title: Verlan

text: Verlan is less a language than a way to set apart certain words. Many verlan words refer either to sex or drugs, related to the original purpose of keeping communication secret from institutions of social control. Verlan is generally limited to one or two key words per sentence. Verlan words and expressions are mixed within a more general language.


title: Verlan

text: Verlan is used by people to mark their membership in, or exclusion from, a particular group (generally young people in the cities and , although some French upper-class youth have also started using it as their slang); it is a tool for marking and delineating group identity. Speakers rarely create a verlan word on the fly; rather, their ability to use and understand words from an accepted set of known verlan terms allows them to be identified as part of a verlan-speaking group. Lefkowitz claims that the best speakers of the language are often the worst students, those most needing to hide from authority.


title: Verlan

text: Some verlan words have gained mainstream currency. Examples of verlan in cultural mainstream include the 1984 comedy ("My New Partner") ( is verlan for , or rotten, and refers to a corrupt policeman); and the 1977 hit "Laisse béton" by singer Renaud ( is verlan for and the phrase means "drop it").


title: Verlan

text: Verlan is popular as a form of expression in French hip-hop. Artists claim that it fits well with the musical medium because "form ranks way over substance".


title: Verlan

text: The stage name of Belgian pop artist and songwriter Stromae (real name Paul Van Haver) is verlan for .


title: Quantum fluctuation

text: In quantum physics, a quantum fluctuation (also known as a vacuum state fluctuation or vacuum fluctuation) is the temporary random change in the amount of energy in a point in space, as prescribed by Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. They are minute random fluctuations in the values of the fields which represent elementary particles, such as electric and magnetic fields which represent the electromagnetic force carried by photons, W and Z fields which carry the weak force, and gluon fields which carry the strong force. Vacuum fluctuations appear as virtual particles, which are always created in particle-antiparticle pairs. Since they are created spontaneously without a source of energy, vacuum fluctuations and virtual particles are said to violate the conservation of energy. This is theoretically allowable because the particles annihilate each other within a time limit determined by the uncertainty principle so they are not directly observable. The uncertainty principle states the uncertainty in energy and time can be related by formula_1, where ≈  Js. This means that pairs of virtual particles with energy formula_2 and lifetime shorter than formula_3 are continually created and annihilated in empty space. Although the particles are not directly detectable, the cumulative effects of these particles are measurable. For example, without quantum fluctuations, the "bare" mass and charge of elementary particles would be infinite; from renormalization theory the shielding effect of the cloud of virtual particles is responsible for the finite mass and charge of elementary particles. Another consequence is the Casimir effect. One of the first observations which was evidence for vacuum fluctuations was the Lamb shift in hydrogen. In July 2020, scientists reported that quantum vacuum fluctuations can influence the motion of macroscopic, human-scale objects by measuring correlations below the standard quantum limit between the position/momentum uncertainty of the mirrors of LIGO and the photon number/phase uncertainty of light that they reflect.


title: Quantum fluctuation

text: In quantum field theory, fields undergo quantum fluctuations. A reasonably clear distinction can be made between quantum fluctuations and thermal fluctuations of a quantum field (at least for a free field; for interacting fields, renormalization substantially complicates matters). An illustration of this distinction can be seen by considering quantum and classical Klein-Gordon fields: For the quantized Klein–Gordon field in the vacuum state, we can calculate the probability density that we would observe a configuration formula_4 at a time in terms of its Fourier transform formula_5 to be


title: Quantum fluctuation

text: In contrast, for the classical Klein–Gordon field at non-zero temperature, the Gibbs probability density that we would observe a configuration formula_4 at a time formula_8 is


title: Quantum fluctuation

text: These probability distributions illustrate that every possible configuration of the field is possible, with the amplitude of quantum fluctuations controlled by Planck's constant formula_10, just as the amplitude of thermal fluctuations is controlled by formula_11, where is Boltzmann's constant. Note that the following three points are closely related:


title: Quantum fluctuation

text: We can construct a classical continuous random field that has the same probability density as the quantum vacuum state, so that the principal difference from quantum field theory is the measurement theory (measurement in quantum theory is different from measurement for a classical continuous random field, in that classical measurements are always mutually compatible – in quantum mechanical terms they always commute).


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Lagrangian field theory is a formalism in classical field theory. It is the field-theoretic analogue of Lagrangian mechanics. Lagrangian mechanics is used to analyze the motion of a system of discrete particles each with a finite number of degrees of freedom. Lagrangian field theory applies to continua and fields, which have an infinite number of degrees of freedom.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: One motivation for the development of the Lagrangian formalism on fields, and more generally, for classical field theory, is to provide a clean mathematical foundation for quantum field theory, which is infamously beset by formal difficulties that make it unacceptable as a mathematical theory. The Lagrangians presented here are identical to their quantum equivalents, but, in treating the fields as classical fields, instead of being quantized, one can provide definitions and obtain solutions with properties compatible with the conventional formal approach to the mathematics of partial differential equations. This enables the formulation of solutions on spaces with well-characterized properties, such as Sobolev spaces. It enables various theorems to be provided, ranging from proofs of existence to the uniform convergence of formal series to the general settings of potential theory. In addition, insight and clarity is obtained by generalizations to Riemannian manifolds and fiber bundles, allowing the geometric structure to be clearly discerned and disentangled from the corresponding equations of motion. A clearer view of the geometric structure has in turn allowed highly abstract theorems from geometry to be used to gain insight, ranging from the Chern–Gauss–Bonnet theorem and the Riemann–Roch theorem to the Atiyah–Singer index theorem and Chern–Simons theory.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: In field theory, the independent variable is replaced by an event in spacetime , or more generally still by a point "s" on a Riemannian manifold. The dependent variables are replaced by the value of a field at that point in spacetime formula_1 so that the equations of motion are obtained by means of an action principle, written as:


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where the "action", formula_3, is a functional of the dependent variables formula_4, their derivatives and "s" itself


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: and "s" = {"s"} denotes the set of "n" independent variables of the system, including the time variable, and is indexed by "α" = 1, 2, 3, ..., "n". The calligraphic typeface, formula_7, is used to denote the density, and formula_8 is the volume form of the field function, i.e., the measure of the domain of the field function.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: In mathematical formulations, it is common to express the Lagrangian as a function on a fiber bundle, wherein the Euler–Lagrange equations can be interpreted as specifying the geodesics on the fiber bundle. Abraham and Marsden's textbook provided the first comprehensive description of classical mechanics in terms of modern geometrical ideas, i.e., in terms of tangent manifolds, symplectic manifolds and contact geometry. Bleecker's textbook provided a comprehensive presentation of field theories in physics in terms of gauge invariant fiber bundles. Such formulations were known or suspected long before. Jost continues with a geometric presentation, clarifying the relation between Hamiltonian and Lagrangian forms, describing spin manifolds from first principles, etc. Current research focuses on non-rigid affine structures, (sometimes called "quantum structures") wherein one replaces occurrences of vector spaces by tensor algebras. This research is motivated by the breakthrough understanding of quantum groups as affine Lie algebras (Lie groups are, in a sense "rigid", as they are determined by their Lie algebra. When reformulated on a tensor algebra, they become "floppy", having infinite degrees of freedom; see e.g. Virasoro algebra.)


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: In Lagrangian field theory, the Lagrangian as a function of generalized coordinates is replaced by a Lagrangian density, a function of the fields in the system and their derivatives, and possibly the space and time coordinates themselves. In field theory, the independent variable "t" is replaced by an event in spacetime or still more generally by a point "s" on a manifold.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: In mathematical formulations, the scalar fields are understood to be coordinates on a fiber bundle, and the derivatives of the field are understood to be sections of the jet bundle.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The above can be generalized for vector fields, tensor fields, and spinor fields. In physics, fermions are described by spinor fields. Bosons are described by tensor fields, which include scalar and vector fields as special cases.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: For example, if there are formula_12 real-valued scalar fields, formula_13, then the field manifold is formula_14. If the field is a real vector field, then the field manifold is isomorphic to formula_15.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The time integral of the Lagrangian is called the action denoted by . In field theory, a distinction is occasionally made between the Lagrangian , of which the time integral is the action


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The action is often referred to as the "action functional", in that it is a function of the fields (and their derivatives).


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: In the presence of gravity or when using general curvilinear coordinates, the Lagrangian density formula_7 will include a factor of formula_21. This ensures that the action is invariant under general coordinate transformations. In mathematical literature, spacetime is taken to be a Riemannian manifold formula_22 and the integral then becomes the volume form


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Here, the formula_24 is the wedge product and formula_25 is the square root of the determinant formula_26 of the metric tensor formula_27 on formula_22. For flat spacetime (e.g., Minkowski spacetime), the unit volume is one, i.e. formula_29 and so it is commonly omitted, when discussing field theory in flat spacetime. Likewise, the use of the wedge-product symbols offers no additional insight over the ordinary concept of a volume in multivariate calculus, and so these are likewise dropped. Some older textbooks, e.g., Landau and Lifschitz write formula_30 for the volume form, since the minus sign is appropriate for metric tensors with signature (+−−−) or (−+++) (since the determinant is negative, in either case). When discussing field theory on general Riemannian manifolds, the volume form is usually written in the abbreviated notation formula_31 where formula_32 is the Hodge star. That is,


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: is frequently seen. Do not be misled: the volume form is implicitly present in the integral above, even if it is not explicitly written.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The Euler–Lagrange equations describe the geodesic flow of the field formula_9 as a function of time. Taking the variation with respect to formula_9, one obtains


