title: Thrall

text: Despite the existence of a caste system, thralls could experience a level of social fluidity. They could be freed by their masters at any time, be freed in a will or even buy their own freedom. Once a thrall was freed, he became a "freedman", or leysingi, a member of an intermediary group between slaves and freemen. He still owed allegiance to his former master and had to vote according to his former master's wishes. It took at least two generations for freedmen to lose the allegiance to their former masters and become full freemen. If a freedman had no descendants, his former master inherited his land and property.


title: Thrall

text: While thralls and freedmen did not have much economic or political power in Scandinavia, they were still given a "wergeld", or a man's price: there was a monetary penalty for unlawfully killing a slave.


title: Thrall

text: The era of Viking raids resulting in the capture of slaves slowly ended in the 11th century. In the following centuries, more thralls obtained their freedom, either by purchasing it or on the initiative of their masters, the Church or the secular authority. The thrall system was finally abolished in Scandinavia in the mid-14th century.


title: 1994 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The 1994 UEFA Champions League Final was a football match between Italian club Milan and Spanish club Barcelona, played on 18 May 1994 at the Olympic Stadium in Athens, Greece.


title: 1994 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Barcelona were favourites to win their second European Cup/UEFA Champions League in three years, having just won La Liga for the fourth year in a row. Milan's preparation before the final was in disarray: legendary striker Marco van Basten was still out with a long-term injury, and £13 million young sensation Gianluigi Lentini (then world's most expensive footballer) was also injured; sweeper and captain, Franco Baresi was suspended, as was defender Alessandro Costacurta; and UEFA regulations at the time that limited teams to fielding a maximum of three non-nationals meant that coach Fabio Capello was forced to leave out Florin Răducioiu, Jean-Pierre Papin and Brian Laudrup. On Barcelona's side, the rule saw Johan Cruyff choosing not to pick Michael Laudrup in his squad for the final which caused Capello to state after the game: "Laudrup was the guy I feared but Cruyff left him out, and that was his mistake". Laudrup left Barcelona for their arch-rival, Real Madrid, at the end of the season.


title: 1994 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Milan played in their all-white away strip, which historically they use in finals of the European Cup/UEFA Champions League, while Barcelona played in their red and blue strip. Milan dominated early and were rewarded when Dejan Savićević ran down the right flank and passed to Daniele Massaro, who tapped the ball into an empty net. Massaro banged in his second just before half-time to make it 2–0 after a solo run by Roberto Donadoni down the left wing.


title: 1994 UEFA Champions League Final

text: In the 47th minute, Savićević capitalised on a defensive error by Miguel Ángel Nadal to lob goalkeeper Andoni Zubizarreta for the third goal. Eight minutes later, after Savićević had hit a post and the Barcelona defence had failed to clear, Milan midfielder Marcel Desailly beat the offside trap to make it 4–0, which ended up being the final score. Desailly became the first player to win the trophy in consecutive years with different clubs after winning with Marseille in 1993.


title: 1994 UEFA Champions League Final

text: "In the following table, finals until 1992 were in the European Cup era, since 1993 were in the UEFA Champions League era."


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Post-concussion syndrome (PCS) is a set of symptoms that may continue for weeks, months, or a year or more after a concussion – medically classified as a so-called mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). About 34 to 35% of people with concussion experience persistent or prolonged symptoms 3 to 6 months after injury. Prolonged concussion is defined as having concussion symptoms for over four weeks following the first accident in youth and for weeks or months in adults.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: A diagnosis may be made when symptoms resulting from concussion last for more than three months after the injury. Loss of consciousness is not required for a diagnosis of concussion or post-concussion syndrome. However, it is important that patients find help as soon as they notice lingering symptoms within one month, and especially when they notice their mental health deteriorating, since they are at risk of post-concussion syndrome depression.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Though there is no specific treatment for PCS, symptoms can be improved with medications and physical and behavioral therapy. Education about symptoms and details about expectation of recovery are important. The majority of PCS cases resolve after a period of time.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: In the past, the term PCS was also used to refer to immediate physical symptoms or post-concussive symptoms following a minor TBI or concussion. The severity of these symptoms typically decreases rapidly. In addition, the nature of the symptoms may change over time: acute symptoms are most commonly of a physical nature, while persisting symptoms tend to be predominantly psychological. Symptoms such as noise sensitivity, problems with concentration and memory, irritability, depression, and anxiety may be called 'late symptoms' because they generally do not occur immediately after the injury, but rather in the days or weeks after the injury. Nausea and drowsiness commonly occur acutely following concussion. Headache and dizziness occur immediately after the injury, but also can be long lasting.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The condition is associated with a wide range of non-specific symptoms: physical, such as headache; cognitive, such as difficulty concentrating; and emotional and behavioral, such as irritability. Many of the symptoms associated with PCS are common or may be exacerbated by other disorders, so there is considerable risk of misdiagnosis. Headaches that occur after a concussion may feel like migraine headaches or tension-type headaches. Most headaches are tension-type headaches, which may be associated with a neck injury that occurred at the same time of the head injury.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: A common condition associated with PCS is headache. While most people have headaches of the same type they experienced before the injury, people diagnosed with PCS often report more frequent or longer-lasting headaches. Between 30% and 90% of people treated for PCS report having more frequent headaches and between 8% and 32% still report them a year after the injury.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Dizziness is another common symptom reported in about half of people diagnosed with PCS and is still present in up to a quarter of them a year after the injury. Older people are at especially high risk for dizziness, which can contribute to subsequent injuries and higher rates of mortality due to falls.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: About 10% of people with PCS develop sensitivity to light or noise, about 5% experience a decreased sense of taste or smell, and about 14% report blurred vision. People may also have double vision or ringing in the ears, also called tinnitus. PCS may cause insomnia, fatigue, or other problems with sleep.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Psychological conditions, which are present in about half of people with PCS, may include irritability, anxiety, depression, and a change in personality. Other emotional and behavioral symptoms include restlessness, aggression, and mood swings. Some common symptoms, such as apathy, insomnia, irritability, or lack of motivation, may result from other co-occurring conditions, such as depression.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Common symptoms associated with a diagnosis of PCS are related to cognition, attention, and memory, especially short-term memory, which can also worsen other problems such as forgetting appointments or difficulties at work. In one study, one in four people diagnosed with PCS continued to report memory problems a year after the injury, but most experts agree that cognitive symptoms clear within six months to a year after injury in the vast majority of individuals.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The question of the cause or causes of PCS has been heavily debated for many years and remain controversial. It is not known to exactly what degree the symptoms are due to physiological changes or to other factors, such as pre-existing psychiatric disorders or factors related to secondary gain or disability compensation. The subjectivity of the complaints complicates assessment and makes it difficult to determine whether symptoms are being exaggerated or feigned.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: PCS may also be exacerbated by psychosocial factors, chronic pain, or an interaction of some or all of these. The majority of experts believe that PCS results from a mix of factors, including preexisting psychological factors and those directly relating to the physical injury.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: It is not known what causes PCS to occur and persist, or why some people who have a mild traumatic brain injury later develop PCS while others do not. The nature of the syndrome and the diagnosis itself have been the subject of intense debate since the 19th century. However, certain risk factors have been identified; for example, preexisting medical or psychological conditions, expectations of disability, being female, and older age all increase the chances that someone will have PCS. Physiological and psychological factors present before, during, and after the injury are all thought to be involved in the development of PCS.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Some experts believe post-concussion symptoms are caused by structural damage to the brain or disruption of neurotransmitter systems, resulting from the impact that caused the concussion. Others believe that post-concussion symptoms are related to common psychological factors. Most common symptoms like headache, dizziness, and sleep problems are similar to those often experienced by individuals diagnosed with depression, anxiety, or post traumatic stress disorder. In many cases, both physiological effects of brain trauma and emotional reactions to these events play a role in the development of symptoms.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Conventional neuroimaging studies of the brain following a concussion are typically normal. However, studies have found some subtle physiological changes associated with PCS using more novel imaging modalities. Studies using positron emission tomography have linked PCS to a reduction in glucose use by the brain. Changes in cerebral blood flow have also been observed as long as three years after a concussion in studies using single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). At least one study with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has shown differences in brain function during tasks involving memory after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) although they were not examining PCS specifically.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Not all people with PCS have abnormalities on imaging, however, and abnormalities found in studies such as fMRI, PET, and SPECT could result from other comorbid conditions such as depression, chronic pain, or posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Proponents of the view that PCS has a physiological basis point to findings that children demonstrate deficits on standardized tests of cognitive function following a mild TBI. A few studies have shown that people with PCS score lower than controls on neuropsychological tests that measure attention, verbal learning, reasoning, and information processing, but issues related to effort and secondary gain can not be ruled out as contributing to these differences. Recovery as measured by scores on cognitive tests frequently do not correlate with resolution of symptoms; individuals diagnosed with PCS may still report subjective symptoms after their performance on tests of cognitive functioning have returned to normal. Another study found that although children with PCS had poorer scores on tests of cognitive functioning after the injury, they also had poorer behavioral adjustment before the injury than children with no persistent symptoms; these findings support the idea that PCS may result from a combination of factors such as brain dysfunction resulting from head injury and preexisting psychological or social problems. Different symptoms may be predicted by different factors; for example, one study found that cognitive and physical symptoms were not predicted by the manner in which parents and family members coped with the injury and adjusted to its effects, but psychological and behavioral symptoms were.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: It has been argued that psychological factors play an important role in the presence of post-concussion symptoms. The development of PCS may be due to a combination of factors such as adjustment to effects of the injury, preexisting vulnerabilities, and brain dysfunction. Setbacks related to the injury, for example problems at work or with physical or social functioning, may act as stressors that interact with preexisting factors such as personality and mental conditions to cause and perpetuate PCS. In one study, levels of daily stress were found to be correlated to PCS symptoms in both concussed subjects and controls, but in another, stress was not significantly related to symptoms.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Iatrogenic effects (those caused by the medical intervention) may also occur when individuals are provided with misleading or incorrect information related to recovery of symptoms. This information may cause people to focus and dwell on the idea that their brains are permanently damaged. It appears that even the expectation of symptoms may contribute to the development of PCS by causing individuals with mTBI to focus on symptoms and therefore perceive them to be more intense, to attribute symptoms that occur for other reasons to the injury, and to underestimate the rate of symptoms before the injury.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) and the American Psychiatric Association's "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" have set out criteria for post-concussion syndrome (PCS) and post-concussional disorder (PCD), respectively.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The ICD-10 established a set of diagnostic criteria for PCS in 1992. In order to meet these criteria, a patient has had a head injury "usually sufficiently severe to result in loss of consciousness" and then develop at least three of the eight symptoms marked with a check mark in the table at right under "ICD-10" within four weeks.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: About 38% of people who have a head injury with symptoms of concussion and no radiological evidence of brain lesions meet these criteria. In addition to these symptoms, people that meet the ICD-10 criteria for PCS may fear that they will have permanent brain damage, which may worsen the original symptoms. Preoccupation with the injury may be accompanied by the assumption of a "sick role" and hypochondriasis. The criteria focus on subjective symptoms and mention that neuropsychological evidence of significant impairment is not present. With their focus on psychological factors, the ICD-10 criteria support the idea that the cause of PCS is functional. Like the ICD-10, the ICD-9-CM defines PCS in terms of subjective symptoms and discusses the greater frequency of PCS in people with histories of mental disorders or a financial incentive for a diagnosis.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The DSM-IV lists criteria for diagnosis of PCD in people who have had a head trauma with persistent post-traumatic amnesia, loss of consciousness, or post-traumatic seizures. In addition, for a diagnosis of PCD, patients must have neuropsychological impairment as well as at least three of the symptoms marked with a check mark in the table at right under "DSM-IV". These symptoms must be present for three months after the injury and must have been absent or less severe before the injury. In addition, the patient must experience social problems as a result, and must not meet criteria for another disorder that explains the symptoms better.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Neuropsychological tests exist to measure deficits in cognitive functioning that can result from PCS. The Stroop Color Test and the 2&7 Processing Speed Test (which both detect deficits in speed of mental processing) can predict the development of cognitive problems from PCS. A test called the Rivermead Postconcussion Symptoms Questionnaire, a set of questions that measure the severity of 16 different post-concussion symptoms, can be self-administered or administered by an interviewer. Other tests that can predict the development of PCS include the Hopkins Verbal Learning A test (HVLA) and the Digit Span Forward examination. The HVLA tests verbal learning and memory by presenting a series of words and assigning points based on the number recalled, and digit span measures attention efficiency by asking the examinee to repeat back digits spoken by the tester in the same order as they are presented. In addition, neuropsychological tests may be performed to detect malingering (exaggerating or making up symptoms) .


