title: Shenmue III

text: Kirk McKeand of "VG247" wrote that he enjoyed "Shenmue III" despite its "decades-old sensibilities". In a positive review, Martin Robinson of "Eurogamer" described it as "archaic and arcane ... completely ignorant of modern trends in open world gaming, or indeed trends of the last 20 years ... It looks and plays like a Dreamcast game that's as off-kilter, maddening, magical and majestic as the original "Shenmue" games, both all-time classics. I think there's good reason to rejoice in that." "GamesRadar+" described it as "a magnificent, authentic, totally uncompromised sequel that crucially ignores virtually every gaming trend of the past 18 years". Kyle Hilliard of "IGN" criticized the plot, feeling it moved the series no closer to a conclusion. At the 2020 NAVGTR Awards, "Shenmue III" won for best franchise adventure game and was nominated for best franchise original light mix score.


title: Shenmue III

text: In Japan, the PlayStation 4 version of "Shenmue III" sold 17,857 retail copies in its first week, making it the week's fourth-bestselling game and the bestselling new release. In the UK, "Shenmue III" entered the charts at number 17, selling half as many copies as the 2018 "Shenmue" remaster. "GamesIndustry.biz" and "VG247" said the sales in both regions were likely lower than hoped, but noted that the chart excludes digital sales and copies given to Kickstarter backers. Lars Wingefors, the CEO of Deep Silver's parent company Embracer Group, said that "Shenmue III" had been "fine" financially and that it was a "core niche product".


title: Dark Crimes

text: Dark Crimes (originally released in film festivals before 2018 as True Crimes) is a 2016 crime drama film directed by Alexandros Avranas and written by Jeremy Brock. It is based on the true case of Krystian Bala who, in a book entitled "Amok", described the murder he had committed, which allowed the police to track him down. The story was later the subject of a 2008 David Grann article in "The New Yorker" titled "True Crime: A Postmodern Murder Mystery", which was an inspiration for the first movie title. The film stars Jim Carrey in the lead role, Agata Kulesza, Charlotte Gainsbourg, Kati Outinen, Zbigniew Zamachowski, and Marton Csokas, and follows a detective who notices similarities between a cold case murder and a best-selling novel.


title: Dark Crimes

text: Producer Brett Ratner had "True Crimes" in development since 2010. Principal photography began on 12 November 2015 in Kraków, Poland and ended on 13 December 2015. It held its premiere at the Warsaw Film Festival on 12 October 2016, and had a limited theatrical release in only a few countries, such as the United States, in 2018. The Lionsgate Films home entertainment division, Lionsgate Unlocked, released "Dark Crimes" on Blu-ray and DVD on 31 July 2018. On 21 May 2018, the company revealed a new trailer for the film to promote this home video release.


title: Dark Crimes

text: Despite some praise for the cast, critics panned "Dark Crimes" for its pacing, overly downcast tone, and objectionable presentation of abused women. It is one of the worst-reviewed films of 2018, holding a 0% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes.


title: Dark Crimes

text: Tadek is a detective who takes on a case involving the murder of a businessman. To his and everyone's surprise the case is identical to a character's murder in a recently published novel by a man named Kozlov. While the crime appears to be an open and shut case, Tadek discovers a darker secret.


title: Dark Crimes

text: An article from "The Hollywood Reporter" published on 29 September 2010 revealed Brett Ratner's company RatPac Entertainment was developing a film named "True Crimes" with Focus Features. On 7 April 2011, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that the script was written by Jeremy Brock, and Roman Polanski was "circling" the project. On 7 June 2013, "The Hollywood Reporter" revealed Focus Features dropped out in 2012, and Christoph Waltz would play Jacek Wroblewski. On 14 May 2015, "TheWrap" announced that Waltz was replaced with Jim Carrey for Wroblewski and that "Miss Violence" (2013) director Alexandros Avranas would direct "True Crimes"; David Gerson, Ewa Puszczynska, and Michael Aguilar were also revealed to be producers. "Page Six" announced on 21 October 2015 that Charlotte Gainsbourg was "in talks" to be in "True Crimes".


title: Dark Crimes

text: Principal photography on the film began on 12 November 2015 in Kraków, Poland, wrapping up on 13 December 2015. After filming completed, Carrey kept the beard he grew for his role while presenting the 73rd Golden Globe Awards, while garnered several Twitter reaction posts. Although the filming location and most of the crew of "True Crimes" was Polish, the film was an international production due to its actors coming from various countries, such as Canada (Carrey), Britain (Gainsbourg), Romania (Ivanov), and Finland (Outinen); and some of its producers being American and Canadian. Due to the Poland setting of the subject of the "New Yorker" story, producers David Gerson and Kasia Nabiałczyk contacted the biggest figure of the film industry in Poland, Opus Film, to help on "True Crimes"; the company was most known for "Ida" (2015), a film that, only months before "True Crimes" began principal photography, won an Academy Award.


title: Dark Crimes

text: According to "Culture.pl", this plus the cast and crew of the film coming from various countries indicated a re-interest in Polish cinema worldwide. Polish film journalist Darek Kuźma, writing a feature upon "True Crimes"<nowiki>'</nowiki> 2016 premiere at Warsaw, reported "opportunities in the rapidly developing Polish film industry, with its quality casts and crews, its variety of locations that can stand in for almost every part of the world, and its growing number of regional film commmissions." The Polish Film Institute contributed €446,000 to "True Crimes"<nowiki>'</nowiki> €4 million budget. Explained Ewa Puszczyńska, who attached the Polish Film Institute as well as the Kraków Film Commission for financing, "We’ve made a film with American producers, and international stars, for a fraction of what it would have cost in the US or Western Europe."


title: Dark Crimes

text: The first stills of "True Crimes" were released on 27 November 2015. The film had its world premiere at the Warsaw Film Festival on 12 October 2016, under the name "True Crimes". Saban Films picked up the distribution rights for North America on 4 April 2017. On 25 January 2018, Jim Carrey announced that the film's title had been changed to "Dark Crimes" and that the North American theatrical release would likely occur in April. Myrkur's song "Skøgen Skulle Dø" was used in the trailer. The U.S. theatrical release was later announced as 18 May 2018, with an earlier DirecTV exclusive release on 19 April. Internationally, "Dark Crimes" only ran for one week in Colombia, Italy, and Hungary; and only for a week longer in Portugal.


title: Dark Crimes

text: "Dark Crimes" was released to Blu-ray in Canada on 17 July 2018, the United States on 31 July 2018, Sweden on 30 January 2019, Italy on 7 February 2019, France on 2 May 2019, and Germany on 14 June 2019. "Dark Crimes" also garnered DVD releases in the United States, issued on 31 July 2018; and Taiwan, on 28 June 2019. Wal-mart exclusively sold versions of the Blu-ray that were also packed with a DVD.


title: Dark Crimes

text: Before the release of "True Crimes", sources such as "The Playlist" and "The Independent" were excited for the project due to the involvements of Avranas, Gainsbourg, and Kulesza; but were a bit skeptical due to Carrey's previous involvement in a dark thriller, "The Number 23" (2007), which had an underwhelming reception. Marshall Lemon, responding to the November 2015 still revelations, wrote Carrey "absolutely looks the part," and "the visual style is also reminiscent of shows like "True Detective" which transformed actors like Woody Harrelson and Matthew McConaughey into surprising dramatic presences. If "True Crimes" can do the same for Carrey, it might just be worth keeping an eye on."


title: Dark Crimes

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 0%, based on reviews from 37 critics, with an average rating of 2.8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Dark Crimes" is a rote, unpleasant thriller that fails to parlay its compelling true story and a committed Jim Carrey performance into even modest chills." Metacritic, which assigned a normalized rating average score of 24 out of 100 based on 14 critics, and their editorial stated "this Polish-set but English-language entry stars a bearded, accented, against-type (and, apparently, against-ability) Jim Carrey in a bleak, violent crime thriller described by critics as "misogynistic," "depressing," "ugly," and "abysmal."" It was the eighth lowest-ranking 2018 film on the site.


