title: Rudder

text: Although some classify a steering oar as a rudder, others argue that the steering oar used in ancient Egypt and Rome was not a true rudder and define only the stern-mounted rudder used in ancient Han dynasty China as a true rudder. The steering oar has the capacity to interfere with the handling of the sails (limiting any potential for long ocean-going voyages) while it was fit more for small vessels on narrow, rapid-water transport; the rudder did not disturb the handling of the sails, took less energy to operate by its helmsman, was better fit for larger vessels on ocean-going travel, and first appeared in ancient China during the 1st century AD. In regards to the ancient Phoenician (1550–300 BC) use of the steering oar without a rudder in the Mediterranean, Leo Block (2003) writes:


title: Rudder

text: A single sail tends to turn a vessel in an upwind or downwind direction, and rudder action is required to steer a straight course. A steering oar was used at this time because the rudder had not yet been invented. With a single sail, a frequent movement of the steering oar was required to steer a straight course; this slowed down the vessel because a steering oar (or rudder) course correction acts as a brake. The second sail, located forward, could be trimmed to offset the turning tendency of the mainsail and minimize the need for course corrections by the steering oar, which would have substantially improved sail performance.


title: Rudder

text: The steering oar or steering board is an oversized oar or board to control the direction of a ship or other watercraft prior to the invention of the rudder. It is normally attached to the starboard side in larger vessels, though in smaller ones it is rarely if ever, attached.


title: Rudder

text: Rowing oars set aside for steering appeared on large Egyptian vessels long before the time of Menes (3100 BC). In the Old Kingdom (2686 BC – 2134 BC) as many as five steering oars are found on each side of passenger boats. The tiller, at first a small pin run through the stock of the steering oar, can be traced to the fifth dynasty (2504–2347 BC). Both the tiller and the introduction of an upright steering post abaft reduced the usual number of necessary steering oars to one each side. Single steering oars put on the stern can be found in a number of tomb models of the time, particularly during the Middle Kingdom when tomb reliefs suggests them commonly employed in Nile navigation. The first literary reference appears in the works of the Greek historian Herodotus (484-424 BC), who had spent several months in Egypt: "They make one rudder, and this is thrust through the keel", probably meaning the crotch at the end of the keel (as depicted in the "Tomb of Menna").


title: Rudder

text: In Iran, oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BCE in artwork, wooden models, and even remnants of actual boats.


title: Rudder

text: Roman navigation used sexillie quarter steering oars that went in the Mediterranean through a long period of constant refinement and improvement, so that by Roman times ancient vessels reached extraordinary sizes. The strength of the steering oar lay in its combination of effectiveness, adaptability and simpleness. Roman quarter steering oar mounting systems survived mostly intact through the medieval period.


title: Rudder

text: By the first half of the 1st century AD, steering gear mounted on the stern were also quite common in Roman river and harbour craft as proved from reliefs and archaeological finds (Zwammerdam, Woerden 7). A tomb plaque of Hadrianic age shows a harbour tug boat in Ostia with a long stern-mounted oar for better leverage. The boat already featured a spritsail, adding to the mobility of the harbour vessel. Further attested Roman uses of stern-mounted steering oars includes barges under tow, transport ships for wine casks, and diverse other ship types. A large river barge found at the mouth of the Rhine near Zwammerdam featured a large steering gear mounted on the stern. According to new research, the advanced Nemi ships, the palace barges of emperor Caligula (37-41 AD), may have featured 14 m long rudders.


title: Rudder

text: The world's oldest known depiction of a sternpost-mounted rudder can be seen on a pottery model of a Chinese junk dating from the 1st century AD during the Han Dynasty, predating their appearance in the West by a thousand years. In China, miniature models of ships that feature steering oars have been dated to the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BC). Sternpost-mounted rudders started to appear on Chinese ship models starting in the 1st century AD. However, the Chinese continued to use the steering oar long after they invented the rudder, since the steering oar still had practical use for inland rapid-river travel. One of oldest known depictions of the Chinese stern-mounted rudder ("duò" ) can be seen on a pottery model of a junk dating from the 1st century AD, during the Han dynasty (202220 AD). It was discovered in Guangzhou in an archaeological excavation carried out by the Guangdong Provincial Museum and Academia Sinica of Taiwan in 1958. Within decades, several other Han Dynasty ship models featuring rudders were found in archaeological excavations. The first solid written reference to the use of a rudder without a steering oar dates to the 5th century.


title: Rudder

text: Chinese rudders are attached to the hull by means of wooden jaws or sockets, while typically larger ones were suspended from above by a rope tackle system so that they could be raised or lowered into the water. Also, many junks incorporated "fenestrated rudders" (rudders with holes in them, supposedly allowing for better control). Detailed descriptions of Chinese junks during the Middle Ages are known from various travellers to China, such as Ibn Battuta of Tangier, Morocco and Marco Polo of Venice, Italy. The later Chinese encyclopedist Song Yingxing (1587–1666) and the 17th-century European traveler Louis Lecomte wrote of the junk design and its use of the rudder with enthusiasm and admiration.


title: Rudder

text: Paul Johnstone and Sean McGrail state that the Chinese invented the "median, vertical and axial" sternpost-mounted rudder, and that such a kind of rudder preceded the pintle-and-gudgeon rudder found in the West by roughly a millennium.


title: Rudder

text: A Chandraketugarh (West Bengal) seal dated between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD depicts a steering mechanism on a ship named <nowiki>"</nowiki>Indra of the Ocean<nowiki>"</nowiki> (Jaladhisakra), which indicates that it was a sea-bound vessel.


title: Rudder

text: Arab ships also used a sternpost-mounted rudder. On their ships "the rudder is controlled by two lines, each attached to a crosspiece mounted on the rudder head perpendicular to the plane of the rudder blade." The earliest evidence comes from the "Ahsan al-Taqasim fi Marifat al-Aqalim" ('The Best Divisions for the Classification of Regions') written by al-Muqaddasi in 985:


title: Rudder

text: Oars mounted on the side of ships evolved into quarter steering oars, which were used from antiquity until the end of the Middle Ages in Europe. As the size of ships and the height of the freeboards increased, quarter steering oars became unwieldy and were replaced by the more sturdy rudders with pintle and gudgeon attachment. While steering oars were found in Europe on a wide range of vessels since Roman times, including light war galleys in Mediterranean, the oldest known depiction of a pintle-and-gudgeon rudder can be found on church carvings of Zedelgem and Winchester dating to around 1180.


title: Rudder

text: While earlier rudders were mounted on the stern by the way of rudderposts or tackles, the iron hinges allowed the rudder to be attached to the entire length of the sternpost in a permanent fashion. However, its full potential could only to be realized after the introduction of the vertical sternpost and the full-rigged ship in the 14th century. From the Age of Discovery onwards, European ships with pintle-and-gudgeon rudders sailed successfully on all seven seas.


title: Rudder

text: Historians like Joseph Needham hold that the stern-mounted rudder was transferred from China to Europe and the Islamic world during the Middle Ages.


title: Rudder

text: Conventional rudders have been essentially unchanged since Isambard Kingdom Brunel introduced the balanced rudder on the SS "Great Britain" in 1843 and the steering engine in the SS "Great Eastern" in 1866. If a vessel requires extra maneuverability at low speeds, the rudder may be supplemented by a manoeuvring thruster in the bow, or be replaced entirely by azimuth thrusters.


title: Rudder

text: Boat rudders may be either outboard or inboard. Outboard rudders are hung on the stern or transom. Inboard rudders are hung from a keel or skeg and are thus fully submerged beneath the hull, connected to the steering mechanism by a rudder post that comes up through the hull to deck level, often into a cockpit. Inboard keel hung rudders (which are a continuation of the aft trailing edge of the full keel) are traditionally deemed the most damage resistant rudders for off shore sailing. Better performance with faster handling characteristics can be provided by skeg hung rudders on boats with smaller fin keels.


title: Rudder

text: Rudder post and mast placement defines the difference between a ketch and a yawl, as these two-masted vessels are similar. Yawls are defined as having the mizzen mast abaft (i.e. "aft of") the rudder post; ketches are defined as having the mizzen mast forward of the rudder post.


title: Rudder

text: Small boat rudders that can be steered more or less perpendicular to the hull's longitudinal axis make effective brakes when pushed "hard over." However, terms such as "hard over," "hard to starboard," etc. signify a maximum-rate turn for larger vessels. Transom hung rudders or far aft mounted fin rudders generate greater moment and faster turning than more forward mounted keel hung rudders. Rudders on smaller craft can be operated by means of a tiller that fits into the rudder stock that also forms the fixings to the rudder foil. Craft where the length of the tiller could impede movement of the helm can be split with a rubber universal joint and the part adjoined the tiller termed a tiller extension. Tillers can further be extended by means of adjustable telescopic twist locking extension.


title: Rudder

text: There is also the barrel type rudder, where the ship's screw is enclosed and can be swiveled to steer the vessel. Designers claim that this type of rudder on a smaller vessel will answer the helm faster.


title: Rudder

text: Large ships (over 10,000 ton gross tonnage) have requirements on rudder turnover time. To comply with this, high torque rudder controls are employed. One commonly used system is the ram type steering gear. It employs four hydraulic rams to rotate the rudder stock (rotation axis), in turn rotating the rudder.


title: Rudder

text: On an aircraft, a rudder is the directional control surface along with the rudder-like elevator (usually attached to the horizontal tail structure, if not a slab elevator) and ailerons (attached to the wings) that control pitch and roll, respectively. The rudder is usually attached to the fin (or vertical stabilizer), which allows the pilot to control yaw about the vertical axis, i.e., change the horizontal direction in which the nose is pointing.