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: PCS, which shares symptoms with a variety of other conditions, is highly likely to be misdiagnosed in people with these conditions. Cognitive and affective symptoms that occur following a traumatic injury may be attributed to mTBI, but in fact be due to another factor such as posttraumatic stress disorder, which is easily misdiagnosed as PCS and vice versa. Affective disorders such as depression have some symptoms that can mimic those of PCS and lead to a wrongful diagnosis of the latter; these include problems with concentration, emotional lability, anxiety, and sleep problems. Depression, which is highly common in persistent PCS, can worsen other PCS symptoms, such as headaches and problems with concentration, memory, and sleep. PCS also shares symptoms with chronic fatigue syndrome, fibromyalgia, and exposure to certain toxins. Traumatic brain injury may cause damage to the hypothalamus or the pituitary gland, and deficiencies of pituitary hormones (hypopituitarism) can cause similar symptoms to post-concussion syndrome; in these cases, symptoms can be treated by replacing any hormones that are deficient.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Management of post-concussion syndrome typically involves treatments addressing specific symptoms; for example, people can take over the counter pain relievers for headaches and medicine to relieve depression or insomnia. Participation in low-risk physical activities that raise the heart rate and mental activities is advised, at a level that does not worsen symptoms. Prolonged rest is not suggested. Physical and behavioral therapy may also be prescribed for problems such as loss of balance and difficulties with attention, respectively.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Though no pharmacological treatments exist for PCS, doctors may prescribe medications used for symptoms that also occur in other conditions; for example, antidepressants are used for the depression that frequently follows mTBI. Side effects of medications may affect people with mTBI more severely than they do others, and thus it is recommended that medications be avoided if possible; there may be a benefit to avoiding narcotic medications. In addition, some pain medications prescribed for headaches can cause rebound headaches when they are discontinued.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Psychological treatment, to which about 40% of PCS patients are referred for consultation, has been shown to reduce problems. Ongoing disabilities may be treated with therapy to improve function at work, or in social or other contexts. Therapy aims to aid in the gradual return to work and other preinjury activities, as symptoms permit. A protocol for PCS treatment has been designed based on the principles behind Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), a psychotherapy aimed at influencing disturbed emotions by improving thoughts and behaviors. CBT may help prevent persistence of iatrogenic symptoms – those that occur because health care providers create the expectation that they will. A risk exists that the power of suggestion may worsen symptoms and cause long-term disabilities; therefore, when counseling is indicated, the therapist must take a psychological origin of symptoms into account and not assume that all symptoms are a direct result of neurological damage from the injury.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: In situations such as motor vehicle accidents or following a violent attack, the post-concussion syndrome may be accompanied by posttraumatic stress disorder, which is important to recognize and treat in its own right. People with PTSD, depression, and anxiety can be treated with medication and psychotherapy.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Post-concussion syndrome can sometimes be the result of a misalignment in the upper cervical spine (neck) specifically the C1 (Atlas) or C2 (Axis) which surround the brain stem. Some individuals have found relief through upper cervical care. An upper cervical chiropractor is a specialist who uses x-rays to identify misalignments in the upper cervical spine then gently repositions the top two bones of the neck. There are currently approximately seven different chiropractic methods of repositioning the C1 bone, however the three most popular techniques are NUCCA (adjustment done by hand), Blair Technique (adjustment done by hand), and Atlas Orthogonal (adjustment done by a machine).