title: Dark Crimes

text: Reviews targeted the film's overly "gloomy and unexciting" tone, and noted that ruined the film's potential plot; and the pacing's slow and excessively-tense build, which Owen Gleiberman of "Variety" found especially a problem with details of the mystery being "all far too obvious." "The New York Times" called the last act its best part simply for having far more action than the previous sequences. "The A.V. Club" summarized that the film replaced the "source material’s appealing elements and characterizations with overcomplicated thriller clichés and humorless prurience," and "IGN" critic Witney Seibold criticized its predictable plot, as "it can be seen in just about every episode of ""." The film's exploitative scenes involving physical and sexual abuse towards women also turned several critics off, one critic from "Slant Magazine" describing them as "blatantly misogynistic."


title: Dark Crimes

text: The film's technical aspects were divisively received. "The A.V. Club" summarized the directing as "leaden and one-note in its attempt to imitate the bleakness of Swedish and Norwegian crime imports in an indifferent Eastern European setting; the sky is always overcast and the characters are all dressed like they’re on their way to a funeral." "The New York Observer" panned the "ugly, sterile sets" and poor photography; "SF Weekly" called the shot compositions gimmicky; while Oktay Kozak Ege opined the "aesthetically repetitive" visuals made tension sequences more unbearable to watch. However, "Consequence of Sound" writer Randall Colburn stated "Avranas' muted, sterile style pops with a few flourishes, mainly in his knack for cultivating a truly unsettling aura around the starkness of the film’s depravity." He also praised the use of POV shots for "creating a curious sense of alienation, as if one is both inside the film but outside of its truth, looking in at the larger reality." Luke W. Thompson of "Forbes" applauded the editing and directing for matching the mood of the story, and David Lewis of the "San Francisco Chronicle" honored its "impressive" production design.


title: Dark Crimes

text: Opinions towards Carrey's performance ranged from positive and the film's only redeeming factor to his worst-ever dramatic performance. In addition to several criticisms towards his fake Polish accent, Gleiberman wrote that "Carrey broods and stares like an actor who’s out to muffle any hint of his natural spirit by swathing it in poker-faced gloom," and the "New York Post" summarized Carrey as "so muted and sedate [...] he blends into the background. That’s not easy to do when most of his scenes involve no more than two people." The character of Tadek was also criticized as "underwritten" to the point of being "an ordinary person doing his ordinary job [...] even if the circumstances are extraordinary." Colburn explained, "Tadek is a character written to be devoid of charm or humor and, as such, Carrey has no opportunities to draw upon the anxious, springy energy of "Man on the Moon" or the desperate, aching despair of "Eternal Sunshine"." "IGN" wrote the character was too "empty" for someone supposedly obsessed with the case he was solving.


title: Dark Crimes

text: The supporting actors, such as Csokas, Outinen, Ivanov, and Gainsbourg were positively commented on; some critics found Csokas to be the film's best actor, Thompson explaining that he "strikes the right balance of legitimate rage and pretentious self-importance that you could imagine youngsters embracing." However, Colburn felt that Csokas' "icky vein of cruelty", Gainsbourg's "compelling bloodletting", and Wieckiewicz's "pulp paperback" style contradicted the tone of Carrey's performance, resulting in "imbalance that serves to sink the film."


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: The Republika Srpska (RS; ) was a self-proclaimed state in Southeastern Europe under the control of the Army of Republika Srpska during the Bosnian War. It claimed to be a sovereign state, though this claim was only partially recognized by the Bosnian government in Geneva agreement (whose territory the RS was recognized as nominally being a part of), the United Nations, and Yugoslavia. For the first few months of its existence, it was known as the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ().


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: After 1995, the Republika Srpska was recognized as one of the two political entities composing Bosnia and Herzegovina. The borders of the post-1995 RS are, with a few negotiated modifications, based on the front lines and situation on the ground at the time of the Dayton Agreement. As such, the entity is primarily a result of the Bosnian War without any direct historical precedent. Its territory encompasses a number of Bosnia and Herzegovina's numerous historical geographic regions, but (due to the above-mentioned nature of the inter-entity boundary line) it contains very few of them in entirety. Likewise, various political units existed within Republika Srpska's territory in the past but very few existed entirely within the region.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Representatives of main political and national organizations and institutions of Serb people in Bosnia and Herzegovina met on 13 October 1990 in Banja Luka and created "Serbian National Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina" as a coordinative and representative political body. During the political crisis that followed the secession of Slovenia and Croatia from the former Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991, a separate Bosnian Serb assembly was founded on 24 October 1991, as the representative body of Serbs of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bosnian Serbs claimed that this was a necessary step since the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina, at that time, defined that no major changes were to be granted short of a unanimous agreement on all three sides. Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats wanted independence for Bosnia against the Bosnian Serbs' wishes.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: A referendum that asked citizens whether they wanted to remain within Yugoslavia was held on 9 and 10 November 1991. The parliamentary government of Bosnia and Herzegovina (with a clear Bosniak and Croat majority) asserted that this plebiscite was illegal, but the Bosnian Serb assembly acknowledged its results. On 21 November 1991, the Assembly proclaimed that all those municipalities, local communities, and populated places in which over 50% of the people of Serbian nationality had voted, as well as those places where citizens of other nationalities had expressed themselves in favor of remaining in a joint Yugoslav state, would be territory of the federal Yugoslav state.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: On 9 January 1992, the Bosnian Serb assembly adopted a declaration on the Proclamation of the Republic of the Serb people of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( / ). On 28 February 1992, the constitution of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Serbian: "Srpska Republika Bosna i Hercegovina /" Српска Република Босна и Херцеговина) was adopted and declared that the state's territory included Serb autonomous regions, municipalities, and other Serbian ethnic entities in Bosnia and Herzegovina (including regions described as "places in which the Serbian people remained in the minority due to the genocide conducted against them during World War II"), and it was declared to be a part of the federal Yugoslav state.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: From 29 February to 2 March 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina held a referendum on independence. The majority of Bosnian Serbs boycotted the vote on the grounds that it was unconstitutional because the referendum bypassed the veto power of the representatives of the Serbian people in the Bosnian parliament. On 6 April 1992, the European Union formally recognized the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its independence on 7 April 1992. On 12 August 1992, the reference to Bosnia and Herzegovina was dropped from the name, and it became simply "Republika Srpska".


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: During the breakup of Yugoslavia, Srpska's President Radovan Karadžić declared that he did not want Srpska to be in a federation alongside Serbia in Yugoslavia, but that Srpska should be directly incorporated into Serbia.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: On 12 May 1992, at a session of the Bosnian Serb assembly, Radovan Karadžić announced the six "strategic objectives" of the Serb people in Bosnia and Herzegovina:


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: At the same session, the Bosnian Serb assembly voted to create the Army of the Republika Srpska ("VRS"; "Vojska Republike Srpske"), and appointed Ratko Mladić, the commander of the Second Military District of the Yugoslav federal army, as commander of the VRS Main Staff. At the end of May 1992, after the withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Second Military District was essentially transformed into the Main Staff of the VRS. The new army immediately set out to achieve by military means the six "strategic objectives" of the Serbian people in Bosnia and Herzegovina (the goals of which were reaffirmed by an operational directive issued by General Mladić on 19 November 1992).


