title: Felissa Rose

text: After appearing in "Sleepaway Camp", she made some more sporadic appearances in a few television shows, and also made an appearance in the 1993 film "The Night We Never Met". In 1998, she returned to acting when she appeared in an episode of the television series "Prey". She was later tracked down in 1999 by Jeff Hayes who runs "The Official Sleepaway Camp Website:" www.sleepawaycampmovies.com through a letter he sent her in the mail asking her to do an interview for the website and gauge her interest in doing a new "Sleepaway Camp" sequel. Shortly thereafter, Hayes met with Rose in New York and the duo began her resurrection through the website and followed things up with "Return To Sleepaway Camp". She has since returned to cinema and has appeared in such films as Chris Watson's "Zombiegeddon" (2003), Andreas Schnaas' "Nikos" (2003), and Steve Taylor's "Sludge" (2005). She has also appeared in two films by New Jersey filmmaker Dante Tomaselli: "Horror" (2002) and "Satan's Playground" (2005). In addition Felissa co-hosted the 2005 Village Halloween Parade in New York City with fellow scream queens Debbie Rochon and Raine Brown. She also had a cameo role in the sequel to the original "Sleepaway Camp" titled "Return to Sleepaway Camp". In the sequel, she reprises the role of Angela Baker. The movie had a straight to DVD release on November 4, 2008. She also appears in "Hotdog Casserole", written and directed by Chris Raab, as the mother in a dysfunctional family. Rose starred in a role as Mother in the segment "Dinner Guest" in the anthology horror film, "The Perfect House". She also portrayed forensic pathologist Amy Short in the Francis Xavier thriller "Poe". In 2016, Felissa starred in the paranormal horror film "Family Possessions", written and directed by Tommy Faircloth. The film also starred Mark Patton. In May 2017, she helped produce and acted in the horror film, "Death House". Rose recently acted in Adam Green’s "Victor Crowley". In November 2022, Rose worked with Shelley Duvall on the film The Forest Hills.


title: Felissa Rose

text: Rose lives in California with her husband, former CKY singer/guitarist Deron Miller, and their two daughters, Bianca Rose (born 2005) and Lola Marue (born 2007), and son Thomas Carver (born 2009). Rose and Miller were co-stars in Dave Campfield's 2008 horror comedy "Caesar and Otto's Summer Camp Massacre".


title: Piperine

text: Piperine, along with its isomer chavicine, is the alkaloid responsible for the pungency of black pepper and long pepper. It has been used in some forms of traditional medicine.


title: Piperine

text: Due to its poor solubility in water, piperine is typically extracted from black pepper by using organic solvents like dichloromethane. The amount of piperine varies from 1–2% in long pepper, to 5–10% in commercial white and black peppers.


title: Piperine

text: Piperine can also be prepared by treating a concentrated alcoholic extract of black pepper with an alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide to remove resin (said to contain chavicine, an isomer of piperine). The solution is decanted from the insoluble residue and left to stand overnight. During this period, the alkaloid slowly crystallizes from the solution.


title: Piperine

text: Piperine forms salts only with strong acids. The platinichloride B·HPtCl forms orange-red needles ("B" denotes one mole of the alkaloid base in this and the following formula). Iodine in potassium iodide added to an alcoholic solution of the base in the presence of a little hydrochloric acid gives a characteristic periodide, B·HI·I, crystallizing in steel-blue needles with melting point 145 °C.


title: Piperine

text: Piperine was discovered in 1819 by Hans Christian Ørsted, who isolated it from the fruits of "Piper nigrum", the source plant of both black and white pepper. Piperine was also found in "Piper longum" and "Piper officinarum" (Miq.) C. DC. (="Piper retrofractum" Vahl), two species called "long pepper".


title: Piperine

text: A component of pungency by piperine results from activation of the heat- and acidity-sensing transient receptor potential channel ion channels, TRPV1 and TRPA1, on nociceptors, the pain-sensing nerve cells. Piperine is under preliminary research for its potential to affect bioavailability of other compounds in food and dietary supplements, such as a possible effect on the bioavailability of curcumin.


title: Time in Spain

text: Spain has two time zones and observes daylight saving time. Spain mainly uses CET (UTC+01:00) and CEST (UTC+02:00) in Peninsular Spain, the Balearic Islands, Ceuta, Melilla and the plazas de soberanía. In the Canary Islands, the time zone is WET (UTC±00:00) and WEST (UTC+01:00). DST is observed from the last Sunday in March (01:00 WET) to the last Sunday in October (01:00 WET) throughout Spain.


title: Time in Spain

text: Spain used GMT (UTC±00:00) before the Second World War (except for the Canary Islands which used UTC−01:00 before this date). However, the time zone was changed to Central European Time in 1940 and has remained so since then, meaning that Spain does not use its "natural" time zone under the coordinated time zone system. Some observers believe that this time zone shift plays a role in the country's relatively unusual daily schedule (late meals and sleep times).


title: Time in Spain

text: Spain, like other parts of the world, used mean solar time until 31 December 1900. In San Sebastián on 22 July 1900, the president of the Consejo de Ministros, Mr. Francisco Silvela, proposed to the regent of Spain, María Cristina, a royal decree to standardise the time in Spain; thus setting Greenwich Mean Time (UTC±00:00) as the standard time in peninsular Spain, the Balearic Islands and Ceuta and Melilla from 1 January 1901 onwards. The royal decree was sanctioned by María Cristina on 26 July 1900 in San Sebastián, the place where she resided during summer.


title: Time in Spain

text: Before 1 March 1922, the Canary Islands still used mean solar time until it was discovered that the royal decree of 1900 applied only to the Peninsula and Balearic Islands. The Canary Islands then used a time 1 hour behind the rest of Spain; UTC−01:00, until 16 March 1940, and since then, they have used Western European Time (UTC±00:00). Canary Islands observes daylight saving time at the same time (01:00 UTC) the rest of Spain does, that is, changing from 01:00 WET to 02:00 WEST on the last Sunday in March (while the rest of Spain changes from 02:00 CET to 03:00 CEST) and, when daylight saving time ends, changing from 02:00 WEST to 01:00 WET on the last Sunday in October (while the rest of Spain changes from 03:00 CEST to 02:00 CET).


title: Time in Spain

text: It is very popular in Spanish national media, mainly on the radio, to list the notice ""una hora menos en Canarias"" (English: "one hour less in the Canary Islands") when the local time is mentioned.


title: Time in Spain

text: Daylight saving time (DST) was first introduced in 1918, the year in which World War I ended. It was then introduced and abolished several times. It was not applied in 1920–1923, 1925, 1930 nor during the Second Spanish Republic period in 1931–1936. During the Spanish Civil War, DST was re-established, but there were different dates of application, depending on if the territory was under the control of the Republican faction or Nationalist faction. Curiously, the Republican faction made its first attempt to change from Greenwich Mean Time to Central European Time when time was advanced 1 hour on 2 April 1938 and advanced another hour on 30 April 1938, only adjusting back 1 hour on 2 October 1938. After the war ended on 1 April 1939, Greenwich Mean Time was re-established and on 15 April 1939 DST was also applied.


title: Time in Spain

text: Since 1974, after the 1973 oil crisis, daylight saving time has been observed every year. In 1981 it was applied as a directive and is revised every 4 years, DST is observed from the last Sunday in March (01:00 UTC) to the last Sunday in September (01:00 UTC). In 1996, daylight saving time was harmonised throughout the European Union by Directive 2000/84/EC, which moved the end of DST to the last Sunday in October.


title: Time in Spain

text: In 1940, Francisco Franco changed the time zone by changing 16 March 1940 23:00 Greenwich Mean Time to 17 March 1940 00:00 Central European Time during World War II. This was made permanent in 1942 in order to be in line with German-occupied Europe. Several western European countries, including France, Belgium, and the Netherlands stayed on German time after the war in addition to Spain.


title: Time in Spain

text: According to the original 24-hour division of the world, the nearest mean solar time zone is Greenwich Mean Time for all of mainland Spain except the westernmost part (about three-quarters of Galicia) and the westernmost part of Extremadura and the westernmost part of Andalucía which corresponds with the UTC-01:00 time zone. However, all of mainland Spain has used Central European Time (UTC+01:00) since 1940. At the time it was considered a temporary wartime decision that would be revoked a few years later, but the revocation never happened.


title: Time in Spain

text: Some activists believe that the mismatch between Spain's clock time and solar time contributes to the country's unusual daily schedule. They believe that the relatively late sunrises and sunsets shift the average Spaniard's day later than it otherwise would be, and that a return to its original time zone would help boost productivity and bring family and work rhythms into better balance.


title: Time in Spain

text: In September 2013, the subcommittee to study the Rationalisation of Hours, the Reconciliation of Personal, Family Life and Professional Life and Responsibility ("subcomisión para el estudio de la Racionalización de Horarios, la Conciliación de la Vida Personal, Familiar y Laboral y la Corresponsabilidad") of the Congress of Deputies made a report to the government of Spain proposing, among other things, a return to Greenwich Mean Time. The subcommittee considered that this time zone change would have a favourable effect, allowing more time for family, training, personal life, leisure, and avoiding downtime during the workday. The proposals are aimed at improving Spanish labour productivity as well as better adjusting schedules to family and work life.


title: Time in Spain

text: In Galicia, the westernmost region of mainland Spain, the difference between the official local time and the mean solar time is about two and a half hours during summer time. There have been political pushes to change the official time so that, as in Portugal, it is one hour in advance of the zone standard time. This would involve switching to GMT and making the time similar to that in Portugal, with which it shares the same longitude. For example, in Vigo (located 35 time minutes west of Greenwich) during summer, it is noon at around 14:40 and sunset is around 22:15 local time, while in Menorca sunset is around 21:20.


title: Time in Spain

text: The IANA time zone database contains 3 zones for Spain. Columns marked with * are from the file zone.tab from the database.


title: Time in Spain

text: Spain has borders with four countries: Portugal, France, Andorra, and Morocco; as well as with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. Clocks must normally be set one hour earlier than in Spain after crossing the borders with Portugal.