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Education about symptoms and their usual time course is a part of psychological therapy, and is most effective when provided soon after the injury. Since stress exacerbates post-concussion symptoms, and vice versa, an important part of treatment is reassurance that PCS symptoms are normal, and education about how to deal with impairments. One study found that PCS patients who were coached to return to activities gradually, told what symptoms to expect, and trained how to manage them had a reduction in symptoms compared to a control group of uninjured people. Early education has been found to reduce symptoms in children as well.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Neurotherapy is an operant conditioning test where patients are given conditional audio/visual rewards after producing particular types of brainwave activity. Recent neurotherapy improvements in quantitative electroencephalography can identify the specific brainwave patterns that need to be corrected. Studies have shown that neurotherapy is effective in the treatment of post-concussion syndrome and other disorders with similar symptoms.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The prognosis for PCS is generally considered positive, with total resolution of symptoms in many, but not all, cases. For 50% of people, post-concussion symptoms go away within a few days to several weeks after the original injury occurs. In others, symptoms may remain for three to six months, but evidence indicates that many cases are completely resolved within six months. The majority of symptoms are largely gone in about half of people with concussion one month after the injury, and about two thirds of people with minor head trauma are nearly symptom-free within three months. Persistent, often severe headaches are the longest lingering symptom in most cases and are the most likely symptom to never fully resolve. It is frequently stated in the literature and considered to be common knowledge that 15–30% of people with PCS have not recovered by a year after the injury, but this estimate is imprecise because it is based on studies of people admitted to a hospital, the methodologies of which have been criticized. In approximately 15% of people, symptoms may persist for years or be permanent. If symptoms are not resolved by one year, they are likely to be permanent, though improvements may occur after even two or three years, or may suddenly occur after a long time without much improvement.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Older people and those who have previously had another head injury are likely to take longer to recover.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The way in which children cope with the injury after it occurs may have more of an impact than factors that existed prior to the injury. Children's mechanisms for dealing with their injuries may have an effect on the duration of symptoms, and parents who do not deal effectively with anxiety about children's post-injury functioning may be less able to help their children recover.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: If another blow to the head occurs after a concussion but before its symptoms have gone away, there is a slight risk of developing the serious second-impact syndrome (SIS). In SIS, the brain rapidly swells, greatly increasing intracranial pressure. People who have repeated mild head injuries over a prolonged period, such as boxers and Gridiron football players, are at risk for chronic traumatic encephalopathy (or the related variant dementia pugilistica), a severe, chronic disorder involving a decline in mental and physical abilities.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: It is not known exactly how common PCS is. Estimates of the prevalence at three  months post-injury are between 24 and 84%, a variation possibly caused by different populations or study methodologies. The estimated incidence of PPCS (persistent postconcussive syndrome) is around 10% of mTBI cases. Since PCS by definition only exists in people who have had a head injury, demographics and risk factors are similar to those for head injury; for example, young adults are at higher risk than others for receiving head injury, and, consequently, of developing PCS.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The existence of PCS in children is controversial. It is possible that children's brains have enough plasticity that they are not affected by long-term consequences of concussion (though such consequences are known to result from moderate and severe head trauma). On the other hand, children's brains may be more vulnerable to the injury, since they are still developing and have fewer skills that can compensate for deficits. Clinical research has found higher rates of post-concussion symptoms in children with TBI than in those with injuries to other parts of the body, and that the symptoms are more common in anxious children. Symptoms in children are similar to those in adults, but children exhibit fewer of them. Evidence from clinical studies found that high school-aged athletes had slower recoveries from concussion as measured by neuropsychological tests than college-aged ones and adults. PCS is rare in young children.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: A wide range of factors have been identified as being predictive of PCS, including low socioeconomic status, previous mTBI, a serious associated injury, headaches, an ongoing court case, age and female sex. Being older than 40 and being female have also been identified as being predictive of a diagnosis of PCS, and women tend to report more severe symptoms. In addition, the development of PCS can be predicted by having a history of alcohol use disorder, low cognitive abilities before the injury, a personality disorder, or a medical illness not related to the injury. PCS is also more prevalent in people with a history of psychiatric conditions such as clinical depression or anxiety before the injury.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Mild brain injury-related factors that increase the risk for persisting post-concussion symptoms include an injury associated with acute headache, dizziness, or nausea; an acute Glasgow Coma Score of 13 or 14; and having another head injury before recovering from the first. The risk for developing PCS also appears to be increased in people who have traumatic memories of the injury or expect to be disabled by the injury.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: The symptoms that occur after a concussion have been described in various reports and writings for hundreds of years. The idea that this set of symptoms forms a distinct entity began to attain greater recognition in the latter part of the 19th century. John Erichsen, a surgeon from London, played an important role in developing the study of PCS. The controversy surrounding the cause of PCS began in 1866 when Erichsen published a paper about persisting symptoms after sustaining mild head trauma. He suggested that the condition was due to "molecular disarrangement" to the spine. The condition was originally called "railroad spine" because most of the injuries studied had happened to railroad workers. While some of his contemporaries agreed that the syndrome had an organic basis, others attributed the symptoms to psychological factors or to outright feigning. In 1879, the idea that a physical problem was responsible for the symptoms was challenged by Rigler, who suggested that the cause of the persisting symptoms was actually "compensation neurosis": the railroad's practice of compensating workers who had been injured was bringing about the complaints. Later, the idea that hysteria was responsible for the symptoms after a mild head injury was suggested by Charcot. Controversy about the syndrome continued through the 20th century. During World War I many soldiers with puzzling symptoms after being close to a detonation but without any evidence of a head wound. The illness was called "shell shock," and a psychological explanation was eventually favoured. By 1934 the current concept of PCS had replaced ideas of hysteria as the cause of post-concussion symptoms. British authorities banned the term "shell shock" during World War II to avoid an epidemic of cases, and the term "posttrauma concussion state" was coined in 1939 to describe "disturbance of consciousness with no immediate or obvious pathologic change in the brain". The term "postconcussion syndrome" was in use by 1941.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: In 1961, H. Miller first used the term "accident neurosis" to refer to the syndrome which is now called PCS and asserted that the condition only occurs in situations where people stand to be compensated for the injury. The real causes of the condition remain unclear.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Though no universally accepted definition of postconcussive syndrome exists, most of the literature defines the syndrome as the development of at least three of the following symptoms: headache, dizziness, fatigue, irritability, impaired memory and concentration, insomnia, and lowered tolerance for noise and light. One complication in diagnosis is that symptoms of PCS also occur in people who have no history of head injury, but who have other medical and psychological complaints. In one study 64% of people with TBI, 11% of those with brain injuries, and 7% of those with other injuries met the DSM-IV criteria for post-concussion syndrome. Many of these individuals with PCS were misdiagnosed as having other unrelated conditions due to commonality of symptoms. (see diagnosis above).


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Headache is one of the criteria for PCS, but it is notably undetermined where the headache comes from. Couch, Lipton, Stewart and Scher (2007) argue that headaches, one of the hallmarks of PCS, occur in a variety of injuries to the head and neck. Further, Lew et al. (2006) reviewed ample studies comparing headaches to post-traumatic headaches and found that there is wide heterogeneity in the source and causes of headaches. They point out that the International Headache Society lists 14 known causes of headaches, as well. Furthermore, the headaches may be better accounted for by mechanical causes, such as whiplash, which is often mistaken for PCS. An additional possibility is that posttraumatic stress disorder can account for some cases diagnosed as PCS, but for emotional regulation as well.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: Depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and chronic pain share symptoms resembling those of PCS. One study found that while people with chronic pain without TBI do report many symptoms similar to those of post-concussion syndrome, they report fewer symptoms related to memory, slowed thinking, and sensitivity to noise and light than people with mTBI do. Additionally, it has been found that neuroendocrinology may account for depressive symptoms and stress management due to irregularities in cortisol regulation, and thyroid hormone regulation. Lastly, there is evidence that major depression following TBI is quite common, but may be better accounted for with a diagnosis of dysexecutive syndrome.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: In a syndrome, a set of symptoms is consistently present, and symptoms are linked such that the presence of one symptom suggests that of others. Because PCS symptoms are so varied and many can be associated with a large number of other conditions, doubt exists about whether the term "syndrome" is appropriate for the constellation of symptoms found after concussion. The fact that the persistence of one symptom is not necessarily linked to that of another has similarly led to doubt about whether "syndrome" is the appropriate term.


title: Post-concussion syndrome

text: A longstanding controversy surrounding PCS concerns the nature of its etiology – that is, the cause behind it – and the degree to which psychological factors and organic factors involving brain dysfunction are responsible. The debate has been referred to as 'psychogenesis versus physiogenesis' (psychogenesis referring to a psychological origin for the condition, physiogenesis to a physical one).


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: The story involves three friends who, while searching for the cure to a new disease, come into contact with a space-faring federation that is locked in a war with another galactic power. Using advanced technologies and time travel, the group attempts to uncover the cause of the war and to find a cure for their planet. The Super Famicom version was never released outside Japan due to Enix closing its American branch shortly before the game was finished, as well as Nintendo's focus on supporting the then-upcoming Nintendo 64 video game console. However, the game was later remade by Tose for the PlayStation Portable under the title , and released in English-speaking regions in North America, Europe, and Australia in October 2008. A remastered version titled was released for the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 worldwide in December 2019. The game was the start of the entire "Star Ocean" series, featuring six main games, 3 spin-offs, a remake, a remaster, and a manga.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: "Star Ocean" is a role-playing video game that is played from a top-down perspective. The player navigates a character throughout the game world, exploring towns and dungeons and interacting with non-player characters. Unlike the original game, the PlayStation Portable remake includes a world map for the player to navigate.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: In progressing through the game, the player is able to recruit up to eight additional characters to travel alongside the protagonist; some recruitments happen automatically, while others only happen depending on the previous actions and options taken by the player. Though only 8 characters can be recruited in a playthrough, ten characters are available to be recruited, and as a result not all characters can be recruited in one playthrough of the game. Certain characters cannot be recruited unless the player's party is a specific size, or the player has made specific story decisions. In "First Departure", players have the option of recruiting characters they did not previously have the option of adding to their party.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: When players move their party in the game's dungeons and paths, random battles occur. Combat is done in a 3D isometric point of view. Unlike games in the "Final Fantasy" or "Dragon Quest" series, the battles are not turn based, but play out in real time. Players also do not directly control all of their characters' actions, but instead chose battle strategies beforehand for all but one of their characters who then move and attack their closest enemy automatically. Added to "First Departure" was a combo attack system where special attacks stack to become more powerful. Players can equip characters with four special abilities with "ranged" and "distance" slots, whereas the remake reduced that number to two. Up to four characters can participate in battles, but the player is only able to control one character at a time, leaving the others to be controlled by the computer's artificial intelligence. The player can switch which character is being controlled in battle. All characters have a standard "attack" option, in which the character's equipped item is used to attack whichever enemy the player has locked on to. Additionally, special techniques called Symbology can be used as well, which have the potential to deal more damage, but cost MP (Mental Points), of which each character has a finite amount. Special attacks are assigned before combat begins.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: Special Points (abbreviated "SP" in game) are also rewarded from battles, and are used to customize the character's abilities. For instance, allotting SP to the cooking ability grants or improves a given character's ability to make consumable foods out of raw materials in order to heal characters from damage taken in battles. Item creation can allow for characters to be able to create weapons and equipment that are stronger than those available to be bought in stores and towns. Individual items have a 20 item limit.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: "Star Ocean" has a game mechanic called "Private Actions" that plays a role in character development. While entirely optional, they often reveal additional backstory of particular characters or have other varying effects on gameplay. Upon arriving in a town, the player can opt to have all the characters in the party to temporarily split up and go their separate ways within the limitations of the town. The player retains control of just Ratix, and is able to look for the other characters. Upon finding other party members, various events may happen; sometimes only small talk results, other times, larger events happen, that may even require a choice to be made by the player. Depending on the results, this can cause characters to either gain or lose "affinity" toward other characters in the party. For example, if one character loves another, the affinity level will be high, but if the former is mistreated, it will lower their feelings for the latter. A character's affinity towards one another can have effects on the rest of the game. Affinity also affect which character's endings players see. While the game's overarching plot always largely ends the same, various parts of the ending are changed, added, or left out, depending on characters' affinity at the end of the game.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: The game takes place in S.D 346 (A.D 2432), and starts off in a small town of Kratus on the under-developed planet of Roak. There, a few of the local Fellpool (cat-like people) youth, Roddick, Millie, and Dorne, are part of the village's local "Defense Force", who defend the village from minor threats such as thieves and robbers. However, one day, a neighboring town, Coule, starts contracting a terrible disease that turns people into stone. The town healer, Millie's father, contracts the disease while trying to get rid of it, leading the group to search Mt. Metorx for a herb that is rumored to cure any sickness. Dorne unintentionally contracts the disease as well after touching an infected pigeon.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: When they reach the summit, they are confronted by Ronyx J. Kenny and Ilia Silvestri, two crew members of the Earth Federation (Terran Alliance in the PSP remake) starship "Calnus". They inform them that the disease was sent to the planet by a foreign race called the Lezonians, whom the Earth Federation has been at war with. Roddick and Millie go with them on their spacecraft to help them find a cure. They learn that Fellpool blood could be used to process a special, invisible material which could give them a massive advantage in the war. Upon coming in contact with Lezonians, they reveal that they were being forced into war by a shadowy, powerful third party with a disgust for the Federation.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: Before Dorne fully succumbs to the disease, they do tests on him to figure out a cure. They determined that the only possible way to fight it would be to make a vaccine that uses the original source of the disease. While the origin of the virus is tracked back to being on Roak itself, it is from Asmodeus, the King of the Demon World, who had been killed 300 years prior to the spread of the disease. Ronyx talks the group into using a Time Gate on the Planet Styx to go back 300 years into the past to track down Asmodeus back when he was still alive. While this works, Ilia trips while approaching the gate. As such, Ilia and Roddick have a delay from when they enter the time gate, and after the trip through time, they find themselves separated from Ronyx and Millie. The two groups work towards locating each other, and Asmodeus, in efforts to heal their family members and stop the war.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: In 1994, video game developers Wolf Team signed a deal with publisher Namco to release the game that would be "Tales of Phantasia", which was later released in 1995 in Japan for the Super Famicom. However, the development cycle for this game was plagued with creative disputes between the developers and publisher, leading to much of the development team leaving to form a new company, which would become tri-Ace, which explains some of the common themes between the games, such as the similar battle systems.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: After "Tales of Phantasia" was completed, some of the game's designers felt that the core skill and item systems were too "generic", and for their next game they would make a much deeper gameplay experience. To deepen the story, the "private action" system was created to reveal more of the characters history, personality and relationships, but the score the game generated from various choices was hidden from players since there was no "right" or "wrong" story path. In order to tell a "bigger" story, space was chosen as the setting.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: Both "Tales of Phantasia" and "Star Ocean" stretched the power of the Super Famicom to its limits, with a total of 48 megabits of data. Additionally, "Star Ocean" was also one of two games that used a special S-DD1 chip to aid in compression of almost all graphics and map data, meaning that it effectively stored even more data than "Tales of Phantasia", though the compression led to a lower audio quality. The game also featured special technology called a "Flexible Voice Driver" that allowed for the compression of sound, allowing for voice clips for characters when in battles, another trait that was both very rare for a Super Famicom game, and shared with "Tales of Phantasia". Different voice clips would be played depending on the scenario; if the characters were confronted by weak enemies, they may say something more confident, where as if confronted by strong enemies, they may say something more fearful or frantic. Mode 7 graphics were generated using software, and appear when items pop out of treasure chests; the need for extra tiles, however, limited the graphical effects implementation. The game also featured surround sound. Planning for a sequel began as soon as development was completed on "Star Ocean". Feedback about weak boss monsters later led to more challenging battles in "".


