plots are timeless and feature themes still common to modern-day teenagers. For example, the 1969 episode "Funny Boy" deals with a class clown who is self-conscious about being overweight. In the 1971 episode "What Is a Man?," a student is a mistaken victim of anti-gay harassment, while the 1974 episode "I Didn't Raise My Girl to Be a Soldier" delves into parent–teenage child issues.


title: Room 222

text: The program was filmed at 20th Century Fox studios. Exterior shots of Los Angeles High School were shown behind the opening credits and for some outdoor scenes in the early seasons.


title: Room 222

text: "Room 222"'s initial episodes garnered weak ratings, and ABC was poised to cancel the program after one season. However, the show earned several nominations at the 1970 Emmy Awards, and ABC relented. In the spring of 1970, "Room 222" won Emmy Awards for Best New Series; Best Supporting Actor (Michael Constantine); and Best Supporting Actress (Karen Valentine). The following year, Constantine and Valentine were again nominated in the supporting acting awards category. After the shaky first season, "Room 222" nevertheless managed to receive respectable ratings during its next three years. Ratings peaked during the 1971–72 season, during which it held a #28 viewership ranking. By the start of the 1973–74 season, ratings had fallen drastically, and ABC canceled the show at mid-season. After the series ended, the program entered syndication and was rerun on several television stations throughout the United States.


title: Room 222

text: The theme song was written by composer Jerry Goldsmith, written in a 7/4 time signature. 7/4 is, itself, uncommon, but Goldsmith's theme subdivides the meter as 4+3/3+4, 3+4/4+3. His theme and two episode scores for the series ("Richie's Story" (the pilot) and "The Flu") were later issued by Film Score Monthly on an album with his score for the film "Ace Eli and Rodger of the Skies".


title: Room 222

text: The show draws some comparisons to a theatrical movie which premiered during the show's first season, "Halls of Anger". In that movie, a new, black teacher joins a southern California high school; an attractive, sympathetic black female member of staff shows romantic interest; a militant black student is frequently involved in situations; issues of racism and integration are featured. The film and television show also share actors (Ta-Tanisha, Helen Kleeb, Rob Reiner). However, while "Room 222" is a comedy drama, milder in tone, "Halls of Anger" is purposefully aggressive, using deliberately controversial language and some forceful violence to highlight the real and dangerous potential of unresolved racial conflict.


title: Room 222

text: A series of novels based on characters and dialog of the series was written by William Johnston and published by Tempo Books in the early 1970s. Dell Comics published a comic book for four issues during 1970 and 1971.


title: Room 222

text: Shout! Factory has released the first two seasons of "Room 222" on DVD in Region 1. As of 2022, these releases have been discontinued and are out of print. It is unknown if the remaining three seasons will be released.


title: Besançon

text: Besançon (, , , ; archaic ; ) is the prefecture of the department of Doubs in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. The city is located in Eastern France, close to the Jura Mountains and the border with Switzerland.


title: Besançon

text: Capital of the historic and cultural region of Franche-Comté, Besançon is home to the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté regional council headquarters, and is an important administrative centre in the region. It is also the seat of one of the fifteen French ecclesiastical provinces and one of the two divisions of the French Army.


title: Besançon

text: In 2019 the city had a population of 117,912, in a metropolitan area of 280,701, the second in the region in terms of population.


title: Besançon

text: Established in a meander of the river Doubs, the city was already important during the Gallo-Roman era under the name of "Vesontio", capital of the Sequani. Its geography and specific history turned it into a military stronghold, a garrison city, a political centre, and a religious capital.


title: Besançon

text: Besançon is the historical capital of watchmaking in France. This has led it to become a centre for innovative companies in the fields of microtechnology, micromechanics, and biomedical engineering. The University of Franche-Comté, founded in 1423, enrolls nearly 30,000 students each year, including around 4,000 trainees from all over the world within its Centre for Applied Linguistics (CLA).