title: Time in Spain

text: This is the list of historical time changes in Spain, note that the time of change is in Greenwich Mean Time.


title: Scuttling of the German fleet at Scapa Flow

text: Shortly after the end of the First World War, the German Kaiserliche Marine was scuttled by its sailors while held off the harbor of the British Royal Navy base at Scapa Flow, in the Orkney Islands of Scotland. The High Seas Fleet was interned there under the terms of the Armistice while negotiations took place over the fate of the ships. Fearing that either the UK would seize the ships unilaterally or the German government at the time might reject the Treaty of Versailles and resume the war effort (in which case the ships could be used against Germany), Admiral Ludwig von Reuter decided to scuttle the fleet.


text: The scuttling was carried out on 21 June 1919. Intervening British guard ships were able to beach some of the ships, but 52 of the 74 interned vessels sank. Many of the wrecks were salvaged over the next two decades and were towed away for scrapping. Those that remain are popular diving sites. The ships are a source of low-background steel.


text: The signing of the Armistice on 11 November 1918, at Compiègne, France, effectively ended the First World War. The Allied powers agreed that Germany's U-boat fleet should be surrendered without the possibility of return, but were unable to agree upon a course of action regarding the German surface fleet. The Americans suggested that the ships be interned in a neutral port until a final decision was reached, but the two countries that were approached – Norway and Spain – both refused. Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss suggested that the fleet be interned at Scapa Flow with a skeleton crew of German sailors, and guarded in the interim by the Grand Fleet.


text: The terms were transmitted to Germany on 12 November 1918, instructing them to make the High Seas Fleet ready to sail by 18 November, or the Allies would occupy Heligoland.


text: On the night of 15 November, Rear-Admiral Hugo Meurer, the representative of Admiral Franz von Hipper, met Admiral David Beatty aboard Beatty's flagship, . Beatty presented Meurer with the terms, which were expanded at a second meeting the following day. The U-boats were to surrender to Rear-Admiral Reginald Tyrwhitt at Harwich, under the supervision of the Harwich Force. The surface fleet was to sail to the Firth of Forth and surrender to Beatty. They would then be led to Scapa Flow and interned, pending the outcome of the peace negotiations. Meurer asked for an extension to the deadline, aware that the sailors were still in a mutinous mood (which earlier had led to the Wilhelmshaven mutiny), and that the officers might have difficulty in getting them to obey orders. Meurer eventually signed the terms after midnight.


text: The first craft to be surrendered were the U-boats, which began to arrive at Harwich on 20 November 1918; 176 were eventually handed over. Hipper refused to lead his fleet to the surrender, delegating the task to Rear-Admiral Ludwig von Reuter. The German fleet was met by the light cruiser on the morning of 21 November, and led to the rendezvous with over 370 ships of the Grand Fleet and other allied navies. There were 70 German ships in total; the battleship and the light cruiser had engine trouble and had to be left behind. The destroyer struck a mine while crossing, and sank.


text: The German flag will be hauled down at sunset today and will not be hoisted again without permission.


text: The fleet was then moved between 25 and 27 November to Scapa Flow; the destroyers to Gutter Sound and the battleships and cruisers to the north and west of the island of Cava. Eventually, a total of 74 ships were interned there, "König" and "Dresden" having arrived on 6 December accompanied by the destroyer , which replaced the sunken "V30". The last ship to arrive was the battleship on 9 January 1919. Initially, the interned ships were guarded by the Battle Cruiser Force (later reduced to the Battle Cruiser Squadron), commanded in succession by Vice-Admiral William Pakenham, Rear-Admiral Henry Oliver and Rear-Admiral Roger Keyes. On 1 May 1919, Vice-Admiral Sir Arthur Leveson and the Second Battle Squadron of the Atlantic Fleet took over guard duties, and were succeeded on 18 May by Vice-Admiral Sir Sydney Fremantle and the First Battle Squadron.


text: The naval historian Arthur Marder described the state of affairs on board the German ships during the internment as "one of complete demoralization". He identified four reasons that exacerbated the situation: lack of discipline, poor food, lack of recreation and slow postal service. The cumulative result of these problems created "indescribable filth in some of the ships". On 29 November the Second-in-Command of the Grand Fleet, Admiral Sir Charles Madden, wrote to his brother-in-law and former superior Lord Jellicoe that, "All proposed orders are considered and counter-signed by the men's committee before they are executed and then they are carried out as convenient". When visiting an interned ship the German officers were reported to have been "dumb with shame". Food was sent from Germany twice a month but was monotonous and not of good quality. Catching fish and seagulls provided a dietary supplement and some recreation. A large amount of brandy was also sent over. Recreation for the men was limited to their ships, as the British refused to allow any of the interned sailors to go ashore or visit any other German ships. British officers and men were only allowed to visit on official business. Outgoing post to Germany was censored from the beginning, and later incoming post also. German seamen were granted 300 cigarettes a month or 75 cigars. There were German doctors in the interned fleet but no dentists, and the British refused to provide dental care.


text: Command of the interned ships was exercised through Reuter, flying his flag in the battleship . He had a British drifter at his disposal for visiting ships and issuing written orders on urgent business, and his staff was occasionally allowed to visit other ships to arrange repatriation of officers and men. Reuter, whose health was poor, requested that his flag be transferred to the light cruiser on 25 March after he was repeatedly prevented from sleeping by the stomping on his cabin roof by a group of revolutionary sailors called the "Red Guard". Over seven months the number of men in his command was continually reduced from the 20,000 men who had sailed the ships over in November. Four thousand returned to Germany on 3 December, 6,000 on 6 December and 5,000 on 12 December, leaving 4,815, of whom approximately 100 were repatriated a month.


text: Negotiations over the fate of the ships were under way at the Paris Peace Conference. The French and Italians each wanted a quarter of the ships. The British wanted them destroyed, since they knew that any redistribution would be detrimental to the proportional advantage in numbers they had compared to other navies. Under Article XXXI of the Armistice the Germans were not permitted to destroy their ships. Both Admirals Beatty and Madden had approved plans to seize the German ships in case scuttling was attempted; Admirals Keyes and Leveson recommended that the ships be seized anyway and the crews interned ashore at Nigg Island, but their suggestions were not taken up. Their concern was not without justification, for as early as January 1919, Reuter mentioned the possibility of scuttling the fleet to his chief of staff. Having learned of the possible terms of the Treaty of Versailles in May 1919, he began to prepare detailed plans to scuttle his ships. Admiral Erich Raeder later wrote that Reuter was informed that the fleet was to be scuttled at all costs. A further reduction of crews with the departure of two transports to Germany on 18 June 1919 meant that Reuter was left with reliable men to carry out preparations. On that day he sent out orders, paragraph 11 of which stated: "It is my intention to sink the ships only if the enemy should attempt to obtain possession of them without the assent of our government. Should our government agree in the peace to terms to the surrender of the ships, then the ships will be handed over, to the lasting disgrace of those who have placed us in this position." His orders were sent to the interned ships on 18 June.


text: In the meantime the signing of the Treaty of Versailles was scheduled for noon on 21 June 1919. The First Battle Squadron prepared to board the German ships in force to check for signs that the fleet was preparing to scuttle. On 13 June Admiral Madden requested in person at the Admiralty a daily political appreciation from 17 June onwards so as to be prepared to take action, but as Madden related to Beatty shortly afterwards, "they had no reliable indication of the German attitude towards the peace terms". Admiral Fremantle submitted to Madden on 16 June a scheme for seizing the German ships at midnight of 21/22 June, after the treaty was meant to be signed. Madden approved the plan on 19 June, but only after he was informed that the deadline for signing the treaty was extended to 19:00 on 23 June and he neglected to officially inform Fremantle. News of the extension was seen by Fremantle in a newspaper on the same day and he assumed it to be true. He had been under orders from Madden for some time to exercise his battleships against torpedo attacks, which required good weather in order to recover the torpedoes. The weather on the night of 20 June was favourable so Fremantle ordered the First Battle Squadron to sea at 09:00 the next day, 21 June. The operation to seize the German ships was postponed until the night of his squadron's return to Scapa Flow on 23 June, after the deadline to sign the treaty had expired. Fremantle later claimed that before he left Scapa he had unofficially informed Reuter that the armistice was still in effect.


text: Around 10:00 a.m. on 21 June 1919, Reuter sent a flag signal ordering the fleet to stand by for the signal to scuttle. At about 11:20 the flag signal was sent: "To all Commanding Officers and the Leader of the Torpedo Boats. Paragraph Eleven of to-day's date. Acknowledge. Chief of the Interned Squadron." The signal was repeated by semaphore and searchlights. Scuttling began immediately: seacocks and flood valves were opened, internal water pipes smashed and drain valves on sewage tanks opened. Portholes had already been loosened, watertight doors and condenser covers left open, and in some ships holes had been bored through bulkheads, all to facilitate the spread of water once scuttling began. One German ship commander recorded that before 21 June, seacocks had been set on a hair turning and heavily lubricated, while large hammers had been placed besides valves.


text: There was no noticeable effect until noon, when "Friedrich der Grosse" began to list heavily to starboard and all the ships hoisted the Imperial German Ensign at their mainmasts. The crews then began to abandon ship. The British naval forces left at Scapa Flow comprised three destroyers, one of which was under repair, seven trawlers and a number of drifters. Fremantle started receiving news of the scuttling at 12:20 and cancelled his squadron's exercise at 12:35, steaming at full speed back to Scapa Flow. He and a division of ships arrived at 14:30 in time to see only the large ships still afloat. He had radioed ahead to order all available craft to prevent the German ships sinking or beach them. The last German ship to sink was the battlecruiser at 17:00, by which time 15 capital ships were sunk, and only survived. Five light cruisers and 32 destroyers were also sunk. Nine German sailors were shot and killed and about 16 wounded aboard their lifeboats rowing towards land.