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: The VRS expanded and defended the borders of Republika Srpska during the Bosnian War. By 1993 Republika Srpska controlled about 70% of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina with final agreement (Dayton Agreement) in 1995 appropriating to Republika Srpska control over 49% of the territory.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Since the beginning of the war, the VRS (Army of Republika Srpska) and the political leadership of Republika Srpska have been accused of war crimes, crimes against humanity, genocide, ethnic cleansing of the non-Serb population, creation and running of detention camps (variably also referred to as concentration camps and prisoner camps), and the destruction of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian cultural and historical heritage. The gravest of those offenses were the Srebrenica Genocide in 1995, where nearly 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were systematically executed by the VRS, and the long military siege of Sarajevo that resulted in 12,000 civilian casualties.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: A highly classified report by the CIA which was leaked by the press claimed that Bosmian Serbs were the first to commit atrocities, carried out 90 percent of war crimes, and were the only party who systematically attempted to "eliminate all traces of other ethnic groups from their territory". Ethnic cleansing dramatically changed the demographic picture of Republika Srpska and Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Many Republika Srpska officials were also indicted for creation and running of detention camps, in particular Omarska, Manjaca, Keraterm, Uzamnica and Trnopolje where thousands of detainees were held. Duško Tadić, former SDS leader in Kozarac and a former member of the paramilitary forces supporting the attack on the district of Prijedor, was found guilty by the ICTY of crimes against humanity, grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, and violations of the customs of war at Omarska, Trnopolje and Keraterm detention camps. In Omarska region around 500 deaths have been confirmed associated with these detention facilities.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: According to the findings of the State Commission for the Documentation of War Crimes on the Territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 68.67% or 789 congregational mosques were either destroyed or damaged during the Bosnian War by the VRS and other unidentified individuals from the Republika Srpska. The majority of destroyed mosques had been classified as Bosnian-Herzegovinian national monuments; some, mostly built between the 15th and 17th centuries, were listed with UNESCO as world heritage monuments. Many Catholic churches in the same territory were also destroyed or damaged especially during 1995.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In addition to sacred monuments many secular monuments were also heavily damaged or destroyed by VRS forces such as the National Library in Sarajevo. The Library was set ablaze by shelling from VRS positions around Sarajevo during the siege in 1992.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: While the individuals responsible for destruction of national heritage have not yet been found, or indicted, it has been widely reported by international human rights agencies that the "Bosnian Serb authorities issued orders or organized or condoned efforts to destroy Bosniak and Croatian cultural and religious institutions". In other cases such as the Ferhadija Mosque case ("Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Republika Srpska") it was found that: "Banja Luka authorities had actively engaged in, or had at least passively tolerated, discrimination against Muslims on the basis of their religious and ethnic origin." and that "[...] the Serb government [Republika Srpska], had failed to meet its obligation under the Human Rights Agreement to respect and secure the right to freedom of religion without discrimination." A local magistrate ruled that the authorities of the Bosnian Serb controlled town Banja Luka must pay $42 million to its Islamic community for 16 local mosques destroyed during the 1992–1995 Bosnian war.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In 1993, the United Nations Security Council created the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) at The Hague for the purpose of bringing to justice persons allegedly responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law in the territory of the former Yugoslavia since 1991. On 24 July 1995, the Hague Tribunal indicted Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity; on 14 November 1995, both men were indicted again on charges specific to the Srebrenica massacre. On 2 August 2001, the Hague Tribunal found General-Major Radislav Krstić, the commander of the VRS Drina Corps at the time responsible for the Srebrenica massacre, guilty of genocide. Many other political leaders of Republika Srpska and VRS officers, have been indicted, tried, and convicted by the Hague Tribunal for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the 1992–1995 war in Bosnia.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In 2006, a list of nearly 28,000 individuals who, according to the Republika Srpska authorities, were involved in Srebrenica massacre alone was released; 892 of those allegedly responsible still hold the positions in the local government of Republika Srpska. The arrests and trials of all war crime suspects are ongoing and their trials are planned to be held at the newly established Bosnian Herzegovinian Tribunal for the War Crimes. The trials of all suspected war criminals are expected to last for years to come.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Two days after international judges in The Hague ruled that Bosnian Serb forces had committed genocide in the killing of nearly 8,000 Muslims in Srebrenica in 1995. "The government of the Republika Srpska expressed its deepest regret for the crimes committed against non-Serbs and condemned all persons who took part in these crimes during the civil war in Bosnia" the statement said.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Various allegations have been made particularly since 2001 with the regard to the level of ethnic cleansing and killings of Serb civilians in the regions controlled by the Bosniak government and de facto Croat government of Herzeg-Bosnia during the war. These allegations claimed that ethnic Serb civilians were killed, including Serbs living in Sarajevo, by the Bosniak and Croat authorities and that Republika Srpska authorities have acted as a response to those alleged crimes.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Killings were allegedly carried out during the chaotic early months of the Siege of Sarajevo before law and order were properly established, as well as by Mušan Topalović, a renegade officer outside of army control who was liquidated by the government in the second half of 1993. However, various international and state agencies have reported that most Serbs killed in Sarajevo were killed by and from the VRS positions that surrounded Sarajevo and were counted as part of the total 12,000 civilian casualties. Such reports have been backed by forensic analysis and medical records that were kept at the Sarajevo hospitals. No indictments have been filed with ICTY or any other legal agency to consider claims by the Republika Srpska government. On the other hand, Stanislav Galić the commander of the VRS forces responsible for the Siege of Sarajevo has been found guilty by the ICTY.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Between May 1992 to January 1993, Bosniak forces under the leadership of Naser Orić attacked and destroyed scores of Serbian villages in the areas around Srebrenica. Evidence indicated that Serbs had been tortured and mutilated and others were burned alive when their houses were torched. While it is established that Serbs suffered a number of casualties, their exact nature and numbers have been a source of controversy. The ultra-nationalist Serbian Radical Party has used these casualties for political purposes and as a means of diminishing the July 1995 crime committed against Bosniaks. In 2005, The ICTY Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) noted that the number of Serb deaths in the region between May 1992 and March 1995 alleged by the Serbian authorities had increased from 1,400 to 3,500, a figure the OTP stated "[does] not reflect the reality", particularly the labeling of all casualties as "victims". Studies show a high number of military casualties compared to civilian. The Sarajevo-based Research and Documentation Centre, a non-partisan institution, found that Serb casualties in the Bratunac municipality amounted to 119 civilians and 424 soldiers. Some Serb sources maintain that casualties and losses during the period prior to the creation of the safe area gave rise to Serb demands for revenge against the Bosniaks based in Srebrenica. The ARBiH raids are presented as a key motivating factor for the July 1995 genocide.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: The Army of the Republika Srpska (VRS) was founded on 12 May 1992 from the remnants of the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia from which Bosnia and Herzegovina had seceded earlier in 1992. When the Bosnian War erupted, the JNA formally discharged 80,000 Bosnian Serb troops. These troops, who were allowed to keep their heavy weapons, formed the backbone of the newly formed Army of the Republika Srpska. There also volunteers from Christian Orthodox countries. According to the ICTY, volunteers from Russia, Greece, and Romania fighting for the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) numbered between at least 500 to more than 1,500. Other estimate vary depending on sources, with some estimate from 529 and 614, other claim that number is well over 1,000 volunteers from Orthodox countries.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: The supreme commander of the VRS was General Ratko Mladić. The VRS was organized into six geographically based corps.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: During the first two years of the war, Republika Srpska issued its own unique currency, the Republika Srpska dinar. This currency was pegged to the Yugoslav dinar. The Serb, Croat and Bosniak authorities all issued their own dinar currencies in the territories they controlled, printing large excess of money to finance their operations which resulted in high inflation. The electronic payment system of Republika Srpska was integrated with the system of the Republic of Yugoslavia and Republika Srpska's National Bank saw itself as a branch of the Central Yugoslav Bank in Belgrade. The inflation experienced in Yugoslavia thus transferred to Republika Srpska causing hyperinflation and eventual collapse of its currency in 1994. The National Bank of Yugoslavia (CBCG) also cut the Republika Srpska off, preventing it from redeeming its currency there and refusing to send more due to the CBCG's lack of foreign exchange assets. Afterwards, Republika Srspka did not form its own currency and continued to use the Yugoslav one. In 1999, it adopted the convertible mark.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Unemployment was a major problem which the war exacerbated. Nearly a third of the workforce was in industry, mining and energy and the pre-war non-agricultural unemployment rate was at 27%. In 1996, UNESCO estimated that the unemployment rate in Republika Srpska was 90%. Following the signing of the Dayton Accords, recovery in Republika Srpska was slower than in the Federation, as it received only 2-3% of the Western Aid to Bosnia. There was zero growth. Inflation was at 30%. Non-agricultural unemployment was at 60%, the average wage at 60 Deutsche Marks and pension at 33 DM. Government expenditures were also drastically higher than in the Federation.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In 1992-1993, the curriculum of Republika Srpska underwent changes to conform more towards Serbia. Adaptations were made in the subjects of history, social sciences, history and geography while religion became compulsory. In 1996, education was 6.1% of the Republika Srpska budget. There were 90 secondary schools and 54 vocational schools. The University Act of 23 July 1993 propelled the legal formation of post-secondary education in Republika Srpska, governing two Universities: The University of Banja Luka and University of East Sarajevo. UNESCO estimated there were more than 10,000 University students in 1996.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In November 1995 the Dayton Agreement was signed by presidents of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia that ended the Bosnian war. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) was defined as one of the two entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina and comprised 51% of the territory. The Republika Srpska (RS) comprised the other 49% with Banja Luka serving as its capital.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: As a result of Operation Storm, nearly 200,000 Serbs fled from Croatia and a large portion of them found refuge in Bosnia, especially in Republika Srpska.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: After the signing of the Dayton agreement, more than 60,000 Serbs left Sarajevo and other parts of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina whether by choice or force, particularly after the territorial provisions were enforced to comply with the agreement.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: After the war numerous laws were passed by the Republika Srpska authorities under the auspices of the international community acting through the Office of the High Representative (OHR). Many laws dealt with the issues and consequences of the war and served to repair some of the problems created such as annulments of ill-fate contracts that required non-Serbs to "voluntarily" turn over their properties to the Republika Srpska including real-estates and businesses taken during the war.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: Many constitutional changes were also made to change the social character of the Republika Srpska from mono-ethnic to a multi-ethnic entity and thus including Bosniaks and Croats as constituent people of Republika Srpska. Some of the names of the cities that were changed during the war by the authorities of Republika Srpska were changed back. Most of the changes were done as to retract effects of ethnic cleansing and allow refugees to return, but also as a response to numerous reports of human rights abuses that were taking place in the entity.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: However, most of the changes had very little effect on a return of more than a million refugees. Intimidation of returnees were quite common and occasionally escalated into violent riots as in the case of Ferhadija mosque riots in Banja Luka in 2001. Consequently, the views concerning Republika Srpska are different among various ethnic groups within the Bosnia and Herzegovina. For Serbs, the Republika Srpska is a guarantee for their survival and existence as a people within these territories. On the other hand, for some ethnic Bosniaks, who were ethnically cleansed from Republika Srpska, the creation, existence, name and insignia of this entity remains a matter of controversy.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In September 2002, the Republika Srpska Office of Relations with the ICTY issued the "Report about Case Srebrenica". The document, authored by Darko Trifunović, was endorsed by many leading Bosnian Serb politicians. It concluded that 1,800 Bosnian Muslim soldiers died during fighting and a further 100 more died as a result of exhaustion. "The number of Muslim soldiers killed by Bosnian Serbs out of personal revenge or lack of knowledge of international law is probably about 100...It is important to uncover the names of the perpetrators in order to accurately and unequivocally establish whether or not these were isolated instances." The International Crisis Group and the United Nations condemned the manipulation of their statements in this report.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In 2004, the international community's High Representative Paddy Ashdown had the Government of Republika Srpska form a committee to investigate the events. The committee released a report in October 2004 with 8,731 confirmed names of missing and dead persons from Srebrenica: 7,793 between 10 and 19 July 1995 and further 938 people afterwards.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: The findings of the committee remain generally disputed by Serb nationalists, who claim it was heavily pressured by the High Representative, given that an earlier RS government report which exonerated the Serbs was dismissed. Nevertheless, Dragan Čavić, the president of Republika Srpska, acknowledged in a televised address that Serb forces killed several thousand civilians in violation of the international law, and asserted that Srebrenica was a dark chapter in Serb history.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: On 10 November 2004, the government of Republika Srpska issued an official apology. The statement came after a government review of the Srebrenica committee's report. "The report makes it clear that enormous crimes were committed in the area of Srebrenica in July 1995. The Bosnian Serb Government shares the pain of the families of the Srebrenica victims, is truly sorry and apologises for the tragedy." the Bosnian Serb government said.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In April 2010, a resolution condemning the crimes committed in Srebrenica was rejected by representatives of parties from Republika Srpska.