title: Besançon

text: The greenest city in France, it enjoys a quality of life recognized in Europe. Thanks to its rich historical and cultural heritage and its unique architecture, Besançon has been labeled a "Town of Art and History" since 1986. Its fortifications, designed by Vauban, have been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2008.


title: Besançon

text: The city is first recorded in 58 BC as "Vesontio" in Book I of Julius Caesar's "Commentarii de Bello Gallico". The etymology of "Vesontio" is uncertain. The most common explanation is that the name is of Celtic origin, derived from "wes", meaning 'mountain'. During the 4th century, the letter B took the place of the V, and the city name changed to "Besontio" or "Bisontion" and then underwent several transformations to become "Besançon" in 1243.


title: Besançon

text: The city sits within an oxbow of the river Doubs (a tributary of the Saône); a mountain closes the fourth side. During the Bronze Age, c.1500 BC, tribes of Gauls settled the oxbow.


title: Besançon

text: From the 1st century BC through the modern era, the town had a significant military importance because the Alps rise abruptly to its immediate south, presenting a significant natural barrier.


title: Besançon

text: Julius Caesar, in his commentaries detailing his conquest of Gaul, describes Vesontio (possibly Latinized), as the largest town of the Sequani, a smaller Gaulic tribe, and mentions that a wooden palisade surrounded it. It appears as "Vesontine" in the Tabula Peutingeriana.


title: Besançon

text: Over the centuries, the name permutated to become Besantio, Besontion, Bisanz in Middle High German, and gradually arrived at the modern French "Besançon". The locals retain their ancient heritage referring to themselves as "Bisontins" (feminine: "Bisontine").


title: Besançon

text: In 843, the Treaty of Verdun divided up Charlemagne's empire. Besançon became part of Lotharingia, under the Duke of Burgundy.


title: Besançon

text: As part of the Holy Roman Empire since 1034, the city became an archbishopric, and was designated the Free Imperial City of Besançon (an autonomous city-state under the Holy Roman Emperor) in 1184. In 1157, Emperor Frederick Barbarossa held the Diet of Besançon. There, Cardinal Orlando Bandinelli (the future Pope Alexander III, then adviser of Pope Adrian IV) openly asserted before the Emperor that the imperial dignity was a papal beneficium (in the more general sense of favour, not the strict feudal sense of fief), which incurred the wrath of the German princes. He would have fallen on the spot under the battle-axe of his lifelong foe, Otto of Wittelsbach, had Frederick not intervened. The Archbishops were elevated to Princes of the Holy Roman Empire in 1288. The close connection to the Empire is reflected in the city's coat of arms.


title: Besançon

text: In 1290, after a century of fighting against the power of the archbishops, the Emperor granted Besançon its independence.


title: Besançon

text: In the 15th century, Besançon came under the influence of the dukes of Burgundy. After the marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, the city was in effect a Habsburg fief. In 1519 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, King of Spain, became the Holy Roman Emperor. This made him master of the Franche-Comté and Besançon, a francophone imperial city. In 1526 the city obtained the right to mint coins, which it continued to strike until 1673. Nevertheless, all coins bore the name of Charles V.


title: Besançon

text: When Charles V abdicated in 1555, he gave the Franche-Comté to his son, Philip II, King of Spain. Besançon remained a free imperial city under the protection of the King of Spain. In 1598, Philip II gave the province to his daughter on her marriage to an Austrian archduke. It remained formally a portion of the Empire until its cession at the peace of Westphalia in 1648. Spain regained control of Franche-Comté and the city lost its status as a free city. Then in 1667, Louis XIV claimed the province as a consequence of his marriage to Marie-Thérèse of Spain in the War of Devolution.


title: Besançon

text: Louis conquered the city for the first time in 1668, but the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle returned it to Spain within a matter of months. While it was in French hands, the famed military engineer Vauban visited the city and drew up plans for its fortification. The Spaniards built the main centre point of the city's defences, "la Citadelle", siting it on Mont Saint-Étienne, which closes the neck of the oxbow that is the site of the original town. In their construction, the Spaniards followed Vauban's designs.