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: The game was released on July 19, 1996. Despite appearing in North American video game magazine "Nintendo Power" in 1996, the Super Famicom version was never officially released anywhere outside Japan. Enix America ceased to publish games in North America by the end of 1995 due to poor sales, and Nintendo had already passed on publishing "Tales of Phantasia" a year prior, instead choosing to focus on the then-upcoming Nintendo 64 video game console. However, the game was unofficially translated into English by DeJap Translations, who created a patch that made the game fully playable in English via emulation. The game would not be officially available in English until 12 years later, when the game was remade for the PlayStation Portable as "Star Ocean: First Departure" in 2008.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: "Star Ocean: First Departure" is an enhanced remake of the original "Star Ocean", developed by TOSE. The first details of the game were revealed at the "Star Ocean Special Stage" during the Square Enix Party 2007, alongside those of "". Yoshinori Yamagishi, producer of the series, stated that he wants the remakes to feel as though they're completely new games.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: The game was released in Japan on December 27, 2007, and was released in North America and Europe on October 21, 2008 and October 24, 2008 respectively; making it the first time that the original "Star Ocean" was officially released outside Japan. The English localization was handled by Nanica, Inc., with voice-over production services provided by Epcar Entertainment, Inc. "First Departure" uses a slightly altered version of the engine used for "" with similar features, including prerendered backgrounds, 3D battle fields and hand drawn facial animations. Production I.G provided new artwork and animated cutscenes for the game. New playable characters have been added as well. New voice actors and extensive amounts of new, fully voiced dialogue were included, with even some non-player characters being voiced over as well. A limited edition called the "Star Ocean: First Departure Eternal Edition" was released exclusively in Japan alongside the standard version. It features alternate box art and was bundled with a "Star Ocean"-themed PSP-2000 handheld and carrying pouch.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: An HD remaster of the PlayStation Portable version titled "Star Ocean: First Departure R" for the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 4 was announced on May 25, 2019 and was set for release later that year. The new release features re-balanced game difficulty and increased world map movement speed as well as the option to toggle between character portraits from the PSP version or re-drawn designs based on the Super Famicom version. The English release allows the player to choose between English voices or Japanese audio from either the PSP version or re-recorded dialogue from the original Super Famicom voice actors.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: The scores for "Star Ocean" and "First Departure" were composed and arranged by Motoi Sakuraba. Music from the game was included on the album "Star Ocean Perfect Sound Collection", released November 1, 1996 by Sony Records, which included arranged medleys of themes from the Super Famicom version by Sakuraba, Yoshiharu Gotanda, and Kazushi Satoh as well as voice tracks. An album containing music from the PSP version was released on January 30, 2008 by Sony Music and Square Enix which contained 68 tracks across two discs. Critics praised Sakuraba's progressive rock style, and highlighted his musical experimentation throughout the original "Star Ocean" score and "First Departure". Tracks added from "" received mixed reviews on the "First Departure" album, adding some familiar "Star Ocean" themes but also some lesser known songs to the mix. Several musical pieces were missing from the original album and were added to the remake's release.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: The "First Departure" remake features the theme song "Heart" performed by Japanese music group Asunaro, which accompanied the game's opening animation as well as the end credits, and was included in that version's official soundtrack in 2008. This theme was replaced for the "First Departure R" release with the song by Yauchi Keiko of Shadow of Laffandor.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: The original Super Famicom release of "Star Ocean" sold approximately 235,000 copies in Japan, of which just over 175,000 copies were sold during 1996. In a 2009 retro review, NintendoLife praised the game's technical aspects calling it "one of the best-looking Super Nintendo games ever created" and that the soundtrack "never ceases to amaze".


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: "Star Ocean: First Departure" on the PlayStation Portable sold 115,280 copies in its debut week in Japan, with lifetime sales of approximately 204,996 copies in the region. It received a 31 out of 40 total score from Japanese magazine "Weekly Famitsu", based on individual scores of 8, 7, 8, and 8, earning it the publication's Silver Award. While the editors thought the title's animation and characters were well done and the story was "charming" they lamented that players could only save their progress at certain points such as the world map, which they also felt too large and had a limited field of view.


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: The English version of "First Departure" received mixed to average reviews, earning a 77% rating on GameRankings and a 74 out of 100 average from Metacritic. Many reviewers felt that despite the updated graphics and sound, the game still felt less refined than more modern role-playing games. IGN found the game to have a "bland, awkwardly-told narrative" with "weak characters", but that it would appeal to fans of older games, stating "If you can look at "First Departure" and understand that it's based on a very old title, you'll likely be able to overlook the problems and get a fair amount of satisfaction". GameSpot also stated that the title had "limited appeal" in addition to providing little challenge. Andrew Fitch of 1UP.com, however, called "First Departure" an "overlooked classic" with "ridiculously engrossing crafting minutiae" and numerous character party combinations that increase its replay value. GameSpy would additionally declare that "Despite a couple of minor hitches, "Star Ocean: First Departure" is one of the best remakes Square Enix has brought to portable consoles."


title: Star Ocean (video game)

text: "First Departure R" for the PlayStation 4 earned a 73 out of 100 average from Metacritic. Dualshockers called it "an underwhelming port of an excellent but often forgotten Square Enix JRPG," remarking that any improvements to the PSP version were "mostly minor" such as the re-balance to the game's difficulty. The website remarked that the character designs featured in the animated cutscenes originally created for the PSP version do not match the remaster's new artwork, adding that "these scenes were rare, but they are emblematic of the fairly low-effort port that "Star Ocean First Departure R" is. PlayStation Universe called attention to the title's "simplistic gameplay" and repetitive combat, but commended the animation of its character sprites and updated portrait art, ultimately declaring that "RPG aficionados looking for something simple could find something in "First Departure", but don't expect much more than a slightly polished remake of a remake."