text: During the afternoon, 1,774 Germans were picked up and transported by battleships of the First Battle Squadron to Invergordon. Fremantle had sent out a general order declaring that the Germans were to be treated as prisoners-of-war for having broken the armistice and they were destined for the prisoner-of-war camps at Nigg. Reuter and several of his officers were brought onto the quarterdeck of , where Fremantle – through an interpreter – denounced their actions as dishonourable while Reuter and his men looked on "with expressionless faces". Admiral Fremantle subsequently remarked privately, "I could not resist feeling some sympathy for von Reuter, who had preserved his dignity when placed against his will in a highly unpleasant and invidious position."


text: The French were disappointed that the German fleet was gone, having hoped to acquire at least some of the ships. Admiral Wemyss privately remarked:


text: Of the 74 German ships at Scapa Flow, 15 of the 16 capital ships, 5 of the 8 cruisers, and 32 of the 50 destroyers were sunk. The remainder either remained afloat, or were towed to shallower waters and beached. The beached ships were later dispersed to the allied navies, but most of the sunken ships were initially left at the bottom of Scapa Flow, the cost of salvaging them being deemed to be not worth the potential returns, owing to the glut of scrap metal left after the end of the war, with plenty of obsolete warships having been broken up. After complaints from locals that the wrecks were a hazard to navigation, a salvage company was formed in 1923, which raised four of the sunken destroyers.


text: At about this time, the entrepreneur Ernest Cox became involved. He bought 26 destroyers from the Admiralty for £250 (equivalent to £ in ), as well as and . He began operations to refloat the destroyers using an old German dry dock he purchased and subsequently modified. He was able to lift 24 of his 26 destroyers over the next year and a half, after which he began work on the larger vessels. He developed a new salvage technique whereby divers patched the holes in the submerged hulls, and pumped air into them to displace the water, letting them rise to the surface where they could then be towed to the breakers. Using this technique, he refloated several of the ships. His methods were costly, however, and the final cost of raising "Hindenburg" ran to some £30,000 (equivalent to £ in ). Industrial action and a coal strike in 1926 nearly brought operations to a halt, but Cox instead dug out the coal in the submerged "Seydlitz", using it to power his machines until the end of the strike. Salvaging "Seydlitz" also proved difficult, as the ship sank again during the first attempt to raise her, wrecking most of the salvage equipment. Undaunted, Cox tried again, ordering that when she was next raised, news cameras would be there to capture him witnessing the moment. The plan nearly backfired when "Seydlitz" was accidentally refloated while Cox was holidaying in Switzerland. Cox told the workers to sink her again, then returned to Scotland to be present as "Seydlitz" was duly refloated a third time. Cox's company eventually raised 26 destroyers, two battlecruisers and five battleships. Cox sold his remaining interests to the Alloa Shipbreaking Company (later Metal Industries Group) and retired as the "man who bought a navy". The latter company went on to raise a further five cruisers, battlecruisers and battleships, before the outbreak of the Second World War brought operations to a halt.


text: The remaining wrecks lie in deeper waters, in depths up to and there has been no economic incentive to attempt to raise them since. They have changed ownership several times and minor salvage is still carried out to recover small pieces of steel. This low-background steel is used in the manufacture of radiation-sensitive devices, such as Geiger counters, as it is not contaminated with radioisotopes, having been produced before any chance of nuclear contamination. In 2001, the seven wrecks that remain were scheduled under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Areas Act 1979 (as SM9298 & SM9308). Divers are allowed to visit them but need a permit to do so.


text: The scrap from the raised ships were sold and somehow Nazi Germany was able to buy some of the scrap and use it to construct the first ships and U-boats for the Kriegsmarine. Ironically, in 1939, one of the German U-boats made from this scrap, U-47, snuck into Scapa Flow and sunk the HMS "Royal Oak", a ship that fought in the First World War at the Battle of Jutland. The attack was not only an act of vengeance for Germany's humiliation, but also a huge blow to British morale.


text: While the rebuilding of the German Army in the 1930s was based upon the combined myths of "invincibility on the battlefield" and the "stab in the back", the attitude and actions of the High Seas Fleet at Scapa Flow became a symbol of defiance for the new recruits and officers of the Kriegsmarine. The last living military witness to the scuttling of the fleet was Claude Choules, who died on 5 May 2011 aged 110. Choules was the last known living combat veteran of the First World War. An eyewitness account of the scuttling and the subsequent angry meeting between Reuter and Fremantle was published in 2015 by the family of Hugh David, who died in 1957. In 2019, the three battleships "Markgraf", "König" and "Kronprinz Wilhelm" were sold on eBay (by the retiring diving contractor Tommy Clark) for £25,500 each to a Middle Eastern company. The cruiser, "Karlsruhe", sold for £8,500 to a private bidder in England.


text: Two remembrance ceremonies took place on Friday 21 June 2019 to mark the 100th anniversary of the scuttling of the German High Seas Fleet. The grandson, and three great grandsons of von Reuter attended both services. The morning 'Reflection at Sea' service was held in the middle of the Flow at 11.00 and was attended by dive charter vessels, the Orkney Ferries vessel "Thorsvoe", Longhope Lifeboat and two ships from the Northern Lighthouse Board, "Pharos" and "Polestar". The second ceremony was held at Lyness in the Royal Naval Cemetery by the graves of WWI German sailors.


text: The circumstances of the event as well as computer generated 'scans' of the remaining scuttled ships on the seabed featured in an episode of the National Geographic documentary "Drain the Oceans".


title: Danny Chan Kwok-kwan

text: Danny Chan Kwok-kwan (born 1 August 1975) is a Hong Kong actor, martial artist, dance choreographer, and lead singer of the rock band Poet. He is known for resembling Bruce Lee in appearance and has portrayed Lee in the 2008 television series "The Legend of Bruce Lee", the 2015 film "Ip Man 3", and its 2019 sequel, "". Chan is also a practitioner of Jeet Kune Do, the martial art created by Bruce Lee.


title: Danny Chan Kwok-kwan

text: Chan started his career as the lead singer of the rock band Poet. He also played minor roles in several Hong Kong films.


title: Danny Chan Kwok-kwan

text: He first came to prominence for acting in two films directed by Stephen Chow—as the goalkeeper "Empty Hand" in "Shaolin Soccer" (2001), and as the Axe Gang boss Brother Sum in "Kung Fu Hustle" (2004). In 2008, due to his resemblance to Bruce Lee, he was chosen to portray the famous martial artist in the biographical television series "The Legend of Bruce Lee".


title: Danny Chan Kwok-kwan

text: Chan reprised his role as Lee in the 2015 film "Ip Man 3", which is loosely based on the life of Lee's mentor. He took on the role once more in the 2019 film "Ip Man 4", the final installment in the franchise.


title: Danny Chan Kwok-kwan

text: Chan has been married to Hong Kong actress Emme Wong since 2014. Chan has sparked controversy for his pro-Beijing stance, after he expressed support for the Hong Kong Police Force during the 2019 Hong Kong Protests. He had posted on social media that police should not "go easy on any [protesters]" nor "let any one of them go".


title: Alain Wertheimer

text: Alain Ernest Wertheimer (born 28 September 1948) is a French billionaire businessman, based in New York City. He is the chairman and a controlling shareholder in Chanel, with his brother Gérard who chairs its watch division. As of October 2022, Wertheimer's net worth was estimated at US$40 billion by "Bloomberg Billionaires Index", making him the 26th richest person in the world.


title: Alain Wertheimer

text: Wertheimer was born on 28 September 1948, to a Jewish family, the son of Jacques Wertheimer and Eliane Fischer. His grandfather, Pierre, co-founded Chanel with Coco Chanel.


title: Alain Wertheimer

text: The privately held company is run by Alain who has presided over the acquisition of several non-Chanel brands, including Eres Lingerie and beachwear, Tanner Krolle saddles and leather goods, and Holland & Holland, a British gunmaker.


title: Alain Wertheimer

text: Based in France, the Wertheimer brothers own French vineyards including Château Rauzan-Ségla in Margaux, and Château Canon in Saint-Émilion, both of which have won rave reviews from oenophiles.


title: Alain Wertheimer

text: Both brothers are enthusiastic equestrians who also inherited and operate an important Thoroughbred horse racing stable they call La Presle Farm or Wertheimer farm for racing in the United States and is known as Wertheimer et Frère partnership in France.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Harry Jacob Anslinger (May 20, 1892 – November 14, 1975) was a United States government official who served as the first commissioner of the U.S. Treasury Department's Federal Bureau of Narcotics during the presidencies of Herbert Hoover, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and John F. Kennedy. He was a supporter of Prohibition, and of the criminalization of all drugs, and spearheaded anti-drug policy campaigns. He was also a huge contributor to the silence and murder of Billie Holiday, a civil rights singer who performed “Strange Fruit”.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Anslinger has been characterized as an early proponent of the war on drugs, as he zealously advocated for and pursued harsh drug penalties, in particular regarding marijuana. As a propagandist for the war on drugs, he focused on demonizing racial and immigrant groups. He targeted jazz musicians, including singer Billie Holiday.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Anslinger held office as commissioner for an unprecedented 32 years, until 1962. He then held office for two years as U.S. Representative to the United Nations Narcotics Commission. The responsibilities once held by Anslinger are now largely under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy and the agency he ran was a predecessor of the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA).