title: Rudder

text: Unlike a ship, both aileron and rudder controls are used together to turn an aircraft, with the ailerons imparting roll and the rudder imparting yaw and also compensating for a phenomenon called adverse yaw. A rudder alone will turn a conventional fixed-wing aircraft, but much more slowly than if ailerons are also used in conjunction. Sometimes pilots may intentionally operate the rudder and ailerons in opposite directions in a maneuver called a slip or sideslip. This may be done to overcome crosswinds and keep the fuselage in line with the runway, or to lose altitude by increasing drag, or both.


title: Rudder

text: Another technique for yaw control, used on some tailless aircraft and flying wings, is to add one or more drag-creating surfaces, such as split ailerons, on the outer wing section. Operating one of these surfaces creates drag on the wing, causing the plane to yaw in that direction. These surfaces are often referred to as drag rudders.


title: Amarna

text: Amarna (; ) is an extensive Egyptian archaeological site containing the remains of what was the capital city of the late Eighteenth Dynasty. The city was established in 1346 BC, built at the direction of the Pharaoh Akhenaten, and abandoned shortly after his death in 1332 BC. The name that the ancient Egyptians used for the city is transliterated in English as Akhetaten or Akhetaton, meaning "the horizon of the Aten".


title: Amarna

text: The site is on the east bank of the Nile River, in what today is the Egyptian province of Minya. It is about south of the city of al-Minya, south of the Egyptian capital, Cairo, and north of Luxor (site of the previous capital, Thebes). The city of Deir Mawas lies directly to its west. On the east side of Amarna there are several modern villages, the chief of which are l-Till in the north and el-Hagg Qandil in the south.


title: Amarna

text: The name "Amarna" comes from the Beni Amran tribe that lived in the region and founded a few settlements. The ancient Egyptian name was Akhetaten.


title: Amarna

text: English Egyptologist Sir John Gardner Wilkinson visited Amarna twice in the 1820s and identified it as Alabastron, following the sometimes contradictory descriptions of Roman-era authors Pliny ("On Stones") and Ptolemy ("Geography"), although he was not sure about the identification and suggested Kom el-Ahmar as an alternative location.


title: Amarna

text: The area of the city was effectively a virgin site, and it was this city that Akhetaten described as the Aten's "seat of the First Occasion, which he had made for himself that he might rest in it".


title: Amarna

text: It may be that the Royal Wadi's resemblance to the hieroglyph for "horizon" showed that this was the place to found the city.


title: Amarna

text: The city was built as the new capital of the Pharaoh Akhenaten, dedicated to his new religion of worship to the Aten. Construction started in or around Year 5 of his reign (1346 BC) and was probably completed by Year 9 (1341 BC), although it became the capital city two years earlier. To speed up construction of the city most of the buildings were constructed out of mudbrick, and white washed. The most important buildings were faced with local stone.


title: Amarna

text: It is the only ancient Egyptian city which preserves great details of its internal plan, in large part because the city was abandoned after the death of Akhenaten, when Akhenaten's son, King Tutankhamun, decided to leave the city and return to his birthplace in Thebes (modern Luxor). The city seems to have remained active for a decade or so after his death, and a shrine to Horemheb indicates that it was at least partially occupied at the beginning of his reign, if only as a source for building material elsewhere. Once it was abandoned, it remained uninhabited until Roman settlement began along the edge of the Nile. However, due to the unique circumstances of its creation and abandonment, it is questionable how representative of ancient Egyptian cities it actually is. Amarna was hastily constructed and covered an area of approximately of territory on the east bank of the Nile River; on the west bank, land was set aside to provide crops for the city's population. The entire city was encircled with a total of 14 boundary stelae detailing Akhenaten's conditions for the establishment of this new capital city of Egypt.


title: Amarna

text: The earliest dated stele from Akhenaten's new city is known to be "Boundary stele K" which is dated to Year 5, IV Peret (or month 8), day 13 of Akhenaten's reign. (Most of the original 14 boundary stelae have been badly eroded.) It preserves an account of Akhenaten's foundation of this city. The document records the pharaoh's wish to have several temples of the Aten to be erected here, for several royal tombs to be created in the eastern hills of Amarna for himself, his chief wife Nefertiti, and his eldest daughter Meritaten as well as his explicit command that when he was dead, he would be brought back to Amarna for burial. Boundary stela K introduces a description of the events that were being celebrated at Amarna:


title: Amarna

text: This text then goes on to state that Akhenaten made a great oblation to the god Aten "and this is the theme [of the occasion] which is illustrated in the lunettes of the stelae where he stands with his queen and eldest daughter before an altar heaped with offerings under the Aten, while it shines upon him rejuvenating his body with its rays."


title: Amarna

text: Located on the east bank of the Nile, the ruins of the city are laid out roughly north to south along a "Royal Road", now referred to as "Sikhet es-Sultan". The Royal residences are generally to the north, in what is known as the North City, with a central administration and religious area and the south of the city is made up of residential suburbs.


title: Amarna

text: If one approached the city of Amarna from the north by river the first buildings past the northern boundary stele would be the North Riverside Palace. This building ran all the way up to the waterfront and was likely the main residence of the Royal Family. Located within the North City area is the Northern Palace, the main residence of the Royal Family. Between this and the central city, the Northern Suburb was initially a prosperous area with large houses, but the house size decreased and became poorer the further from the road they were.


title: Amarna

text: Most of the important ceremonial and administrative buildings were located in the central city. Here the Great Temple of the Aten and the Small Aten Temple were used for religious functions and between these the Great Royal Palace and Royal Residence were the ceremonial residence of the King and Royal Family, and were linked by a bridge or ramp. Located behind the Royal Residence was the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh, where the Amarna Letters were found.


title: Amarna

text: To the south of the city was the area now referred to as the "Southern Suburbs". It contained the estates of many of the city's powerful nobles, including Nakhtpaaten (Chief Minister), Ranefer, Panehesy (High Priest of the Aten), and Ramose (Master of Horses). This area also held the studio of the sculptor Thutmose, where the famous bust of Nefertiti was found in 1912.


title: Amarna

text: Further to the south of the city was Kom el-Nana, an enclosure, usually referred to as a "sun-shade", and was probably built as a sun-temple., and then the Maru-Aten, which was a palace or sun-temple originally thought to have been constructed for Akhenaten's queen Kiya, but on her death her name and images were altered to those of Meritaten, his daughter.


title: Amarna

text: Surrounding the city and marking its extent, the Boundary Stelae (each a rectangle of carved rock on the cliffs on both sides of the Nile) describing the founding of the city are a primary source of information about it.


title: Amarna

text: Away from the city Akhenaten's Royal necropolis was started in a narrow valley to the east of the city, hidden in the cliffs. Only one tomb was completed, and was used by an unnamed Royal Wife, and Akhenaten's tomb was hastily used to hold him and likely Meketaten, his second daughter.


title: Amarna

text: In the cliffs to the north and south of the Royal Wadi, the nobles of the city constructed their Tombs.


title: Amarna

text: Much of what is known about Amarna's founding is due to the preservation of a series of official boundary stelae (13 are known) ringing the perimeter of the city. These are cut into the cliffs on both sides of the Nile (10 on the east, 3 on the west) and record the events of Akhetaten (Amarna) from founding to just before its fall.


title: Amarna

text: To make the move from Thebes to Amarna, Akhenaten needed the support of the military. Ay, one of Akhenaten's principal advisors, exercised great influence in this area because his father Yuya had been an important military leader. Additionally, everyone in the military had grown up together, they had been a part of the richest and most successful period in Egypt's history under Akhenaten's father, so loyalty among the ranks was strong and unwavering. Perhaps most importantly, "it was a military whose massed ranks the king took every opportunity to celebrate in temple reliefs, first at Thebes and later at Amarna."


title: Amarna

text: While the reforms of Akhenaten are generally believed to have been oriented towards a sort of monotheism, or perhaps more accurately, monolatrism, archaeological evidence shows other deities were also revered, even at the centre of the Aten cult – if not officially, then at least by the people who lived and worked there.


title: Amarna

text: ... at Akhetaten itself, recent excavation by Kemp (2008: 41–46) has shown the presence of objects that depict gods, goddesses and symbols that belong to the traditional field of personal belief. So many examples of Bes, the grotesque dwarf figure who warded off evil spirits, have been found, as well as of the goddess-monster, Taweret, part crocodile, part hippopotamus, who was associated with childbirth. Also in the royal workmen's village at Akhetaten, stelae dedicated to Isis and Shed have been discovered (Watterson 1984: 158 & 208).


title: Amarna

text: The Amarna art-style broke with long-established Egyptian conventions. Unlike the strict idealistic formalism of previous Egyptian art, it depicted its subjects more realistically. These included informal scenes, such as intimate portrayals of affection within the royal family or playing with their children, and no longer portrayed women as lighter coloured than men. The art also had a realism that sometimes borders on caricature.


title: Amarna

text: While the worship of Aten was later referred to as the Amarna heresy and suppressed, this art had a more lasting legacy.


title: Amarna

text: The first western mention of the city was made in 1714 by Claude Sicard, a French Jesuit priest who was travelling through the Nile Valley, and described the boundary stela from Amarna. As with much of Egypt, it was visited by Napoleon's "corps de savants" in 1798–1799, who prepared the first detailed map of Amarna, which was subsequently published in "Description de l'Égypte" between 1821 and 1830.


title: Amarna

text: After this European exploration continued in 1824 when Sir John Gardiner Wilkinson explored and mapped the city remains. The copyist Robert Hay and his surveyor G. Laver visited the locality and uncovered several of the Southern Tombs from sand drifts, recording the reliefs in 1833. The copies made by Hay and Laver languish largely unpublished in the British Library, where an ongoing project to identify their locations is underway.