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: , sometimes credited as Harry Hosono, is a Japanese musician, singer, songwriter and record producer. He is considered to be one of the most influential musicians in Japanese pop music history, credited with shaping the sound of Japanese pop for decades as well as pop music outside of Japan. He also inspired genres such as city pop and Shibuya-kei, and as leader of Yellow Magic Orchestra, contributed to the development and pioneering of numerous electronic genres.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: The grandson of "Titanic" survivor Masabumi Hosono, Haruomi began his career with the psychedelic rock band Apryl Fool, before achieving recognition both nationally and internationally, as a founding member of the bands Happy End and Yellow Magic Orchestra. Hosono has also released many solo albums covering a variety of styles, including film soundtracks and a variety of electronic ambient albums. As well as recording his own music, Hosono has done considerable production work for other artists such as Miharu Koshi, Sheena and the Roketts, Sandii & the Sunsetz, Chisato Moritaka and Seiko Matsuda. In 2003, Hosono was ranked by HMV Japan at number 44 on their list of the top 100 Japanese pop acts of all time.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: Hosono is the grandson of Masabumi Hosono, the only Japanese passenger and survivor of the sinking of RMS "Titanic". Hosono first came to attention in Japan as the bass player of the psychedelic rock band Apryl Fool, alongside drummer Takashi Matsumoto, who released the album "The Apryl Fool" in 1969. Hosono and Matsumoto then formed the influential folk rock group Happy End with Eiichi Ohtaki and Shigeru Suzuki. One of the songs he composed for Happy End, "Kaze wo Atsumete" (1971), later appeared in the American film "Lost in Translation" and on its soundtrack in 2003. After "Happy End" disbanded around 1974, Hosono worked with Suzuki and a loose association of artists making "exotica"-style music under the title "Tin Pan Alley".


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: His involvement in electronic music also dates back to the early 1970s, when he performed the electric bass for Inoue Yousui's folk pop rock album "Ice World" (1973) and Osamu Kitajima's progressive/psychedelic rock album "Benzaiten" (1974), both of which were electronic rock records utilizing synthesizers, electric guitars, and in the latter, electronic drums and rhythm machines.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In 1977, Hosono invited Ryuichi Sakamoto and Yukihiro Takahashi to work on his exotica-flavoured album "Paraiso", which included electronic music produced using the Yamaha CS-80 polyphonic synthesizer and ARP Odyssey synthesizer. The band was named "Harry Hosono and the Yellow Magic Band" and, having been recorded in late 1977, "Paraiso" was released in early 1978. The three worked together again for the 1978 electronic album "Pacific", which included an early version of the song "Cosmic Surfin'".


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In 1978, he released an innovative electronic soundtrack for a fictional Bollywood film, "Cochin Moon", together with artist Tadanori Yokoo and future YMO band members Ryuichi Sakamoto and Hideki Matsutake. Inspired by a trip to India and "the exotic, luxurious, and seemingly wonder-filled scenarios played out in Indian cinemas", it was an experimental "electro-exotica" album fusing exotic Indian music (reminiscent of Ravi Shankar and Bollywood music) with electronic music, including an early "synth raga" song entitled "Hum Ghar Sajan" (from a Guru Granth Sahib phrase). The same year, he contributed to Sakamoto's song "1000 Knives" for his solo album, "Thousand Knives", which experimented with fusing electronic music with traditional Japanese music in early 1978.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: He was one of the first producers to recognize the appeal of video game sounds and music. YMO's self-titled debut in 1978 contained substantial video game sounds and after YMO disbanded an early project was an album simply titled "Video Game Music" containing mixed and edited Namco arcade game music and sounds. "Video Game Music" was released in 1984 as an early example of a chiptune record and the first video game music album. That same year, he also produced the theme song for Hayao Miyazaki's popular anime film "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind", "Kaze no Tani no Naushika", with vocals by actress-singer Narumi Yasuda. In the late 80s and early 90s, the influence of world music on his music deepened, and he worked with international singers and musicians such as Amina Annabi.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: He has produced a number of short-term band projects as a band member. His first post-YMO band was Friends of Earth. As with most of his projects he combines musical styles he's interested in. F.O.E. seemed to be a combination of funk and techno, and included a collaboration with James Brown and Maceo Parker for a remake of the song "Sex Machine". Another notable band project was 1995's Love, Peace & Trance. Members were Mimori Yusa ("Love"), Miyako Koda ("Peace"), Haruomi Hosono ("&") and Mishio Ogawa ("Trance").


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In the 1990s he started the Daisyworld label to release a wide range of experimental artists from Japan and the rest of the world. Hosono collaborated on many of the releases, such as World Standard, a trip into Americana; HAT, a supergroup (the acronym stands for Hosono, Atom Heart, Tetsu Inoue), and "Quiet Logic", by Mixmaster Morris and Jonah Sharp. The Orb also paid tribute with a series of remixes including the notorious "Hope You Choke on Your Whalemeat".


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In 2002 Haruomi formed the duo Sketch Show with his YMO bandmate Yukihiro Takahashi. They have released two albums, one of which, "Loophole", has received a UK release. When the third former YMO member, Ryuichi Sakamoto deepened his involvement it was decided to bill those collaborations as Human Audio Sponge.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In the spring of 2007, his fellow YMO members and other artist paid tribute to Haruomi with a 2-disc album titled "Tribute to Haruomi". That same year, the animated film "Appleseed Ex Machina" was released featuring a soundtrack performed and supervised by Hosono.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In September 2010 he performed at the De La Fantasia festival and played songs from his upcoming album.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In February 2011 it was announced that his new album, entitled "HoSoNoVa", was to be released on April 20. He also performed a special concert to celebrate its release.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In May 2018, Light in the Attic Records announced a CD and vinyl reissue of five of Hosono's albums—"Hosono House", "Cochin Moon", "Paraiso", "Philharmony" and "omni Sight Seeing"—for release in August and September 2018. The former four albums had never been released outside of Japan previously. Coinciding was the announcement that Hosono would play his first UK concerts as a solo artist in June; the shows were scheduled as part of Sakamoto's MODE festival happening throughout England in June and July. The June 23 concert at the Barbican Centre in London featured an appearance by his YMO bandmates, with whom he performed his "Solid State Survivor" composition "Absolute Ego Dance".


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: 2019 marked Hosono's 50th anniversary in the music industry. On March 6, he released "Hochono House", a mostly electronic remake of his solo debut "Hosono House" that reversed the track listing. That spring, he performed his first solo shows in the U.S. This run included two sold-out shows at the Gramercy Theatre in New York City and a concert at the Mayan Theater in Los Angeles. The second New York show saw an appearance by current NYC resident Akiko Yano, who collaborated with Hosono in Tin Pan Alley, as a live support member of YMO, and as a solo artist; she sang Hosono's "Ai Ai Gasa", which she covered on her 1977 album "Iroha Ni Konpeitou". In LA, Canadian indie rock musician Mac DeMarco—whose vocal admiration of Hosono has spread to a portion of his own fanbase—appeared during the show to perform "Honey Moon" as a duet with Hosono; Light in the Attic had recently released a cover of the song on a 7" single record, backed with the original version.


title: Haruomi Hosono

text: In the autumn of 2019, an exhibition on Hosono's career—"Hosono Sightseeing"—was on display in Tokyo Sky View at the Roppongi Hills Mori Tower; along with other memorabilia, this featured many of the instruments associated with Hosono, such as the Roland TR-808, E-mu Emulator, and Prophet-5. A documentary film, "No Smoking", was also released, including footage from the U.S. and UK shows; appearances include Sakamoto, Takahashi, Demarco, longtime friend Van Dyke Parks, and protégé Gen Hoshino.


title: Wilde (film)

text: Wilde is a 1997 British biographical film directed by Brian Gilbert and starring Stephen Fry in the title role. The screenplay by Julian Mitchell is based on the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1987 biography of Oscar Wilde by Richard Ellmann. Fry received critical acclaim for his performance as well as for his likeness to Wilde, and was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Actor – Drama.


title: Wilde (film)

text: Jennifer Ehle (as Oscar's wife Constance Lloyd Wilde) and Zoë Wanamaker (as Ada Leverson) were both nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. Starring as Lord Alfred "Bosie" Douglas, Jude Law was nominated for the Evening Standard British Film Award for Most Promising Newcomer. The film also sees Orlando Bloom make his screen debut.


title: Wilde (film)

text: The film opens with Oscar Wilde's 1882 visit to Leadville, Colorado during his lecture tour of the United States. Despite his flamboyant personality and urbane wit, he proves to be a success with the local silver miners as he regales them with tales of Renaissance silversmith Benvenuto Cellini.


title: Wilde (film)

text: Wilde returns to London and weds Constance Lloyd (Jennifer Ehle). They have two sons in quick succession. While their second child is still an infant, the couple hosts a young Canadian named Robbie Ross (Michael Sheen), who seduces Wilde and helps him come to terms with his homosexuality. Ross' love for Wilde endures. On the opening night of his play "Lady Windermere's Fan", Wilde is re-introduced to the dashingly handsome and foppish poet Lord Alfred Douglas (Jude Law), whom he had met briefly the year before. The two fall into a passionate and tempestuous relationship. The hedonistic Douglas is not content to remain monogamous and frequently engages in sexual activity with rent boys while his older lover plays the role of voyeur.


title: Wilde (film)

text: Douglas' father, the Marquess of Queensberry (Tom Wilkinson), a violent and cruel man, objects to his son's relationship with Wilde and demeans the playwright shortly after the opening of "The Importance of Being Earnest". When Wilde sues the Marquess for criminal libel, his homosexuality is publicly exposed. He is eventually tried for gross indecency and sentenced to two years' hard labour. Constance is advised by friends to go abroad and change her name to protect the children.


title: Wilde (film)

text: Prison life is grueling; the penal treadmill permanently wrecks Wilde's health. Bosie tells Robbie he will look after Wilde in some pleasant sunny place when he is released. Constance visits him in prison. She is sending Cyril to school in Germany, and she may need back surgery. He tells her he has always loved her, and that he did not know himself in the beginning. She tells him she does not want a divorce. The children love him and he is welcome to visit as long as he never sees Douglas again.