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Anslinger was born in Altoona, Pennsylvania, in 1892. His father, of Swiss German origin, was Robert J. Anslinger, a barber by trade, who was born in Bern, Switzerland. His mother, Rosa Christiana Fladt, was born in the Grand Duchy of Baden (today a part of Germany). The family emigrated to the United States in 1881. Robert Anslinger worked in New York for two years, then moved to Altoona, a town founded by the Pennsylvania Railroad. In 1892, the year Harry was born, Robert Anslinger went to work for the Pennsylvania Railroad, seeking more stable employment.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Harry Anslinger followed his father in going to work for the Pennsylvania Railroad. After completing the eighth grade, he began to work with his father at the railroad, while starting with his freshman year. Aged 14, he continued to attend morning sessions in the local high school, working afternoons and evenings for the railroad. Failing to receive a high school diploma, in 1909, Harry enrolled at Altoona Business College at the age of 17, and for the next two years received additional tutoring. In 1912, he was granted a furlough permitting him to enroll at Pennsylvania State College, where he studied in a two-year associate degree program in business and engineering, while working during weekends and vacation periods.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Anslinger gained notoriety early in his career. At the age of 23 (in 1915), while working as an investigator for the Pennsylvania Railroad, he performed a detailed investigation that found the $50,000 claim of a widower in a railroad accident to be fraudulent. He saved the company the payout and was promoted to captain of railroad police.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: From 1917 to 1928, Anslinger worked for various military and police organizations on stopping international drug trafficking. His duties took him all over the world, from Germany to Venezuela to Japan. He is widely credited with shaping not only America's domestic and international drug policies but influencing drug policies of other nations, particularly those that had not debated the issues internally.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: By 1929, Anslinger returned from his international tour to work as an assistant commissioner in the United States' Treasury Department's Bureau of Prohibition. At that time, corruption and scandal gripped prohibition and narcotics agencies. The ensuing shake-ups and re-organizations set the stage for Anslinger, perceived as an honest and incorruptible figure, to advance not only in rank but in political stature.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: In 1930, at age 38, Anslinger was appointed the founding commissioner of the Treasury's Federal Bureau of Narcotics. The illegal trade in alcohol (then still under Prohibition) and illicit drugs was targeted by the Treasury, not primarily as social evils that fell under other government purview, but as losses of untaxed revenue. Appointed by department Secretary Andrew W. Mellon, who was his wife's uncle, Anslinger was given a budget of $100,000 and wide scope.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Restrictions on cannabis ("cannabis sativa", often called "Indian Hemp" in documents before the 1940s) as a drug started in local laws in New York in 1860. That was followed by local laws in many other states, and by state laws in the 1910s and 1920s. The federal Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 regulated the labeling of patent medicines that contained "cannabis indica". In 1925, in the International Opium Convention, the United States supported regulation of "Indian hemp" in its use as a drug. Recommendations from the International Opium Convention inspired the work with the Uniform State Narcotic Act between 1925 and 1932.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Anslinger had not been active in that process until approximately 1930. Anslinger collected stories of marijuana causing crime and violence, and ignored evidence that allowed for other interpretations. Doctor Walter Bromberg pointed out that substance abuse and crime are heavily confounded and that none of a group of 2,216 criminal convictions he had examined was clearly connected to marijuana's influence. He also ignored a discussion forwarded to him by the American Medical Association, in which 29 of 30 pharmacists and drug industry representatives objected to his proposals to ban marijuana. One such statement claimed that the proposal was "Absolute rot. It is not necessary. I have never known of its misuse.". However, only the single dissenter (who noted he had once encountered a doctor who had been addicted to marijuana) was preserved in Bureau files.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: As head of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, Anslinger sought, and ultimately received, an increase of reports about smoking of marijuana in 1936 that continued to spread at an accelerated pace in 1937. Before that, the smoking of marijuana had been relatively slight and confined to the Southwest, particularly along the Mexican border.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: The Bureau first prepared a legislative plan to seek a new law from Congress that would place marijuana and its distribution directly under federal control. Second, Anslinger ran a campaign against marijuana on radio and at major forums. His view was clear, ideological and judgmental:


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: By using the mass media as his forum, and receiving much support from yellow journalism publisher William Randolph Hearst, Anslinger propelled the anti-marijuana sentiment from state level to a national movement. He used what he called his "Gore Files" - a collection of quotes from police reports - to graphically depict offenses caused by drug users. They were written in the terse and concise language of a police report. His most infamous story in "The American Magazine" concerned Victor Licata, who killed his family:


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: This story was referenced in the 1937 anti-weed film “Reefer Madness”. It is one of 200 violent crimes which were documented in Anslinger's "Gore Files" series. It has since been discovered that Licata murdered his family due to severe mental illness, which had been diagnosed early in his youth, and not because of cannabis use. Researchers have now proved that Anslinger wrongly attributed 198 of the "Gore Files" stories to marijuana usage, and the remaining "two cases could not be disproved because no records existed concerning the crimes." During the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act hearings, Anslinger rehashed the 1933 Licata killings while giving testimony to Congress.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: In the 1930s, Anslinger's anti-marijuana articles often contained racist themes, to the point that contemporary conservative politicians at one point called for Anslinger to resign based solely on his open racist remarks:


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Though these stories were often true (whatever the role of cannabis in them), Anslinger's basic attitude was shown in remarks not related to any particular story, such as:


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: According to Johann Hari, the Federal Bureau of Narcotics under Anslinger targeted Billie Holiday after her 1939 song "Strange Fruit,". Hari wrote that Anslinger assigned an agent to track her after she refused to stop speaking out about racism. According to Hari, Anslinger used the war on drugs as a pretext for the Federal Bureau of Narcotics who had little to do following the end of prohibition. Hari states that Anslinger hated addicts, Latinos, and African Americans and that Anslinger was "so racist that he was regarded as a crazy racist in the 1920s." However, these allegations have been disputed, with historian Lewis Porter noting that "there was no federal objection to the song “Strange Fruit,” nor was there any campaign to suppress it" and Holiday was instead pursued by Bureau of Narcotics mainly for her history of drug use. Porter writes that Johann Hari's, 2015 book, Chasing the Scream: The First and Last Days of the War on Drugs, is where the allegation that Holiday was targeted for singing "Strange Fruit" originated and that this claim didn't appear anywhere else before that.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: In his 1964 book, "The Protectors", Anslinger included a chapter called "Jazz and Junk Don't Mix", about black jazz musicians Billie Holiday, whom had been handcuffed on her death bed due to suspicion of drug use and possession, and Charlie Parker, who both died after years of illegal heroin and alcohol abuse:


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Anslinger hoped to orchestrate a nationwide dragnet of jazz musicians and kept a file called "Marijuana and Musicians."


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Some critics of Anslinger claim his campaign against marijuana had a hidden agenda, hinting darkly at conspiracy. One example of this sort of thing is that the E. I. DuPont De Nemours And Company industrial firm, petrochemical interests and William Randolph Hearst conspired together to create the highly sensational anti-marijuana campaign so as to eliminate hemp as an industrial competitor to synthetic materials. However, the DuPont Company and industrial historians have dismissed any link between development of nylon and changes in the laws relating to hemp (marijuana); pointing out nylon was a huge success from the start. It was not until 1934, and his fourth year in office, that Anslinger considered marijuana to be a serious threat to American society (Wallace Carothers first synthesized nylon on February 28, 1935). This was part of a worldwide trend, unrelated to racial issues in America; The League of Nations had already implemented restrictions on marijuana in the beginning of the 1930s, and many states in the U.S. had started restricting it in the years before Anslinger was appointed. In 1935, both president Franklin D. Roosevelt and his attorney general publicly supported the campaign. Anslinger was part the government's broader push to alarm the public about the danger of recreational drugs and to outlaw them. He did this with reference to his own agenda.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: The La Guardia Committee, promoted in 1939 by New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia, was the first in-depth study into the effects of smoking marijuana. It systematically contradicted claims made by the U.S. Treasury Department that smoking marijuana resulted in insanity, and determined that "the practice of smoking marihuana does not lead to addiction in the medical sense of the word." Released in 1944, the report infuriated Anslinger, who condemned it as unscientific.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Later in his career, Anslinger was scrutinized for insubordination by refusing to desist from an attempt to halt the ABA/AMA Joint Report on Narcotic Addiction, a publication edited by the sociology Professor Alfred R. Lindesmith of Indiana University. Among other works, Lindesmith wrote "Opiate Addiction" (1947), "The Addict and the Law" (1965), and a number of articles condemning the criminalization of addiction. Nearly everything Lindesmith did was critical of the War on Drugs, and he specifically condemned Anslinger's role. The AMA/ABA controversy is sometimes credited with ending Anslinger's position of Commissioner of the Federal Bureau of Narcotics.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: In his later years Anslinger also suffered a mental breakdown characterized by intense paranoia and irrational thoughts, such as believing that addiction was 'contagious' and addicts had to be 'quarantined' or talking about 'secret plots' throughout the world; he was eventually hospitalized because of this breakdown.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Anslinger was surprised to be re-appointed by President John F. Kennedy in February 1961. The new president had a tendency to invigorate the government with more youthful civil servants and, by 1962, Anslinger was 70 years old, the mandatory age for retirement in his position. In addition, during the previous year, he had witnessed his wife Martha's slow and agonizing death due to heart failure, and had lost some of his drive and ambition. On his 70th birthday, May 20, 1962, Anslinger submitted his resignation to Kennedy. Because Kennedy did not have a successor in place, however, Anslinger stayed on in his $18,500 a year ($145,733 when adjusted for inflation in 2014 dollars) position until later that year. He was succeeded by Henry Giordano in August. Following that, he was the United States' Representative to the United Nations Narcotics Commission for two years, after which he retired.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: By 1973, Anslinger was completely blind, had a debilitatingly enlarged prostate gland, and suffered from angina. Ironically, when he died, Anslinger was being treated with regular doses of with morphine, which had been prescribed for him for his angina.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: Additionally, Anslinger provided morphine to Senator Joseph McCarthy, who was addicted to both alcohol and morphine. When Anslinger tried to persuade McCarthy to quit morphine, McCarthy reminded him of the potential for a public scandal. Anslinger relented and steadily supplied McCarthy with morphine that was paid for by the Bureau and obtained from a local drugstore. This arrangement continued until McCarthy's death in 1957.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: On November 14, 1975, at 1 p.m., Anslinger died of heart failure at the former Mercy Hospital (now known as Bon Secours Hospital Campus of the Altoona Regional Health System) in Altoona, Pennsylvania. He was 83, and was buried at the Hollidaysburg Presbyterian Cemetery in Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania.