title: Republika Srpska (1992–1995)

text: In April 2010, Milorad Dodik, the prime minister of Republika Srpska, initiated a revision of the 2004 report saying that the numbers of killed were exaggerated and the report was manipulated by a former peace envoy. The Office of the High Representative responded and stated that: "The Republika Srpska government should reconsider its conclusions and align itself with the facts and legal requirements and act accordingly, rather than inflicting emotional distress on the survivors, torture history and denigrate the public image of the country".


title: Fiona Dolman

text: Fiona Dolman (born 30 January 1970) is a Scottish actress known for playing Miss Pamela Andrews in the ITV daytime drama series and spinoff to "The Royal", "The Royal Today", and for the role of Jackie Rosemary Lambert Bradley, PC Mike Bradley's solicitor wife in "Heartbeat". She also featured in Channel 4's vampire serial "Ultraviolet".


title: Fiona Dolman

text: Dolman featured briefly in the BBC show "Paradox". She also appeared in the BBC series "Waterloo Road" in August 2010 as a Police sergeant.


title: Fiona Dolman

text: From April 2011 Dolman appears as Sarah Barnaby, wife of DCI John Barnaby and new head teacher at Causton Comprehensive School, in "Midsomer Murders". She has also appeared on "Lily Savage's Blankety Blank".


title: Fiona Dolman

text: In 2019, Dolman successfully completed the London Marathon in memory of her father and raised a substantial amount of money for Hospice UK, for which she is an Ambassador.


title: Nedra Talley

text: Nedra Talley, now known as Nedra Talley-Ross (born January 27, 1946), is an American singer best known as a former member of the girl group the Ronettes, in which she performed with her cousins Ronnie and Estelle Bennett. As of 2022, Talley is the last surviving member of the group.


title: Nedra Talley

text: In 1967, Talley and Estelle Bennett left the Ronettes, a decade after the group's formation. The split was reportedly due in part to interference from the group's producer Phil Spector, who later married Ronnie Bennett. Talley said that when she met Scott Ross, her future husband, she became a born-again Christian. Talley also decided to leave the Ronettes because she felt there was little place for Christian-inspired music.


title: Nedra Talley

text: In 1977, Talley recorded several Christian songs written by her church's music director, Ted Sandquist. These were released on the album "The Courts of the King: The Worship Music of Ted Sandquist". One of the cuts, a medley, "Love of My Lord" / "Redwood Tree" was released as a 45 promo single. Guitarist Phil Keaggy played on at least two of the album cuts with her. For its 30th anniversary, this album was finally released on CD.


title: Nedra Talley

text: In 1978, Talley recorded "Full Circle", a solo contemporary Christian music album (Keaggy wrote the title track and released his own recording on his 1981 album "Town To Town"), on which she was musically backed by Keaggy. The album was produced by her husband, Ross. The album's inner sleeve featured Talley's bio (and salvation story), but also a photo taken in the mid-'60s aboard a plane with Talley and fellow Ronette, Estelle Bennett, sharing seats with The Beatles' John Lennon and George Harrison, who were great fans of the Ronettes. The album has to date, never been re-released.


title: Nedra Talley

text: A four-disc set, Roger McGuinn's "The Folk Den Project (1995–2005)", featured the old folk song, "Follow the Drinking Gourd", as sung by McGuinn with Talley providing the sole but prominent background vocal.