title: Amarna

text: The Prussian expedition led by Richard Lepsius visited the site in 1843 and 1845, and recorded the visible monuments and topography of Amarna in two separate visits over a total of twelve days, using drawings and paper squeezes. The results were ultimately published in "Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien" between 1849 and 1913, including an improved map of the city. Despite being somewhat limited in accuracy, the engraved "Denkmäler" plates formed the basis for scholastic knowledge and interpretation of many of the scenes and inscriptions in the private tombs and some of the Boundary Stelae for the rest of the century. The records made by these early explorers teams are of immense importance since many of these remains were later destroyed or otherwise lost.


title: Amarna

text: In 1887, a local woman digging for "sebakh" uncovered a cache of over 300 cuneiform tablets (now commonly known as the Amarna Letters). These tablets recorded select diplomatic correspondence of the Pharaoh and were predominantly written in Akkadian, the "lingua franca" commonly used during the Late Bronze Age of the Ancient Near East for such communication. This discovery led to the recognition of the importance of the site, and led to a further increase in exploration.


title: Amarna

text: Between 1891 and 1892 Alessandro Barsanti discovered and cleared the king's tomb (although it was probably known to the local population from about 1880). Around the same time Sir Flinders Petrie worked for one season at Amarna, working independently of the Egypt Exploration Fund. He excavated primarily in the Central City, investigating the Great Temple of the Aten, the Great Official Palace, the King's House, the Bureau of Correspondence of Pharaoh, and several private houses. Although frequently amounting to little more than a sondage, Petrie's excavations revealed additional cuneiform tablets, the remains of several glass factories, and a great quantity of discarded faience, glass, and ceramic in sifting the palace rubbish heaps (including Mycenaean sherds). By publishing his results and reconstructions rapidly, Petrie was able to stimulate further interest in the site's potential.


title: Amarna

text: The copyist and artist Norman de Garis Davies published drawn and photographic descriptions of private tombs and boundary stelae from Amarna from 1903 to 1908. These books were republished by the EES in 2006.


title: Amarna

text: In the early years of the 20th century (1907 to 1914) the Deutsche Orientgesellschaft expedition, led by Ludwig Borchardt, excavated extensively throughout the North and South suburbs of the city. The famous bust of Nefertiti, now in Berlin's Ägyptisches Museum, was discovered amongst other sculptural artefacts in the workshop of the sculptor Thutmose. The outbreak of the First World War in August 1914 terminated the German excavations.


title: Amarna

text: From 1921 to 1936 an Egypt Exploration Society expedition returned to excavation at Amarna under the direction of T.E. Peet, Sir Leonard Woolley, Henri Frankfort, Stephen Glanville, and John Pendlebury. Mary Chubb served as the digs administrator. The renewed investigations were focused on religious and royal structures.


title: Amarna

text: During the 1960s the Egyptian Antiquities Organization (now the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities) undertook a number of excavations at Amarna.


title: Amarna

text: Exploration of the city continues to the present, currently under the direction of Barry Kemp (Emeritus Professor in Egyptology, University of Cambridge, England) (until 2006, under the auspices of the Egypt Exploration Society and now with the ). In 1980 a separate expedition led by Geoffrey Martin described and copied the reliefs from the Royal Tomb, later publishing its findings together with objects thought to have come from the tomb. This work was published in 2 volumes by the EES.


title: Amarna

text: From 2005 to 2013, the Amarna Project excavated at a cemetery of private individuals, close to the southern tombs of the Nobles.


title: Amarna

text: "The Painted Queen" written by the famous Elizabeth Peters a.k.a Barbara Mertz is the most recent installment to the Amelia Peabody novels after the author's passing in 2013. Elizabeth Peters was a school trained archaeologist, but was persuaded by her male colleagues that a woman was not to be an archaeologist, so "she created characters based on those misogynistic Egyptologists..." as stated by Sarah Parcak, a female archaeologist that specializes in remote sensing. The adventure stars a female archaeologist Amelia Peabody and the mystery of the missing Bust of Nefertiti. The Painted Queen takes place in the 1912, several years after the actual excavations at Amarna, when excavations in Egypt are solely European, local hires, or looters. Like all good mystery novels, there is humor, twists, and turns, and a predictable ending of a solved case.


title: Amarna

text: "Nefertiti" by Michelle Moran is a historical fiction work that guides the reader from the perspective of Queen Nefertiti and her younger sister Mutnodjmet. The story follows the timeline from her time in Thebes to Amarna and after Akhenaten's death. Nefertiti was the Chief wife in Akhenaten's court or haram. Though she is well known by name, as many historical female role models, her story is often overlooked for masculine rulers. Michelle Moran webs her story of the queen and her sister with political secrets, loss of innocence, and female strength in a patriarchal society.


title: Amarna

text: "The City of Akhenaten and Nefertiti: Amarna and its People" By Barry Kemp, discusses everything from the conception of Amarna to the abandonment of the city. Within the book there are images that display art, architecture, and the city as it was (reconstructed) and now. There is also a short chapter written by Kemp in the book "Cities That Shaped the Ancient World".


title: Amarna

text: In the past years "National Geographic" and archaeological articles have published articles on Amarna, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, or Nefertiti. Most of the article can be found in both the paperback or on the National Geographic website (currently the most recent article was published January 2021).


title: Amarna

text: "Akhnaten", act II, scene 3 ("The City") describes the mandate from Akhenaten to build Akhetaten. In the English lines, it is consistently referred to as the "City of the Horizon".


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Darren Adrian Drozdov (born April 7, 1969), professionally known as Droz, is an American essayist, former National Football League (NFL) football player and former professional wrestler who competed in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) from 1998 to 1999 under the ring names Puke and Droz. Drozdov is quadriplegic due to a neck injury sustained from a botched wrestling maneuver, but has regained most of the use of his upper body and arms. Drozdov was born in the Mays Landing section of Hamilton Township, Atlantic County, New Jersey.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov, as a 6'3", 245 lb quarterback in high school, threw a 72-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Lou Rothman to win the last game of the 1985 regular season to finish the season with a perfect 10–0 record. Drozdov set an Atlantic County, New Jersey record in track & field in the shot put event. He was All-State in football at Oakcrest High School in South Jersey.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: After a stint at Fork Union Military Academy, Drozdov attended the University of Maryland and was a defensive tackle for the Terrapins. He culminated his collegiate career by graduating with a B.S. in Criminal justice.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Before his wrestling career, Drozdov was a professional American football player for three seasons with the National Football League (NFL)'s New York Jets, Philadelphia Eagles and Denver Broncos. He garnered a measure of notoriety (and the nickname "Puke") when he vomited on television during a "Monday Night Football" game directly onto the football before the center could snap it. A 1993 "Sports Illustrated" article stated that he had vomited at nearly every game that season and would reportedly see a psychiatrist for a "chronic vomiting" problem.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov originally competed on the independent wrestling circuit under the ring names of Drozzy King Lake, Darren "Ripping Yarns" Laxingham and DD Da Death Dude. He appeared with Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) from 1997 to 1998, where he formed a stable of "invaders" from the WWF with Lance Wright, Brakkus, Doug Furnas and Phil LaFon.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov made his World Wrestling Federation (WWF) debut in 1998. He claimed the natural ability to regurgitate on command, and WWF management decided to use this as his gimmick. In the documentary "Beyond the Mat", his meeting with Vince McMahon is shown, with McMahon requesting Drozdov to vomit into a trashcan in his office.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: He first wrestled in dark matches and on "WWF Shotgun Saturday Night". He debuted on "Raw is War" on the May 25, 1998 episode as an associate of the Legion of Doom. Dubbed Puke, he was the unofficial third member of the group. In late 1998, he competed in the WWF Brawl for All tournament, making it to the semifinals before losing to Bradshaw.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Droz was involved in a confrontation involving L.O.D. member Hawk's alcoholism. In this confrontation, Hawk was seen by his partner Animal as unfit to wrestle and Droz was tapped to take Hawk's place in the tag team. The situation ended with accusations that he had been the "enabler" of Hawk's problems and had dosed the L.O.D. member to take his place in the team. During this segment, Hawk was shown to have been pushed off the TitanTron by Droz.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: The feud culminated at the UK pay-per-view WWF Capital Carnage when the L.O.D. team of Droz and Animal took on The Headbangers. During the match, Drozdov entered the ring to defend Animal who was on the receiving end of an illegal double-team by The Headbangers. While the referee was occupied ushering Thrasher out of the ring, Mosh rolled up Drozdov, and the referee turned around and made the three count. Animal, enraged that Puke got involved, began to brawl with him before walking away from the ring in disgust, effectively ending Drozdov's run with L.O.D.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: After Drozdov's stint with the L.O.D., efforts were made to rebrand his persona, including one involving a series of skits called "Droz's World", where he would tell stories about his life as a professional wrestler. He started to come into his own after turning heel. Drozdov started to build a stable of wrestlers who shared his bizarre lifestyle. He added Prince Albert to his faction as his personal "body piercing artist" and Key, alleged to be Droz's dealer.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: "Pro Wrestling Illustrated" ranked Drozdov #142 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1999.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov's active wrestling career ended suddenly when he suffered a severe neck injury during a match with D'Lo Brown during a "WWF SmackDown!" taping on October 5, 1999, at the Nassau Coliseum on Long Island. Droz has stated that he was wearing a loose shirt during the match. When Brown attempted his signature running powerbomb, he was not able to gain a proper grip on Droz and Droz was unable to execute a proper jump to aid in the lifting into the powerbomb position.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov landed on his head and fractured two vertebrae in his neck. He was immediately rushed to Nassau County Medical Center, where he underwent hours of surgery to reduce and stabilize the pressure on his injured neck. Because the match was pre-taped, it was not aired to fans during the October 7 broadcast and has never been shown to the public. However, the footage of him being taken out on a stretcher has been seen in WWE's "Don't Try This at Home" public service announcements.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Even with intensive medical care, his injury initially left him a quadriplegic with essentially no movement below the neck. Droz has since regained movement in his upper body and arms. Drozdov has repeatedly stated that the incident was an accident and that he holds no animosity towards Brown for his injury, while Brown has said there is no blame on either side for the accident.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Droz continued to work for the WWE as a writer and columnist following his accident and wrote articles and essays for website and magazine content. He also became a recurring guest on the "WWE Byte This!" internet show, commenting on his opinions regarding talents or upcoming matches. For several years, he also wrote articles with his predictions for each WWE pay-per-view.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov made an appearance on the "Life and Death of the Road Warriors" DVD in 2005, discussing his run with the group in 1998. In September 2007, Droz was named honorary captain for a Maryland Terrapins football game against Villanova University. Drozdov was also interviewed for the Brawl for All and Last Ride of the Road Warriors episodes of Dark Side of the Ring in 2020.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov continues to reside in South Jersey with his sister and her family. Drozdov requires 24-hour in-home care and is required to take multiple medications daily in addition to needing to lie flat for long periods of time. With the assistance of his medical staff, and continued support from WWE, he is able to sustain a degree of independence.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov married WWE seamstress Julie Youngberg in 1999, days after his accident. He later stated that the one thing he would like to do would be to walk Julie down the aisle. The two divorced in late 2005.