title: Besançon

text: In 1674, French troops recaptured the city, which the Treaty of Nijmegen (1678) then awarded to France. At this time the city became the administrative centre for the Franche-Comté, with its own Parlement of Besançon, which replaced Dole.


title: Besançon

text: As a result of control passing to France, Vauban returned to working on the citadel's fortifications, and those of the city. This process lasted until 1711, some 30 years, and the walls built then surround the city. Between the train station and the central city there is a complex moat system that now serves road traffic. Numerous forts, some of which date back to that time and that incorporate Vauban's designs elements sit on the six hills that surround the city: Fort de Trois Châtels, Fort Chaudanne, Fort du Petit Chaudanne, Fort Griffon, Fort des Justices, Fort de Beauregard and Fort de Brégille. The citadel itself has two dry moats, with an outer and inner court. In the evenings, the illuminated Citadelle stands above the city as a landmark and a testament to Vauban's genius as a military engineer.


title: Besançon

text: In 1814, the Austrians invaded and bombarded the city. It also occupied an important position during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. In 1871, a project of Besançon Commune is engaged.


title: Besançon

text: The Nazis occupied the citadel during World War II. Between 1940 and 1944, the Germans executed some one hundred French resistance fighters there. However, Besançon saw little action during the war. The allies bombed the railway complex in 1943, and the next year the Germans resisted the U.S. advance for four days.


title: Besançon

text: Besançon was also the location, between 1940 and 1941, of an Internment Camp ("Konzentrationslager"), Frontstalag 142, also known as "Caserne Vauban", which the Germans set up for 3–4,000 holders of British passports, all women and children. The conditions were harsh; many hundreds of internees died of pneumonia, diarrhea, food poisoning, dysentery, and frostbite.


title: Besançon

text: In 1959, the French Army turned the citadel over to the city of Besançon, which turned it into a museum.


title: Besançon

text: The forts of Brégille and Beauregard sit across the Doubs from the city. In 1913, a private company built a funicular to the Brégille Heights. The funicular passed from private ownership to the SNCF, who finally closed it in 1987. The funicular's tracks, stations and even road signs remain in place to this day.


title: Besançon

text: Besançon is located in the north-east quarter of France on the river Doubs. It is about east of the national capital of Paris, east of Dijon in Burgundy, northwest of Lausanne in Switzerland, and southwest of Belfort in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It is located at the edge of the Jura Mountains.


title: Besançon

text: The city initially developed in a natural meander (or oxbow loop) of the river Doubs with a diameter of almost . The flat inner loop has an elevation of about , and is bounded to the south by a hill called "Mont Saint-Étienne", which has a maximum height of . The city is surrounded by six other hills which range in elevation from : Brégille, Griffon, Planoise, Chaudanne, Montfaucon, and Montboucon. (There is a barge canal that cuts through rock under Mont Saint-Étienne, short-cutting the meander.)


title: Besançon

text: Besançon is under the influence of both an oceanic climate (notable precipitations in quantity as much as in frequency) and a continental climate with hard winters (snow, frost) and warm and dry summers. The year-round average is . The warmest month is July and the coldest is January . Besançon receives about of precipitation per year. The wettest month is May (); the driest is August (). The highest temperature ever, recorded on 28 July 1921, was , and the lowest was a reached on 1 January 1985.


title: Besançon

text: As of 2019, the population of the City of Besançon was 117,912, lower than the historical peak of 120,315 in 1975. Grand Besançon Métropole covers , 68 municipalities and has a population of 195,745. The metropolitan area covers , 312 municipalities and has 280,701 inhabitants. It is the 39th metropolitan area of France, and its population increased by 4.5% between 2008 and 2019.


title: Besançon

text: Until 2016, Besançon was the capital of the Franche-Comté administrative "région" of France, a "région" including the four "départements" of Doubs, Haute-Saône, Jura and Territoire de Belfort. Franche-Comté was since merged with the neighbouring region of Burgundy, and the "préfecture" was transferred to the city of Dijon. However, Besançon remains the seat of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté regional council and of various decentralised administrations such as the regional offices of the French National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies (Insee) or the Centre régional des œuvres universitaires et scolaires (Crous).