title: Nedra Talley

text: Talley is of African American, Native American and Puerto Rican descent. She is married to Scott Ross, a former DJ turned interviewer for "The 700 Club" on the Christian Broadcasting Network. They have four children. As of 2007 she is a businesswoman working in real estate. She lives with her husband in Virginia Beach, Virginia.


title: Flanderization

text: Flanderization is the process through which a fictional character's essential traits are exaggerated over the course of a serial work. The term "flanderization" was coined by TV Tropes in reference to Ned Flanders of "The Simpsons", who was caricatured over the show's run from a friendly and good-hearted neighbor who was religious among other characteristics into a dogmatic, evangelical "bible-thumper". Flanderization has been analyzed as an aspect of serial works, especially television comedies, that demonstrates a work's gradual decline.


title: Flanderization

text: Flanderization is the process through which a single element of a character's personality, often an originally mild element, is inflated in importance over the course of a work until it becomes their primary defining characteristic. The term was coined by TV Tropes, a wiki focused on popular culture, in reference to the character of Ned Flanders. Flanders himself is a complex example of flanderization, having undergone the process in the middle seasons of the show before once again returning to a similar portrayal to his original one. Originating as "perhaps the only genuinely well-meaning, good-natured person in Springfield", Flanders was originally intended to be an ideal ("annoyingly perfect") neighbor who served as a contrast and foil for Homer Simpson. As a devoutly religious and church-going man, his faith was intended to serve as a contrast to Homer's lack of religious sophistication. However, over the course of the show's run, Flanders was simplified into a religious fundamentalist whose Christianity was his primary defining characteristic.


title: Flanderization

text: While flanderization is primarily discussed in the context of fictional characters, it has also been applied to real people and historical events.


title: Flanderization

text: Flanderization is a widespread phenomenon in serialized fiction. In its originating show of "The Simpsons", it has been discussed both in the context of Ned Flanders and as relating to other characters; Lisa Simpson has been discussed as a classic example of the phenomenon, having been even more flanderized than Flanders himself. The specific case of Ned Flanders has been discussed as a symptom of the general decline of "The Simpsons", once one of the most popular sitcoms in television history and once known for how dynamic its characters were.


title: Flanderization

text: Other works have also been criticized for flanderization. Several characters in the American version of "The Office", such as Kevin Malone, have been referred to by the term. "Family Guy" has also been highlighted as a prominent example, particularly with the characters of Brian and Peter Griffin. Other television shows criticized for flanderization include "SpongeBob SquarePants", "Silicon Valley", and "Dragon Ball Super".


title: Flanderization

text: Though the primary reference for flanderization is in television, other fictional media can also have characters exhibit flanderization. Many film characters have been described as being flanderized in a sequel or franchise compared to their original portrayal. Flanderization in cinema is particularly prevalent in horror films, especially slasher films. Flanderization has also been described as a pitfall for tabletop role-playing games, where complex characters are often played for long periods of time by amateur writers. The practice of building roleplay characters around single quirks has been mentioned as a frequent cause of flanderization. As well as player characters, non-player characters in role-playing games are frequently flanderized, due to the need for a single game master to play multiple characters.


title: Flanderization

text: Flanderization has also been discussed in the context of real-world phenomena, such as subcultures that are flanderized by the mainstream culture into simpler and more accessible forms; one example of this is the beatnik stereotype of the Beat Generation. Another example of real-world flanderization is the tendency for musicians, especially those associated with social media such as TikTok and SoundCloud, to simplify their musical personas after finding some commercial success. Musicians accused of flanderization include Lil Pump, Lil Yachty, and Flo Milli.


title: Flanderization

text: Flanderization has been described as symptomatic of a decline in writing quality. It has been used as an argument against making sequels for a work and described as "a lesson for other shows" whose characters have not gone through the process. Some works have consciously attempted to avoid flanderization, such as "Rick and Morty".


title: Flanderization

text: The specific case of Ned Flanders attracts special attention. Debate exists over whether Flanders is a consistently flanderized character or whether he later returned to a more complex, dynamic portrayal. The appropriateness of the term "flanderization" has also been disputed, as many characters in "The Simpsons" have undergone the caricaturizing process, and Flanders himself may not be the most extreme case. Flanders' shifting portrayal has also been controversial as representative of a shift in media portrayals of religious people. As both the primary representative of Christianity on "The Simpsons" and as one of the most significant Christian fictional characters in the world, the simplification of Ned Flanders as a character has been the subject of criticism, study, and reinterpretation.


Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue is a compilation of games from the "Kingdom Hearts" series, developed and published by Square Enix in collaboration with Disney Interactive Studios. A successor to the "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix" game compilation, the new title was announced in September 2015 and released on January 24, 2017 on PlayStation 4, on February 18, 2020 on Xbox One, on March 30, 2021 on Microsoft Windows, and a cloud version of the game for Nintendo Switch was released on February 10, 2022.


"Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue" includes a high-definition remaster of "". This title covers how protagonists Sora and Riku prepared for the return of the antagonist Master Xehanort. The collection also includes two new pieces of content set in the "Kingdom Hearts" series. The first, "Kingdom Hearts χ Back Cover", is a "cinematic" film based on the game "Kingdom Hearts χ". It includes events not shown in that game regarding the earliest parts of the series' story. The other title, "Kingdom Hearts 0.2: Birth by Sleep – A Fragmentary Passage", is an original game that takes place after the events of "". This title revealed what happened to the protagonist Aqua during her time lost in the Realm of Darkness. To avoid having too much backstory in "Kingdom Hearts III", series director Tetsuya Nomura chose to place this story he long desired to tell in this collection. "Back Cover" and "A Fragmentary Passage" were the tenth and eleventh installments in the "Kingdom Hearts" series.


title: Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue

text: Critics had varied opinions on the value of the game compilation. Most praised the quality of the graphics, utilizing technology then being developed for the upcoming "Kingdom Hearts III". Some also praised the role of the collection in filling story gaps in the very complicated storyline of the "Kingdom Hearts" series. Some, however, criticized the release of the compilation as merely another teaser for the long-anticipated game "Kingdom Hearts III".


text: "Kingdom Hearts: Dream Drop Distance" takes place after the events of the game "Kingdom Hearts Re:coded". "Dream Drop Distance" focuses on the protagonists' Sora and Riku's "Mark of Mastery" exam. In order to pass, the pair must free dream versions of worlds they have known and hone their powers in preparation for the return of the powerful and evil Master Xehanort.


text: This collection features a high definition remaster of "Dream Drop Distance", which Nomura stated was a full remake of the game since the original utilized the two screens of the Nintendo 3DS. Developers also reworked minigames from the 3DS version that utilized that console’s dual touch screens into a card-based system. At the same time, the developers made enemies “less offensive than they originally were”, a complaint from players in the original. Additionally, they switched the 3DS's touchscreen-based controls to a more traditional game-controller scheme.


text: Due to the workload of adapting the game, developers made no extras or new content for this release. The few additions made included PlayStation 4 trophies, the ability to play the game at 60 frames a second, and a much-requested addition by the Osaka development team to include the minor enemy, the Catanuki.


text: "Kingdom Hearts 0.2: Birth by Sleep – A Fragmentary Passage" is a new game told from the perspective of the protagonist Aqua. The story begins after "Kingdom Hearts: Dream Drop Distance" when King Mickey reveals that he has secrets to confess relating to Aqua and her time in the Realm of Darkness. The story then picks up right after the secret ending of "Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep Final Mix" and details Aqua's journey through the Realm of Darkness during the following ten years. Fragments of worlds previously found in "Birth by Sleep" make up the game's environments.


text: Nomura felt he needed to create this story, but did not want to slow down "Kingdom Hearts III" with many backstories. Consequently, he separated it from that game and included it in this collection. Developers designed the game to take several hours to play, or approximately one game world in a regular "Kingdom Hearts" title. "A Fragmentary Passage" ties into the story of "Kingdom Hearts III" In terms of gameplay, the “Doubleflight” ability returns, which allows Aqua to leap higher and do a mid-air double jump, while also gaining a burst of speed mid-jump.