title: Droz (wrestler)

text: Drozdov uses a customized, tank-like wheelchair that was designed and financed by his college friend, Under Armour founder Kevin Plank.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta is a city in and the county seat of Lowndes County, Georgia, United States. As of 2019, Valdosta had an estimated population of 56,457.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta is the principal city of the Valdosta Metropolitan Statistical Area, which in 2021 had a population of 149,590. It includes Brooks County to the west.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta is the home of Valdosta State University, a regional university in the University System of Georgia with over 12,000 students. The football team at Valdosta High School has more wins than any other American high school, and is second in overall wins in the country after University of Michigan.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta is called the Azalea City, as the plant grows in profusion there. The city hosts an annual Azalea Festival in March.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta was incorporated on December 7, 1860, when it was designated by the state legislature as the new county seat, formerly at nearby Troupville. The railroad was built to Valdosta that year, rather than Troupville, stimulating development in the new county seat. Many citizens of Troupville had already relocated to Valdosta when the Atlantic and Gulf Railroad was built away. The engine known as Satilla No. 3 pulled the first train into Valdosta on the Atlantic and Gulf Railroad on either July 4, 1860 or on July 20, 1860.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta is located on the Gulf Coastal Plain of Georgia and has a virtually flat landscape. It was once the center of long-staple cotton growing in the United States, a lucrative crop both before and after the Civil War. The county had a majority-white population well before the war with a substantial black population, as the cotton plantations were dependent on masses of enslaved field laborers.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The of railway between Valdosta and Waycross were once the longest straight stretch of railroad in the world. Today, highways stretch through the county for miles with hardly a curve, rise, or fall.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: After being bypassed by the railroad and losing the county seat, Troupville was virtually abandoned. It had been named after Governor George Troup, for whom Troup County, Georgia, was also named. Valdosta was named after Troup's plantation, Valdosta (occasionally the "Val d'Osta" spelling was used for the plantation). Troup had named it after the Aosta Valley () in Italy. The name Aosta (Latin: "Augusta"), refers to Emperor Augustus. A long-standing rumor held that the city's name meant "vale of beauty."


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The American Civil War erupted just months after the establishment of Valdosta. During the war, Valdosta was far away from battles and became a refuge for those fleeing areas of Georgia where the war was being actively fought.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: After the Civil War, during the Reconstruction era, more than 100 freedmen, families of farmers, craftsmen, and laborers, emigrated from Lowndes County to Arthington, Liberia, in 1871 and 1872, looking for a better life. Since before the war, the American Colonization Society had supported the relocation of free blacks to Liberia, an American colony in West Africa established for this purpose. The first group from Lowndes County left in 1871, and were led by Jefferson Bracewell; the second group was led in 1872 by Aaron Miller. Many freedmen ended up working as sharecroppers and tenant farmers on area plantations in Lowndes County, as cotton agriculture continued well into the 20th century.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: One notable event during Reconstruction was at a political meeting in front of the courthouse. A carpetbagger named J. W. Clift was running for Congress and was looking for support from former slaves. During Clift's speech he verbally attacked whites of Valdosta. In response five men planted explosives at the courthouse, planning on setting them off at Clift's next political rally. When other whites arrived at the courthouse unaware of the explosives the five men decided to stop the explosives but some still managed to go off. The explosion was small and no injuries occurred. The five men were arrested and were going to go on trial, but federal soldiers took them to Savannah for trial, which was seen by residents as an overreach of authority and an endangerment for self-government.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: As mechanization was introduced, the number of agricultural jobs decreased and Valdosta became more industrialized by the 20th century. The world's second Coca-Cola bottling plant began bottling Coca-Cola in Valdosta in 1897. In 1899, the cotton mill town of Remerton was established from the center of Valdosta. It has since become an enclave to the growth of Valdosta around Remerton.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: A new courthouse was planned in 1900 to replace the smaller courthouse. Construction began in 1904 for around $75,000. The old courthouse was torn down in March 1904. The new courthouse was completed in 1904, and on April 14, 1905, the first session of court took place in the new courthouse.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: In November 1902, the Harris Nickel-Plate Circus' prize elephant, Gypsy, went on a rampage and killed her trainer James O'Rourke. After terrorizing the town for a couple of hours, she ran off to Cherry Creek, north of Valdosta. Gypsy was chased by Police Chief Calvin Dampier and a posse. Gypsy was shot and killed and buried on site. James O'Rourke was buried in Sunset Hill Cemetery in Valdosta.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: On July 28, 1907, Valdosta voted to become a dry city; a record $10,000 worth of whiskey was sold on the last day. The city had been wet since its founding.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: In 1910, cotton was still important to the economy, and "Fortune" magazine ranked Valdosta as the richest city in America by per capita income. Soon after that, the boll weevil invaded the South, moving east through the states and killing much of the cotton crop in this area in 1917. Agriculture in this area turned to tobacco and pine timber. In January 1913, the South Georgia State Normal College opened in Valdosta on the edge of town. Over the course of the following century, it evolved into Valdosta State University. The school gradually became a regional center of higher education that has drawn many to the city.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: On May 16, 1918, a white planter named Hampton Smith was shot and killed at his house near Morven, Georgia, by a black farm worker named Sidney Johnson who was routinely mistreated by Smith. Johnson also shot Smith's wife but she later recovered. Johnson hid for several days in Valdosta without discovery. Lynch mobs formed in Valdosta ransacking Lowndes and Brooks counties for a week looking for Johnson and his alleged accomplices. These mobs lynched at least 13 African Americans, among them Mary Turner and her unborn eight-month-old baby who was cut from her body and murdered. Mary Turner's husband Hazel Turner was also lynched the day before.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Sidney Johnson was turned in by an acquaintance, and on May 22 Police Chief Calvin Dampier led a shootout at the Valdosta house where he was hiding. Following his death, a crowd of more than 700 castrated Johnson's body, then dragged it behind a vehicle down Patterson Street and all the way to Morven, Georgia, near the site of Smith's murder. There the body of Johnson was hanged and burned on a tree. That afternoon, Governor Hugh Dorsey ordered the state militia to be dispatched to Valdosta to halt the lynch mobs, but they arrived too late for many victims. Dorsey later denounced the lynchings, but none of the participants were ever prosecuted.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Following the violence, more than 500 African Americans fled from Lowndes and Brooks counties to escape such oppressive conditions and violence. From 1880 to 1930, Brooks County had the highest number of lynchings in the state of Georgia. By 1922 local chapters of the Ku Klux Klan, which had been revived starting in 1915, were holding rallies openly in Valdosta.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: On June 26, 1941, Moody Army Airfield opened northeast of town as part of the United States' preparation for the country's potential involvement in World War II. Moody Air Force Base's role in World War II and the postwar era has influenced the growth of Valdosta.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The local economy received an important boost in the mid-20th century when Interstate 75 was routed and built through the area. Many vacationers on their way to Florida found Valdosta a convenient "last stop" on their way to Walt Disney World and the Orlando area. The Interstate's route to the west of the city has contributed to its commercial district shifting from the historic downtown area to near the Interstate.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta State College was integrated in September 1963. In 1969, Valdosta High School (the formerly all-white school) and Pinevale High School (the formerly all-black school) were merged into one system. Integration had begun at Valdosta High School about 1966.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: During the Vietnam War, future president George W. Bush entered the National Guard, receiving flight training at Valdosta's Moody Air Force Base in November 1968.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: In 1994 Kent and Dawn Buescher opened Liberty Farms Animal Park with a playground, entertainment venue and a collection of animals. An amusement park was added, and in 1996 Liberty Farms Animal Park was renamed Wild Adventures. Wild Adventures expanded with Splash Island Water Park in 2002. The Buescher family purchased a botanical garden and theme park called Cypress Gardens in 2004. Due to damage from three hurricanes and a financial struggle in repairing Cypress Gardens the Buescher family were forced to sell Wild Adventures to Herschend Family Entertainment in 2007.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics' "Monthly Labor Review", the first automated teller machine (ATM) was installed at a C&S Bank in Valdosta in 1971. That ATM was preceded by one installed in Rockville Centre, New York, in 1969.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta was named as one of 2003's "Top 100 U.S. Small Towns" by "Site Selection" magazine. In 2010 Valdosta was named one of the "Best Small Places For Business and Careers" by "Forbes".


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta is located in central Lowndes County at (30.846661, -83.283101), north of the Florida state line. It is about south of Atlanta, east of Dothan, Alabama, and northwest of Jacksonville, Florida.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which are land and , or 1.26%, are water. The Withlacoochee River, a tributary of the Suwannee River, runs along part of the western edge of the city, while the eastern side of the city drains to Mud Creek, flowing southeast to the Alapahoochee River, also part of the Suwannee River watershed.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: "Cfa"), with mild, dry/wet winters and hot, humid summers. Temperatures frequently go over , but in extreme heatwaves, temperatures occasionally go over . Snowfall is rare but not unknown. Snow fell in Valdosta most recently on January 3, 2018, but the last significant snowfall happened in 1989. However, light frosts regularly occur between December and February. Valdosta can experience Indian summers in the winter, where temperatures can get quite warm. Very rarely do winter lows go below .