title: Besançon

text: The city is known for its microtechnology and watch industries. It is host of the biannual Micronora trade fair, one of Europe's major events in the field of microtechnologies. The city has a little-known specialty, automatic ticketing machines for car parking, airports, date stamping etc.


title: Besançon

text: The watch industry, for which Besançon remains the French capital, endured a major crisis in the 1970s when the advent of quartz watches from Asia knocked out the traditional watch industry in the space of just a few years. The "Lip" affair epitomizes the industrial crisis. LIP is to this day the name of one of Besançon's most prestigious brands of watches. Refusing to let their factory close, the workers set up a cooperative to run it. The action produced a lot of notoriety and sympathy for the workers but also resulted in branding Besançon as a city of the radical left. It also did nothing to help revive the watch industry; the cooperative went out of business a short while later. The city took a long time to recover from the collapse of the watch industry and its other major industry of the industrial age, artificial textiles.


title: Besançon

text: Since the 1980s, Besançon's watch industry has clawed its way back on the basis of its historic reputation and quartz watches, establishing itself in a number of niche markets including customized watches, high quality watches, and fashion articles. Since the 1990s, the town has developed a reputation as one of France's leading centres of technology in all fields, including telecommunications and biotechnology.


title: Besançon

text: Besançon is the seat of the Université de Franche-Comté. , there were approximately students enrolled at the university, including around foreign students. The Institut Supérieur d'Ingénieurs de Franche-Comté (ISIFC), part of the Université de Franche-Comté, is the first school created in the country specifically for the Biomedical engineering field. The city is also home of the École Nationale Supérieure de Mécanique et des Microtechniques (ENSMM), a technological school with a strong reputation in the fields of microtechnology and mechanics and the Centre for Applied Linguistics which teaches ten languages to non-native speakers (French, Arabic, Chinese, English, German, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish) and any other known language on request. The Centre welcomes more than students every year from all over the world.


title: Besançon

text: As well as being famed as one of France's finest "villes d'art" (art cities), Besançon is the seat of one of France's older universities, of France's National School of Mechanics and Micromechanics, and one of the best known French language schools in France, the CLA.


title: Besançon

text: The most historic center of the town is characterised by the broad horse-shoe of the river Doubs, "la Boucle", which encircles the old town. Vauban's imposing Citadelle blocks off the neck. The historic center presents an ensemble of classic stone buildings, some dating back to the Middle Ages and others to the Spanish Renaissance.


title: Besançon

text: During Antiquity, Vesontio was an important metropolis of Roman Gaul. It is adorned with monuments, some of which have survived, archaeological excavations carried out during construction sites often revealing new discoveries dating from this period.


title: Besançon

text: The most emblematic and best-preserved monument dating from this period is the Porte Noire, a Gallo-Roman triumphal arch built under Marcus Aurelius in the 2nd century in the Saint-Jean district. Heavily deteriorated by the vagaries of time and pollution, it was the subject of a long and difficult restoration operation at the beginning of the 21st century. Immediately below is the Square Castan, a garden with a collection of archaeological remains from the 2nd century or the 3rd century including in particular eight Corinthian columns.


title: Besançon

text: On the other bank of the river Doubs, in the Battant district, the remains of the Vesontio arena are visible: only a few steps and foundations have been unearthed, its stones having been widely used in the Middle Ages for the construction of other buildings.


title: Besançon

text: There are several domii in the residential district of Vesontio. Among them, the domus of the Palace of Justice and the domus of the Lumière college with Roman mosaic exhibited in situ at the Besançon Museum of Fine Arts and Archeology. Other remains can be seen in more anonymous places, such as the ancient foundations in the underground car park of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté regional council.