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: A large variety of physical systems have been formulated in terms of Lagrangians over fields. Below is a sampling of some of the most common ones found in physics textbooks on field theory.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where is the gravitational potential, is the mass density, and in m·kg·s is the gravitational constant. The density formula_7 has units of J·m. Here the interaction term involves a continuous mass density "ρ" in kg·m. This is necessary because using a point source for a field would result in mathematical difficulties.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: This Lagrangian can be written in the form of formula_42, with the formula_43 providing a kinetic term, and the interaction formula_44 the potential term. See also Nordström's theory of gravitation for how this could be modified to deal with changes over time. This form is reprised in the next example of a scalar field theory.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: It is not at all an accident that the scalar theory resembles the undergraduate textbook Lagrangian formula_50 for the kinetic term of a free point particle written as formula_51. The scalar theory is the field-theory generalization of a particle moving in a potential. When the formula_48 is the Mexican hat potential, the resulting fields are termed the Higgs fields.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The sigma model describes the motion of a scalar point particle constrained to move on a Riemannian manifold, such as a circle or a sphere. It generalizes the case of scalar and vector fields, that is, fields constrained to move on a flat manifold. The Lagrangian is commonly written in one of three equivalent forms:


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: with formula_56 the Riemannian metric on the manifold of the field; i.e. the fields formula_57 are just local coordinates on the coordinate chart of the manifold. A third common form is


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: and formula_60, the Lie group SU(N). This group can be replaced by any Lie group, or, more generally, by a symmetric space. The trace is just the Killing form in hiding; the Killing form provides a quadratic form on the field manifold, the lagrangian is then just the pullback of this form. Alternately, the Lagrangian can also be seen as the pullback of the Maurer–Cartan form to the base spacetime.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: In general, sigma models exhibit topological soliton solutions. The most famous and well-studied of these is the Skyrmion, which serves as a model of the nucleon that has withstood the test of time.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Consider a point particle, a charged particle, interacting with the electromagnetic field. The interaction terms


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: are replaced by terms involving a continuous charge density ρ in A·s·m and current density formula_62 in A·m. The resulting Lagrangian density for the electromagnetic field is:


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Using tensor notation, we can write all this more compactly. The term formula_67 is actually the inner product of two four-vectors. We package the charge density into the current 4-vector and the potential into the potential 4-vector. These two new vectors are


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Additionally, we can package the E and B fields into what is known as the electromagnetic tensor formula_70.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: We have made use of the Minkowski metric to raise the indices on the EMF tensor. In this notation, Maxwell's equations are


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where ε is the Levi-Civita tensor. So the Lagrange density for electromagnetism in special relativity written in terms of Lorentz vectors and tensors is


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: In this notation it is apparent that classical electromagnetism is a Lorentz-invariant theory. By the equivalence principle, it becomes simple to extend the notion of electromagnetism to curved spacetime.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Using differential forms, the electromagnetic action "S" in vacuum on a (pseudo-) Riemannian manifold formula_75 can be written (using natural units, ) as


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Here, A stands for the electromagnetic potential 1-form, J is the current 1-form, is the field strength 2-form and the star denotes the Hodge star operator. This is exactly the same Lagrangian as in the section above, except that the treatment here is coordinate-free; expanding the integrand into a basis yields the identical, lengthy expression. Note that with forms, an additional integration measure is not necessary because forms have coordinate differentials built in. Variation of the action leads to


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: These are Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic potential. Substituting immediately yields the equation for the fields,


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The A field can be understood to be the affine connection on a U(1)-fiber bundle. That is, classical electrodynamics, all of its effects and equations, can be "completely" understood in terms of a circle bundle over Minkowski spacetime.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The Yang–Mills equations can be written in exactly the same form as above, by replacing the Lie group U(1) of electromagnetism by an arbitrary Lie group. In the Standard model, it is conventionally taken to be formula_79 although the general case is of general interest. In all cases, there is no need for any quantization to be performed. Although the Yang–Mills equations are historically rooted in quantum field theory, the above equations are purely classical.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: In the same vein as the above, one can consider the action in one dimension less, i.e. in a contact geometry setting. This gives the Chern–Simons functional. It is written as


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Chern–Simons theory was deeply explored in physics, as a toy model for a broad range of geometric phenomena that one might expect to find in a grand unified theory.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The Lagrangian density for Ginzburg–Landau theory combines together the Lagrangian for the scalar field theory with the Lagrangian for the Yang–Mills action. It may be written as:


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where formula_82 is a section of a vector bundle with fiber formula_83. The formula_82 corresponds to the order parameter in a superconductor; equivalently, it corresponds to the Higgs field, after noting that the second term is the famous "Sombrero hat" potential. The field formula_85 is the (non-Abelian) gauge field, i.e. the Yang–Mills field and formula_86 is its field-strength. The Euler–Lagrange equations for the Ginzburg–Landau functional are the Yang–Mills equations


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where formula_89 is the Hodge star operator, i.e. the fully antisymmetric tensor. These equations are closely related to the Yang–Mills–Higgs equations. Another closely related Lagrangian is found in Seiberg–Witten theory.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where formula_91 is a Dirac spinor, formula_92 is its Dirac adjoint, and formula_93 is Feynman slash notation for formula_94. There is no particular need to focus on Dirac spinors in the classical theory. The Weyl spinors provide a more general foundation; they can be constructed directly from the Clifford algebra of spacetime; the construction works in any number of dimensions, and the Dirac spinors appear as a special case. Weyl spinors have the additional advantage that they can be used in a vielbein for the metric on a Riemannian manifold; this enables the concept of a spin structure, which, roughly speaking, is a way of formulating spinors consistently in a curved spacetime.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The Lagrangian density for QED combines the Lagrangian for the Dirac field together with the Lagrangian for electrodynamics in a gauge-invariant way. It is:


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where formula_96 is the electromagnetic tensor, "D" is the gauge covariant derivative, and formula_97 is Feynman notation for formula_98 with formula_99 where formula_100 is the electromagnetic four-potential. Although the word "quantum" appears in the above, this is a historical artifact. The definition of the Dirac field requires no quantization whatsoever, it can be written as a purely classical field of anti-commuting Weyl spinors constructed from first principles from a Clifford algebra. The full gauge-invariant classical formulation is given in Bleecker.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The Lagrangian density for quantum chromodynamics combines together the Lagrangian for one or more massive Dirac spinors with the Lagrangian for the Yang–Mills action, which describes the dynamics of a gauge field; the combined Lagrangian is gauge invariant. It may be written as:


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where "D" is the QCD gauge covariant derivative, "n" = 1, 2, ...6 counts the quark types, and formula_102 is the gluon field strength tensor. As for the electrodynamics case above, the appearance of the word "quantum" above only acknowledges its historical development. The Lagrangian and its gauge invariance can be formulated and treated in a purely classical fashion.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where formula_104 is the cosmological constant, formula_105 is the curvature scalar, which is the Ricci tensor contracted with the metric tensor, and the Ricci tensor is the Riemann tensor contracted with a Kronecker delta. The integral of formula_106 is known as the Einstein–Hilbert action. The Riemann tensor is the tidal force tensor, and is constructed out of Christoffel symbols and derivatives of Christoffel symbols, which define the metric connection on spacetime. The gravitational field itself was historically ascribed to the metric tensor; the modern view is that the connection is "more fundamental". This is due to the understanding that one can write connections with non-zero torsion. These alter the metric without altering the geometry one bit. As to the actual "direction in which gravity points" (e.g. on the surface of the Earth, it points down), this comes from the Riemann tensor: it is the thing that describes the "gravitational force field" that moving bodies feel and react to. (This last statement must be qualified: there is no "force field" "per se"; moving bodies follow geodesics on the manifold described by the connection. They move in a "straight line".)


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The Lagrangian for general relativity can also be written in a form that makes it manifestly similar to the Yang–Mills equations. This is called the Einstein–Yang–Mills action principle. This is done by noting that most of differential geometry works "just fine" on bundles with an affine connection and arbitrary Lie group. Then, plugging in SO(3,1) for that symmetry group, i.e. for the frame fields, one obtains the equations above.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: Substituting this Lagrangian into the Euler–Lagrange equation and taking the metric tensor formula_107 as the field, we obtain the Einstein field equations


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where formula_27 is the determinant of the metric tensor when regarded as a matrix. Generally, in general relativity, the integration measure of the action of Lagrange density is formula_112. This makes the integral coordinate independent, as the root of the metric determinant is equivalent to the Jacobian determinant. The minus sign is a consequence of the metric signature (the determinant by itself is negative). This is an example of the volume form, previously discussed, becoming manifest in non-flat spacetime.


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: The Lagrange density of electromagnetism in general relativity also contains the Einstein–Hilbert action from above. The pure electromagnetic Lagrangian is precisely a matter Lagrangian formula_113. The Lagrangian is


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: This Lagrangian is obtained by simply replacing the Minkowski metric in the above flat Lagrangian with a more general (possibly curved) metric formula_115. We can generate the Einstein Field Equations in the presence of an EM field using this lagrangian. The energy-momentum tensor is


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: So the tracelessness of the energy momentum tensor implies that the curvature scalar in an electromagnetic field vanishes. The Einstein equations are then


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: where formula_121 is the covariant derivative. For free space, we can set the current tensor equal to zero, formula_122. Solving both Einstein and Maxwell's equations around a spherically symmetric mass distribution in free space leads to the Reissner–Nordström charged black hole, with the defining line element (written in natural units and with charge ):


title: Lagrangian (field theory)

text: One possible way of unifying the electromagnetic and gravitational Lagrangians (by using a fifth dimension) is given by Kaluza–Klein theory. Effectively, one constructs an affine bundle, just as for the Yang–Mills equations given earlier, and then considers the action separately on the 4-dimensional and the 1-dimensional parts. Such factorizations, such as the fact that the 7-sphere can be written as a product of the 4-sphere and the 3-sphere, or that the 11-sphere is a product of the 4-sphere and the 7-sphere, accounted for much of the early excitement that a theory of everything had been found. Unfortunately, the 7-sphere proved not large enough to enclose all of the Standard model, dashing these hopes.