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: According to the Bureau of Census, the Valdosta, Georgia Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) had an estimated population of 135,804 and ranked #281 in the U.S. in 2009. (The MSA consists of Lowndes, Brooks, Lanier and Echols counties.)


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: As of the census of 2010 and estimates from 2005 to 2009, there were 54,518 people, 20,280 households, and 11,876 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 22,709 housing units available in Valdosta. The racial makeup of the city was 51.2% African American, 41.5% White, 0.3% Native American, 1.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 1.2% from other races, and 1.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.0% of the population.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: There were 20,280 households, out of which 27.4% had children under the age of 18 living in them, 35.5% were married couples living together, 19.3% had a female householder with no spouse present, and 41.4% were non-families. 28.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.93.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 30% 19 years of age and younger, 19.3% from 20 to 24, 23.2% from 25 to 44, 18.3% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 25.5 years. 53.1% of the population of Valdosta was female and 46.9% was male. Females 18 and over made up 54.4% of the population compared to 45.6% male.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The median income for a household in the city was $31,940, and the median income for a family was $39,295. Males had a median income of $33,230 versus $25,689 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,003. About 20.3% of families and 28.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 34.3% of those under age 18 and 13.1% of those age 65 or over.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: As of the 2020 United States Census, there were 55,378 people, 21,153 households, and 11,224 families residing in the city.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Located in the far southern portion of the state, near the Florida line along the Interstate 75 corridor, it is a commercial center of South Georgia with numerous manufacturing plants. The surrounding area produces tobacco, naval stores, particularly turpentine, as well as pine lumber and pulpwood. According to the Georgia Department of Community Affairs, Valdosta is called the "Naval Stores Capital of the World" because it supplies 80% of the world demand for naval stores.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: In the retailing field, Valdosta has one major regional mall, Valdosta Mall, which features national chain anchor stores like JCPenney, Bed, Bath & Beyond, Buckle, PetSmart, Belk, Old Navy, and Ross Stores. Several large stores surround the mall or are near the mall, including Best Buy, Home Depot, Kohl's, Lowe's, Office Max, Target, and Publix. Valdosta has other notable shopping areas such as the Historic Downtown area with many local businesses, and the Five Points area which has a Big Lots, Winn-Dixie, and numerous national franchise and local restaurants.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Wild Adventures, a theme and water park, is located south of the center of Valdosta in rural Lowndes County. Wild Adventures is owned by Herschend Family Entertainment.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The South Georgia Regional Library operates two libraries in Valdosta: Valdosta Lowndes County Library and Mae Wisenbaker McMullen Memorial Southside Library. Valdosta Lowndes County Library, with over of space, houses the administrative offices of the library system. Built for $450,000, it first opened in 1968. The Mae Wisenbaker McMullen Memorial Southside Library opened on May 31, 1992. An area businessperson, J.C. McMullen, donated the land used for the Southside Library, which was built as part of a larger library construction program; it was named after Mae Wisenbaker McMullen, the mother of J.C. McMullen.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The first library for African-Americans in Lowndes County began operations in the Walton Building on January 21, 1935, closed in February 1939, and reopened in 1955. In 1963 all libraries became available to patrons of all races.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The Lowndes County Historical Society & Museum is located at the Carnegie Library of Valdosta, a National Register of Historic Places listed building and Carnegie library, one of 24 Carnegie libraries in Georgia.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The Lowndes County Civic Center is a 120-seat multi-purpose arena that can be rented by the public and is often used to host community sporting events. The arena was also an occasional venue for Southern Championship Wrestling and Spinebusters Championship Wrestling.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The South Georgia Pride Festival is held every third Saturday in September. The first festival was held in 2008 on the front lawn of Valdosta State University. In 2009, the festival became South Georgia Pride and held its festival at the John W. Saunders Park in Valdosta in 2010. Valdosta Mayor John J. Fretti proclaimed September 17, 2011, as South Georgia Pride Day. Since 2010, the festival has grown to over 3,000 people attending. In July 2012, Mayor John Gayle refused to give a proclamation to South Georgia Pride, the only one he has refused.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta hosted several different minor league baseball teams during the twentieth century, and was one of six cities in the Georgia State League which began play in 1906, with the team known as the Valdosta Stars. From 1946 to 1958, the Valdosta Tigers were a "Class-D" minor league team. Valdosta was also home to the Valdosta Trojans which was a "farm" team for the Brooklyn Dodgers.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: TitleTown USA was a month-long segment on ESPN that started in the spring of 2008 and continued through July. Fans nominated towns and cities across the country based on their championship pedigree. A panel reviewed the nominees, and fan voting in May determined the 20th finalist. SportsCenter visited each city in July, and fan voting July 23–27 determined the winner. Due to the Valdosta High School football team's record as well as multiple championships in many sports by Valdosta State University, Lowndes High School, Valwood School, Georgia Christian School, and other academic institutions in the town, Valdosta was nominated as a finalist in 2008 for ESPN's "Titletown USA" contest. On July 28, 2008, with 29.2% of fan votes on ESPN's website poll, Valdosta was named TitleTown USA.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The Valdosta City School District holds grades pre-school to grade twelve, consisting of five elementary schools, two middle schools, and one high school. The school district serves the city of Valdosta and the surrounding communities of Lowndes County. the district has 447 full-time teachers and over 7,178 students.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: The Lowndes County School District serves communities of Lowndes County outside of the Valdosta city limits.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Scintilla Charter Academy is a free public school of choice open to any student who resides in Lowndes county or the city of Valdosta. SCA holds grades kindergarten to grade Seven.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valwood School is an independent college preparatory school north of Valdosta enrolling students in Pre-Kindergarten through twelfth grade. Several Christian schools offering grades K-12 also operate in and near Valdosta, including Crossroads Baptist School, Georgia Christian School, Lighthouse Christian School, Open Bible Christian School, Highland Christian Academy, St. John Catholic School, and Victory Christian School.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta is the home of Valdosta State University (VSU), founded in 1906 as South Georgia State Normal College for Women. It became part of the University System of Georgia in 1950 as Valdosta State College. It achieved university status and became VSU in 1993 and is one of two regional universities in Georgia.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: An extension of Georgia Military College is in the city limits, and Wiregrass Georgia Technical College is located a mile outside of the city limits off Interstate 75.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: Valdosta and Lowndes County is part of the Tallahassee, Florida, television market and receives most channels from that city; it also receives some channels from the neighboring Albany market. See and .


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: For several decades the Atlantic Coast Line and the Southern Railway ran regular passenger trains on a Chicago to Florida circuit, making stops in Valdosta, albeit at different stations. The Atlantic Coast Line ran the "South Wind" through Valdosta, and the Southern operated the "Ponce de Leon" and the "Royal Palm" through the town.


title: Valdosta, Georgia

text: After Amtrak assumed passenger rail operations in the United States in 1971 it operated the "Floridian" from Chicago to St. Petersburg and Miami. In a group of several train disestablishments in 1979, Amtrak discontinued the "Floridian", thus marking the last time that passenger trains served south Georgia (excepting the New York-Florida service in eastern Georgia).


title: The Price of Salt

text: The Price of Salt (later republished under the title Carol) is a 1952 romance novel by Patricia Highsmith, first published under the pseudonym "Claire Morgan." Highsmith—known as a suspense writer based on her psychological thriller "Strangers on a Train"—used an alias as she did not want to be tagged as "a lesbian-book writer", and she also used her own life references for characters and occurrences in the story.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Although Highsmith wrote over 22 novels and numerous short stories and had many sexual and romantic relationships with women, "The Price of Salt" is her only novel about an unequivocal lesbian relationship, and its relatively happy ending was unprecedented in lesbian literature. It is also notable for being the only one of her novels with "a conventional 'happy ending and characters who had "more explicit sexual existences".


title: The Price of Salt

text: A British radio adaptation of the novel was broadcast in 2014. "Carol", a film adaptation released in 2015, was nominated for six Academy Awards and nine British Academy Film Awards.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Therese Belivet is a lonely young woman, just beginning her adult life in Manhattan and looking for a chance to launch her career as a theatre set designer. When she was a young girl, her widowed mother sent her to an Episcopalian boarding school, leaving her with a sense of abandonment. Therese is dating Richard, a young man she does not love and does not enjoy having sex with. On a long and monotonous day at work in the toy section of a department store during the Christmas season, Therese becomes interested in a customer, an elegant and beautiful woman in her early thirties. The woman's name is Carol Aird and she gives Therese her address so her purchases may be delivered. On an impulse, Therese sends her a Christmas card. Carol, who is going through a difficult separation and divorce and is herself quite lonely, unexpectedly responds. The two begin to spend time together. Therese develops a strong attachment to Carol. Richard accuses Therese of having a "schoolgirl crush," but Therese knows it is more than that: she is in love with Carol.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Carol's husband, Harge, is suspicious of Carol's relationship with Therese, whom he meets briefly when Therese stays over at Carol's house in New Jersey. Carol had previously admitted to Harge that she had a short-lived sexual relationship months earlier with her best friend, Abby. Harge takes his and Carol's daughter, Rindy, to live with him, limiting Carol's access to her as divorce proceedings continue. To escape from the tension in New York, Carol and Therese take a road trip West as far as Utah, over the course of which it becomes clear that the feelings they have for each other are romantic and sexual. They become physically as well as emotionally intimate and declare their love for each other.