title: Wilde (film)

text: Ada meets Wilde when he is released from prison in May 1897, carrying the manuscript of De Profundis. He goes straight into exile, to continental Europe. He puts flowers on Constance's grave. Since she died (in April 1898) he is no longer allowed to see his children. He eventually meets with Douglas. A printed epilogue notes that they parted after three months and describes Wilde's death in Paris in November 1900 at age 46 and the fates of Bosie and Ross.


title: Wilde (film)

text: Portions of the beloved Wilde story "The Selfish Giant" are woven throughout the film, beginning when Wilde tells the story to his children, then as Constance reads the book to them and so on until Wilde almost finishes the story in a voice-over as the film nears its end.


title: Wilde (film)

text: In a featurette on the film's DVD release, producer Marc Samuelson confesses casting Stephen Fry in the title role was both a blessing and a problem. Everyone agreed he was physically perfect for the part and more than capable of carrying it off, but the fact he wasn't a major presence in films made it difficult for them to obtain financing for the project.


title: Wilde (film)

text: In the DVD commentary, Fry, who is gay, admitted he was nervous about the love scenes with his heterosexual co-stars. He says Jude Law, Michael Sheen and Ioan Gruffudd were quick to put him at ease.


title: Wilde (film)

text: Scenes were filmed at Knebworth House in Hertfordshire; Lulworth Cove, Studland Bay, and Swanage Pier in Dorset; Houghton Lodge in Hampshire; Luton Hoo in Bedfordshire; Magdalen College in Oxford; Lincoln's Inn in Holborn and Somerset House in the Strand.


title: Wilde (film)

text: The film premiered at the 1997 Venice Film Festival and was the opening night selection at the 1998 San Francisco International Film Festival.


title: Wilde (film)

text: In her review in "The New York Times", Janet Maslin called the film "a broad but effectively intimate portrait" and added, "Playing the large dandyish writer with obvious gusto, Stephen Fry looks uncannily like Wilde and presents an edgy mixture of superciliousness and vulnerability. Though the film suffers a case of quip-lash thanks to its tireless Wildean witticisms ... Fry's warmly sympathetic performance finds the gentleness beneath the wit."


title: Wilde (film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" said the film "has the good fortune to star Stephen Fry, a British author, actor and comedian who looks a lot like Wilde and has many of the same attributes: He is very tall, he is somewhat plump, he is gay, he is funny and he makes his conversation into an art. That he is also a fine actor is important, because the film requires him to show many conflicting aspects of Wilde's life ... [He] brings a depth and gentleness to the role."


title: Wilde (film)

text: In the "Los Angeles Times", Kevin Thomas stated the film "has found a perfect Oscar in the formidably talented Stephen Fry ... Coupled with Julian Mitchell's superb script ... and director Brian Gilbert's total commitment to it and to his sterling cast, this deeply moving "Wilde" is likely to remain the definitive screen treatment of Oscar Wilde for years to come ... Gilbert clearly gave Fry and Law the confidence to play roles that would require a baring of souls, and they are triumphant ... Unfortunately, the film is marred by Debbie Wiseman's trite, overly emotional score, which has the effect of needlessly underlining every point along the way that has otherwise been made so subtly. It is especially undermining in its morose tone in the film's final sequences, when the pace naturally slows down as Wilde's life enters its final phase. Everyone else involved in the making of "Wilde" has done an exemplary job illuminating a man and his era."


title: Wilde (film)

text: Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" called it "a sympathetic and, for the most part, nicely realized look into the private life of the flamboyant author" and commented, "Stephen Fry has the title role, and it's hard to imagine a more appropriate actor ... In the last third, the film derails somewhat by turning preachy ... While [it] captures its subject's singular charm, it ultimately doesn't do justice to his complexity."


title: Wilde (film)

text: In the "San Francisco Examiner", David Armstrong said the film "benefits from its lush period costumes and settings but gains even more from an accomplished cast of British film and stage actors ... Stephen Fry ... slips right under the skin of the title character [and] presents a multidimensional portrait of a complex man ... However, "Wilde", like Wilde, is flawed. Gilbert's direction is sturdy but uninspired, and Ehle's part is underwritten. To her credit, Ehle movingly conveys the sad frustration that Wilde implanted in his lonely wife; but Ehle has to do the work, playing her feelings on her face, with little help from Julian Mitchell's screenplay."


title: Wilde (film)

text: Derek Elley of "Variety" observed, "Brian Gilbert, till now only a journeyman director, brings to the picture most of the qualities that were memorably absent in his previous costumer, "Tom & Viv" – visual fluency, deep-seated emotion and first rate playing from his cast."


title: Wilde (film)

text: In the "Evening Standard", Alexander Walker called the film "an impressive and touching work of intelligence, compassion and tragic stature" and said Stephen Fry "returns to the top of the class with a dominating screen performance."


title: Wilde (film)

text: In his review in "Time Out New York", Andrew Johnston observed that "The first hour – filled with sharp humor and steamy gay sex – delivers a thoroughly modern portrait of Wilde, and Fry (who in costume bears an astonishing resemblance to the writer) plays him with a pitch-perfect combination of smugness and warmth."