text: "Kingdom Hearts χ Back Cover" is a one-hour long cinematic film set during the events of the video game "Kingdom Hearts χ". The film tells the game’s story from the Foretellers’ perspectives, explaining their actions during the game’s events.


text: In January 2011, with the release of the game "Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep Final Mix", a secret ending was discovered in the game, titled "Birth by Sleep: Volume 2". This game content, which appeared to bridge the story gap between "Birth by Sleep" and the original "Kingdom Hearts", was believed to be a potential future game in the series. In October 2014, when asked about the content seen in the secret ending, "Kingdom Hearts" series director Tetsuya Nomura stated, “It shows the existence of Aqua’s story in the Realm of Darkness. It means that she didn’t just wander about in the Darkness for ten years, but that she passed through many experiences. However, it is a 'Fragmentary Passage,' as the name suggests – that story was severed and wasn’t told. I hope I can tell it when given the opportunity”. The credits of the game compilation "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.5 Remix" include clips of the game "" and a secret ending related to "Dream Drop Distance", hinting at a possible new "Kingdom Hearts" game compilation.


text: In September 2015, Square Enix announced "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue", for release in 2016 on the PlayStation 4. Nomura stated that Square Enix developed the collection alongside the game "Kingdom Hearts III". They made the collection so players could experience some of the new gameplay elements being developed for "Kingdom Hearts III" "sooner than later". Nomura explained the game compilations title, stating that "Kingdom Hearts: Dream Drop Distance" is considered number 2.6 in the series since it follows the events in "HD 2.5 Remix". The "Kingdom Hearts χ" games are considered 0 in Nomuras counting system because the series protagonist Sora does not appear. "Birth by Sleep" is 0.1, thus resulting in a 0.2 value for "A Fragmentary Passage". When added together, the numbers total 2.8.


text: In December 2015, a trailer for the game debuted at the gaming festival Jump Festa, and critics praised the game collection for its aesthetic quality. Square Enix developers utilized the Unreal Engine 4 used to make "Kingdom Hearts III" in all three titles. This allowed for quick changes during game development, especially lighting effects. A trailer released in September 2016 at the Tokyo Game Show featured a new remix of "Kingdom Hearts" theme song "Simple and Clean", produced specifically for "2.8", and the games’ opening cinematics. In July 2017, Nomura spoke on bringing the collection to the Xbox One console, saying he did not believe there was much demand for it outside of North America. However, he also said it could be a possibility after Square Enix completed development of "Kingdom Hearts III". At the X019 gamer event in November 2019, Shinji Hashimoto and Ichiro Hazama announced that the 2.8 collection, along with "1.5" and "2.5," would be released on the Xbox One in 2020.


text: The game was released on Microsoft Windows on March 30, 2021. On October 5, 2021, it was announced that a cloud version of the game was in development for Nintendo Switch and was released on February 10, 2022.


text: Initially scheduled for release in December 2016, "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue" was released in Japan on January 12, 2017, and worldwide on January 24, 2017. Preorders for the game included an official Disney Collector's Pin for the game. Square Enix later bundled "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue" with the "Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5" + "2.5 Remix" collections as part of a new compilation, "Kingdom Hearts: The Story So Far", released in North America on October 30, 2018, for the PlayStation 4. The Xbox One and Xbox Game Pass versions released on February 18, 2020.


text: "Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue" received "generally favorable" reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. It sold 137,797 copies within its first week of release in Japan.


text: Reviewers universally praised the graphical re-creation of "Kingdom Hearts: Dream Drop Distance" on the PlayStation 4 from its origins on the Nintendo 3DS. "USgamer" referred to the game's conversion from one optimized for a two-screen portable game system to a console one as "lovely". "Game Informer" was also impressed by the visual improvements made from the game's rerelease. However, "GameSpot" criticized the lack of any other changes to the title, such as populating the game's "overly roomy, empty worlds". "USgamer" also praised the title "A Fragmentary Passage" for being a sort of tech demo of "Kingdom Hearts III".


text: Critics had mixed feelings about the value of the collection and its stories. Jonathan Dornbush of "IGN" said that the collection is "a great glimpse at what's to come, but the return to the past is an at-times unsatisfying appetizer". "GamesRadar"s Anthony John Agnello concurred, said that ""Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8: Final Chapter Prologue" is essential for the faithful, flummoxing for newcomers, and a promising start to the series' life on PS4". Chris Carter from "Destructoid" called the title "a solid game that definitely has an audience. Might lack replay value, could be too short and there are some hard-to-ignore faults, but the experience is fun".


text: Some reviewers such as "Push Square" did find things to praise about the collection such as getting the chance to explore resolutions to the many cliffhangers left by the previous "Kingdom Hearts" games. "RPGamer" stated that if anyone wished to understand what happened plot-wise between "Kingdom Hearts II" and "Kingdom Hearts III", the game collection was essential. "The Independent" praised the gameplay of "An Fragmentary Passage" as "gorgeous" and called Aqua's journey through the Hall of Magic Mirrors "devilishly fun". "GameSpot" also praised the compilation's inclusion of new stories, and "Game Informer" called the titles "good preparation for what's ahead".


text: Other reviewers, however, found the stories confusing and felt the game was merely a teaser for "Kingdom Hearts III". "Ars Technica" called the three titles unconnected in any way to each other. They also cited their confusion with the story of "Dream Drop Distance", calling it "hard-to-follow gibberish with flashbacks, flashbacks within flashbacks". "USgamer" called the compilation "one big teaser" for "Kingdom Hearts III". "Game Informer" also believed that the title was yet another game meant to kill time before the release of the at the time unreleased "Kingdom Hearts III".


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: Chita (, , ) is a city and the administrative center of Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia, located on the Trans-Siberian Railway route, roughly east of Irkutsk.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: Chita lies at the confluence of the Chita and Ingoda Rivers, between the Yablonoi Mountains to the west and the Chersky Range to the east. Lake Kenon is located to the west, within the city limits, and the Ivan-Arakhley Lake System is a group of lakes lying about west of Chita.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: Following the Decembrist revolt of 1825, from 1827 several of the Decembrists suffered exile to Chita.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: According to George Kennan, who visited the area in the 1880s, "Among the exiles in Chita were some of the brightest, most cultivated, most sympathetic men and women that we had met in Eastern Siberia."


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: When Richard Maack visited the city in 1855, he saw a wooden town, with one church, also wooden. He estimated Chita's population at under 1,000, but predicted that the city would soon experience fast growth, due to the upcoming annexation of the Amur valley by Russia.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: By 1885, Chita's population had reached 5,728, and by 1897 it increased to 11,500. In 1897 the Trans-Siberian Railway reached Chita; rail traffic from 1899 rapidly made Chita the transport hub and industrial centre of the Transbaikal.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: During the Russian revolution of 1905, revolutionary socialists declared the Chita Republic. Tsarist government forces took control again in January 1906.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: The Bolsheviks took power in Chita in February 1918. The Imperial Japanese Army occupied Chita from September 1918 to 1920 in the course of the Siberian intervention. On behalf of the White movement, Ataman Grigory Semyonov's Eastern Okraina ruled from Chita for some few months in early 1920 with Japanese support. From October 1920 to November 1922 the city served as the capital of the Far Eastern Republic, which became part of the RSFSR in November 1922.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: In 1945, the Soviet authorities held Puyi, who had reigned (1908–1912, 1917) as the last Emperor of China, and some of his associates as prisoners in the city, in a former sanatorium for officers.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: Chita is the administrative center of Zabaykalsky Krai, and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Chitinsky District, to which it is also subordinated. As a municipal division, the city of Chita together with one rural locality in Chitinsky District is incorporated as Chita Urban Okrug.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: The city is subdivided into four administrative districts: Chernovsky (named after the Chernovskiye coal mines and colloquially known as "Chernovskiye"), Ingodinsky (named after the Ingoda River), Tsentralny, and Zheleznodorozhny.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: Chernovsky Administrative District used to be a mining settlement, which was incorporated into Chita in 1941. Chernovskiye mines themselves are a geological nature monument of international status.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: Chita Northwest air base is located nearby, as well as the 101st (Hub) Communications Brigade and the 53rd Material Support Regiment.