title: The Price of Salt

text: The women become aware that a private investigator is following them, hired by Harge to gather evidence that could be used against Carol by incriminating her as homosexual in the upcoming custody hearings. They realize the investigator has already bugged the hotel room in which Carol and Therese first had sex. On a road in Nebraska, after the detective has followed them for miles and clearly intends to continue doing so, Carol confronts him and demands that he hand over any evidence against her. She pays him a high price for some tapes even though he warns her that he has already sent several tapes and other evidence to Harge in New York. Carol knows that she will lose custody of Rindy if she continues her relationship with Therese. She decides to return to New York to fight for her rights regarding her daughter and will return to Therese as soon as she can. Therese stays alone in the Midwest; eventually, Carol writes to tell her that she has agreed not to continue their relationship.


title: The Price of Salt

text: The evidence for Carol's homosexuality is so strong that she capitulates to Harge rather than having the details of her behavior aired in court. She submits to an agreement that gives him full custody of Rindy and leaves her with limited supervised visits.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Though heartbroken, Therese returns to New York to rebuild her life. Therese and Carol arrange to meet again. Therese, still hurt that Carol abandoned her in a hopeless attempt to maintain a relationship with Rindy, declines Carol's invitation to live with her. They part, each headed for a different evening engagement. Therese, after a brief flirtation with an English actress that leaves her ashamed, quickly reviews her relationships—"loneliness swept over her like a rushing wind"—and goes to find Carol, who greets her more eagerly than ever before.


title: The Price of Salt

text: According to Highsmith, the novel was inspired by a blonde woman in a mink coat who ordered a doll from her while Highsmith was working as a temporary sales clerk in the toy section of Bloomingdale's in New York City during Christmas season of 1948:


title: The Price of Salt

text: Highsmith recalled completing the book's outline in two hours that night, likely under the influence of chickenpox which she discovered she had only the next day: "fever is stimulating to the imagination." She completed the novel by 1951. The semi-autobiographical story was mined from her own life references and desire for a lost love. Highsmith described the character of Therese as having come "from my own bones". Playwright Phyllis Nagy, who met Highsmith in 1987 and developed a friendship with her that lasted for the remainder of Highsmith's life, said that Therese was Highsmith's "alter ego" and "the voice of an author."


title: The Price of Salt

text: The character of Carol Aird and much of the plot of the novel was inspired by Highsmith's former lovers Kathryn Hamill Cohen and Philadelphia socialite Virginia Kent Catherwood, and her relationships with them. Virginia Catherwood lost custody of her daughter in divorce proceedings that involved tape-recorded lesbian trysts in hotel rooms. The story shared the same "sexual behavior" and "intense emotion" obsessions that Highsmith's writing became known for.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Highsmith placed Therese in the world of the New York theater with friends who are "vaguely bohemian, artists or would-be artists" and signaled their intellectual aspirations by noting they read James Joyce and Gertrude Stein, the latter unmistakably lesbian. All are struggling to find a place for themselves in the world.


title: The Price of Salt

text: The first working title of the novel (written in her "cahier" No. 18) was "The Bloomingdale Story". Other names Highsmith later considered were "The Argument of Tantalus", "Blasphemy of Laughter", and "Paths of Lightening" before finally naming it "The Price of Salt". Highsmith said that she settled on the title from a thought about the price paid by Lot's wife when she looked back towards Sodom. It's more likely, however, that she was invoking a biblical reference from the Gospel text () that André Gide included in his novel "The Counterfeiters", a work about the transgressive love of adolescence that Highsmith once took to heart: If the salt have lost his flavor wherewith shall it be salted?'—that is the tragedy with which I am concerned."


title: The Price of Salt

text: The age difference between Therese and Carol is a characteristic of Highsmith’s novel that many critics have sought to analyse, particularly under readings of mother-daughter relations. Carol is only around ten years Therese’s senior, but she becomes aged in her characterisation within "The Price of Salt". Jenny M. James argues in her article "Maternal Failures, Queer Futures: Reading The Price of Salt (1952) and Carol (2015) against Their Grain” that Carol becomes a maternal figure, involved in Therese’s “queer, extended girlhood”. There is a noticeable parental connection between the couple; Carol orders Therese around as if a child, Therese in turn sulks and experiences states of ‘melancholy’ when Carol disappoints her. Part way through the novel, Carol commands Therese to take a nap, and Therese complies, asking for a glass of warm milk, which Carol brings to her like a mother to child.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Carol’s ‘maternal’ instincts appear throughout the novel, such as her teaching Therese how to drive, as well as constantly paying for Therese and offering cheques. There are numerous examples like this, where Carol maintains a position of authority over Therese, and Therese follows along like an obedient child. Furthermore, Carol directs Therese’s behaviour within their public relationship to presumably avoid exposure.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Therese’s youthfulness can be linked to her “relatively naïve perception”, which feeds into the very presentation of her sexuality: an often-outward display of affection that Carol reprimands. Lindsay Stephens pays attention to this governing of “closeting” in her article, particularly drawing upon the instance where Therese takes Carol’s arm in a moment of fondness.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Jenny M. James also makes a comparison between Rindy and Therese, as if they are competing for Carol’s love. If we view the ending as a triumph on Therese’s behalf, Rindy loses her mother in a sense, feeding into the idea that same-sex relationships and parenthood are mutually exclusive. This problematic train of thought harks back to second wave radical feminism’s notion of political lesbianism, in which women could supposedly choose their sexuality as a political mean for change. Ellen Willis stated that certain “radical feminist” groups, such as The Feminists suggested that “living or sleeping with men was collaborating with the system” of patriarchy, and Denise Thompson wrote that during the 1970s “some lesbian feminists were insisting that lesbianism was central to feminism”.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Many feminists involved in this movement also often condemned motherhood, thus pushing the narrative that women-loving-women relationships also meant a refusal of parenting. The “radical feminist predilection that nurture of children”, as well as domestic duties, are “naturalized women’s activities” is a pattern of thought echoed in Highsmith’s novel, as Carol seems to leave her motherhood behind to pursue a romantic relation with Therese. This idea is partially reinforced in "The Price of Salt", perhaps subconsciously promoting a mirroring of maternal relations within lesbian relationships. Of course, it is equally as important to recognise the restrictions of the law at the time, as “lesbian mothers and gay fathers in this period lived under the threat of custody loss if their same-sex sexuality was discovered”.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Highsmith's publisher, Harper & Bros, rejected the manuscript. Her agent warned her that she was committing career suicide by following "Strangers on a Train" with a blatantly lesbian novel. It was accepted by Coward-McCann and published in hardcover in 1952 with the "Claire Morgan" alias. She dedicated the book to "Edna, Jordy and Jeff"—three people whom Highsmith invented.


title: The Price of Salt

text: The 25-cent lesbian pulp edition by Bantam Books appeared in 1953, followed by a mass market edition in 1969 by Macfadden Books. "The Price of Salt" subsequently fell out of print.


title: The Price of Salt

text: In 1983, lesbian publishing house Naiad Press offered Highsmith $5,000 to reprint the novel under her own name, or $2,000 under the pseudonym. Highsmith accepted the latter and it was reissued in 1984. In 1990, the book was republished by Bloomsbury as "Carol" under Patricia Highsmith's name, with the addition of an afterword by her. Phyllis Nagy said Highsmith chose "Carol" because Highsmith, herself, "was Therese and the object of her desire wasn't herself...it was someone else." The novel was so personal to Highsmith that "it was difficult for her to take ownership of it as a writer for many years."


title: The Price of Salt

text: The marketing of the novel in successive editions reflected different strategies for making the story of a lesbian romance attractive or acceptable to the reading public. The Coward-McCann dust jacket called it "A Modern Novel of Two Women". The paperboard cover of the 1953 Bantam edition balanced the words "The Novel of a Love Society Forbids" with a reassuring quote from "The New York Times" that said the novel "[handles] explosive material ... with sincerity and good taste." The 2004 reissue by Norton appealed to highbrow tastes with the tagline "The novel that inspired Nabokov's "Lolita" " on the cover—a claim that stemmed from a theory by Terry Castle published in a 2003 essay for "The New Republic". (The tagline was not included in subsequent editions.)


title: The Price of Salt

text: As a movie tie-in with the release of the 2015 motion picture adaptation of the novel, Norton published a new paperback edition as "Carol" with the subtitle "Previously Titled The Price of Salt", and the cover featuring the image of the North American theatrical film poster. The cover of the Bloomsbury tie-in edition featured the title "Carol" superimposed on a scene from the film with images of Cate Blanchett and Rooney Mara from another scene, but did not include a reference to the original title.


title: The Price of Salt

text: The paperback version of "The Price of Salt" sold nearly one million copies before its new edition as "Carol" in 1990. The novel was received well, and Highsmith received letters addressed to "Claire Morgan" through her publisher thanking her for writing a story that lesbian women could identify with.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Because of the new title and her acknowledged authorship, the novel received another round of reviews, thoroughly favorable, 38 years after its initial publication. Highsmith submitted to publicity interviews as well, though she resented questions about her sexuality and personal relationships. When BBC 2's "The Late Show" presenter Sarah Dunant asked her in 1990 if "Carol" constituted a "literary coming out", she replied looking irked: "I'll pass that one to Mrs. Grundy", referencing the character who embodies conventional propriety.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Because of the happy (or at least, non-tragic) ending which defied the lesbian pulp formula, and because of the unconventional characters who defied stereotypes about female homosexuals, "The Price of Salt" was popular among lesbians in the 1950s and continued to be with later generations. It was regarded for many years as the only lesbian novel with a happy ending.