title: Ostia Antica

text: Ostia Antica ("Ancient Ostia") is a large archaeological site, close to the modern town of Ostia, that is the location of the harbour city of ancient Rome, 25 kilometres (15 miles) southwest of Rome. "Ostia" (plur. of "ostium") is a derivation of "os", the Latin word for "mouth". At the mouth of the River Tiber, Ostia was Rome's seaport, but due to silting the site now lies from the sea. The site is noted for the excellent preservation of its ancient buildings, magnificent frescoes and impressive mosaics.


title: Ostia Antica

text: Ostia may have been Rome's first "colonia". According to legend, Ancus Marcius, the fourth king of Rome, was the first to destroy Ficana, an ancient town that was only from Rome and had a small harbour on the Tiber, and then proceeded with establishing the new colony further west and closer to the sea coast. An inscription seems to confirm the establishment of the old "castrum" of Ostia in the 7th century BC. The oldest archaeological remains so far discovered date back to only the 4th century BC. The most ancient buildings currently visible are from the 3rd century BC, notably the "Castrum" (military camp); of a slightly later date is the "Capitolium" (temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva). The "opus quadratum" of the walls of the original "castrum" at Ostia provide important evidence for the building techniques that were employed in Roman urbanisation during the period of the Middle Republic.


title: Ostia Antica

text: Ostia was a scene of fighting during the period of civil wars in the 80s BC. In 87 BC, Marius attacked the city in order to cut off the flow of trade to Rome. Forces led by Cinna, Carbo and Sertorius crossed the Tiber at three points before capturing the city and plundering it. After his victory here, Marius moved on to attack and capture Antium, Aricia and Lanuvium to further destroy the foodstores of Rome.


title: Ostia Antica

text: In 68 BC, the town was sacked by pirates. During the sack, the port was set on fire, the consular war fleet was destroyed, and two prominent senators were kidnapped. This attack caused such panic in Rome that Pompey the Great arranged for the tribune Aulus Gabinius to rise in the Roman Forum and propose a law, the "lex Gabinia", to allow Pompey to raise an army and destroy the pirates. Within a year, the pirates had been defeated.


title: Ostia Antica

text: The town was then re-built, and provided with protective walls by the statesman and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero.


title: Ostia Antica

text: During Julius Caesar's time as dictator, one of his improvements to the city was his establishment of better supervision of the supply of grain to Rome. He proposed better access to grain by the use of a new harbour in Ostia along with a canal from Tarracina.


title: Ostia Antica

text: The town was further developed during the first century AD under the influence of Tiberius, who ordered the building of the town's first Forum. The town was also soon enriched by the construction of a new harbour on the northern mouths of the Tiber (which reaches the sea with a larger mouth in Ostia, "Fiumara Grande", and a narrower one near to the current Fiumicino International Airport). The new harbor, not surprisingly called Portus, from the Latin for "harbour", was excavated by order of the Emperor Claudius. This harbour became silted up, and needed to be supplemented later by a harbour built by Trajan finished in the year 113 AD; it has a hexagonal form, in order to reduce the erosive forces of the waves. Moreover, at a relatively short distance, there was also the harbour of Civitavecchia ("Centum Cellae"). These elements took business away from Ostia itself and began its commercial decline.


title: Ostia Antica

text: In 2008, British archaeologists discovered the remains of the widest canal ever built by the Romans, 300 feet wide, which they believe ran from Portus across the Isola Sacra to the Tiber opposite Ostia, which would have made the transport of large quantities of goods far easier than by land transport. In 2014, ruins were discovered on the north side of the river opposite the city, indicating a large built-up area with a massive structure. Within its walls, Ostia covered an area of 69 hectares, or 173 acres. During the 4th century, the city spilled over the southern walls to the sea south of Regioni III and IV on the map.


title: Ostia Antica

text: Ostia itself was provided with all the services a town of the time could require; in particular, a famous lighthouse. The popularity of the cult of Mithras is evident in the discovery of eighteen Mithraea. Archaeologists have also discovered the public "latrinae", organised for collective use as a series of seats that allow us to imagine today that their function was also a social one. Ostia had a large theatre, many public baths (such as the Thermae Gavii Maximi, or Baths at Ostia), numerous taverns and inns and a firefighting service. Ostia also contained the Ostia Synagogue, the earliest synagogue yet identified in Europe, Its excavation in 1960–61 changed the historical narrative for many academics.


title: Ostia Antica

text: South of Ostia there were many rich villa-estates along the coast road to Laurentum. Pliny described the route towards his villa there: “There are two different roads to it: if you go by that of Laurentum, you must turn off at the fourteenth mile-stone; if by that of Ostia, at the eleventh. Both of them are sandy in places, which makes it a little heavier and longer by carriage, but short and easy on horseback. The landscape affords plenty of variety, the view in some places being closed in by woods, in others extending over broad meadows, where numerous flocks of sheep and herds of cattle, which the severity of the winter has driven from the mountains, fatten in the spring warmth, and on the rich pasturage”.


title: Ostia Antica

text: Today several well-preserved Roman villas south of Ostia have been excavated in the area of Castel Fusano, including the Villa della Palombara excavated in 1989-2008.


title: Ostia Antica

text: Ostia grew to 50,000 inhabitants in the 2nd century, reaching a peak of some 100,000 inhabitants in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD.


title: Ostia Antica

text: It became an episcopal see as part of the Diocese of Rome as early as the 3rd century AD; the cathedral ("titulus") of Santa Aurea being located on the burial site of St Monica, mother of Augustine; she died here in 387 in a house property of the Diocesi of Rome.


title: Ostia Antica

text: In time mercantile activities became focused on Portus instead. For scholars of the High Empire Ostia was the seaside version of Rome, the city of apartment buildings. It used to be thought that the city entered a period of slow decline after Constantine the Great made Portus a municipality, Ostia thereby ceasing to be an active port and instead becoming a popular country retreat for rich aristocrats from Rome. In spite of the fact that Portus shows substantial growth in the 4th century, the traditional view that Ostia went into marked decline has had to be revised due to recent excavations and re-evaluation of the evidence. The knocking down of some apartment blocks replaced by houses of the rich was "thought to have signalled the disappearance of Ostia's once-vibrant group of non-elite residents and labourers"..."recent research has suggested we take a more nuanced view of residential patterns and social demography in the Late Antique city". Earlier views of decay relied on fleeting references in the ancient sources and excavators ignoring evidence from the period that the town continued to thrive despite pockets of decay into the 6th century, "..life in Ostia ended not with a Vesuvian bang but with a whimper" after a slow decline from the 6th to the 9th centuries.


title: Ostia Antica

text: The city housed the headquarters of the Prefect of the Annona and his large staff. Although there are signs of decay in certain quarters, evidence indicates continued prosperity through 5th century, including: repairs on baths (26 remained in operation during the 4th century), public buildings, church construction, street repaving, residential and business expansion beyond the perimeter of the south wall (the presence of a small harbour, the Porta Marina on the sea, is attested), a huge 4th century villa located east of the Maritime baths, and the continued operation of the river port on the western edge of the town, the "navalia", a squarish basin built in from the river, a warehouse on the east side and, behind it, a large bath complex, erroneously called the "palazzo imperial". Numerous bathing establishments are recorded as still operating in the 4th and into the 5th centuries with major repairs of the center-city Neptune Baths in the 370s.


title: Ostia Antica

text: The city was mentioned by St Augustine when he passed there in the late 4th century. On their way back to Africa after Augustine's conversion to Christianity, Augustine's mother, Saint Monica, died in 387 in Ostia, while at a house property of the Diocesi of Rome


title: Ostia Antica

text: The poet Rutilius Namatianus reported the lack of maintenance of the city ports in 414 AD. This view has been challenged by Boin, who states Namatianus' verse is a literary construct and not consistent with the archaeological record, ibid. pp. 22, 25, (the poet was lamenting the lost greatness of Rome after the sack of 410 and was hoping for the rise again of the great city).


title: Ostia Antica

text: After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 (traditional date: Julius Nepos died 480 was the last legitimate emperor), Ostia fell slowly into decay as the population of Rome, 700–800,000 in AD 400 contracted to 200,000 or less in 500 AD. The city was finally abandoned in the 9th century due to the repeated invasions and sackings by Arab pirates. A naval battle, the Battle of Ostia, was fought there in 849 between Christians and Saracens; the remaining inhabitants moved to Gregoriopolis a short distance away.


title: Ostia Antica

text: A "local sacking" was carried out by Baroque architects, who used the remains as a sort of marble storehouse for the "palazzi" they were building in Rome.


title: Ostia Antica

text: Under Benito Mussolini massive excavations were undertaken from 1939 to 1942 during which several remains, particularly from the Republican Period, were brought to light. These were interrupted when Italy became a major battlefield of World War II.


title: Ostia Antica

text: In the post-war period, the first volume of the official series "Scavi di Ostia" appeared in 1954; it was devoted to a topography of the town by Italo Gismondi and after a hiatus the research still continues today. Though untouched areas adjacent to the original excavations were left undisturbed awaiting a more precise dating of Roman pottery types, the "Baths of the Swimmer", named for the mosaic figure in the "apodyterium", were meticulously excavated, in 1966–70 and 1974–75, in part as a training ground for young archaeologists and in part to establish a laboratory of well-understood finds as a teaching aid.


title: Ostia Antica

text: It has been estimated that two-thirds of the ancient town are as yet unexcavated. In 2014, a geophysical survey using magnetometry, among other techniques, revealed the existence of a boundary wall on the north side of the Tiber enclosing an unexcavated area of the city containing three massive warehouses.


title: Ostia Antica

text: The excavated site of Ostia Antica is open to the public as a tourist attraction. A number of finds from the excavation are housed on-site in the Museo Ostiense. The site has dining, and other facilities. The Theatre is also occasionally used for cultural events.