title: Chita, Zabaykalsky Krai

text: Chita experiences a dry-winter borderline humid continental climate/subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification: Dwb/Dwc) with very cold, very dry winters and warm, relatively wet summers. The coldest temperature to have ever been recorded in Chita was .


title: Digital signal

text: A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values; at any given time it can only take on, at most, one of a finite number of values. This contrasts with an analog signal, which represents continuous values; at any given time it represents a real number within a continuous range of values.


title: Digital signal

text: Simple digital signals represent information in discrete bands of analog levels. All levels within a band of values represent the same information state. In most digital circuits, the signal can have two possible valid values; this is called a binary signal or logic signal. They are represented by two voltage bands: one near a reference value (typically termed as "ground" or zero volts), and the other a value near the supply voltage. These correspond to the two values "zero" and "one" (or "false" and "true") of the Boolean domain, so at any given time a binary signal represents one binary digit (bit). Because of this discretization, relatively small changes to the analog signal levels do not leave the discrete envelope, and as a result are ignored by signal state sensing circuitry. As a result, digital signals have noise immunity; electronic noise, provided it is not too great, will not affect digital circuits, whereas noise always degrades the operation of analog signals to some degree.


title: Digital signal

text: Digital signals having more than two states are occasionally used; circuitry using such signals is called multivalued logic. For example, signals that can assume three possible states are called three-valued logic.


title: Digital signal

text: In a digital signal, the physical quantity representing the information may be a variable electric current or voltage, the intensity, phase or polarization of an optical or other electromagnetic field, acoustic pressure, the magnetization of a magnetic storage media, etcetera. Digital signals are used in all digital electronics, notably computing equipment and data transmission.


title: Digital signal

text: In digital electronics, a digital signal is a pulse train (a pulse amplitude modulated signal), i.e. a sequence of fixed-width square wave electrical pulses or light pulses, each occupying one of a discrete number of levels of amplitude. A special case is a "logic signal" or a "binary signal", which varies between a low and a high signal level.


title: Digital signal

text: The pulse trains in digital circuits are typically generated by metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) devices, due to their rapid on–off electronic switching speed and large-scale integration (LSI) capability. In contrast, BJT transistors more slowly generate analog signals resembling sine waves.


title: Digital signal

text: In digital signal processing, a digital signal is a representation of a physical signal that is sampled and quantized. A digital signal is an abstraction that is discrete in time and amplitude. The signal's value only exists at regular time intervals, since only the values of the corresponding physical signal at those sampled moments are significant for further digital processing. The digital signal is a sequence of codes drawn from a finite set of values. The digital signal may be stored, processed or transmitted physically as a pulse-code modulation (PCM) signal.


title: Digital signal

text: In digital communications, a digital signal is a continuous-time physical signal, alternating between a discrete number of waveforms, representing a bitstream. The shape of the waveform depends the transmission scheme, which may be either a line coding scheme allowing baseband transmission; or a digital modulation scheme, allowing passband transmission over long wires or over a limited radio frequency band. Such a carrier-modulated sine wave is considered a digital signal in literature on digital communications and data transmission, but considered as a bit stream converted to an analog signal in electronics and computer networking.


title: Digital signal

text: In communications, sources of interference are usually present, and noise is frequently a significant problem. The effects of interference are typically minimized by filtering off interfering signals as much as possible and by using data redundancy. The main advantages of digital signals for communications are often considered to be noise immunity, and the ability, in many cases such as with audio and video data, to use data compression to greatly decrease the bandwidth that is required on the communication media.


title: Digital signal

text: A waveform that switches representing the two states of a Boolean value (0 and 1, or low and high, or false and true) is referred to as a "digital signal" or "logic signal" or "binary signal" when it is interpreted in terms of only two possible digits.


title: Digital signal

text: The two states are usually represented by some measurement of an electrical property: Voltage is the most common, but current is used in some logic families. Two ranges of voltages are typically defined for each logic family, which are frequently not directly adjacent. The signal is low when in the low range and high when in the high range, and in between the two ranges the behaviour can vary between different types of gates.


title: Digital signal

text: The clock signal is a special digital signal that is used to synchronize many digital circuits. The image shown can be considered the waveform of a clock signal. Logic changes are triggered either by the rising edge or the falling edge. The rising edge is the transition from a low voltage (level 1 in the diagram) to a high voltage (level 2). The falling edge is the transition from a high voltage to a low one.


title: Digital signal

text: Although in a highly simplified and idealized model of a digital circuit, we may wish for these transitions to occur instantaneously, no real world circuit is purely resistive and therefore no circuit can instantly change voltage levels. This means that during a short, finite transition time the output may not properly reflect the input, and will not correspond to either a logically high or low voltage.


title: Digital signal

text: To create a digital signal, an analog signal must be modulated with a control signal to produce it. The simplest modulation, a type of unipolar encoding, is simply to switch on and off a DC signal so that high voltages represent a '1' and low voltages are '0'.


title: Digital signal

text: In digital radio schemes one or more carrier waves are amplitude, frequency or phase modulated by the control signal to produce a digital signal suitable for transmission.


title: Digital signal

text: Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) over telephone wires, does not primarily use binary logic; the digital signals for individual carriers are modulated with different valued logics, depending on the Shannon capacity of the individual channel.


title: Digital signal

text: Digital signals may be "sampled" by a clock signal at regular intervals by passing the signal through a flip-flop. When this is done, the input is measured at the clock edge, and the signal from that time. The signal is then held steady until the next clock. This process is the basis of synchronous logic.


title: Digital signal

text: Asynchronous logic also exists, which uses no single clock, and generally operates more quickly, and may use less power, but is significantly harder to design.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Science fiction first appeared in television programming in the late 1930s, during what is called the Golden Age of Science Fiction. Special effects and other production techniques allow creators to present a living visual image of an imaginary world not limited by the constraints of reality.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Science fiction tries to blend fiction and reality seamlessly so that the viewer can be immersed in the imaginative world. This includes characters, settings, and tools. Viewers often critique the scientific plausibility and accuracy of technology and technological concepts.


title: Science fiction on television

text: In the 2020 series "Away" a notable plot point in the eight episode, "Vital Signs" has astronauts listen intently for a sound boom picked up by a real-life Mars rover called InSight. Similarity, in 2022 scientists used InSight to listen for the landing of a real spacecraft.


title: Science fiction on television

text: The need to portray imaginary settings or characters with properties and abilities beyond the reach of current reality obliges producers to make extensive use of specialized techniques of television production.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Through most of the 20th century, many of these techniques were expensive and involved a small number of dedicated craft practitioners, while the reusability of props, models, effects, or animation techniques made it easier to keep using them. The combination of high initial cost and lower maintenance cost pushed producers into building these techniques into the basic concept of a series, influencing all the artistic choices.


title: Science fiction on television

text: By the late 1990s, improved technology and more training and cross-training within the industry made all of these techniques easier to use, so that directors of individual episodes could make decisions to use one or more methods, so such artistic choices no longer needed to be baked into the series concept.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Special effects (or "SPFX") have been an essential tool throughout the history of science fiction on television: small explosives to simulate the effects of various rayguns, squibs of blood and gruesome prosthetics to simulate the monsters and victims in horror series, and the wire-flying entrances and exits of George Reeves as Superman.