title: Besançon

text: Most of the current fortification system (citadel, defensive wall made up of ramparts and bastions, Fort Griffon) is the work of the military engineer Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban. This group of buildings allows Besançon to appear on the UNESCO World Heritage List with eleven other sites under the title Fortifications of Vauban. The forts on the other hills were all built in the 19th century. The only remaining pre-Vauban fortifications are Porte Rivotte, Porte Taillée, Tour Carrée, Tour Notre-Dame and Tour de la Pelote.


title: Besançon

text: The citadel of Besançon was built by Vauban from 1678 to 1771 and is the most visited site in Franche-Comté with more than 250,000 visitors each year. It extends over eleven hectares at the top of Mont Saint-Étienne at an altitude between 330 and 370 meters, thus overhanging the meander of the river Doubs which has an altitude between 240 and 250 meters. It brings together a museum of Resistance and Deportation, a museum of Franche-Comté traditions, the regional archeology service and a zoo. It is the symbol of the city. Fort Griffon, whose name is that of the Italian architect Jean Griffoni who was commissioned to build a first fortification at this location in 1595, is a second citadel. It was Vauban who, at the end of the 17th century, had the current fort built.


title: Besançon

text: The city walls designed by Vauban includes all the fortifications of La Boucle historic district which were rebuilt from 1675 to 1695. Vauban in fact replaced the medieval defenses restored and completed by Charles V in the sixteenth century with a belt provided with six bastioned battery towers : the Notre-Dame tower, the bastioned tower of Chamars, the bastioned tower of the Marais, the bastioned tower of the Cordeliers (completed in 1691), the bastioned tower of Bregille and the bastioned tower of Rivotte.


title: Besançon

text: Fortifications prior to the French conquest are also numerous. The Tour de la Pelote, located on the Quai de Strasbourg, is a defensive tower built in 1546 by the municipal government on the orders of Charles V. Its name would come from the former owner of the land where it was built, Pierre Pillot, lord of Chenecey. The Porte Rivotte is a city gate dating from the 16th century, consisting of two round towers and a pediment carved with a sun which was King Louis XIV's personal emblem. The Porte Taillée ("Carved Gate"), opened in a rocky outcrop, is the work of the Romans. It marks the entrance to the city on the road to Switzerland. It is surmounted by a guardhouse and a watchtower built in 1546. The “square tower”, located in the promenade des Glacis, is also called the Montmart tower. It was built in the 13th century to defend the old entrance to the Battant district.


title: Besançon

text: The fortifications of the 19th century consist of a set of forts covering all the heights of the city: the fort of Chaudanne built from 1837 to 1842, the fort of Bregille built from 1820 to 1832, the fort of Planoise built from 1877 to 1880, Fort Benoit was built from 1877 to 1880, Fort Beauregard in 1830.


title: Besançon

text: Another example are the Trois-Châtels and Tousey lunettes, both built at the end of the 18th and early 19th centuries, as well as the Rosemont battery built during the war of 1870-1871, the Fort des Montboucons built from 1877 to 1880 and the Fort des Justices built from 1870. A third Lunette d'Arçon was located on the site of Fort Chaudanne; only its tower was preserved during the construction of the fort in the first half of the 19th century.


title: Besançon

text: The Ruty barracks, formerly Saint-Paul barracks, are made up of four pavilions surrounding a courtyard serving as a Place d'Armes and dating from the 18th and 19th centuries. It currently houses the headquarters of the 1st Armored Division and the 7th Armoured Brigade.


title: Besançon

text: After the city acquired an episcopal see in the 3rd century, churches and abbeys multiplied during the period of the High Middle Ages. Important constructions or reconstructions of religious buildings then took place in the 11th century during the episcopate of Hugues Ier de Salins and many churches were embellished or rebuilt after the French conquest of 1674. In 1842, the Church of the Holy Spirit was officially ceded to the Protestant community while the Jewish community inaugurated its synagogue in 1869. Finally, the Muslim community had two mosques built at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century.