title: Pentium III

text: The Pentium III (marketed as Intel Pentium III Processor, informally PIII or P3) brand refers to Intel's 32-bit x86 desktop and mobile CPUs based on the sixth-generation P6 microarchitecture introduced on February 28, 1999. The brand's initial processors were very similar to the earlier Pentium II-branded processors. The most notable differences were the addition of the Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) instruction set (to accelerate floating point and parallel calculations), and the introduction of a controversial serial number embedded in the chip during manufacturing. The Pentium III is also a single-core processor.


title: Pentium III

text: Even after the release of the Pentium 4 in late 2000, the Pentium III continued to be produced with new models introduced until early 2003, and were discontinued in April 2004 for desktop units, and May 2007 for mobile units.


title: Pentium III

text: Similarly to the Pentium II it superseded, the Pentium III was also accompanied by the Celeron brand for lower-end versions, and the Xeon for high-end (server and workstation) derivatives. The Pentium III was eventually superseded by the Pentium 4, but its Tualatin core also served as the basis for the Pentium M CPUs, which used many ideas from the P6 microarchitecture. Subsequently, it was the Pentium M microarchitecture of Pentium M branded CPUs, and not the NetBurst found in Pentium 4 processors, that formed the basis for Intel's energy-efficient Core microarchitecture of CPUs branded Core 2, Pentium Dual-Core, Celeron (Core), and Xeon.


title: Pentium III

text: The first Pentium III variant was the "Katmai" (Intel product code 80525). It was a further development of the "Deschutes" Pentium II. The Pentium III saw an increase of 2 million transistors over the Pentium II. The differences were the addition of execution units and SSE instruction support, and an improved L1 cache controller (the L2 cache controller was left unchanged, as it would be fully redesigned for Coppermine anyway), which were responsible for the minor performance improvements over the "Deschutes" Pentium IIs. It was first released at speeds of 450 and 500 MHz in February 1999. Two more versions were released: 550 MHz on May 17, 1999 and 600 MHz on August 2, 1999. On September 27, 1999 Intel released the 533B and 600B running at 533 & 600 MHz respectively. The 'B' suffix indicated that it featured a 133 MHz FSB, instead of the 100 MHz FSB of prior models.


title: Pentium III

text: The Katmai contains 9.5 million transistors, not including the 512 Kbytes L2 cache (which adds 25 million transistors), and has dimensions of 12.3 mm by 10.4 mm (128 mm). It is fabricated in Intel's P856.5 process, a 0.25 micrometre complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process with five levels of aluminum interconnect. The Katmai used the same slot-based design as the Pentium II but with the newer Slot 1 Single Edge Contact Cartridge (SECC) 2 that allowed direct CPU core contact with the heat sink. There have been some early models of the Pentium III with 450 and 500 MHz packaged in an older SECC cartridge intended for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs).


title: Pentium III

text: A notable stepping level for enthusiasts was SL35D. This version of Katmai was officially rated for 450 MHz, but often contained cache chips for the 600 MHz model and thus usually can run at 600 MHz.


title: Pentium III

text: The second version, codenamed Coppermine (Intel product code: 80526), was released on October 25, 1999, running at 500, 533, 550, 600, 650, 667, 700, and 733 MHz. From December 1999 to May 2000, Intel released Pentium IIIs running at speeds of 750, 800, 850, 866, 900, 933 and 1000 MHz (1 GHz). Both 100 MHz FSB and 133 MHz FSB models were made. For models that were already available with the same frequency, an "E" was appended to the model name to indicate cores using the new 0.18 μm fabrication process. An additional "B" was later appended to designate 133 MHz FSB models, resulting in an "EB" suffix. In overall performance, Coppermine had a small advantage over the Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) Athlons it was released against, which was reversed when AMD applied their own die shrink and added an on-die L2 cache to the Athlon. Athlon held the advantage in floating-point intensive code, while the Coppermine could perform better when SSE optimizations were used, but in practical terms there was little difference in how the two chips performed, clock-for-clock. However, AMD were able to clock the Athlon higher, reaching speeds of 1.2 GHz before the launch of the Pentium 4.


title: Pentium III

text: In performance, Coppermine arguably marked a bigger step than Katmai by introducing an on-chip L2 cache, which Intel names "Advanced Transfer Cache" (ATC). The ATC operates at the core clock rate and has a capacity of 256 KB, twice that of the on-chip cache formerly on Mendocino Celerons. It is eight-way set-associative and is accessed via a "Double Quad Word Wide" 256-bit bus, four times as wide as Katmai's. Further, latency was dropped to a quarter compared to Katmai. Another marketing term by Intel was "Advanced System Buffering", which encompassed improvements to better take advantage of a 133 MHz system bus. These include 6 fill buffers (vs. 4 on Katmai), 8 bus queue entries (vs. 4 on Katmai) and 4 write-back buffers (vs. 1 on Katmai). Under competitive pressure from the AMD Athlon, Intel reworked the internals, finally removing some well-known pipeline stalls. As a result, applications affected by the stalls ran faster on Coppermine by up to 30%. The Coppermine contained 29 million transistors and was fabricated in a 0.18 μm process.


title: Pentium III

text: The Coppermine was available in 370-pin FC-PGA or FC-PGA2 for use with Socket 370, or in SECC2 for Slot 1 (all speeds except 900 and 1100). FC-PGA and Slot 1 Coppermine CPUs have an exposed die, however most higher frequency SKUs starting with the 866 MHz model were also produced in FC-PGA2 variants that feature an integrated heat spreader (IHS). This in itself did not improve thermal conductivity, since it added another layer of metal and thermal paste between the die and the heatsink, but it greatly assisted in holding the heatsink flat against the die. Earlier Coppermines without the IHS made heatsink mounting challenging. If the heatsink was not situated flat against the die, heat transfer efficiency was greatly reduced. Some heatsink manufacturers began providing pads on their products, similar to what AMD did with the "Thunderbird" Athlon to ensure that the heatsink was mounted flatly. The enthusiast community went so far as to create shims to assist in maintaining a flat interface.


title: Pentium III

text: A 1.13 GHz version (S-Spec SL4HH) was released in mid-2000 but famously recalled after a collaboration between HardOCP and Tom's Hardware discovered various instabilities with the operation of the new CPU speed grade. The Coppermine core was unable to reliably reach the 1.13 GHz speed without various tweaks to the processor's microcode, effective cooling, higher voltage (1.75 V vs. 1.65 V), and specifically validated platforms. Intel only officially supported the processor on its own VC820 i820-based motherboard, but even this motherboard displayed instability in the independent tests of the hardware review sites. In benchmarks that were stable, performance was shown to be sub-par, with the 1.13 GHz CPU equalling a 1.0 GHz model. Tom's Hardware attributed this performance deficit to relaxed tuning of the CPU and motherboard to improve stability. Intel needed at least six months to resolve the problems using a new cD0 stepping and re-released 1.1 GHz and 1.13 GHz versions in 2001.


title: Pentium III

text: Microsoft's Xbox game console uses a variant of the Pentium III/Mobile Celeron family in a Micro-PGA2 form factor. The sSpec designator of the chips is SL5Sx, which makes it more similar to the Mobile Celeron Coppermine-128 processor. It shares with the Coppermine-128 Celeron its 128 KB L2 cache, and 180 nm process technology, but keeps the 8-way cache associativity from the Pentium III.


title: Pentium III

text: Although its codename could give the impression that it used copper interconnects, in reality, its interconnects were aluminium.


title: Pentium III

text: This revision is an intermediate step between Coppermine and Tualatin, with support for lower-voltage system logic present on the latter but core power within previously defined voltage specs of the former so it could work in older system boards.


title: Pentium III

text: Intel used the latest FC-PGA2 Coppermines with the cD0 stepping and modified them so that they worked with low voltage system bus operation at 1.25 V AGTL as well as normal 1.5 V AGTL+ signal levels, and would auto detect differential or single-ended clocking. This modification made them compatible to the latest generation Socket 370 boards supporting Tualatin CPUs while maintaining compatibility with older Socket 370 boards. The Coppermine T also had two way symmetrical multiprocessing capabilities, but only in Tualatin boards.


title: Pentium III

text: They can be distinguished from Tualatin processors by their part numbers, which include the digits "80533", e.g. the 1133 MHz SL5QK P/N is RK80533PZ006256, while the 1000 MHz SL5QJ P/N is RK80533PZ001256.


title: Pentium III

text: The third revision, Tualatin (80530), was a trial for Intel's new 0.13 μm process. Tualatin-based Pentium IIIs were released during 2001 until early 2002 at speeds of 1.0, 1.13, 1.2, 1.26, 1.33 and 1.4 GHz. A basic shrink of Coppermine, no new features were added, except for added data prefetch logic similar to Pentium 4 and Athlon XP for potentially better use of the L2 cache, although its use compared to these newer CPUs is limited due to the relatively smaller FSB bandwidth (FSB was still kept at 133 MHz). Variants with 256 and 512 KB L2 cache were produced, the latter being dubbed Pentium III-S; this variant was mainly intended for low-power consumption servers and also exclusively featured SMP support within the Tualatin line.


title: Pentium III

text: Although the Socket 370 designation was kept, the use of 1.25 AGTL signaling in place of 1.5V AGTL+ rendered prior motherboards incompatible. This confusion carried over to the chipset naming, where only the B-stepping of the i815 chipset was compatible with Tualatin processors. A new VRM guideline was also designed by Intel, version 8.5, which required finer voltage steps and debuted load line Vcore (in place of fixed voltage regardless of current on 8.4). Some motherboard manufacturers would mark the change with blue sockets (instead of white), and were often also backwards compatible with Coppermine CPUs.


title: Pentium III

text: The Tualatin also formed the basis for the highly popular Pentium III-M mobile processor, which became Intel's front-line mobile chip (the Pentium 4 drew significantly more power, and so was not well-suited for this role) for the next two years. The chip offered a good balance between power consumption and performance, thus finding a place in both performance notebooks and the "thin and light" category.