title: Harry J. Anslinger

text: He was survived by his son, Joseph Leet Anslinger, and a sister. According to John McWilliams's 1990 book, "The Protectors: Harry J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics (1930–1962)," Anslinger's daughter-in-law Bea at that time still lived in Anslinger's home in Hollidaysburg.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Vincenzo Montella (; born 18 June 1974) is an Italian retired footballer and current manager, who played as a striker. He is current manager of Süper Lig club Adana Demirspor.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella's nickname during his playing career was "Aeroplanino", in reference to his small stature and trademark goal celebration, in which he spread his arms like wings. A prolific goalscorer, throughout his playing career Montella played as a forward for Italian clubs Empoli, Genoa, Sampdoria and Roma, and also had a spell on loan in England with Fulham. He is mostly remembered for his performances with Roma (1999–2007), where he won the Serie A title and the Supercoppa Italiana during the 2000–01 season, also later reaching the 2003 Coppa Italia final with the club. In 2013, Montella was inducted into the A.S. Roma Hall of Fame. At international level, he made 20 appearances for Italy between 1999 and 2005, scoring three goals; he was notably a member of the Italian team that reached the final of UEFA Euro 2000, and he also represented his country at the 2002 FIFA World Cup.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella began his managerial career as Roma's caretaker manager in 2011, later coaching Catania the following season. In 2012, he moved to Fiorentina, where he spent three seasons, leading the club to three consecutive fourth-place league finishes, the 2014 Coppa Italia final and the UEFA Europa League semi-finals in 2015. After a season-long spell with Sampdoria, he was appointed Milan's manager in 2016, and later that year, he won his first title as a coach with the club, the Supercoppa Italiana. He was sacked by the club in 2017 and was subsequently appointed the new manager of Spanish side Sevilla. Despite reaching the Copa del Rey final and reaching the Champions League quarter-finals for the first time in the club's history, he was sacked by Sevilla 4 months after his appointment following a run that included nine matches without a victory. He returned to Fiorentina in 2019, with the second spell lasting over 8 months.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella began his club career in Serie C1 at Empoli in 1990 before moving to Serie B club Genoa in 1995, where he scored 21 goals in his only season with the club, at the end of which he lifted the Anglo-Italian Cup. He then moved up to Serie A to city rivals Sampdoria, where he remained three years, until 1999. After Sampdoria's relegation, when he moved to Roma in a 50 billion lire (about €25.823 million) transfer.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: It was Roma coach Zdeněk Zeman that wanted him to spearhead the Roma attack, but that year Roma also signed a new coach, Fabio Capello, who disliked short forwards. Despite this, during the 1999–2000 season, Montella scored 18 goals, being the topscorer of the "giallorossi", playing alongside Marco Delvecchio, in front of advanced playmaker Francesco Totti. The following year, Roma signed the Argentinian forward Gabriel Batistuta from Fiorentina, the tall striker wanted by Capello.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: There was a slight controversy between the two forwards concerning the number 9 shirt, the prior number of both players – Batistuta ultimately chose number 18, although Batistuta was often the coach's first choice, with Montella was usually deployed as a substitute. Despite his lack of starts, he was one of the main protagonists of Roma's third "Scudetto" in 2000–01 and scored many important goals for the club, including the equalising goal in a 2–2 away draw in Serie A against eventual runners-up Juventus on 6 May 2001, and Roma's second goal in the 3–1 title-deciding victory over Parma on 17 June, at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: The controversies between Capello and Montella continued in the following years as Montella was unhappy at his lack of first team opportunities, and in March 2002 Montella made his sadness clear, stating, "I would have better expectations with another coach." Despite his struggle to gain a starting spot, he became a club idol to the supporters, as he had a knack for performing well in the Rome derby against Lazio, scoring a brace in his first derby in 1999 and four goals in a 5–1 win on 10 March 2002; this four-goal haul is still the record of goals scored in a derby match by a single player.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: 2003 was a difficult year for Montella, as he divorced from his former wife, Rita, and was plagued with many injuries. During the 2003–04 season, he played only 12 games but still managed a solid scoring record, scoring six goals despite his limited playing time.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: During the 2004–05 season, Capello finally left Roma – for Juventus – and, while the "giallorossi" had a disastrous season, Montella scored 23 goals and earned a new contract lasting until 30 June 2010, also helping Roma to the Coppa Italia final that season. In the 2005–06 season, he was again plagued with injuries. He underwent surgery on both his back and shoulder, limiting him to just 12 games. In January 2007, during the 2006–07 season he was loaned to Fulham because Francesco Totti was the lone forward in new head coach Luciano Spalletti's 4–2–3–1 formation, while Montella wanted to have more chances to play.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: With Roma, Montella played a total of 215 matches over 8 years, scoring 94 goals to become the fifth-best topscorer in Roma history. He played his last game for Roma on 23 December 2006 before leaving on loan to England.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella joined Fulham on a six-month loan on 4 January 2007 and was given the number 11 shirt. He scored twice against Leicester City on his home debut, in the FA Cup. He scored again on 27 January in the same competition against Stoke City.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: On 13 January 2007, Montella made his Premier League debut, against West Ham United. Against Tottenham Hotspur at Craven Cottage seven days later, he scored his first Premier League goal with a penalty kick. He also scored a goal against Blackburn Rovers in a 1–1 draw which gave Fulham the boost to avoid relegation.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella quickly became popular with the Fulham fans and showed his gratitude for making him feel at home at Craven Cottage. However, he hardly started under manager Chris Coleman, despite several public pleas. After manager Chris Coleman's sacking, Montella only started twice under replacement manager Lawrie Sanchez. Montella hinted that he would like to return to Roma after the end of the 2006–07 season. The loan was terminated by Sanchez on 8 May 2007, a week before its natural expiration.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: He was loaned to Sampdoria for the 2007–08 season. Bruno Conti brought Montella back to Roma in 2008–09, after Mancini had departed Roma to join Internazionale. Montella took number 23 when he came back; Mirko Vučinić held on the number 9 shirt which was formerly Montella's, and Montella took the number 23 shirt, formerly of Vučinić.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella was only able to make substitute appearances for Roma in the 2008–09 season. He played his last game on 16 May 2009.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella received his first international cap for Italy under Dino Zoff in a UEFA Euro 2000 qualifying match against Wales on 5 June 1999, which Italy won 4–0, coming on as a second-half substitute for Christian Vieri; he was part of the final 22-man Italian squad that took part at Euro 2000, where they reached the final. Although Montella did not score during the competition, he recorded an assist in Italy's final group match against Sweden, setting up Alessandro Del Piero's match-winning goal in the 2–1 victory, which allowed Italy to top their group. He would also make one more appearance during the tournament, in the 2–1 final defeat against France, coming on as a late second-half substitute for Roma teammate and goalscorer Marco Delvecchio, with Italy leading 1–0; France equalised in injury time and eventually won the match in extra-time courtesy of a David Trezeguet golden goal. He scored his first goal for Italy in an international friendly match against South Africa in Perugia on 25 April 2001, a 1–0 home win for Italy. On 27 March 2002, he scored a notable double against England in an international friendly match in Leeds, giving Italy a 2–1 away victory after they had been trailing 1–0, with his second, match-winning goal coming form an injury-time penalty.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: After appearing for Italy under Giovanni Trapattoni during their 2002 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, Montella was chosen as a member of the Italy team that would be competing at the 2002 World Cup, where the Italians were eliminated controversially in the round of 16 to co-hosts South Korea following a 2–1 defeat in extra time. In his only World Cup appearance, during Italy's final group stage match against Mexico in the 2002 World Cup, he had a goal wrongly disallowed. He later set up Del Piero's equaliser in the eventual 1–1 draw, which helped Italy to progress to the second round. He had warmed up and was ready to come off the bench in the round of 16 match, but South Korea's Ahn scored the golden goal moments before he was set to come on. He later also appeared for Italy in three Euro 2004 qualifying matches, but was not called up for the final tournament. He made his final appearance for Italy under Marcello Lippi, in an international friendly match against Russia on 9 February 2005, held in Cagliari, which Italy won 2–0. In total, Montella won 20 caps and scored 3 goals for Italy.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Nicknamed ""L'Aeroplanino"" ("The Little Airplane"), due to his small stature and trademark goal celebration, in which he spread his arms like wings, Montella was known as a quick, hard-working, intelligent, and opportunistic left-footed striker, who was gifted with pace, good technique and a keen eye for goal, and was capable of striking the ball well with either foot; he has also been described as a "fine all round player, with excellent passing and dribbling skills." Although he was primarily played as a centre-forward, a position in which he earned a reputation as a prolific "goal-poacher", his wide range of skills made him a versatile forward, who also capable of playing in a more creative role as a second striker. However, despite his ability and goalscoring record as a footballer, at times he was criticised by his Roma manager Fabio Capello for being a "selfish" player; he was also known to be injury-prone.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella signed a three-year contract with Roma as youth team coach for the "Giovanissimi Nazionali" (under-15 level).