title: The Price of Salt

text: Highsmith told author Marijane Meaker that she was surprised when the book was praised by lesbian readers because of how it ended. She was pleased that it had become popular for that reason and said, "I never thought about it when I wrote it. I just told the story." When Highsmith allowed her name to be attached to the 1990 republication by Bloomsbury, she wrote in the "Afterword" to the edition:


title: The Price of Salt

text: The novel's representation of its lesbian characters also departed from the period's stereotypical depiction of lesbians—both in popular literature and by the medical/psychological field (where females who did not conform to their sexual gender role were considered "congenital inverts")—that expected one member of a lesbian couple would be "noticeably masculine in her affect, style, and behavior". Highsmith depicts Therese as puzzled when her experience does not match that "butch-femme paradigm":


title: The Price of Salt

text: She had heard about girls falling in love, and she knew what kind of people they were and what they looked like. Neither she nor Carol looked like that. Yet the way she felt about Carol passed all the tests for love and fitted all the descriptions.


title: The Price of Salt

text: An unsuccessful attempt was made in the early 1950s to turn the novel into a movie. In the screen treatment the title was changed to "Winter Journey" and the character of "Carol" was changed to "Carl".


title: The Price of Salt

text: A radio adaptation titled "Carol" was broadcast by BBC Radio 4 in December 2014 with Miranda Richardson as Carol Aird and Andrea Deck as Therese Belivet. It comprised five segments of approximately 15 minutes.


title: The Price of Salt

text: A 2015 British-American film adaptation of the novel, "Carol", was directed by Todd Haynes from a screenplay by Phyllis Nagy. The film stars Cate Blanchett as Carol and Rooney Mara as Therese. "Carol" was an Official Selection of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival and won the Queer Palm award. The film received six Academy Award nominations, and nine British Academy Film Award nominations.


title: Carat (mass)

text: The carat (ct) is a unit of mass equal to or 0.00643 troy oz, and is used for measuring gemstones and pearls.


title: Carat (mass)

text: The current definition, sometimes known as the metric carat, was adopted in 1907 at the Fourth General Conference on Weights and Measures, and soon afterwards in many countries around the world. The carat is divisible into 100 "points" of 2 mg. Other subdivisions, and slightly different mass values, have been used in the past in different locations.


title: Carat (mass)

text: First attested in English in the mid-15th century, the word "carat" comes from Italian "carato", which comes from Arabic "qīrāṭ " قيراط , in turn borrowed from Greek "kerátion" κεράτιον 'carob seed', a diminutive of "keras" 'horn'. It was a unit of weight, equal to 1/1728 (1/12) of a pound (see Mina (unit)).


title: Carat (mass)

text: Carob seeds have been used throughout history to measure jewelry, because it was believed that there was little variance in their mass distribution. However, this was a factual inaccuracy, as their mass varies about as much as seeds of other species.


title: Carat (mass)

text: In the past, each country had its own carat. It was often used for weighing gold. Beginning in the 1570s, it was used to measure weights of diamonds.


title: Carat (mass)

text: An 'international carat' of 205 milligrams was proposed in 1871 by the Syndical Chamber of Jewellers, etc., in Paris, and accepted in 1877 by the Syndical Chamber of Diamond Merchants in Paris. A metric carat of 200 milligrams – exactly one-fifth of a gram – had often been suggested in various countries, and was finally proposed by the International Committee of Weights and Measures, and unanimously accepted at the fourth sexennial General Conference of the Metric Convention held in Paris in October 1907. It was soon made compulsory by law in France, but uptake of the new carat was slower in England, where its use was allowed by the Weights and Measures (Metric System) Act of 1897.


title: Carat (mass)

text: In the United Kingdom the original Board of Trade carat was exactly grains (~3.170 grains = ~205 mg); in 1888, the Board of Trade carat was changed to exactly grains (~3.168 grains = ~205 mg). Despite it being a non-metric unit, a number of metric countries have used this unit for its limited range of application.


title: Carat (mass)

text: The Board of Trade carat was divisible into four "diamond grains", but measurements were typically made in multiples of carat.


title: Carat (mass)

text: There were also two varieties of "refiners' carats" once used in the United Kingdom — the pound carat and the ounce carat. The pound troy was divisible into 24 "pound carats" of 240 grains troy each; the pound carat was divisible into four "pound grains" of 60 grains troy each; and the pound grain was divisible into four "pound quarters" of 15 grains troy each. Likewise, the ounce troy was divisible into 24 "ounce carats" of 20 grains troy each; the ounce carat was divisible into four "ounce grains" of 5 grains troy each; and the ounce grain was divisible into four "ounce quarters" of grains troy each.


title: Carat (mass)

text: The "solidus" was also a Roman weight unit. There is literary evidence that the weight of 72 coins of the type called "solidus" was exactly 1 Roman pound, and that the weight of 1 "solidus" was 24 "siliquae". The weight of a Roman pound is generally believed to have been 327.45 g or possibly up to 5 g less. Therefore, the metric equivalent of 1 "siliqua" was approximately 189 mg. The Greeks had a similar unit of the same value.


title: Carat (mass)

text: Gold fineness in carats comes from carats and grains of gold in a solidus of coin. The conversion rates 1 solidus = 24 carats, 1 carat = 4 grains still stand. Woolhouse's "Measures, Weights and Moneys of all Nations" gives gold fineness in carats of 4 grains, and silver in troy pounds of 12 troy ounces of 20 pennyweight each.


title: Work function

text: In solid-state physics, the work function (sometimes spelt workfunction) is the minimum thermodynamic work (i.e., energy) needed to remove an electron from a solid to a point in the vacuum immediately outside the solid surface. Here "immediately" means that the final electron position is far from the surface on the atomic scale, but still too close to the solid to be influenced by ambient electric fields in the vacuum.


title: Work function

text: The work function is not a characteristic of a bulk material, but rather a property of the surface of the material (depending on crystal face and contamination).


title: Work function

text: where is the charge of an electron, is the electrostatic potential in the vacuum nearby the surface, and is the Fermi level (electrochemical potential of electrons) inside the material. The term is the energy of an electron at rest in the vacuum nearby the surface.


title: Work function

text: In practice, one directly controls by the voltage applied to the material through electrodes, and the work function is generally a fixed characteristic of the surface material. Consequently, this means that when a voltage is applied to a material, the electrostatic potential produced in the vacuum will be somewhat lower than the applied voltage, the difference depending on the work function of the material surface. Rearranging the above equation, one has


title: Work function

text: where is the voltage of the material (as measured by a voltmeter, through an attached electrode), relative to an electrical ground that is defined as having zero Fermi level. The fact that depends on the material surface means that the space between two dissimilar conductors will have a built-in electric field, when those conductors are in total equilibrium with each other (electrically shorted to each other, and with equal temperatures).


title: Work function

text: The work function refers to removal of an electron to a position that is far enough from the surface (many nm) that the force between the electron and its image charge in the surface can be neglected. The electron must also be close to the surface compared to the nearest edge of a crystal facet, or to any other change in the surface structure, such as a change in the material composition, surface coating or reconstruction. The built-in electric field that results from these structures, and any other ambient electric field present in the vacuum, are excluded in defining the work function.


title: Work function

text: Certain physical phenomena are highly sensitive to the value of the work function. The observed data from these effects can be fitted to simplified theoretical models, allowing one to extract a value of the work function. These phenomenologically extracted work functions may be slightly different from the thermodynamic definition given above. For inhomogeneous surfaces, the work function varies from place to place, and different methods will yield different values of the typical "work function" as they average or select differently among the microscopic work functions.


title: Work function

text: Many techniques have been developed based on different physical effects to measure the electronic work function of a sample. One may distinguish between two groups of experimental methods for work function measurements: absolute and relative.


title: Work function

text: The work function is important in the theory of thermionic emission, where thermal fluctuations provide enough energy to "evaporate" electrons out of a hot material (called the 'emitter') into the vacuum. If these electrons are absorbed by another, cooler material (called the "collector") then a measurable electric current will be observed. Thermionic emission can be used to measure the work function of both the hot emitter and cold collector. Generally, these measurements involve fitting to Richardson's law, and so they must be carried out in a low temperature and low current regime where space charge effects are absent.


title: Work function

text: In order to move from the hot emitter to the vacuum, an electron's energy must exceed the emitter Fermi level by an amount


title: Work function

text: If an electric field is applied towards the surface of the emitter, then all of the escaping electrons will be accelerated away from the emitter and absorbed into whichever material is applying the electric field.


title: Work function

text: According to Richardson's law the emitted current density (per unit area of emitter), "J" (A/m), is related to the absolute temperature "T" of the emitter by the equation:


title: Work function

text: where "k" is the Boltzmann constant and the proportionality constant "A" is the Richardson's constant of the emitter.


title: Work function

text: The same setup can be used to instead measure the work function in the collector, simply by adjusting the applied voltage.


title: Work function

text: If an electric field is applied "away from" the emitter instead, then most of the electrons coming from the emitter will simply be reflected back to the emitter. Only the highest energy electrons will have enough energy to reach the collector, and the height of the potential barrier in this case depends on the collector's work function, rather than the emitter's.


title: Work function

text: The current is still governed by Richardson's law. However, in this case the barrier height does not depend on "W". The barrier height now depends on the work function of the collector, as well as any additional applied voltages:


title: Work function

text: where "W" is the collector's thermionic work function, Δ"V" is the applied collector–emitter voltage, and Δ"V" is the Seebeck voltage in the hot emitter (the influence of Δ"V" is often omitted, as it is a small contribution of order 10 mV).


title: Work function

text: The resulting current density "J" through the collector (per unit of collector area) is again given by Richardson's Law, except now


title: Work function

text: where "A" is a Richardson-type constant that depends on the collector material but may also depend on the emitter material, and the diode geometry.


title: Work function

text: This retarding potential method is one of the simplest and oldest methods of measuring work functions, and is advantageous since the measured material (collector) is not required to survive high temperatures.


title: Work function

text: The photoelectric work function is the minimum photon energy required to liberate an electron from a substance, in the photoelectric effect.


title: Work function

text: If the photon's energy is greater than the substance's work function, photoelectric emission occurs and the electron is liberated from the surface.