title: Pentium III

text: The Tualatin-based Pentium III performed well in some applications compared to the fastest Willamette-based Pentium 4, and even the Thunderbird-based Athlons. Despite this, its appeal was limited due to the aforementioned incompatibility with existing systems, and Intel's only officially supported chipset for Tualatins, the i815, could only handle 512 MB RAM as opposed to 1 GB of registered RAM with the older, incompatible 440BX chipset. However, the enthusiast community found a way to run Tualatins on then-ubiquitous BX chipset based boards, although it was often a non-trivial task and required some degree of technical skills.


title: Pentium III

text: Tualatin-based Pentium III CPUs can usually be visually distinguished from Coppermine-based processors by the metal integrated heat-spreader (IHS) fixed on top of the package. However, the last models of Coppermine Pentium IIIs also featured the IHS — the integrated heat spreader is actually what distinguishes the FC-PGA2 package from the FC-PGA — both are for Socket 370 motherboards.


title: Pentium III

text: Before the addition of the heat spreader, it was sometimes difficult to install a heatsink on a Pentium III. One had to be careful not to put force on the core at an angle because doing so would cause the edges and corners of the core to crack and could destroy the CPU. It was also sometimes difficult to achieve a flat mating of the CPU and heatsink surfaces, a factor of critical importance to good heat transfer. This became increasingly challenging with the Socket 370 CPUs, compared with their Slot 1 predecessors, because of the force required to mount a socket-based cooler and the narrower, 2-sided mounting mechanism (Slot 1 featured 4-point mounting). As such, and because the 0.13 μm Tualatin had an even smaller core surface area than the 0.18 μm Coppermine, Intel installed the metal heatspreader on Tualatin and all future desktop processors.


title: Pentium III

text: The Tualatin core was named after the Tualatin Valley and Tualatin River in Oregon, where Intel has large manufacturing and design facilities.


title: Pentium III

text: Since Katmai was built in the same 0.25 µm process as Pentium II "Deschutes", it had to implement Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) using minimal silicon. To achieve this goal, Intel implemented the 128-bit architecture by double-cycling the existing 64-bit data paths and by merging the SIMD-FP multiplier unit with the x87 scalar FPU multiplier into a single unit. To utilize the existing 64-bit data paths, Katmai issues each SIMD-FP instruction as two μops. To compensate partially for implementing only half of SSE's architectural width, Katmai implements the SIMD-FP adder as a separate unit on the second dispatch port. This organization allows one half of a SIMD multiply and one half of an independent SIMD add to be issued together bringing the peak throughput back to four floating point operations per cycle — at least for code with an even distribution of multiplies and adds.


title: Pentium III

text: The issue was that Katmai's hardware-implementation contradicted the parallelism model implied by the SSE instruction-set. Programmers faced a code-scheduling dilemma: "Should the SSE-code be tuned for Katmai's limited execution resources, or should it be tuned for a future processor with more resources?" Katmai-specific SSE optimizations yielded the best possible performance from the Pentium III family but was suboptimal for Coppermine onwards as well as future Intel processors, such as the Pentium 4 and Core series.


title: Pentium III

text: The Pentium III was the first x86 CPU to include a unique, retrievable, identification number, called Processor Serial Number (PSN). A Pentium III's PSN can be read by software through the CPUID instruction if this feature has not been disabled through the BIOS.


title: Pentium III

text: On November 29, 1999, the Science and Technology Options Assessment (STOA) Panel of the European Parliament, following their report on electronic surveillance techniques asked parliamentary committee members to consider legal measures that would "prevent these chips from being installed in the computers of European citizens."


title: Pentium III

text: Intel eventually removed the PSN feature from Tualatin-based Pentium IIIs, and the feature was absent in Pentium 4 and Pentium M.


title: Pentium III

text: A largely equivalent feature, the Protected Processor Identification Number (PPIN) was later added to x86 CPUs with little public notice, starting with Intel's Ivy Bridge architecture and compatible Zen 2 AMD CPUs. It is implemented as a set of model-specific registers and is useful for machine check exception handling.


title: Pentium III

text: A new feature was added to the Pentium III: a hardware-based random number generator. It has been described as "several oscillators combine their outputs and that odd waveform is sampled asynchronously."


title: Aspen Institute

text: The Aspen Institute is an international nonprofit organization founded in 1949 as the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies. The institute's stated aim is the realization of "a free, just, and equitable society" through seminars, policy programs, conferences, and leadership development initiatives. The institute is headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, and has campuses in Aspen, Colorado (its original home), and near the shores of the Chesapeake Bay at the Wye River in Maryland. It has partner Aspen Institutes in Berlin, Rome, Madrid, Paris, Lyon, Tokyo, New Delhi, Prague, Bucharest, Mexico City, and Kyiv, as well as leadership initiatives in the United States and on the African continent, India, and Central America.


title: Aspen Institute

text: The Aspen Institute is largely funded by foundations such as the Carnegie Corporation, the Rockefeller Brothers Fund, the Gates Foundation, the Lumina Foundation, and the Ford Foundation, by seminar fees, and by individual donations. Its board of trustees includes leaders from politics, government, business and academia who also contribute to its support. A report by the Center for International Policy's Foreign Influence Transparency Initiative of the top 50 think tanks on the University of Pennsylvania's Global Go-To Think Tanks rating index found that during the period 2014-2018 the Aspen Institute received the fifth-highest amount of funding from outside the United States compared to other think tanks, with a total of more than US$8 million from donors that originated primarily in Western democracies but also "sizeable donations from undemocratic regimes in Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates."


title: Aspen Institute

text: The institute was largely the creation of Walter Paepcke, a Chicago businessman who had become inspired by the Great Books program of Mortimer Adler at the University of Chicago. In 1945, Paepcke visited Bauhaus artist and architect Herbert Bayer, AIA, who had designed and built a Bauhaus-inspired minimalist home outside the decaying former mining town of Aspen, in the Roaring Fork Valley. Paepcke and Bayer envisioned a place where artists, leaders, thinkers, and musicians could gather. Shortly thereafter, while passing through Aspen on a hunting expedition, oil industry maverick Robert O. Anderson (soon to be founder and CEO of Atlantic Richfield) met with Bayer and shared in Paepcke's and Bayer's vision. In 1949, Paepcke organized a 20-day international celebration for the 200th birthday of German poet and philosopher Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The celebration attracted over 2,000 attendees, including Albert Schweitzer, José Ortega y Gasset, Thornton Wilder, and Arthur Rubinstein.


title: Aspen Institute

text: In 1949, Paepcke founded the Aspen Institute; and later the Aspen Music Festival and eventually (with Bayer and Anderson) the International Design Conference at Aspen (IDCA). Paepcke sought a forum "where the human spirit can flourish", especially amid the whirlwind and chaos of modernization. He hoped that the institute could help business leaders recapture what he called "eternal verities": the values that guided them intellectually, ethically, and spiritually as they led their companies. Inspired by philosopher Mortimer Adler's Great Books seminar at the University of Chicago, which was later adopted by Encyclopædia Britannica's Great Books of the Western World, Paepcke worked with Anderson to create the Aspen Institute Executive Seminar. In 1951, the institute sponsored a national photography conference attended by Ansel Adams, Dorothea Lange, Ben Shahn, Berenice Abbott, and other notables. During the 1960s and 1970s, the institute added organizations, programs, and conferences, including the Aspen Center for Physics, the Aspen Strategy Group, Communications and Society Program and other programs that concentrated on education, communications, justice, Asian thought, science, technology, the environment, and international affairs.


title: Aspen Institute

text: In 1979, through a donation by Corning Glass industrialist and philanthropist Arthur A. Houghton Jr., the institute acquired a 1,000-acre (4 km) campus on the eastern shore of the Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, known today as the Wye River Conference Centers.


title: Aspen Institute

text: In 2005, it held the first Aspen Ideas Festival, featuring leading minds from around the world sharing and speaking on global issues. The institute, along with "The Atlantic", hosts the festival annually. It has trained philanthropists such as Carrie Morgridge.


title: Aspen Institute

text: Since 2013, the Aspen Institute together with U.S. magazine "The Atlantic" and Bloomberg Philanthropies has participated in organizing the annual CityLab event, a summit dedicated to develop strategies for the challenges of urbanization in today's cities.


title: Aspen Institute

text: Walter Isaacson was the president and CEO of Aspen Institute from 2003 to June 2018. Isaacson announced in March 2017 that he would step down as president and CEO at the end of the year. On November 30, 2017, Daniel Porterfield was announced as his successor. Porterfield succeeded Isaacson on June 1, 2018.


title: Aspen Institute

text: In April 2020, the company received approximately $8 million in federally backed small business loans as part of the Paycheck Protection Program. The company received scrutiny over this loan, which meant to protect small and private businesses. "The Washington Post" noted their large endowment and membership of billionaires made this problematic. Dele Olojede, a fellow at the institute, called it "contrary to the stated purpose of this institute", that "one of America’s most elite institutions thinks it is okay to take the money", going on to say "Those who purport to be values-based and public-spirited leaders cannot at the same time put self interest first, when there is so much human suffering and death". The day after Olojede and the "Washington Post" highlighted the funding, Aspen Institute announced they would return it, stating "Upon listening to our communities and further reflection, we have made the decision to return the loan".


title: Aspen Institute

text: The New Voices Fellowship is a year long program for applicants from Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Every year, nominations are accepted from August through October. Fellows are selected in December and announced publicly in early January.


title: Aspen Institute

text: The New Voices Fellowship is a non-residential program. During the fellowship year, fellows meet three times for one week sessions. There are no age limitations for fellows. All expenses for participation in the fellowship are covered by the program. At times the program will also cover the cost of "media-related activities and conferences."