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: On 21 February 2011, he was appointed as interim head coach of the first team for the remainder of the season, taking over the role from resigning boss Claudio Ranieri. On 23 February, in his first Serie A match in charge, Roma won away against Bologna, 1–0. On 8 March, in his Champions League managerial debut, Roma lost away to Shakhtar Donetsk, 3–0. Montella completed an eventful season for Roma, leading the "Giallorossi" to sixth place in the league table, and he was subsequently released after the new club owners led by American businessman Thomas R. DiBenedetto decided to appoint Luis Enrique as permanent head coach for the 2011–12 season.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: On 9 June 2011, and only a few days after being released by Roma, Montella was announced as new boss of Catania, signing a two-year contract with the Eastern Sicilian club. He led Catania to a mid-table placement, and ahead of Sicilian rivals Palermo for the first time in eight years; by the end of season, he was heavily linked with a comeback at Roma and the vacant job at Fiorentina. Montella left Catania by mutual consent on 4 June 2012, after only one season in charge of the team.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: On 11 June 2012, Fiorentina announced on their official website that Montella signed a two-year-deal (later extended until June 2017) with the Tuscan outfit. Montella's arrival saw a massive upheaval of the squad which saw 17 (including Borja Valero and Alberto Aquilani) out of the 26 senior players being new to the club. Fiorentina finished the 2012–13 Serie A in fourth place, missing out on a Champions League spot to Milan on the final day of the season.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: In his second season in charge, Montella led Fiorentina to the 2014 Coppa Italia final, but were beaten 3–1 by Napoli, while the team finished the league season in fourth place once again. In his third season, Montella helped Fiorentina reach the semi-final of the 2014–15 UEFA Europa League, where they were eliminated by defending champions and eventual winners Sevilla. Fiorentina finished the league season in fourth place for the third consecutive season. On 8 June, he was sacked as Fiorentina head coach.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: On 15 November 2015, Sampdoria announced Montella was appointed new head coach. On 28 June 2016, Montella left the club to join Milan.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: On 28 June 2016, Milan announced Montella as their new head coach with a contract starting from 1 July. He signed a two-year deal, reportedly worth €2.3 million per year, while Sampdoria was paid €500,000 as a compensation to release him from his contract. On 23 December, Montella led the "Rossoneri" to their first title since 2011, the Supercoppa Italiana, defeating Juventus 4–3 in a penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw following extra time. With a 6th-place finish in the league his first season as the club's head coach, Montella led Milan to qualify for the 3rd round of 2017–18 UEFA Europa League qualification phase, marking Milan's return to European competition for the first time since February 2014. On 30 May 2017, he signed a new contract until 2019.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Although much was expected of Milan after a €200m summer transfer campaign financed by the team's new owners, the first half of the 2017–18 season was disappointing for the club; Montella drew criticism in the media for struggling to find a suitable formation for his players and a fixed starting eleven, and only won 6 out of first 14 games in the league. Following these poor results at the beginning of the 2017–18 Serie A season, Montella was eventually sacked by Milan on 27 November 2017, following a 0–0 home draw against Torino the day before; Gennaro Gattuso was put in charge as Montella's replacement.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: On 28 December 2017, Spanish club Sevilla FC announced the appointment of Montella as a replacement of sacked head coach Eduardo Berizzo, for a contract which would last until mid-2019.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: During his tenure, Montella managed to guide Sevilla to a first-ever Champions League quarter-final, defeating Manchester United 2–1 on aggregate in the round of 16. Sevilla were beaten by Bayern Munich in the quarter-finals 2–1 on aggregate. Montella also led Sevilla to the 2018 Copa del Rey final, defeating teams such as Atlético Madrid and Léganes in the process, where they suffered a 5–0 defeat to Barcelona.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Despite being the finalists of the Copa Del Rey, Sevilla struggled with their league form, and on 28 April 2018, Montella was sacked by the club following a run of nine games without a victory.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: On 10 April 2019, Montella returned to Fiorentina after the resignation of Stefano Pioli. Following a 1–4 away defeat to Roma in Serie A on 20 December 2019, he was dismissed from his managerial post the day after.


title: Vincenzo Montella

text: Montella has featured in EA Sports' "FIFA" video game series; he was on the cover for the Italian edition of "FIFA 2000".


title: Grumman X-29

text: The Grumman X-29 was an American experimental aircraft that tested a forward-swept wing, canard control surfaces, and other novel aircraft technologies. The X-29 was developed by Grumman, and the two built were flown by NASA and the United States Air Force. The aerodynamic instability of the X-29's airframe required the use of computerized fly-by-wire control. Composite materials were used to control the aeroelastic divergent twisting experienced by forward-swept wings, and to reduce weight. The aircraft first flew in 1984, and two X-29s were flight tested through 1991.


title: Grumman X-29

text: Two X-29As were built by Grumman after the proposal had been chosen over a competing one involving a General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. The X-29 design made use of the forward fuselage and nose landing gear from two existing F-5A Freedom Fighter airframes (63-8372 became 82-0003 and 65-10573 became 82-0049). The control surface actuators and main landing gear were from the F-16. The technological advancement that made the X-29 a plausible design was the use of carbon-fiber composites. The wings of the X-29, made partially of graphite epoxy, were swept forward at more than 33 degrees; forward-swept wings were first trialed 40 years earlier on the experimental Junkers Ju 287 and OKB-1 EF 131. The Grumman internal designation for the X-29 was "Grumman Model 712" or "G-712".


title: Grumman X-29

text: The X-29 is described as a three surface aircraft, with canards, forward-swept wings, and aft strake control surfaces, using three-surface longitudinal control. The canards and wings result in reduced trim drag and reduced wave drag, while using the strakes for trim in situations where the center of gravity is off provides less trim drag than relying on the canard to compensate.


title: Grumman X-29

text: The configuration, combined with a center of gravity well aft of the aerodynamic center, made the craft inherently unstable. Stability was provided by the computerized flight control system making 40 corrections per second. The flight control system was made up of three redundant digital computers backed up by three redundant analog computers; any of the three could fly it on its own, but the redundancy allowed them to check for errors. Each of the three would "vote" on their measurements, so that if any one was malfunctioning it could be detected. It was estimated that a total failure of the system was as unlikely as a mechanical failure in an airplane with a conventional arrangement.


title: Grumman X-29

text: The high pitch instability of the airframe led to wide predictions of extreme maneuverability. This perception has held up in the years following the end of flight tests. Air Force tests did not support this expectation. For the flight control system to keep the whole system stable, the ability to initiate a maneuver easily needed to be moderated. This was programmed into the flight control system to preserve the ability to stop the pitching rotation and keep the aircraft from departing out of control. As a result, the whole system as flown (with the flight control system in the loop as well) could not be characterized as having any special increased agility. It was concluded that the X-29 could have had increased agility if it had faster control surface actuators and/or larger control surfaces.


title: Grumman X-29

text: In a forward swept wing configuration, the aerodynamic lift produces a twisting force which rotates the wing leading edge upward. This results in a higher angle of attack, which increases lift, twisting the wing further. This aeroelastic divergence can quickly lead to structural failure. With conventional metallic construction, a torsionally very stiff wing would be required to resist twisting; stiffening the wing adds weight, which may make the design unfeasible.


title: Grumman X-29

text: The X-29 design made use of the anisotropic elastic coupling between bending and twisting of the carbon fiber composite material to address this aeroelastic effect. Rather than using a very stiff wing, which would carry a weight penalty even with the relatively light-weight composite, the X-29 used a laminate which produced coupling between bending and torsion. As lift increases, bending loads force the wing tips to bend upward. Torsion loads attempt to twist the wing to higher angles of attack, but the coupling resists the loads, twisting the leading edge downward reducing wing angle of attack and lift. With lift reduced, the loads are reduced and divergence is avoided.


title: Grumman X-29

text: The first X-29 took its maiden flight on 14 December 1984 from Edwards AFB piloted by Grumman's Chief Test Pilot Chuck Sewell. The X-29 was the third forward-swept wing jet-powered aircraft design to fly; the other two were the German Junkers Ju 287 (1944) and the HFB-320 Hansa Jet (1964). On 13 December 1985, an X-29 became the first forward-swept wing aircraft to fly at supersonic speed in level flight.


title: Grumman X-29

text: The X-29 began a NASA test program four months after its first flight. The X-29 proved reliable, and by August 1986 was flying research missions of over three hours involving multiple flights. The first X-29 was not equipped with a spin recovery parachute, as flight tests were planned to avoid maneuvers that could result in departure from controlled flight, such as a spin. The second X-29 was given such a parachute and was involved in high angle-of-attack testing. X-29 number two was maneuverable up to an angle of attack of about 25 degrees with a maximum angle of 67° reached in a momentary pitch-up maneuver.


title: Grumman X-29

text: The two X-29 aircraft flew a total of 242 times from 1984 to 1991. The NASA Dryden Flight Research Center reported that the X-29 demonstrated a number of new technologies and techniques, and new uses of existing technologies, including the use of "aeroelastic tailoring to control structural divergence", aircraft control and handling during extreme instability, three-surface longitudinal control, a "double-hinged trailing-edge flaperon at supersonic speeds", effective high angle of attack control, vortex control, and demonstration of military utility.