title: Besançon

text: The most important religious building dedicated to Catholic worship in Besançon is Saint John's Cathedral, of Gothic architecture, dating from the 9th, 12th and 18th centuries. It has two apses and contains a masterpiece by Fra Bartolomeo, the painting of the "Madonna in Glory with Saints" painted in 1512. The cathedral dominates the old chapter district which includes the Archbishopric of Besançon located in the former Hôtel Boistouset and the former Archbishop's Palace currently occupied by the Rectorate of the academy. The Grand Seminary was built from 1670 to 1695 by Archbishop Antoine-Pierre Ier de Grammont and completed in the 18th century by the elevation of the portal and the construction of the main facade. The chapel has a two-storey facade of Corinthian pilasters on the street. Its portal is surmounted by a tympanum where the sculptor Huguenin represented a Madonna and Child in 1848.


title: Besançon

text: At the other end of the old cardo and current Grande Rue, is the Sainte-Madeleine church built from 1746 to 1766 on plans by Nicolas Nicole. It was definitively completed in 1828-1830 with the construction of its two towers, one of which hosts the Jacquemart bellstriker automaton. Its roof is made of polychrome glazed tiles.


title: Besançon

text: In the heart of the city centre, St Peter's Church, built by the Bisontin Claude Joseph Alexandre Bertrand from 1782 to 1786, impresses with the height of its bell tower which served as a belfry for the town hall which is opposite. St Maurice's Church, founded in the 6th century, was rebuilt from 1711 to 1714 with a Jesuit-style facade surmounted by a carillon. Notre-Dame Church corresponds to the former Benedictine abbey of Saint-Vincent which was founded in the eleventh century. It was under the Empire that it became the parish church of Notre-Dame. Its facade was designed in 1720 by the architect Jean-Pierre Galezot. You can still make out the large entrance gate to the abbey and the 16th-century bell tower. Today it is occupied by the Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences. Saint-François-Xavier Church, former chapel of the Jesuit college, was built between 1680 and 1688. Its plan is in the shape of a Latin cross surrounded by small side chapels. It was decommissioned in 1975. The Saint-Paul abbey, church of the former abbey founded around 628 by Saint Donat, archbishop of Besançon, was rebuilt in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Notre-Dame-du-Foyer chapel, built from 1739 to 1745 by the Bisontin Nicolas Nicole, was once the chapel of the Couvent du Refuge before being attached to the Saint-Jacques hospital in 1802.


title: Besançon

text: Outside the old town, among the important Catholic buildings, is the Saint-Ferjeux basilica of Romano-Byzantine style built on the cave of the patron saints of Besançon, Saint Ferjeux and Saint Ferréol. Notre-Dame des Buis, a 19th-century chapel, overlooks the city at an altitude of 491 metres.


title: Besançon

text: The Protestant community was assigned in 1842 the former hospice of the Holy Spirit, today the temple of the Holy Spirit. It is a 13th-century Gothic building augmented by a 15th-century chapel and deprived of its bell tower during the Revolution. It is distinguished by its gallery of sculpted wood, a masterpiece by an anonymous artist. Its neo-Gothic portal was created in 1841 by the architect Alphonse Delacroix in place of the old porch.


title: Besançon

text: The Jewish community, booming in the city in the middle of the 19th century, built the synagogue of Besançon from 1869 to 1871 on plans by the architect Pierre Marnotte. Listed as a historic monument in 1984, it is particularly remarkable for its Moorish style inspired by the Alhambra in Granada.


title: Besançon

text: The most recently built places of worship in Besançon are of Muslim faith: the Sounna Mosque built at the end of the 20th century on land ceded by the city in the Saint-Claude district, and the Al-Fath located in the district of Planoise.