title: Aspen Institute

text: Community Colleges which succeed in attaining exceptional results for all students during their time in college and as post-graduates are awarded the Aspen Prize for Community College Excellence.


title: Aspen Institute

text: The Financial Times called the Faculty Pioneers and Dissertation Proposal Awards the "Oscars of the business school world". These honor business school instructors with an outstanding track record of leadership and risk-taking in ensuring that the MBA curriculum incorporates social, environmental and ethical issues.


title: Aspen Institute

text: Community Colleges which demonstrate the provision of outstanding technical education and successfully link students, regardless of their race, ethnicity, family income or gender, with STEM careers as a gateway to economic mobility, are eligible to receive the Excellence and Equity in Community College STEM Award. The prize, awarded in co-operation of the Aspen Institute and Siemens Foundation, provides leading college staff with a benchmark standard of development and technical programs which foster equitable student success by highlighting exemplary practices of the winning programs.


title: Consideration

text: Consideration is a concept of English common law and is a necessity for simple contracts but not for special contracts (contracts by deed). The concept has been adopted by other common law jurisdictions.


title: Consideration

text: The court in "Currie v Misa" declared consideration to be a “Right, Interest, Profit, Benefit, or Forbearance, Detriment, Loss, Responsibility”. Thus, consideration is a promise of something of value given by a promissor in exchange for something of value given by a promisee; and typically the thing of value is goods, money, or an act. Forbearance to act, such as an adult promising to refrain from smoking, is enforceable if one is thereby surrendering a legal right.


title: Consideration

text: Consideration may be thought of as the concept of value offered and accepted by people or organisations entering into contracts. Anything of value promised by one party to the other when making a contract can be treated as "consideration": for example, if A contracts to buy a car from B for $5,000, A's consideration is the promise of $5,000, and B's consideration is the promise of the car.


title: Consideration

text: Additionally, if A signs a contract with B such that A will paint B's house for $500, A's consideration is the service of painting B's house, and B's consideration is $500 paid to A. Further if A signs a contract with B such that A will "not" repaint his own house in any other colour than white, and B will pay A $500 per year to keep this deal up, there is also a consideration. Although A did not promise to affirmatively do anything, A did promise "not" to do something that he was allowed to do, and so A did pass consideration. A's consideration to B is the "forbearance" in painting his own house in a colour other than white, and B's consideration to A is $500 per year. Conversely, if A signs a contract to buy a car from B for $0, B's consideration is still the car, but A is giving no consideration, and so there is no valid contract. However, if B still gives the title to the car to A, then B cannot take the car back, since, while it may not be a valid contract, it "is" a valid gift.


title: Consideration

text: In common law it is a prerequisite that both parties offer consideration before a contract can be thought of as binding. The doctrine of consideration is irrelevant in many jurisdictions, although contemporary commercial litigant relations have held the relationship between a promise and a deed is a reflection of the nature of contractual considerations. If there is no element of consideration found, there is thus no contract formed.


title: Consideration

text: However, even if a court decides there is no contract, there might be a possible recovery under the doctrines of "quantum meruit" (sometimes referred to as a quasi-contract) or promissory estoppel.


title: Consideration

text: There are a number of common issues as to whether consideration exists in a contract. Under English law:


title: Consideration

text: Meanwhile, the Indian Contract Act, 1872 which continues in force in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India (the most populous common law jurisdiction) provides that valid consideration exists “when at the desire of the promisor, the promisee or any other person has done or abstained from doing, or does or abstains from doing, or promises to do or abstain from doing something" or, in other words, when each party receives something in return for entering into a contractual obligation. An agreement must be supported by a lawful consideration on both sides. Under the act, valid consideration must satisfy the following criteria:


title: Consideration

text: The most noticeable distinction between the English and Indian criteria for consideration is that English law prohibits past consideration while Indian law does not.


title: Consideration

text: Systems based on Roman law (including Germany and Scotland) do not require consideration, and some commentators consider it unnecessary and have suggested that the doctrine of consideration should be abandoned, and estoppel used to replace it as a basis for contracts. However, legislation, rather than judicial development, has been touted as the only way to remove this entrenched common law doctrine. Lord Justice Denning famously stated that "The doctrine of consideration is too firmly fixed to be overthrown by a side-wind".


title: Consideration

text: The reason that both exist in common law jurisdictions is thought by leading scholars to be the result of the combining by 19th-century judges of two distinct threads: first the consideration requirement was at the heart of the action of assumpsit, which had grown up in medieval times and remained the normal action for breach of a simple contract in England and Wales until 1884 when the old forms of action were abolished; secondly, the notion of agreement between two or more parties as being the essential legal and moral foundation of contract in all legal systems, was promoted by the 18th-century French writer Pothier in his "Traite des Obligations", much read (especially after translation into English in 1805) by English judges and jurists. The latter chimed well with the fashionable will theories of the time, especially John Stuart Mill's influential ideas on free will, and got grafted on to the traditional common law requirement for consideration to ground an action in assumpsit.


title: Consideration

text: Civil law systems take the approach that an exchange of promises, or a concurrence of wills alone, rather than an exchange in valuable rights is the correct basis. So if A promises to give B a book and B accepts the offer without giving anything in return, B would have a legal right to the book and A could not change her mind about giving it to B as a gift. However, in common law systems the concept of "culpa in contrahendo", a form of estoppel, is increasingly used to create obligations during pre-contractual negotiations. Estoppel is an equitable doctrine that provides for the creation of legal obligations if a party has given another an assurance and the other has relied on the assurance to his detriment.


title: Consideration

text: Generally, courts do not inquire whether the deal between two parties was monetarily fair—merely that each party passed some legal obligation or duty to the other party. The dispositive issue is the presence of consideration, not the adequacy of the consideration. The values between consideration passed by each party to a contract need not be comparable.


title: Consideration

text: For instance, if A offers B $200 to buy B's mansion, luxury sports car, and private jet, there is still consideration on both sides. A's consideration is $200, and B's consideration is the mansion, car, and jet. Courts in the United States generally leave parties to their own contracts and do not intervene. The old English rule of consideration questioned whether a party gave the "value of a peppercorn" to the other party. As a result, contracts in the United States have sometimes have had one party pass nominal amounts of consideration, typically citing $1. Thus, licensing contracts that do not involve any money at all often cite as consideration, "for the sum of $1 and other good and valuable consideration."


title: Consideration

text: However, some courts in the United States may take issue with nominal consideration, or consideration with virtually no value. Some courts have since thought this was a sham. Since contract disputes are typically resolved in state court, some state courts have found that merely providing $1 to another is not a sufficiently legal duty, and therefore no legal consideration passes in these kinds of deals, and consequently, no contract is formed. However, this is a minority position.


title: Consideration

text: A party that "already" has a legal duty to provide money, an object, a service, or a forbearance, does not provide consideration when promising merely to uphold that duty. That legal duty can arise from law, or obligation under a previous contract.


title: Consideration

text: The prime example of this sub-issue is where an uncle gives his thirteen-year-old nephew (a resident of the state of New York) the following offer: "if you do not smoke cigarettes or drink alcohol until your 18th birthday, then I will pay you $5,000". On the nephew's 18th birthday, he tells the uncle to pay up, and the uncle does not pay. In the subsequent lawsuit, the uncle wins, because the nephew, by U.S. criminal law, already had a duty to refrain from smoking cigarettes while under 18 and from drinking alcohol while under age 21.


title: Consideration

text: The same applies if the consideration is a performance for which the parties had previously contracted. For example, A agrees to paint B's house for $500, but halfway through the job A tells B that he will not finish unless B increases the payment to $750. If B agrees, and A then finishes the job, B still only needs to pay A the $500 originally agreed to, because A was already contractually obligated to paint the house for that amount.


title: Consideration

text: An exception to this rule holds for settlements, such as an accord and satisfaction. If a creditor has a credit against a debtor for $10,000, and offers to settle it for $5,000, it is still binding, if accepted, even though the debtor had a legal duty to repay the entire $10,000.


title: Consideration

text: Pre-existing duties relating to at-will employment depend largely on state law. Generally, at-will employment allows the employer to terminate the employee for good or even no reason (as long as the reason, if any, is not explicitly "illegal"), and allows the employee to resign for any reason. There are no duties of continued employment in the future. Therefore, when an employee demands a raise, there is no issue with consideration because the employee has no legal duty to continue working. Similarly, when an employer demands a pay-cut, there is also no contractual issue with consideration, because the employer has no legal duty to continue employing the worker. However, certain states require additional consideration other than the prospect of continued employment, to enforce terms demanded later by the employer, in particular, non-competition clauses.


title: Consideration

text: Contracts where a legally valueless term is bundled with a term that does have legal value are still generally enforceable.


title: Consideration

text: Consider the uncle's situation above. If the same uncle had instead told his 13-year-old nephew the following offer: "if you do not smoke cigarettes, do not drink alcohol, swear or play cards for money (gamble) before your 21st birthday, then I will pay you $5,000". On the nephew's 21st birthday, he asks the uncle to pay up, and this time, in the subsequent lawsuit, the nephew may win. Although the promise of not drinking alcohol and gambling while under the age of 21 was not valuable consideration (it was already legally prohibited), most states allow smoking by age 18 and swearing is not illegal at any age. Even though smoking is legally restricted until age 18, it is legal for those above 18, and thus the promise to forbear from it entirely has legal value. However, the uncle would still be relieved from the liability if his nephew drank alcohol, even though "that" consideration is valueless, because it was paired with something of legal value; therefore, adherence to the entire, collective agreement is necessary.


title: Consideration

text: Generally, past consideration is not a valid consideration and has no legal value. Past consideration is consideration that has already flowed from the promisee to the promisor. That is, the promisee's act or forbearance predates the promisor's promise. Past consideration therefore cannot be used as a basis when claiming damages.