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: Electric Daisy Carnival, commonly known as EDC, is an electronic dance music festival organized by promoter and distributor Insomniac. The annual flagship event, EDC Las Vegas, is held in May at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway, and is currently the largest electronic dance music festival in North America.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: The event features electronic dance producers and DJs, and incorporates a variety of electronic music, including house, techno, drum and bass, and dubstep. In addition to the music, event goers experience three-dimensional superstructures, colorful glow-in-the-dark environments, and LED lit flora and fauna. There are also interactive art installations throughout EDC, free roaming carnival performers, and carnival rides.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: Since its inception, other EDC events have been held in other states and abroad, including Mexico, Puerto Rico, the UK, Brazil, Japan and India. Currently, EDC is held annually in Orlando, China, and Mexico, along with the main Las Vegas event. Sponsors of the most recent EDC events include Corona, Smirnoff, Uber and Tinder.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2009, EDC became a two-day event, and in 2011, a three-day event that drew 230,000 people. In 2015, it drew more than 400,000 over three days (134,000 per day). In 2018, EDC Las Vegas expanded the festival to include an on-site camping experience. Recent iterations of the festival have featured eight stages, each with a unique set and specific genre of EDM. 18 carnival rides, four ferris wheels, and a staff of more than 5,000 people make up the event at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway. In 2019 access to purchasing tickets to EDC was expanded to mobile phone apps for convenience. In 2017, EDC won the Festival of the Year award at the Electronic Music Awards.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: The first Electric Daisy Carnival was held in 1991, and was first organized by Stephen Hauptfuhr. Philip Blaine—Pasquale's partner—made the deal to grant use of the name Electric Daisy Carnival in 1995 to Pasqualle Rotella CEO of Insomniac Events.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: Insomniac debuted their signature event, Electric Daisy Carnival, in 1997 at the Shrine Expo Hall in Los Angeles, California. In the early years, several southern California venues played host to the annual electronic music festival: Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Exposition Park in Los Angeles, National Orange Show Events Center in San Bernardino, Queen Mary Events Park in Long Beach, Lake Dolores Waterpark in Barstow, Hansen Dam in Lake View Terrace, and the International Agri-Center in Tulare.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 1999, Electric Daisy Carnival took place at Lake Dolores Waterpark in Newberry Springs, California. The festival first took place at a small venue at Lake Dolores Waterpark, called Insomniac.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2001, Electric Daisy Carnival was held at Hansen Dam in Southern California, expanding for the first time to multiple stages: the Merry Go Round, the Fun House, Clown Alley, the Confusin’ & Amuzin’ Mirror Maze, Bassrush Arena and Cosmic Healing Temple. In the same year, another EDC was held in Austin, Texas.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: EDC 2002 was held at Queen Mary Events Park in Long Beach, California. A second edition was planned to be held at the Travis County Exposition Center in Austin, Texas, but the venue cancelled in the days before an event. A make-up show with a different line-up was held a week later for anyone who didn't just get a refund.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: From 2003 to 2006, Electric Daisy Carnival was held at the NOS Events Center in San Bernardino, California.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2007, Electric Daisy Carnival was held at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles’ Exposition Park.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2008, The California event was held June 28 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Exposition Park. The EDC Colorado event took place on June 14 at the Arapahoe County Fairgrounds in Aurora.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: At the Nocturnal Festival in 2008, EDC revealed its plan to host a two-day festival in California. The event was held on June 26–27. On Friday, approximately 55,000 attendees were present and Saturday saw a crowd of approximately 99,000. EDC 2009 was held at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and used the entire southern half of Exposition Park. The Colorado event was held at the Arapahoe County Fairgrounds in Aurora on June 13. It was headlined by Infected Mushroom, Paul Van Dyk, and several others. EDC Puerto Rico was held on August 14. The venue was The Arena Fairgrounds in San Juan.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: EDC Los Angeles had an attendance of about 185,000 people. Though tickets were starting at $60, some attendees paid over $100 per ticket. It drew criticism from local authorities and promoters after people under the required age of 16 gained entrance, and more than 100 ravers were hospitalized after a crowd stampede. A 15-year-old attendee, Sasha Rodriguez, died after taking MDMA, a psychoactive drug. The city of Los Angeles placed a suspension on all remaining events scheduled for 2010 and for future events, pending the outcome of the new security and safety provisions. The new provisions included the hiring of on-site doctors, and stated attendees must be over 18 years of age. An EDC Colorado event was held on June 12 at the Arapahoe County Fairground in Aurora. EDC Dallas was held on June 19 at Fair Park in Dallas. 11,000 people were in attendance. EDC Puerto Rico was held on August 28, 2010, at the Estadio Sixto Escobar at Puerta de Tierra, San Juan.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2011, due to the previous controversy of EDC's former residence in Los Angeles, EDC moved its flagship festival to Las Vegas, Nevada. The event was held at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway from June 24–26. Reportedly 230,000 people had attended the 3 day festival. EDC Orlando 2011 was held on May 27–28 at Tinker Field, and the grounds adjacent to the Florida Citrus Bowl. EDC Orlando 2011 had approximately 12,000 on Friday and 20,000 on Saturday. EDC Colorado the same year was held at the Arapahoe County Fairgrounds in Aurora on June 11. Electric Daisy Carnival Dallas was held June 18 at Fair Park with an estimated 25,000 attendees. Temperatures above 110 degrees led to dozens of hospitalizations and at least one death, which made it the last EDC held in Dallas. EDC Puerto Rico took place on August 27.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2012, the three-day EDC in Vegas (June 8–10) saw attendance increase by 30%, to a total of 320,000 attendees. A 31-year-old male from Florida died after being struck by a truck as he left EDC at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway on June 11. Friends reported that he had been drinking and smoking. The second night had to shut down early at 1 a.m. due to high winds, of up to 30 MPH that started around 8 p.m. 90,000 fans were directed to the speedway's bleachers. DJs Markus Schulz and Steve Aoki, who were both scheduled to play that night, performed impromptu sets on the Insomniac Wide Awake art car, a much smaller, mobile stage, for a short period, before officials ordered it to close as potentially dangerous winds were expected until 5 a.m. In order to make up for the cancellation, Insomniac allowed those with Saturday passes to return on Sunday. EDC Orlando was held at Tinker Field on November 9–10. This coincided with the annual Dayglow event in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, called "Dancegiving" held the weekend after Thanksgiving. EDC New York was held May 18–20 at the MetLife Stadium at the Meadowlands Sports Complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Although the venue was located in New Jersey, the festival was coined Electric Daisy Carnival New York due to the proximity to New York City. The event drew 45,000 attendees per day.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2013, EDC Las Vegas was held June 21–23. EDC was held in London for the first time, along with events in Chicago, New York, San Juan, Puerto Rico, and Orlando, Florida.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2014, EDC was held at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway on June 20–22, 2014. Insomniac Events announced that all 345,000 tickets to the three-day festival had been sold by June 18, 2014. At the conclusion of the 2014 event, the massive three-day festival drew in roughly 134,000 per day. The setup at the event also led Insomniac to set the record for the largest structural stage in North America. EDC events were also held in Milton Keynes, England, San Juan, Orlando, Florida, and New York. The first EDC Mexico was held on March 15–16, 2014. A documentary film called "Under the Electric Sky" about the festival premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: EDC Las Vegas 2015 was held in Las Vegas, Nevada, at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway on June 19, 20 & 21. Its stage featured a blinking owl as background theme. EDC Las Vegas 2015 was met with unwanted publicity for the death of a UC Irvine graduate on the second night of the festival. Death was ruled as related to MDMA, which has side effects of dehydration and increase in body temperature. EDC was also held at Orlando, Florida at Tinker Field on November 6 & 7, and East Rutherford, New Jersey at MetLife Stadium on May 23 & 24. Internationally, EDC was held at Estadio Sixto Escobar in San Juan, Puerto Rico for the sixth time on February 21 & 22, Autódromo José Carlos Pace in São Paulo, Brazil for the first time December 4 & 5, Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City, Mexico for the second time on February 28 – March 1, and the National Bowl in Milton Keynes, UK for the third time on July 17.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2016, EDC Las Vegas was held at Las Vegas Motor Speedway from June 17–19. The event saw DJ Marshmello removing his helmet in a gimmick to be the DJ Tiësto. EDC Mexico was held for the third time at Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez in Mexico City, from February 27–28, 2016. EDC New York was held at Citi Field in Queens, NY, from May 14–15, 2016. EDC UK was held at Milton Keynes, England on 9 July 2016. EDC Orlando was held at Tinker Field in Orlando, Florida, from November 4–5, 2016. EDC India was held at Buddh International Circuit in New Delhi, India, from November 12–13, 2016.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2017, EDC returned to the Las Vegas Motor Speedway from June, with over 135,000 attendees on opening night. Heat-related health incidents saw a significant increase, with double the medical-related calls on opening night year-over-year. A 34-year-old man died after taking MDMA and TFMPP, a drug similar to MDMA, with heat exposure as a contributing factor. EDC was held for the fourth time in Mexico City at Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez from 25 to 26 February. EDC UK 2017, due to be held at Milton Keynes, England in July 2017, was cancelled. EDC Orlando 2017 was held at Tinker Field on November 10–11, 2017.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2018, EDC Orlando was held at Tinker Field from November 9–10. EDC Las Vegas was held at the Las Vegas Motor Speedway from May 18–20; the festival was moved from its traditional June scheduling so that it will be held in relatively cooler conditions. The festival also introduced on-site camping (including rentable campers and RV parking) and earlier opening times in order to reduce traffic congestion. An estimated 411,400 people attended the festival over the three days. EDC Mexico in Mexico City was planned for February 24–25 at Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez. EDC Japan was held in Tokyo, May 12 & 13 at Chiba Seaside Park Zozo Marine Stadium. Heavy Rains caused equipment issues. EDC China in Shanghai, April 29 & 30, debut at Shanghai International Music Park.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2019, EDC Las Vegas returned to the Las Vegas Motor Speedway for May 17–19. On the second day, high winds forced stage closures. Due to wording of the message displayed on screens, and the played audio message instructing them to "take cover in your car", some attendees were led to believe that the entire festival was being shut down for the night and subsequently left the speedway. Upon learning at the exit that only certain areas were closed for safety precautions some people tried to re-enter the grounds but were not allowed back in due to the event's strict no-reentry policy. Las Vegas police announced 65 arrests during the festival, including 2 DUIs and 51 felony or gross misdemeanor arrests. EDC Mexico in Mexico City returned to Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez for February 23–24, 2019. EDC Orlando is now held for 3 days, instead of the normal 2 days. It will remain at Tinker Field, outside of Camping World Stadium. EDC Japan was held in Tokyo, May 11 & 12, 2019 at ZOZO Marine Stadium & Makuhari Beach Park. EDC Korea was held on 31 August & 1 September at Seoul Land, Gwacheon, South Korea.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2020, EDC Mexico in Mexico City was held at Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez for February 28–March 2. It was announced that the 2020 festival would utilize more of the Las Vegas Motor Speedway grounds, with Rotella pointing out that the speedway had removed a large number of RV hookups that had made certain areas of the grounds unusable. The festival was originally scheduled to take place from May 15–17, but was rescheduled for October 2–4. However, in July 2020, the festival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. A virtual festival, streamed live on Twitch and YouTube, took place during the original scheduled dates.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: In 2021, EDC Las Vegas was originally scheduled to be held from May 21–23. However. Clark County on April 20 passed a reopening plan that requires 60% of their residents to be vaccinated before restrictions over large scale gatherings such as EDC can be lifted. In a statement released on social media, Insomniac Events CEO Pasquale Rotella stated, "Unfortunately, the rate at which people get vaccinated before EDC is out of our control. It might happen in time, it might not. Either way, we can’t take that risk." The event instead took place from October 22–24. The Electronic Dance Music (EDM) festival had the most number of attendees in Las Vegas, with an average of around 104,000 people attending each night. During this time span, the medical district provided care to 2,673 different patients. The patients' ages ranged from 18 to 42 years old, with a median age of 22. Intoxication from alcohol or drugs, dehydration and dizziness, or trauma were the primary causes of patients seeking medical attention at the urgent care center.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: For every flagship festival held, Insomniac Care donates a percentage of ticket sales to national charities and community organizations. In the past, EDC Las Vegas has partnered with Surreal, a fundraising platform, to raise money from festival goers who enter in a sweepstake for helicopter rides and other activities with popular DJs. Since 2011, over two million dollars have been donated to groups. Some organizations are named below.


title: Electric Daisy Carnival

text: A documentary film, "Under the Electric Sky", premiered at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival. The film chronicles the community and life of festival-goers during EDC Las Vegas 2013.


title: Léon Blum

text: André Léon Blum (; 9 April 1872 – 30 March 1950) was a French socialist politician and three-time Prime Minister.


title: Léon Blum

text: As a Jew, he was heavily influenced by the Dreyfus affair of the late 19th century. He was a disciple of French Socialist leader Jean Jaurès and after Jaurès' assassination in 1914, became his successor. As Prime Minister in a Popular Front government of the left 1936–37, he provided a series of major economic reforms. Blum declared neutrality in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) to avoid the civil conflict spilling over into France itself. Once out of office in 1938, he denounced the appeasement of Germany.


title: Léon Blum

text: When Germany defeated France in 1940, he became a staunch opponent of Vichy France. Tried (but never judged) by the Vichy government on charges of treason, he was imprisoned in the Buchenwald concentration camp. After the war, he resumed a transitional leadership role in French politics, helping to bring about the French Fourth Republic, until his death in 1950.


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum was born in 1872 in Paris to a moderately prosperous, middle class, assimilated Jewish family in the mercantile business. His father Abraham, a merchant, was born in Alsace.


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum entered the École Normale Supérieure in 1890 and excelled there, but he dropped out after a year later entering instead the Faculty of Law. He attended the University of Paris and became both a lawyer and literary critic.


title: Léon Blum

text: Between 1905 and 1907 he wrote "" a highly controversial (for the period) and much talked about critical essay about traditional marriage as envisioned in the late 19th century with its religious and economic background and strong stress on women remaining virgins until their marriage day.