title: Grumman X-29

text: The first X-29, 82-003, is now on display in the Research and Development Gallery at the National Museum of the United States Air Force on Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. The other craft is on display at the Armstrong Flight Research Center on Edwards Air Force Base. A full-scale model was on display from 1989 to 2011 at the National Air and Space Museum's National Mall building in Washington, DC. The full-scale replica was moved to the Cradle of Aviation Museum in Garden City, New York in 2011.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Sleep hygiene is a behavioral and environmental practice developed in the late 1970s as a method to help people with mild to moderate insomnia. Clinicians assess the sleep hygiene of people with insomnia and other conditions, such as depression, and offer recommendations based on the assessment. Sleep hygiene recommendations include: establishing a regular sleep schedule; using naps with care; not exercising physically or mentally too close to bedtime; limiting worry; limiting exposure to light in the hours before sleep; getting out of bed if sleep does not come; not using bed for anything but sleep and sex; avoiding alcohol as well as nicotine, caffeine, and other stimulants in the hours before bedtime; and having a peaceful, comfortable and dark sleep environment. However, , the empirical evidence for the effectiveness of sleep hygiene is "limited and inconclusive" for the general population and for the treatment of insomnia, despite being the oldest treatment for insomnia. A systematic review by the AASM concluded that clinicians should not prescribe sleep hygiene for insomnia due to the evidence of absence of its efficacy and potential delaying of adequate treatment, recommending instead that effective therapies such as CBT-i should be preferred.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Assessing sleep hygiene is important to determine whether an individual has inadequate sleep hygiene disorder. The diagnostic assessment is usually conducted using clinical interview and supplemented by self-report questionnaires and sleep diaries, which are typically kept from one to two weeks, to record a representative sample data. There are also computerized assessments such as the Sleep-EVAL system, which can be employed in the diagnostic process. It features 1,543 possible questions automatically selected according to the individual's previous answers.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Practice of sleep hygiene and knowledge of sleep hygiene practices can be assessed with measures such as the Sleep Hygiene Index, Sleep Hygiene Awareness and Practice Scale, or the Sleep Hygiene Self-Test. For younger individuals, sleep hygiene can be assessed by the Adolescent Sleep Hygiene Scale or the Children's Sleep Hygiene Scale.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Clinicians choose among recommendations for improving sleep quality for each individual and counselling is presented as a form of patient education.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: One set of recommendations relates to the timing of sleep. For adults, getting less than 7–8 hours of sleep is associated with a number of physical and mental health deficits, and therefore a top sleep hygiene recommendation is allowing enough time for sleep. Clinicians will frequently advise that these hours of sleep be obtained at night instead of through napping, because while naps can be helpful after sleep deprivation, under normal conditions naps may be detrimental to nighttime sleep. Negative effects of napping on sleep and performance have been found to depend on duration and timing, with shorter midday naps being the least disruptive. There is also focus on the importance of awakening around the same time every morning and generally having a regular sleep schedule.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Exercise is an activity that can facilitate or inhibit sleep quality; people who exercise experience better quality of sleep than those who do not, but exercising too late in the day can be activating and delay falling asleep. Increasing exposure to bright and natural light during the daytime and avoiding bright light in the hours before bedtime may help promote a sleep-wake schedule aligned with nature's daily light-dark cycle.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Activities that reduce physiological arousal and cognitive activity promote falling asleep, so engaging in relaxing activities before bedtime is recommended. Conversely, continuing important work activities or planning shortly before bedtime or once in bed has been shown to delay falling asleep. Similarly, good sleep hygiene involves minimizing time spent thinking about worries or anything emotionally upsetting shortly before bedtime. Trying purposefully to fall asleep may induce frustration that further prevents falling asleep, so in such situations a person may be advised to get out of bed and try something else for a brief amount of time.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Generally, for people experiencing difficulties with sleep, spending less time in bed results in deeper and more continuous sleep, so clinicians will frequently recommend eliminating use of the bed for any activities except sleep or sex.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: A number of foods and substances have been found to disturb sleep, due to stimulant effects or disruptive digestive demands. Avoiding nicotine, caffeine (including coffee, energy drinks, soft drinks, tea, chocolate, and some pain relievers), and other stimulants in the hours before bedtime is recommended by most sleep hygiene specialists, as these substances activate neurobiological systems that maintain wakefulness. Alcohol near bedtime is frequently discouraged by clinicians, because, although alcohol can induce sleepiness initially, the arousal caused by metabolizing alcohol can disrupt and significantly fragment sleep. Smoking tobacco products before bed is also thought to reduce one's quality of resting by decreasing the time spent in deep sleep, leading to sleep fragmentation and nocturnal restlessness. Both consumption of a large meal just before bedtime, requiring effort to metabolize it all, and hunger have been associated with disrupted sleep; clinicians may recommend eating a light snack before bedtime. Limiting intake of liquids before bedtime can prevent interruptions of sleep due to urination.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Arranging a sleep environment that is quiet, very dark, and cool is recommended. Noises, light, and uncomfortable temperatures have been shown to disrupt continuous sleep. Other recommendations that are frequently made, though less studied, include selecting comfortable mattresses, bedding, and pillows, and eliminating a visible bedroom clock, to prevent focusing on time passing when trying to fall asleep.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: In 2015, a systematic review of studies on mattresses concluded that medium-firm, custom-inflated mattresses were best for pain and neutral spinal alignment.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Sleep hygiene studies use different sets of sleep hygiene recommendations, and the evidence that improving sleep hygiene improves sleep quality is weak and inconclusive . Most research on sleep hygiene principles has been conducted in clinical settings, and there is a need for more research on non-clinical populations.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: The strength of research support for each recommendation varies; some of the more robustly researched and supported recommendations include the negative effects of noisy sleep environments, alcohol consumption in the hours before sleep, engaging in mentally difficult tasks before sleep, and trying too hard to fall asleep. There is a lack of evidence for the effects of certain sleep hygiene recommendations, including getting a more comfortable mattress, removing bedroom clocks, not worrying, and limiting liquids. Other recommendations, such as the effects of napping or exercise, have a more complicated evidence base. The effects of napping, for example, seem to depend on the length and timing of napping, in conjunction with how much cumulative sleep an individual has had in recent nights.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: There is support showing positive sleep outcomes for people who follow more than one sleep hygiene recommendation. There is however no evidence that poor sleep hygiene can contribute to insomnia.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: While there is inconclusive evidence that sleep hygiene alone is effective as a treatment for insomnia, some research studies have shown improvement in insomnia for patients who receive sleep hygiene education in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy practices.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: The American Academy of Sleep Medicine released in 2021 a meta-analysis on behavioral therapies concluding that they "did not favor the use of sleep hygiene as a stand-alone therapy for chronic insomnia" since "recent evidence shows that it is no longer supported as a single-component therapy". They further recommend educating clinicians and patients to avoid the recommendation of sleep hygiene as this can cause a "delayed implementation of effective therapies with continued or worsening insomnia symptoms" and furthermore may demotivate patients from "undergoing other treatments based on their experience using an ineffective intervention". It was also impossible to conduct a network analysis of the efficacy of specific items of sleep hygiene due to the wide heterogeneity and lack of systematic reporting of content and delivery methods.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Sleep hygiene is a central component of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia. Specific sleep disorders may require other or additional treatment approaches, and continuing difficulties with sleep may require additional assistance from healthcare providers.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: College students are at risk of engaging in poor sleep hygiene and also of being unaware of the resulting effects of sleep deprivation. Because of irregular weekly schedules and the campus environment, college students may be likely to have variable sleep-wake schedules across the week, take naps, drink caffeine or alcohol near bedtime, and sleep in disruptive sleeping environments. Because of this, researchers recommend sleep hygiene education on college campuses. Harvard University, for example, requires all incoming first-year undergraduates to take a short online course on the subject before the fall semester begins.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Similarly, shift workers have difficulty maintaining a healthy sleep-wake schedule due to night or irregular work hours. Shift workers need to be strategic about napping and drinking caffeine, as these practices may be necessary for work productivity and safety, but should be timed carefully. Because shift workers may need to sleep while other individuals are awake, additional sleeping environment changes should include reducing disturbances by turning off phones and posting signs on bedroom doors to inform others when they are sleeping.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Due to symptoms of low mood and energy, individuals with depression may be likely to have behaviors that are counter to good sleep hygiene, such as taking naps during the day, consuming alcohol near bedtime, and consuming large amounts of caffeine during the day. In addition to sleep hygiene education, bright light therapy can be a useful treatment for individuals with depression and circadian rhythm disturbances. Not only can morning bright light therapy help establish a better sleep-wake schedule, but it also has been shown to be effective for treating depression directly, especially when related to seasonal affective disorder.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Individuals with breathing difficulties due to asthma or allergies may experience additional barriers to quality sleep that can be addressed by specific variations of sleep hygiene recommendations. Difficulty with breathing can cause disruptions to sleep, reducing the ability to stay asleep and to achieve restful sleep. For individuals with allergies or asthma, additional considerations must be given to potential triggers in the bedroom environment. Medications that might improve ability to breathe while sleeping may also impair sleep in other ways, so there must be careful management of decongestants, asthma controllers, and antihistamines.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Sleep hygiene strategies include advice about timing of sleep and food intake in relationship to exercise and sleeping environment. Recommendations depend on knowledge of the individual situation; counselling is presented as a form of patient education.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: As attention to the role of sleep hygiene in promoting public health has grown, there has been an increase in the number of resources available in print and on the internet. Organizations running public health initiatives include the National Sleep Foundation and the Division of Sleep Medicine at Harvard Medical School, both of which have created public websites with sleep hygiene resources, such as tips for sleep hygiene, instructional videos, sleep hygiene self-assessments, poll statistics on sleep hygiene, and tools to find sleep professionals. A cooperative agreement between the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Academy of Sleep Medicine was established in 2013 to coordinate the National Healthy Sleep Awareness Project, with one of their aims being to promote sleep hygiene awareness.


title: Sleep hygiene

text: While the term "sleep hygiene" was first introduced in 1939 by Nathaniel Kleitman, a book published in 1977 by psychologist Peter Hauri introduced the concept within the context of modern sleep medicine. In this book Hauri outlined a list of behavioral rules intended to promote improved sleep. Similar concepts are credited to Paolo Mantegazza who published a related original book in 1864. The 1990 publication of the "International Classification of Sleep Disorders" (ICSD) introduced the diagnostic category Inadequate Sleep Hygiene. Inadequate sleep hygiene was a subclassification of Chronic Insomnia Disorder in the ICSD-II published in 2005; it was removed from the 2014 ICSD-III along with two other classifications, because "they were not felt to be reliably reproducible in clinical practice."