title: Consideration

text: An exception to this rule is where there is a duty owed to a third party. An act done before the giving of a promise to make a payment or to confer some other benefit can sometimes be consideration for the promise. For this to hold, three conditions must be satisfied (Pao On v Lau Yiu Long [1980]):


title: Consideration

text: Suppose A is a movie script writer and B runs a movie production company. A says to B, "buy my script." B says "How about this – I will pay you $5,000 so that you do not let anyone else produce your movie until one year from now. If I do produce your movie in that year, then I will give you another $50,000, and no one else can produce it. If I do not produce your movie in that year, then you're free to go." If the two subsequently get into a dispute, the issue of whether a contract exists is answered. B had an option contract—he could decide to produce the script, or not. B's consideration passed was the $5,000 down, and the possibility of $50,000. A's consideration passed was the exclusive rights to the movie script for at least one year.


title: Consideration

text: Suppose B commits a tort against A, causing $5,000 in compensatory damages and $3,000 in punitive damages. Since there is no guarantee that A would win against B if it went to court, A may agree to drop the case if B pays the $5,000 compensatory damages. This is sufficient consideration, since B's consideration is a guaranteed recovery, and A's consideration is that B only has to pay $5,000, instead of $8,000.


title: Consideration

text: The primary criticism of the doctrine of consideration is that, in its present form, it is purely a formality that merely serves to complicate commerce and create legal uncertainty by opening up otherwise simple contracts to scrutiny as to whether the consideration purportedly tendered satisfies the requirements of the law. While the purpose of the doctrine was ostensibly to protect parties seeking to void oppressive contracts, this is currently accomplished through the use of a sophisticated variety of defences available to the party seeking to void a contract. In practice, the doctrine of consideration has resulted in a phenomenon similar to that of Ḥiyal in Islamic contracts, whereby parties to a contract use technicalities to satisfy requirements while in actual fact circumventing them in practice. Typically, this is in the form of "peppercorn" consideration, i.e. consideration that is negligible but still satisfies the requirements of law.


title: Consideration

text: The doctrine of consideration is expressly rejected by the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts on the grounds that it yields uncertainty and unnecessary litigation, thereby hindering international trade. Similarly, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods similarly does not require consideration for a contract to be valid, thereby excluding the doctrine with regard to contracts covered by the convention even in common law jurisdictions where it would otherwise apply. Consequently, the continued existence of the doctrine in common law jurisdictions is controversial. Scots lawyer Harvey McGregor's "Contract Code", a Law Commission-sponsored proposal to both unite and codify English and Scots Law, proposed the abolition of consideration. Some commentators have suggested that consideration be replaced by estoppel as a basis for contracts. However, any change to the doctrine of consideration in the jurisdictions in which it exists would need to implemented by legislation


title: Preity Zinta filmography

text: Preity Zinta is an Indian actress known for her work in Hindi films. She made her debut in 1998 with a supporting role in the drama "Dil Se..". Later that year, she starred in the commercially successful thriller "Soldier". For the films, she won a Filmfare Award in the Best Female Debut category. In 1999, Zinta played the role of a CBI officer in the psychological thriller "Sangharsh". She followed this with the role of a teenage single mother in the Kundan Shah-directed drama "Kya Kehna" (2000), a sleeper hit. That same year, she starred in the romance "Har Dil Jo Pyar Karega", and the crime drama "Mission Kashmir", the third highest grossing Bollywood film of the year.


title: Preity Zinta filmography

text: In 2001, Zinta featured in the dramedy "Dil Chahta Hai", which is cited in the media as a defining film of Hindi cinema. Later that year, she portrayed a prostitute-turned-surrogate in the romantic drama "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke". Her only screen appearance of 2002 was in the box-office flop "Dil Hai Tumhaara". Zinta featured in four films in 2003. Her first role of the year was opposite Sunny Deol in Anil Sharma's drama ""the most expensive Bollywood film to that point. She played a negative role in the romantic drama "Armaan", which saw her portray a rich, schizophrenic woman. Following this, she starred in two blockbusters—the science fiction film "Koi... Mil Gaya" and the drama "Kal Ho Naa Ho". For the latter, she won the Filmfare Award for Best Actress.


title: Preity Zinta filmography

text: Zinta played a journalist in the 2004 war drama "Lakshya", which performed poorly at the box-office. Also in 2004, she played the titular female role in Yash Chopra's star-crossed romance "Veer-Zaara" opposite Shah Rukh Khan. The film emerged as the year's highest grossing Bollywood film. She then appeared in the 2005 romantic comedy "Salaam Namaste" and the 2006 romantic drama "Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna", both of which performed well outside India. While she played a radio jockey in "Salaam Namaste", Zinta was seen as an unhappily married woman in the latter. She followed it with roles in the commercial failures "Jaan-E-Mann" (2006) and "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom" (2007). Zinta appeared in the Canadian film "Heaven on Earth" (2008), her first international production.


title: Preity Zinta filmography

text: In 2011, Zinta hosted the reality show "Guinness World Records – Ab India Todega" and the chat show "Up Close & Personal with PZ". That same year, she also launched her production company, PZNZ Media, under which she produced and starred in the 2013 romantic comedy "Ishkq in Paris", which performed poorly at the box-office.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Field Marshal Kodandera Madappa Cariappa (28 January 1899 – 15 May 1993) was the first Indian Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) of the Indian Army. He led Indian forces on the Western Front during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. He was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army in 1949. He is one of only two Indian Army officers to hold the Five-star rank of Field Marshal; the other being Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: His distinguished military career spanned almost three decades. Born on 28 January 1899, in Madikeri, Kodagu, Cariappa joined the British Indian Army shortly after the end of World War I, and was commissioned as a temporary first lieutenant into the 2/88 Carnatic Infantry. He was transferred between multiple regiments early in his career before settling on 1/7 Rajputs, which became his permanent regiment.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: He was the first Indian military officer to attend the Staff College, Quetta, the first Indian to command a battalion, and was also one of the first two Indians selected to undergo training at the Imperial Defence College in Camberley. He served in various staff capacities at various unit and command headquarters (HQ) and also at the General HQ, New Delhi. Before taking over as the C-in-C of the Indian Army, Cariappa served as the commander of the Indian Army's Eastern and Western Commands.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa was born on 28 January 1899, in Shanivarsanthe, Coorg Province (present day Kodagu district), to a family of farmers belonging to the Kodava clan. His father, Madappa, worked with the revenue department. Cariappa was the second child in a family of four sons and two daughters.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: He was known as "Chimma" to his relatives. After completing his education in the Central High School at Madikeri in 1917, he attended Presidency College, Chennai, to pursue his education further. During college, he learned that Indians were being recruited into the Army, and that they were to be trained in India. As he wished to serve as a soldier he applied for the training. Of the 70 applicants, Cariappa was one of 42 who were finally granted admission into the Daly Cadet College, Indore. He scored well in all the aspects of his training and graduated seventh in his class.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa graduated on 1 December 1919, and was granted a temporary commission. Subsequently, a permanent commission was granted on 9 September 1922, with effect from 17 July 1920. This was done to make Cariappa's rank junior to the officers who passed out (graduated) from Royal Military College, Sandhurst, on 16 July 1920. He was commissioned into the 2nd Battalion of the 88th Carnatic Infantry at Bombay (Mumbai) as a temporary first lieutenant. He was promoted to temporary lieutenant on 1 December 1920. Later he was transferred to the 2/125 Napier Rifles which moved to Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) in May 1920. He was promoted to lieutenant on 17 July 1921. On his return to India, Cariappa was posted to the 37th (Prince of Wales's Own) Dogras in June 1922. In June 1923, Cariappa was transferred to the 1/7 Rajputs, which became his permanent regimental home.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: In 1925, Cariappa went on a world tour to Europe as well as the United States, Japan, and China. He met a large number of soldiers and civilians in various nations. The tour proved to be educational for him. After this he was able to settle down. He was given the nickname "Kipper" by a British officer's wife, who found his name difficult to pronounce, while he was serving in Fatehgarh. In 1927, Cariappa was promoted to Captain, but the appointment was not officially gazetted until 1931.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa was appointed as the deputy assistant quarter master general (DAQMG) at HQ Peshawar District in 1931. The experience he had gained at headquarters, his coaching at Royal United Services Institute in 1932, and the courses he attended at Small Arms School (SAS) and the Royal School of Artillery (RSA) helped him to get through the Quetta Staff College's entrance examination. He was the first Indian military officer to attend the course. Though officers were generally given staff appointments after completion of the course, Cariappa was not given his staff appointment until two years later. Until then, he rendered regimental service with his parent unit on the North-West Frontier. In March 1936, he was appointed as staff captain of the Deccan Area. In 1938, Cariappa was promoted to major and was appointed the deputy assistant adjutant and quarter master general (DAA & QMG).