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum stated that both men and women should enjoy a period of "polygamic" free sex life in order to experience a more mature and stable relationship during later married life.


title: Léon Blum

text: Unsurprisingly he was targeted by the then powerful Catholic Church in France, in the wake of the turmoil caused by the separation between church and state implemented by Emile Combes in 1905. Far right and royalist politicians and agitatators, and most preeminently Charles Maurras, were incensed, and pelted mostly anti-semitic insults and public outrage at Blum, famously dubbing him "le pornographe du Conseil d'état" as Blum was by then a counsellor of this institution. Although Blum's views being nowadays accepted and mostly mainstream in many developed countries, the book remained an object of scandal long after WWI and the shift to emancipation of women.


title: Léon Blum

text: While in his youth an avid reader of the works of the nationalist writer Maurice Barrès, Blum had shown little interest in politics until the Dreyfus Affair of 1894, which had a traumatic effect on him as it did on many French Jews. Blum first became personally involved in the Affair when he aided the defense case of Émile Zola in 1898 as a jurist, before which he had not demonstrated interest in public affairs. Campaigning as a Dreyfusard brought him into contact with the socialist leader Jean Jaurès, whom he greatly admired. He began contributing to the socialist daily, "L'Humanité", and joined the French Section of the Workers' International (, SFIO). Soon he was the party's main theoretician. It is possible that Blum's interest in politics began somewhat earlier, as Fernand Gregh mentioned in his personal memoirs that Blum had expressed interest in politics as early as 1892.


title: Léon Blum

text: In July 1914, just as the First World War broke out, Jaurès was assassinated, and Blum became more active in the Socialist party leadership. In August 1914 Blum became assistant to the Socialist Minister of Public Works Marcel Sembat. In 1919 he was chosen as chair of the party's executive committee, and was also elected to the National Assembly as a representative of Paris. Believing that there was no such thing as a "good dictatorship", he opposed participation in the Comintern. Therefore, in 1920, he worked to prevent a split between supporters and opponents of the Russian Revolution, but the radicals seceded, taking "L'Humanité" with them, and formed the SFIC.


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum led the SFIO through the 1920s and 1930s, and was also editor of the party's newspaper, "Le Populaire".


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum was elected as Deputy for Narbonne in 1929, and was re-elected in 1932 and 1936. In 1933, he expelled Marcel Déat, Pierre Renaudel, and other neosocialists from the SFIO. Political circumstances changed in 1934, when the rise of German dictator Adolf Hitler and fascist riots in Paris caused Stalin and the French Communists to change their policy. In 1935 all the parties of left and centre formed the Popular Front. France had not successfully recovered from the worldwide economic depression, wages had fallen and the working class demanded reforms. The Popular Front won a sweeping victory in June 1936. The Popular Front won a solid majority with 386 seats out of 608. For the first time, the Socialists won more seats than the Radicals; they formed an effective coalition. As Socialist leader Blum became Prime Minister of France and the first socialist to hold that office, he formed a cabinet that included 20 Socialists, 13 Radicals and two Socialist Republicans. The Communists won 15 percent of the vote, and 12 percent of the seats. They supported the government, although they refused to take any cabinet positions. For the first time, the cabinet included three women in minor roles, even though women were not able to vote.


title: Léon Blum

text: The election of the left-wing government brought a wave of strikes, involving two million workers, and the seizure of many factories. The strikes were spontaneous and unorganised, but nevertheless the business community panicked and met secretly with Blum, who negotiated a series of reforms, and then gave labour unions the credit for the Matignon Accords. The new laws:


title: Léon Blum

text: The government legislated its promised reforms as rapidly as possible. On 11 June, the Chamber of Deputies voted for the forty-hour workweek, the restoration of civil servants' salaries, and two weeks' paid holidays, by a majority of 528 to 7. The Senate voted in favour of these laws within a week.


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum persuaded the workers to accept pay raises and go back to work. Wages increased sharply; in two years the national average was up 48 percent. However inflation also rose 46%. The imposition of the 40-hour week proved highly inefficient, as industry had a difficult time adjusting to it. The economic confusion hindered the rearmament effort, and the rapid growth of German armaments alarmed Blum. He launched a major program to speed up arms production. The cost forced the abandonment of the social reform programmes that the Popular Front had counted heavily on.


title: Léon Blum

text: It also raised the pay, pensions, and allowances of public-sector workers and ex-servicemen. The 1920 Sales Tax, opposed by the Left as a tax on consumers, was abolished and replaced by a production tax, which was considered to be a tax on the producer instead of the consumer.


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum dissolved the far-right fascist leagues. In turn the Popular Front was actively fought by right-wing and far-right movements, which often used antisemitic slurs against Blum and other Jewish ministers. The Cagoule far-right group even staged bombings to disrupt the government.


title: Léon Blum

text: The Spanish Civil War broke out in July 1936 and deeply divided France. Blum adopted a policy of neutrality rather than assisting his ideological fellows, the Spanish Left-leaning Republicans. He acted from fear of splitting his domestic alliance with the centrist Radicals, or even precipitating an ideological civil war inside France. His refusal to send arms to Spain strained his alliance with the Communists, who followed Soviet policy and demanded all-out support for the Spanish Republic. The impossible dilemma caused by this issue led Blum to resign in June 1937. All the constituents of the French left supported the Republican government in Madrid, while the right supported the Nationalist insurgents. Blum's cabinet was deeply divided and he decided on a policy of non-intervention, and collaborated with Britain and 25 other countries to formalize an agreement against sending any munitions or volunteer soldiers to Spain. The Air Minister defied the cabinet and secretly sold warplanes to Madrid. Jackson concludes that the French government "was virtually paralyzed by the menace of civil war at home, the German danger abroad, and the weakness of her own defenses." The Republicans by 1938 were losing badly (they gave up in 1939), sending upwards of 500,000 political refugees across the border into France, where they were held in camps.


title: Léon Blum

text: On 13 February 1936, shortly before becoming Prime Minister, Blum was dragged from a car and almost beaten to death by the Camelots du Roi, a group of antisemites and royalists. The group's parent organisation, the right-wing Action Française league, was dissolved by the government following this incident, not long before the elections that brought Blum to power. Blum became the first socialist and the first Jew to serve as Prime Minister of France. As such he was an object of particular hatred from antisemitic elements.


title: Léon Blum

text: In its short life, the Popular Front government passed important legislation, including the 40-hour week, 12 paid annual holidays for the workers, collective bargaining on wage claims, and the full nationalisation of the armament and military aviation industries. This latter sweeping action had the unanticipated effect of disrupting the production of armaments at the wrong time, only three years away from the beginning of war in September 1939. Blum also attempted to pass legislation extending the rights of the Arab population of Algeria, but this was blocked by "colons", colonist representatives in the Chamber and Senate.


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum was briefly Prime Minister again in March and April 1938, long enough to ship heavy artillery and other much needed military equipment to the Spanish Republicans. He was unable to establish a stable ministry; on 10 April 1938, his socialist government fell and he was removed from office.


title: Léon Blum

text: In foreign policy, his government was torn between the traditional anti-militarism of the French Left and the urgency of the rising threat of Nazi Germany. The government cooperated with Britain and declared war on Germany when it invaded Poland in September 1939. Eight months of Phoney War thereafter, saw little or no movement. Suddenly in the spring of 1940, the Germans invaded France and defeated the French and British armies in a matter of weeks. The British Expeditionary Force evacuated from Dunkirk, taking many French soldiers along. France gave up, signing an armistice that gave Germany full control over much of France, with a rump Vichy government in control of the remainder as well as of the French colonial empire and the French Navy. The same Parliament that had sponsored the Popular Front program since 1936 remained in power; it voted overwhelmingly to make Marshal Philippe Pétain a dictator and reverse all of the gains of the French Third Republic.


title: Léon Blum

text: Many historians judge the Popular Front a failure in terms of economics, foreign policy, and long-term stability. "Disappointment and failure," says Jackson, "was the legacy of the Popular Front." There is general agreement that at first it created enormous excitement and expectation on the left, but in the end it failed to live up to its promise.


title: Léon Blum

text: When the Germans occupied France in June 1940, Blum made no effort to leave the country, despite the extreme danger he was in as a Jew and a socialist leader; instead of fleeing the country, he escaped to southern France, but the French ordered his arrest. Blum was imprisoned in Fort du Portalet in the Pyrenees.


title: Léon Blum

text: Blum was among "The Vichy 80", a minority of parliamentarians that refused to grant full powers to Marshal Pétain. He was arrested by the authorities in September and held until 1942, when he was put on trial in the Riom Trial on charges of treason, for having "weakened France's defenses" by ordering her arsenal shipped to Spain, leaving France's infantry unsupported by heavy artillery on the eastern front against Nazi Germany. He used the courtroom to make a "brilliant indictment" of the French military and pro-German politicians like Pierre Laval. The trial was such an embarrassment to the Vichy regime that the Germans ordered it called off, worried that Blum's expert performance would have major public consequences. He was transferred to German custody and imprisoned in Germany until 1945.


title: Léon Blum

text: In April 1943, the occupying Government had Blum imprisoned in Buchenwald. As the war worsened for the Germans, they moved him into the section reserved for high-ranking prisoners, hoping that he might be used as a possible hostage for surrender negotiations. His future wife, Jeanne Adèle "Janot" Levylier, chose to come to the camp voluntarily to live with him inside the camp, and they were married there. As the Allied armies approached Buchenwald, he was transferred to Dachau, near Munich, and in late April 1945, together with other notable inmates, to Tyrol. In the last weeks of the war the Nazi regime gave orders that he was to be executed , but the local authorities decided not to obey them. Blum was rescued by Allied troops in May 1945. While in prison he wrote his best-known work, the essay "" ("On a human scale").