title: Work function

text: Similar to the thermionic case described above, the liberated electrons can be extracted into a collector and produce a detectable current, if an electric field is applied into the surface of the emitter.


title: Work function

text: It is expected that the minimum photon energy formula_7 required to liberate an electron (and generate a current) is


title: Work function

text: Photoelectric measurements require a great deal of care, as an incorrectly designed experimental geometry can result in an erroneous measurement of work function. This may be responsible for the large variation in work function values in scientific literature.


title: Work function

text: Moreover, the minimum energy can be misleading in materials where there are no actual electron states at the Fermi level that are available for excitation. For example, in a semiconductor the minimum photon energy would actually correspond to the valence band edge rather than work function.


title: Work function

text: Of course, the photoelectric effect may be used in the retarding mode, as with the thermionic apparatus described above. In the retarding case, the dark collector's work function is measured instead.


title: Work function

text: The Kelvin probe technique relies on the detection of an electric field (gradient in "ϕ") between a sample material and probe material.


title: Work function

text: The electric field can be varied by the voltage Δ"V" that is applied to the probe relative to the sample.


title: Work function

text: If the voltage is chosen such that the electric field is eliminated (the flat vacuum condition), then


title: Work function

text: Since the experimenter controls and knows Δ"V", then finding the flat vacuum condition gives directly the work function difference between the two materials.


title: Work function

text: Typically, the electric field is detected by varying the distance between the sample and probe. When the distance is changed but Δ"V" is held constant, a current will flow due to the change in capacitance. This current is proportional to the vacuum electric field, and so when the electric field is neutralized no current will flow.


title: Work function

text: Although the Kelvin probe technique only measures a work function difference, it is possible to obtain an absolute work function by first calibrating the probe against a reference material (with known work function) and then using the same probe to measure a desired sample.


title: Work function

text: The Kelvin probe technique can be used to obtain work function maps of a surface with extremely high spatial resolution, by using a sharp tip for the probe (see Kelvin probe force microscope).


title: Work function

text: The work function depends on the configurations of atoms at the surface of the material. For example, on polycrystalline silver the work function is 4.26 eV, but on silver crystals it varies for different crystal faces as (100) face: 4.64 eV, (110) face: 4.52 eV, (111) face: 4.74 eV. Ranges for typical surfaces are shown in the table below.


title: Work function

text: Due to the complications described in the modelling section below, it is difficult to theoretically predict the work function with accuracy. Various trends have, however, been identified. The work function tends to be smaller for metals with an open lattice, and larger for metals in which the atoms are closely packed. It is somewhat higher on dense crystal faces than open crystal faces, also depending on surface reconstructions for the given crystal face.


title: Work function

text: The work function is not simply dependent on the "internal vacuum level" inside the material (i.e., its average electrostatic potential), because of the formation of an atomic-scale electric double layer at the surface. This surface electric dipole gives a jump in the electrostatic potential between the material and the vacuum.


title: Work function

text: A variety of factors are responsible for the surface electric dipole. Even with a completely clean surface, the electrons can spread slightly into the vacuum, leaving behind a slightly positively charged layer of material. This primarily occurs in metals, where the bound electrons do not encounter a hard wall potential at the surface but rather a gradual ramping potential due to image charge attraction. The amount of surface dipole depends on the detailed layout of the atoms at the surface of the material, leading to the variation in work function for different crystal faces.


title: Work function

text: In a semiconductor, the work function is sensitive to the doping level at the surface of the semiconductor. Since the doping near the surface can also be controlled by electric fields, the work function of a semiconductor is also sensitive to the electric field in the vacuum.


title: Work function

text: The reason for the dependence is that, typically, the vacuum level and the conduction band edge retain a fixed spacing independent of doping. This spacing is called the electron affinity (note that this has a different meaning than the electron affinity of chemistry); in silicon for example the electron affinity is 4.05 eV. If the electron affinity "E" and the surface's band-referenced Fermi level "E"-"E" are known, then the work function is given by


title: Work function

text: From this one might expect that by doping the bulk of the semiconductor, the work function can be tuned. In reality, however, the energies of the bands near the surface are often pinned to the Fermi level, due to the influence of surface states. If there is a large density of surface states, then the work function of the semiconductor will show a very weak dependence on doping or electric field.


title: Work function

text: Theoretical modeling of the work function is difficult, as an accurate model requires a careful treatment of both electronic many body effects and surface chemistry; both of these topics are already complex in their own right.


title: Work function

text: One of the earliest successful models for metal work function trends was the jellium model, which allowed for oscillations in electronic density nearby the abrupt surface (these are similar to Friedel oscillations) as well as the tail of electron density extending outside the surface. This model showed why the density of conduction electrons (as represented by the Wigner–Seitz radius "r") is an important parameter in determining work function.


title: Work function

text: The jellium model is only a partial explanation, as its predictions still show significant deviation from real work functions. More recent models have focused on including more accurate forms of electron exchange and correlation effects, as well as including the crystal face dependence (this requires the inclusion of the actual atomic lattice, something that is neglected in the jellium model).


title: Work function

text: The electron behavior in metals varies with temperature and is largely reflected by the electron work function. A theoretical model for predicting the temperature dependence of the electron work function, developed by Rahemi et al. explains the underlying mechanism and predicts this temperature dependence for various crystal structures via calculable and measurable parameters. In general, as the temperature increases, the EWF decreases via formula_11 and formula_12 is a calculable material property which is dependent on the crystal structure (for example, BCC, FCC). formula_13 is the electron work function at T=0 and formula_14 is constant throughout the change.


title: Pueblo

text: In the Southwestern United States, Pueblo (capitalized) refers to the Native tribes of Puebloans having fixed-location communities with permanent buildings which also are called pueblos (lowercased). The Spanish explorers of northern New Spain used the term "pueblo" to refer to permanent indigenous towns they found in the region, mainly in New Mexico and parts of Arizona, in the former province of Nuevo México. This term continued to be used to describe the communities housed in apartment structures built of stone, adobe mud, and other local material. The structures were usually multi-storied buildings surrounding an open plaza, with rooms accessible only through ladders raised/lowered by the inhabitants, thus protecting them from break-ins and unwanted guests. Larger pueblos were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Puebloan people. Various federally recognized tribes have traditionally resided in pueblos of such design. Later Pueblo Deco and modern Pueblo Revival architecture, which mixes elements of traditional Pueblo and Hispano design, has continued to be a popular architectural style in New Mexico. The term is now part of the proper name of some historical sites, such as Acoma Pueblo.


title: Pueblo

text: The word "pueblo" is the Spanish word both for "town" or "village" and for "people". It comes from the Latin root word "populus" meaning "people". Spanish colonials applied the term to their own civic settlements, but to only those Native American settlements having fixed locations and permanent buildings. Less-permanent native settlements (such as those found in California) were often referred to as "rancherías".


title: Pueblo

text: Of the federally recognized Native American communities in the Southwest, those designated by the King of Spain as pueblo at the time Spain ceded territory to the United States, after the American Revolutionary War, are legally recognized as Pueblo by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some of the pueblos also came under jurisdiction of the United States, in its view, by its treaty with Mexico, which had briefly gained rule over territory in the Southwest ceded by Spain after Mexican independence. There are 21 federally recognized Pueblos that are home to Pueblo peoples. Their official federal names are as follows:


title: Pueblo

text: Pre-Columbian towns and villages in the Southwest, such as Acoma, were located in defensible positions, for example, on high steep mesas. Anthropologists and official documents often refer to ancient residents of the area as pueblo cultures. For example, the National Park Service states, "The Late Puebloan cultures built the large, integrated villages found by the Spaniards when they began to move into the area."


title: Pueblo

text: Contemporary residents often maintain other homes outside the historic pueblos. Adobe and light construction methods resembling adobe now dominate architecture at the many pueblos of the area, in nearby towns or cities, and in much of the American Southwest.


title: Pueblo

text: In addition to contemporary pueblos, numerous ruins of archeological interest are located throughout the Southwest. Some are of relatively recent origin. Others are of prehistoric origin, such as the cliff dwellings and other habitations of the Ancient Pueblo peoples, who emerged as a people around the 12th century BCE and began to construct their pueblos about AD 750–900.


title: Matías Almeyda

text: Matías Jesús Almeyda (; born 21 December 1973) is an Argentine professional football manager and former player who is the current manager of Greek Super League club AEK Athens.


title: Matías Almeyda

text: Nicknamed "El Pelado" ("bald one") despite his traditionally long hair, he spent most of his career at River Plate and in Italy, representing four teams in the latter country.


title: Matías Almeyda

text: Almeyda represented Argentina, appearing with the national team in two World Cups. After retiring in 2011, he went on to manage River Plate, Banfield, Guadalajara and the San Jose Earthquakes.


title: Matías Almeyda

text: Born in Azul, Buenos Aires Province, Almeyda started playing professionally for local and national powerhouse Club Atlético River Plate, first as understudy to Leonardo Astrada then as a starter, helping the side to the 1996 Primera División title after his insertion in the starting XI, as well as that year's Copa Libertadores. Shortly after, he moved to Sevilla FC in Spain for a record fee for a player in the country of $9 million; he appeared regularly in his first and only season with the Andalusians, but suffered La Liga relegation.


title: Matías Almeyda

text: Almeyda played in the Italian Serie A in the following eight years, successively representing S.S. Lazio, A.C. Parma and Inter Milan. He spent three seasons in Rome with Lazio, becoming a firm fan favourite especially after scoring a 35-yard goal against Parma's Gianluigi Buffon, his only of the 1999–2000 campaign, which ended with league and Coppa Italia conquest. Additionally, he was voted the competition's best player in 1998–99, and also won – as a starter – the last UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, against RCD Mallorca, and was often partnered with compatriot Juan Sebastián Verón in the heart of midfield by manager Sven-Göran Eriksson in his 4–4–2 formation, with Verón providing the creativity and Almeyda the strength.