title: Sleep hygiene

text: Specific sleep hygiene recommendations have changed over time. For example, advice to simply avoid sleeping pills was included in early sets of recommendations, but as more drugs to help with sleep have been introduced, recommendations concerning their use have become more complex.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Lehi (; "Lohamei Herut Israel – Lehi", "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel – Lehi"), often known pejoratively as the Stern Gang, was a Zionist paramilitary and terrorist organization founded by Avraham ("Yair") Stern in Mandatory Palestine. Its avowed aim was to evict the British authorities from Palestine by use of violence, allowing unrestricted immigration of Jews and the formation of a Jewish state. It was initially called the National Military Organization in Israel, upon being founded in August 1940, but was renamed Lehi one month later. The group referred to its members as terrorists and admitted to having carried out terrorist attacks.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Lehi split from the Irgun militant group in 1940 in order to continue fighting the British during World War II. It initially sought an alliance with Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. Believing that Nazi Germany was a lesser enemy of the Jews than Britain, Lehi twice attempted to form an alliance with the Nazis, proposing a Jewish state based on "nationalist and totalitarian principles, and linked to the German Reich by an alliance". After Stern's death in 1942, the new leadership of Lehi began to move towards support for Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union and the ideology of National Bolshevism, which was considered an amalgam of both right and left. Regarding themselves as "revolutionary Socialists", the new Lehi developed a highly original ideology combining an "almost mystical" belief in Greater Israel with support for the Arab liberation struggle. This sophisticated ideology failed to gain public support and Lehi faired poorly in the first Israeli elections.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Lehi and the Irgun were jointly responsible for the massacre in Deir Yassin. Lehi assassinated Lord Moyne, British Minister Resident in the Middle East, and made many other attacks on the British in Palestine. On 29 May 1948, the government of Israel, having inducted its activist members into the Israel Defense Forces, formally disbanded Lehi, though some of its members carried out one more terrorist act, the assassination of Folke Bernadotte some months later, an act condemned by Bernadotte's replacement as mediator, Ralph Bunche. After the assassination, the new Israeli government declared Lehi a terrorist organization, arresting some 200 members and convicting some of the leaders. Just before the first Israeli elections in January 1949, a general amnesty to Lehi members was granted by the government. In 1980, Israel instituted a military decoration, an "award for activity in the struggle for the establishment of Israel", the Lehi ribbon. Former Lehi leader Yitzhak Shamir became Prime Minister of Israel in 1983.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Lehi was created in August 1940 by Avraham Stern. Stern had been a member of the Irgun ("Irgun Tsvai Leumi" – "National Military Organization") high command. Zeev Jabotinsky, then the Irgun's supreme commander, had decided that diplomacy and working with Britain would best serve the Zionist cause. World War II was in progress, and Britain was fighting Nazi Germany. The Irgun suspended its underground military activities against the British for the duration of the war.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Stern argued that the time for Zionist diplomacy was over and that it was time for an armed struggle against the British. Like other Zionists, he objected to the White Paper of 1939, which restricted both Jewish immigration and Jewish land purchases in Palestine. For Stern, "no difference existed between Hitler and Chamberlain, between Dachau or Buchenwald and sealing the gates of Eretz Israel."


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Stern wanted to open Palestine to all Jewish refugees from Europe and considered this to be the most important issue of the day. Britain would not allow this. Therefore, he concluded, the "Yishuv" (Jews of Palestine) should fight the British rather than support them in the war. When the Irgun made a truce with the British, Stern left the Irgun to form his own group, which he called "Irgun Tsvai Leumi B'Yisrael" ("National Military Organization in Israel"), later "Lohamei Herut Israel" ("Fighters for the Freedom of Israel"). In September 1940, the organization was officially named "Lehi", the Hebrew acronym of the latter name.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Stern and his followers believed that dying for the "foreign occupier" who was obstructing the creation of the Jewish State was useless. They differentiated between "enemies of the Jewish people" (the British) and "Jew haters" (the Nazis), believing that the former needed to be defeated and the latter manipulated.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: In 1940, the idea of the Final Solution was still "unthinkable", and Stern believed that Hitler wanted to make Germany "judenrein" through emigration, as opposed to extermination. In December 1940, Lehi contacted Germany with a proposal to aid German conquest in the Middle East in return for recognition of a Jewish state open to unlimited immigration.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Lehi believed in its early years that its goals would be achieved by finding a strong international ally that would expel the British from Palestine, in return for Jewish military help; this would require the creation of a broad and organised military force "demonstrating its desire for freedom through military operations."


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Lehi also referred to themselves as 'terrorists' and may have been one of the last organizations to do so.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: An article titled "Terror" in the Lehi underground newspaper "He Khazit" ("The Front") argued as follows:


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Neither Jewish ethics nor Jewish tradition can disqualify terrorism as a means of combat. We are very far from having any moral qualms as far as our national war goes. We have before us the command of the Torah, whose morality surpasses that of any other body of laws in the world: "Ye shall blot them out to the last man."


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: But first and foremost, terrorism is for us a part of the political battle being conducted under the present circumstances, and it has a great part to play: speaking in a clear voice to the whole world, as well as to our wretched brethren outside this land, it proclaims our war against the occupier.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: We are particularly far from this sort of hesitation in regard to an enemy whose moral perversion is admitted by all.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Yitzhak Shamir, one of the three leaders of Lehi after Avraham Stern's assassination, argued for the legitimacy of Lehi's actions:


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: There are those who say that to kill [T.G.] Martin [a CID sergeant who had recognised Shamir in a lineup] is terrorism, but to attack an army camp is guerrilla warfare and to bomb civilians is professional warfare. But I think it is the same from the moral point of view. Is it better to drop an atomic bomb on a city than to kill a handful of persons? I don't think so. But nobody says that President Truman was a terrorist. All the men we went for individually – Wilkin, Martin, MacMichael and others – were personally interested in succeeding in the fight against us.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: So it was more efficient and more moral to go for selected targets. In any case, it was the only way we could operate, because we were so small. For us it was not a question of the professional honour of a soldier, it was the question of an idea, an aim that had to be achieved. We were aiming at a political goal. There are many examples of what we did to be found in the Bible – Gideon and Samson, for instance. This had an influence on our thinking. And we also learned from the history of other peoples who fought for their freedom – the Russian and Irish revolutionaries, Giuseppe Garibaldi and Josip Broz Tito.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Unlike the left-wing Haganah and right-wing Irgun, Lehi members were not a homogeneous collective with a single political, religious, or economic ideology. They were a combination of militants united by the goal of liberating the land of Israel from British rule. Most Lehi leaders defined their organization as an anti-imperialist movement and stated that their opposition to British colonial rule in Palestine was not based on a particular policy but rather on the presence of a foreign power over the homeland of the Jewish people. Avraham Stern defined the British Mandate as "foreign rule" regardless of British policies and took a radical position against such imperialism even if it were to be benevolent.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: In the early years of the state of Israel, Lehi veterans could be found supporting nearly all political parties and some Lehi leaders founded a left-wing political party called the Fighters' List with Natan Yellin-Mor as its head. The party took part in the elections in January 1949 and won a single parliamentary seat. A number of Lehi veterans established the Semitic Action movement in 1956 which sought the creation of a regional federation encompassing Israel and its Arab neighbours on the basis of an anti-colonialist alliance with other indigenous inhabitants of the Middle East.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Some writers have stated that Lehi's true goals were the creation of a totalitarian state. Perlinger and Weinberg write that the organisation's ideology placed "its world view in the quasi-fascist radical Right, which is characterised by xenophobia, a national egotism that completely subordinates the individual to the needs of the nation, anti-liberalism, total denial of democracy and a highly centralised government." Perliger and Weinberg state that most Lehi members were admirers of the Italian Fascist movement. According to Kaplan and Penslar, Lehi's ideology was a mix of fascist and communist thought combined with racism and universalism.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Others counter these claims. They note that when Lehi founder Avraham Stern went to study in fascist Italy, he refused to join the for foreign students, even though members got large reductions in tuition.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: According to Yaacov Shavit, professor at the Department of Jewish History, Tel Aviv University, articles in Lehi publications contained references to a Jewish "master race", contrasting the Jews with Arabs who were seen as a "nation of slaves". Sasha Polakow-Suransky writes that "Lehi was also unabashedly racist towards Arabs. Their publications described Jews as a master race and Arabs as a slave race." Lehi advocated mass expulsion of all Arabs from Palestine and Transjordan, or even their physical annihilation.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: In contrast, a number of Lehi veterans, including co-leader Nathan Yellin-Mor, went on to establish the Semitic Action movement which sought the creation of a regional federation encompassing Israel and its Arab neighbours on the basis of an anti-colonialist alliance with other indigenous inhabitants of the Middle East.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Many Lehi combatants had received military training. Some had attended the Military Engineers School in Civitavecchia, in Fascist Italy. Others received military training from instructors of the Polish Armed Forces in 1938–1939. This training was conducted in Trochenbrod (Zofiówka) in Wołyń Voivodeship, Podębin near Łódź, and the forests around Andrychów. They were taught how to use explosives. One of them reported later: "Poles treated terrorism as a science. We have mastered mathematical principles of demolishing constructions made of concrete, iron, wood, bricks and dirt."


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: The group was initially unsuccessful. Early attempts to raise funds through criminal activities, including a bank robbery in Tel Aviv in 1940 and another robbery on 9 January 1942 in which Jewish passers-by were killed, brought about the temporary collapse of the group. An attempt to assassinate the head of the British secret police in Lod in which three police personnel were killed, two Jewish and one British, elicited a severe response from the British and Jewish establishments who collaborated against Lehi.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Stern's group was seen as a terrorist organisation by the British authorities, who instructed the Defence Security Office (the colonial branch of MI5) to track down its leaders. In 1942, Stern, after he was arrested, was shot dead in disputed circumstances by Inspector Geoffrey J. Morton of the CID. The arrest of several other members led momentarily to the group's eclipse, until it was revived after the September 1942 escape of two of its leaders, Yitzhak Shamir and Eliyahu Giladi, aided by two other escapees Natan Yellin-Mor (Friedman) and Israel Eldad (Sheib). (Giladi was later killed by Lehi under circumstances that remain mysterious.) Shamir's codename was "Michael", a reference to one of Shamir's heroes, Michael Collins. Lehi was guided by spiritual and philosophical leaders such as Uri Zvi Greenberg and Israel Eldad. After the killing of Giladi, the organization was led by a triumvirate of Eldad, Shamir, and Yellin-Mor.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Lehi adopted a non-socialist platform of anti-imperialist ideology. It viewed the continued British rule of Palestine as a violation of the Mandate's provision generally, and its restrictions on Jewish immigration to be an intolerable breach of international law. However they also targeted Jews whom they regarded as traitors, and during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War they joined in operations with the Haganah and Irgun against Arab targets, for example Deir Yassin.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: According to a compilation by Nachman Ben-Yehuda, Lehi was responsible for 42 assassinations, more than twice as many as the Irgun and Haganah combined during the same period. Of those Lehi assassinations that Ben-Yehuda classified as political, more than half the victims were Jews.


title: Lehi (militant group)

text: Lehi also rejected the authority of the Jewish Agency for Israel and related organizations, operating entirely on its own throughout nearly all of its existence.