title: Besançon

text: In the 16th century, many palaces and mansions were erected in the Boucle and Battant districts. The most important is the Palais Granvelle with Renaissance architecture built for Nicolas Perrenot de Granvelle, Chancellor and Keeper of the Seals of Emperor Charles V. It now houses the Museum of Time. The Town Hall was built by the architect Richard Maire who completed it in 1573. It has an ashlar facade in the spirit of Italian Renaissance palaces. Until the Revolution, a large niche in the facade housed a bronze statue of Charles V riding a two-headed eagle. The Palais de Justice (Court of Appeal) was originally the second main building of the town hall. In 1582, the municipality decided to enlarge the town hall to establish its court and its chapel. The construction was entrusted to the architect Hugues Sambin who was greatly inspired by the spirit of the Renaissance. The Hôtel de Champagney was built in the Battant district by Jacques Bonvalot, Lord of Champagney, during the first half of the 16th century. His daughter Nicole Bonvalot, widow of Nicolas de Granvelle, had the premises redesigned and the courtyard designed from 1560 to 1565 by architect Richard Maire. It is distinguished by the four gargoyles that adorn its facade and by its interior courtyard with arched passageways and galleries with wooden columns. The Hôtel Mareschal belonged to an important Besançon family, the Mareschal family. Burnt down on June 4, 1516, Guillaume Mareschal had it rebuilt in 1532 with an ornamental flora that heralded the Renaissance. Other notable buildings dating from the sixteenth century are the Hôtels of Chevanney, Gauthiot d'Ancier, Anvers, Bonvalot, and Bouteiller. At that time, the hills around Besançon were covered with vineyards: the city has preserved from this important viticultural past a dozen "cabordes", former vineyard huts made of dry limestone.


title: Besançon

text: Immediately after the French conquest, the installations were mainly of a military nature. However, two other notable constructions were erected at the end of the 17th century. Work on the Saint-Jacques hospital, which was intended to replace the one located on rue d'Arènes, began in 1688 and was completed in 1701. Its monumental entrance gate, executed by the locksmith Nicolas Chapuis in 1703 has been replaced by a copy. The Vauban Quay was built from 1691 to 1695 by the engineer Isaac Robelin. It is a monumental set of houses with arcades.


title: Besançon

text: During the Age of Enlightenment, the town's urban planning underwent major transformations and the construction of remarkable buildings, notably due to its new status as capital. The Hôtel de l'Intendance, currently prefecture of the Doubs departement, was built from 1771 to 1778 at the request of the intendant Charles André de Lacoré. The plans were drawn up by the great Parisian architect Victor Louis and the work directed by the bisontin architect Nicolas Nicole. It adopts the traditional plan of private mansions, with a main courtyard with a facade made up of six Ionic columns surmounted by a pediment and a garden at the rear of the building whose facade is decorated with a rotunda jutting out slightly. on the garden. The Théâtre Ledoux is an order from Monsieur de Lacoré to Claude-Nicolas Ledoux who drew up the plans and entrusted the construction to Claude-Joseph-Alexandre Bertrand which began in 1778 and ended with its inauguration on August 9, 1784 under the crook of Louis V Joseph of Bourbon-Condé. With a capacity of 2,000 seats, it was considered very innovative, as it had a seated parterre, an amphitheater hall without boxes, and it was the first in the world to have an orchestra pit. On April 29, 1958, a dramatic fire completely destroyed the interior and the roof of the building. The walls are the only witnesses that have survived, including the facade and its six monumental columns. Many mansions also attest to the prosperity of the city during this period. The Hotel Terrier de Santans was built between 1770 and 1772 for the Marquis Terrier de Santans, first president of parliament, by the architect Claude Bertrand. Other eminent families call on the greatest architects for their homes: the Hôtels Petit de Marivat, de Magnoncourt, Boistouset, de Courbouzon, de Clévans, de Camus, Querret, Terrier, and de Rosières.


title: Besançon

text: If the thermal baths of Besançon were completely destroyed in the 1950s, the city retains a number of buildings emblematic of its thermal past: the Grand Hôtel des Bains inaugurated in 1893, the municipal casino installed in a Belle Époque-style building inaugurated in 1882 or the Kursaal opened in 1893. It was also during this period that the astronomical observatory and the Café du Commerce were erected, a brasserie from the second half of the 19th century with a rich interior decor in the Belle Époque style.