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: In 1939, the Skeen Committee was set up to examine the options for the Indianisation of the Indian Army's officer ranks. As Cariappa was one of the most senior Indian officers with about 19 years of service, the committee held several discussions with him. He expressed his displeasure at the treatment of Indian officers in the Army. He stressed the discrimination shown toward Indian officers in terms of appointments, promotions, benefits and allowances to which European officers were entitled but Indian officers were not.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: After World War II began, Cariappa was posted as Brigade Major to the 20th Indian Brigade stationed in Derajat. Later he was appointed as the DAQMG of 10th Indian Division which was stationed in Iraq. He earned a Mention in Despatches as DAA and quartermaster general of General (later Field Marshal) William Slim's 10th Division. He served in Iraq, Iran and Syria in 1941–1942 and then in Burma in 1943–1944. Back in India in March 1942, he was posted as second-in-command of the newly raised 7th Rajput Machine Gun Battalion at Fatehgarh. On 15 April 1942, he was promoted to acting lieutenant colonel and was appointed commanding officer of the same battalion, receiving an advancement to temporary lieutenant-colonel on 15 July. With this appointment he became the first Indian to command a battalion in the Indian Army. Cariappa was successful in stabilising the newly raised battalion in terms of administration, training, and the handling of arms. Later the unit was rechristened as the 52nd Rajput and put under 43rd Indian Armoured Division. Within a span of a few months, the unit observed two transformations and two moves. First, the battalion's machine guns were replaced with tanks in order to convert it into an armoured regiment. But soon the battalion was reverted to infantry and re-designated as 17/7 Rajputs. Subsequently, it was moved to Secunderabad. This move led to unrest among the unit's troops which was successfully handled by Cariappa.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: On 1 April 1943, he was appointed as the assistant quarter master general (AQMG) in the headquarters of Eastern Command. Though Cariappa wished to serve in combat, chance did not favour him. In August 1943, when the South East Asia Command was formed, and the Fourteenth Army was placed under it, Cariappa volunteered for active service in the war. But he was again posted as AQMG of the 26th Indian Division stationed at Buthidaung in Burma. The division played an important role in pushing the Japanese back from Arakan. For his services in the operation, Cariappa was awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in June 1945.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: On 1 November 1944, Cariappa was promoted to the acting rank of Brigadier, but was not given the command of a brigade as expected. Instead, he became a member of the Reorganisation Committee chaired by Lieutenant General Sir Henry Willcox. Though Cariappa was not happy with the appointment initially, and protested to the Military Secretary, the experience proved to helpful when he took over as the C-in-C four years later. The committee closely worked with the General HQ and Viceroy's Secretariat. This gave the British hierarchy a chance to assess Cariappa.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: On 1 May 1945, Cariappa was promoted to brigadier, becoming the first Indian officer to fully attain the rank. Finally, in November, Cariappa was made the commander of the Bannu Frontier Brigade in Waziristan. It was during this time that Colonel Ayub Khan – later Field Marshal and President of Pakistan (1962–1969) – served under him. Unlike previous commanders who tried to keep the local tribes under control by force, Cariappa adopted an alternate approach by extending friendly relations to them- which proved a far more effective tactic. When Head of the Interim Government, Jawaharlal Nehru, visited Bannu he found it extremely peaceful and settled, compared to Razmak where another brigade was stationed. Nehru was impressed by Cariappa's way of dealing with the tribes. He was also widely acclaimed for his treatment of the Indian National Army's (INA) prisoners. When Cariappa visited one of the camps that held INA prisoners, he was moved by the conditions in which they lived. He immediately wrote to the Adjutant General recommending that their living conditions be improved and to pardon some of those who were not guilty. These included Colonel Prem Kumar Sahgal, Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan. Cariappa pointed out that these prisoners had considerable support from the Indian leaders, who would later rule the country. This led the British authorities to release most of the prisoners who were detained.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: In 1947, Cariappa was the first of two Indians selected to undergo training at the Imperial Defence College at Camberly in the United Kingdom, in order to attend the higher command courses. With the experience he had gained at the Imperial Defence College, Cariappa felt that dividing the Indian Army during the partition would have a devastating effect on both the Indians and Pakistanis. He explained to the hierarchy that without the assistance of British officers, there was a risk of inexperienced Indian officers taking over higher commands. Despite this, his concerns went unaddressed by the hierarchy. During partition, Cariappa handled the division of the Army and sharing of its assets between the two new nations as the officer in charge. On 30 July 1947, Cariappa was promoted to the rank of major-general, becoming one of the first Indians to be promoted to this rank in a combat arm of the Indian Army, along with brigadiers Muhammad Akbar Khan and Maharaj Shri Rajendrasinhji Jadeja.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Post-Independence, Cariappa was appointed as deputy chief of the general staff. In November 1947, on being promoted to the rank of lieutenant general, he was appointed as the Eastern Army commander. In January 1948, owing to the worsening situation in Kashmir, Cariappa was called back to the capital and appointed as the GOC-in-C Delhi and East Punjab Command. After taking over the command, he immediately renamed it the Western Command and moved its headquarters (HQ) to Jammu; he subsequently raised a corps HQ under Lt Gen S.M. Shrinagesh at Udhampur. He appointed Lt Gen Kodandera Subayya Thimayya as the GOC Jammu and Kashmir Force (later 19th Division), and Atma Singh as the GOC Jammu Division (later 25th Division).


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: He launched three subsequent attacks—Operations , Easy and Bison—to capture the Naushera, Jhangar, Poonch, Zoji La, Dras, and Kargil areas. Plans were laid to drive out the Pakistani forces from Kashmir completely, but they were stopped by the intervention of the United States. On 6 July 1948, the Army HQ issued strict instructions against conducting any major operations without its permission. Cariappa protested against this, stating that this policy would threaten Leh, Kargil, and ultimately the Kashmir Valley, which would put the country's security at stake. Though Cariappa asked for two brigades to continue offensive strikes, he was provided only one and permitted to advance to Kargil. He disobeyed orders and launched strikes in the Ladakh area allowing India to assert control over the region. Cariappa continued several operations and offensive strikes against the Pakistanis, which involved high risk. Failure of any of them might have threatened the Indian forces. He was subsequently appointed to the supreme post of commander-in-chief.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: When Lieutenant General Sir Roy Bucher's appointment as the C-in-C of the Indian Army was about to expire in January 1949, it was decided to replace him with an Indian. Cariappa, Shrinagesh, and Nathu Singh were the contenders for the post. Though Shrinagesh was six months older than Cariappa, he had not served as long as Cariappa had; Nathu Singh had served two-and-a-half years less. But the Interim Government's Defence Minister Baldev Singh was not in favour of Cariappa. He contacted Shrinagesh and Nathu Singh asking for their opinion of being appointed as C-in-C. Since both declined the offer, Cariappa took over as the first native Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: The day Cariappa took over the reins of the Indian Army, 15 January 1949, was marked as official Army Day and celebrated annually. As the chief of the Army, Cariappa was instrumental in the formation of the Territorial Army in 1949. Though the National Cadet Corps had been already formed in 1948, it was Cariappa who extended support during its formative years. These two complementary branches of the Army later proved to be very helpful in the wars India fought in later years.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Several measures taken by Cariappa, such as his refusal to induct former Indian National Army personnel into the Army, kept the organisation out of political affairs and maintained its autonomy despite being put under a lot of pressure by Nehru. Nehru only relented when he threatened to resign. However INA's slogan "Jai Hind" which means "Victory to India", was adopted by Cariappa and later it became a formal phrase between personnel to greet each other. He also turned down the proposal to reserve vacancies in the Army for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes as had been done in other government services.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: After four years of service as the C-in-C, Cariappa retired on 14 January 1953. Before he retired, he made a farewell visit to his parent regiment, the Rajput Regiment, at the Rajput Regimental Centre accompanied by his son and daughter. Rajendrasinhji Jadeja succeeded him as the C-in-C.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa was married in March 1937, in Secunderabad, to Muthu Machia, a forest officer's daughter. Though their married life was happy initially, later, due to an age gap of almost 17 years, ideological differences, and Cariappa's professional commitments, their marriage broke down. In September 1945, the couple separated without any formal divorce. Three years later Muthu died in an accident.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa and Muthu had a son and a daughter. Their son, K.C. Cariappa, was born on 4 January 1938, and daughter Nalini on 23 February 1948. Their son, called "Nanda", joined the Indian Air Force and rose to the rank of Air Marshal.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: His sister Bollava's son Lieutenant general Biddanda Chengappa Nanda also had a distinguished career in the Indian Army and retired as GOC-in-C Northern Command


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa's alliance with the Indian Army was spread over a period of around three decades, during which he had broad experience of staff and command work. After his retirement in 1953, he served as the Indian high commissioner to Australia and New Zealand until 1956. With a view toward ex-servicemen's welfare, Cariappa founded the Indian Ex-Servicemen's League (IESL) in 1964. He was also instrumental in setting up the Directorate of Resettlement (later Directorate General Resettlement), an inter-service organisation under the Department of Ex-servicemen Welfare, Ministry of Defence, that looked after the various issues surrounding the resettlement of retired soldiers, especially those who retired young.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa took part in the re-organisation of the armed forces in many foreign countries. He was awarded the Legion of Merit in the degree of Chief Commander by the American President Harry S. Truman.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa also tried his luck in politics after a lot of persuasion from his friends and admirers. He contested 1971 Lok Sabha poll from Mumbai North East (Lok Sabha constituency) but came third. Erroneous claims about him contesting against Krishna Menon appear in some books but they are not supported by any evidence on any Indian govt site.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: As a mark of recognition for the commendable service rendered by him to the nation, the Government of India conferred the rank of field marshal on Cariappa on 28 April 1986, at a special investiture ceremony held at Rashtrapati Bhavan, the official home of the president of India.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: Cariappa's health began to deteriorate in 1991; he suffered from arthritis and heart problems. He died in his sleep on 15 May 1993, at the Bangalore Command Hospital where he had been receiving treatment for a few years. His mortal remains were cremated in Madikeri two days later. The cremation was attended by the three service chiefs along with Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw. Cariappa's son, Nanda, lit the pyre while the Honour Guard reversed arms.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: According to biographer Vijay Singh, it was unheard of for Cariappa to use his power and status for personal purposes. One example Singh cites occurred when Cariappa went to the Rajput Regimental Centre to pay farewell before he retired. He brought his son and daughter with him, and both of them stayed at the commandant's house till the next day. According to the rules, children were forbidden to attend the officers' mess. As chief, Cariappa could have taken them to the mess, but he did not.


title: K. M. Cariappa

text: After he was the C-in-C, he wanted Major (later Lieutenant General) Srinivas Kumar Sinha to be his military assistant (MA). The military secretary noted that a military assistant must hold the rank of lieutenant colonel which required a minimum of six-and-a-half years of service. Sinha was only a major with five years of service. On learning this, Cariappa backed off the idea not wanting to break the rules.