title: Besançon

text: Besançon's specialization in watchmaking has also left its mark on the city's heritage. The astronomical clock located inside St. John's cathedral was commissioned in 1858 by Cardinal Mathieu from Auguste-Lucien Vérité. Composed of 30,000 mechanical parts, 57 dials and presenting 122 all interdependent indications, it is considered a masterpiece of its kind and classified as a Historic Monument in 1991. The National School of Watchmaking was built from 1928 to 1932 by the architect Paul Guadet. This imposing Art Deco building with a monumental clock on its facade now houses the Lycée Jules-Haag. The Dodane watch factory, completed in 1943, is an L-shaped reinforced concrete building whose construction was entrusted to the architect Auguste Perret who also designed the interior decor elements. It has a private garden with swimming pool and tennis court. In the twenty-first century, two monumental clocks, works by Bisontin Philippe Lebru from the Utinam workshop, were installed on the facade of the Besançon Museum of Fine Arts and inside the Besançon Franche-Comté TGV station.


title: Besançon

text: In addition to the watchmaking heritage, other buildings with notable architecture were built during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The Canot university campus was built from 1929 by the architect René Tournier and inaugurated by the President of the Republic Albert Lebrun in 1933. It was the first university residence in France. The Higher Institute of Fine Arts was built between 1970 and 1974 to plans by the Catalan architect Josep Lluís Sert. The Cité des Arts inaugurated in 2013 is the work of the Japanese architect Kengo Kuma.


title: Besançon

text: With of urban open spaces, including of forests, Besançon is considered the first green city in France with 204 m2 of green spaces per capita. The Forest of Chailluz, covering , represents a quarter of the total area of the commune. The city is the owner of this mainly deciduous forest, which includes a wildlife park and a fitness trail in addition to numerous trails. The historic center is entirely surrounded by green spaces. To the west of the old town, on the left bank of the Doubs, are the Jardins de la Gare-d'Eau: in 1833, the construction of the Rhone-Rhine Canal led the city to create a small port river shipping but it quickly fell into disuse after the opening of a canal tunnel under the citadel. The park around the basin is currently owned by the departmental council of Doubs. The Chamars Promenade, attached to these gardens but further north, built in the fourth quarter of the eighteenth century, owes its name to the contraction of Champ de Mars (Field of Mars). It was at first a marshland separated into two parts by an arm of the River Doubs: the big and the small Chamars. Vauban, judging this place vulnerable, fortified it with the help of ramparts and bastions. The city obtained permission to turn this space into a promenade in 1739. The architect Bertrand remodeled it between 1770 and 1778 by incorporating a café, public baths, an aviary of rare birds, waterfalls, a botanical garden and many plantings. It largely disappeared after 1830 with the leveling of the inner rampart and the creation of the Gare d'Eau port. A public garden was refurbished between 1978 and 1982. The only surviving elements of the former Chamars Promenade are the two guard houses, some plane trees, and the stone vases of the sculptor Jean-Baptiste Boutry.


title: Besançon

text: North of the historic district of Battant, on the right bank of the River Doubs, the Glacis Promenade, created in the middle of the nineteenth century, is the work of the landscape architect Brice Michel and the architect Boutterin. Right in the heart of this district, the Clos Barbisier is a garden created in 1988 and presenting an important variety of roses. The green belt extends east of the old town, still on the right bank of the River Doubs, by the Promenade of Helvetia which houses a botanical garden called Jardin des Sens et des Senteurs (Garden of Senses and Scents) realized in 1987, accessible to the visually impaired thanks to its plants and shrubs with certain sensory features (smell, touch), and Braille signs. Directly to the south is the Micaud Promenade, which has been progressively developed over from 1843 on plans by architect Alphonse Delacroix. It is named after Jules Micaud, the mayor who promoted the project. It includes more than four hundred trees, including a southern magnolia and a European beech, a bandstand, a pond, and several sculptures. The Jardins du Casino, a public garden with flowering lawns and tree-lined avenues, is directly on the other side of Edouard Droz Avenue, which runs along Micaud Promenade.