title: Science fiction on television

text: The broad term "special effects" includes all the techniques here, but more commonly there are two categories of effects. Visual effects ("VFX") involve photographic or digital manipulation of the onscreen image, usually done in post-production. Mechanical or physical effects involve props, pyrotechnics, and other physical methods used during principal photography itself. Some effects involved a combination of techniques; a ray gun might require a pyrotechnic during filming, and then an optical glowing line added to the film image in post-production. Stunts are another important category of physical effects. In general, all kinds of special effects must be carefully planned during pre-production.


title: Science fiction on television

text: "Babylon 5" was the first series to use computer-generated imagery, or "CGI", for all exterior space scenes, even those with characters in space suits. The technology has made this more practical, so that today models are rarely used. In the 1990s, CGI required expensive processors and customized applications, but by the 2000s (decade), computing power has pushed capabilities down to personal laptops running a wide array of software.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Models have been an essential tool in science fiction television since the beginning, when Buck Rogers took flight in spark-scattering spaceships wheeling across a matte backdrop sky. The original "" required a staggering array of models; the USS "Enterprise" had to be built in several different scales for different needs. Models fell out of use in filming in the 1990s as CGI became more affordable and practical, but even today, designers sometimes construct scale models which are then digitized for use in animation software.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Models of characters are puppets. Gerry Anderson created a series of shows using puppets living in a universe of models and miniature sets, notably "Thunderbirds". "ALF" depicted an alien living in a family, while "Farscape" included two puppets as regular characters. In "Stargate SG-1", the Asgard characters are puppets in scenes where they are sitting, standing, or lying down. In "Mystery Science Theater 3000", the characters of Crow T. Robot and Tom Servo, two of the show's main (and most iconic) characters, are puppets constructed from random household items.


title: Science fiction on television

text: As animation is completely free of the constraints of gravity, momentum, and physical reality, it is an ideal technique for science fiction and fantasy on television. In a sense, virtually all animated series allow characters and objects to perform in unrealistic ways, so they are almost all considered to fit within the broadest category of speculative fiction (in the context of awards, criticism, marketing, etc.) The artistic affinity of animation to comic books has led to a large amount of superhero-themed animation, much of this adapted from comics series, while the impossible characters and settings allowed in animation made this a preferred medium for both fantasy and for series aimed at young audiences.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Originally, animation was all hand-drawn by artists, though in the 1980s, beginning with "Captain Power", computers began to automate the task of creating repeated images; by the 1990s, hand-drawn animation became defunct.


title: Science fiction on television

text: In recent years as technology has improved, this has become more common, notably since the development of the Massive software application permits producers to include hordes of non-human characters to storm a city or space station. The robotic Cylons in the new version of "Battlestar Galactica" are usually animated characters, while the Asgard in "Stargate SG-1" are animated when they are shown walking around or more than one is on screen at once.


title: Science fiction on television

text: In general, science fiction series are subject to the same financial constraints as other television shows. However, high production costs increase the financial risk, while limited audiences further complicate the business case for continuing production. "" was the first television series to cost more than $100,000 per episode, while "" was the first to cost more than $1 million per episode.


title: Science fiction on television

text: The innovative nature of science fiction means that new shows cannot rely on predictable market-tested formulas like legal dramas or sitcoms; the involvement of creative talent outside the Hollywood mainstream introduces more variables to the budget forecasts.


title: Science fiction on television

text: In the past, science fiction television shows have maintained a family friendly format that rendered them suitable for all ages, especially children, as the majority of them were of the action-adventure format. This enabled merchandising such as toy lines, animated cartoon adaptations, and other licensing. However, many modern shows include a significant amount of adult themes (such as sexual situations, nudity, profanity and graphic violence) rendering them unsuitable for young audiences, and severely limiting the remaining audience demographic and the potential for merchandising.


title: Science fiction on television

text: The perception, more than the reality, of science fiction series being cancelled unreasonably is greatly increased by the attachment of fans to their favorite series, which is much stronger in science fiction fandom than it is in the general population. While mainstream shows are often more strictly episodic, where ending shows can allow viewers to imagine that characters live happily, or at least normally, ever after, science fiction series generate questions and loose ends that, when unresolved, cause dissatisfaction among devoted viewers. Creative settings also often call for broader story arcs than is often found in mainstream television, requiring science fiction series many episodes to resolve an ongoing major conflict. Science fiction television producers will sometimes end a season with a dramatic cliffhanger episode to attract viewer interest, but the short-term effect rarely influences financial partners. "Dark Angel" is one of many shows ending with a cliffhanger scene that left critical questions open when the series was cancelled.


title: Science fiction on television

text: One of the earliest forms of media fandom was Star Trek fandom. Fans of the series became known to each other through the science fiction fandom. In 1968, NBC decided to cancel "". Bjo Trimble wrote letters to contacts in the National Fantasy Fan Foundation, asking people to organize their local friends to write to the network to demand the show remain on the air. Network executives were overwhelmed by an unprecedented wave of correspondence, and they kept the show on the air. Although the series continued to receive low ratings and was canceled a year later, the enduring popularity of the series resulted in Paramount creating a set of movies, and then a new series "", which by the early 1990s had become one of the most popular dramas on American television.


title: Science fiction on television

text: "Star Trek" fans continued to grow in number, and first began organizing conventions in the 1970s. No other show attracted a large organized following until the 1990s, when "Babylon 5" attracted both "Star Trek" fans and a large number of literary SF fans who previously had not been involved in media fandom. Other series began to attract a growing number of followers. The British series, "Doctor Who", has similarly attracted a devoted following.


title: Science fiction on television

text: In the late 1990s, a market for celebrity autographs emerged on eBay, which created a new source of income for actors, who began to charge money for autographs that they had previously been doing for free. This became significant enough that lesser-known actors would come to conventions without requesting any appearance fee, simply to be allowed to sell their own autographs (commonly on publicity photos). Today most events with actor appearances are organized by commercial promoters, though a number of fan-run conventions still exist, such as Toronto Trek and Shore Leave.


title: Science fiction on television

text: The 1985 series "Robotech" is most often credited as the catalyst for the Western interest in anime. The series inspired a few fanzines such as "Protoculture Addicts" and "Animag" both of which in turn promoted interest in the wide world of anime in general. Anime's first notable appearance at SF or comic book conventions was in the form of video showings of popular anime, untranslated and often low quality VHS bootlegs. Starting in the 1990s, anime fans began organizing conventions. These quickly grew to sizes much larger than other science fiction and media conventions in the same communities; many cities now have anime conventions attracting five to ten thousand attendees. Many anime conventions are a hybrid between non-profit and commercial events, with volunteer organizers handling large revenue streams and dealing with commercial suppliers and professional marketing campaigns.


title: Science fiction on television

text: For decades, the majority of science fiction media fandom has been represented by males of all ages and for most of its modern existence, a fairly diverse racial demographic. The most highly publicized demographic for science fiction fans is the male adolescent; roughly the same demographic for American comic books. Female fans, while always present, were far fewer in number and less conspicuously present in fandom. With the rising popularity of fanzines, female fans became increasingly vocal. Starting in the 2000s (decade), genre series began to offer more prominent female characters. Many series featured women as the main characters with males as supporting characters. "True Blood" is an example. Also, such shows premises moved away from heroic action-adventure and focused more on characters and their relationships. This has caused the rising popularity of fanfiction, a large majority of which is categorized as slash fanfiction. Female fans comprise the majority of fanfiction writers.


title: Science fiction on television

text: U.S. television science fiction has produced "Lost In Space", "", "The Twilight Zone," and "The X-Files", among others.


title: Science fiction on television

text: British television science fiction began in 1938 when the broadcast medium was in its infancy with the transmission of a partial adaptation of Karel Čapek's play "R.U.R.". Despite an occasionally chequered history, programmes in the genre have been produced by both the BBC and the largest commercial channel, ITV. "Doctor Who" is listed in the "Guinness World Records" as the longest-running science fiction television show in the world and as the "most successful" science fiction series of all time.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Science fiction in Canada was produced by the CBC as early as the 1950s. In the 1970s, CTV produced "The Starlost". In the 1980s, Canadian animation studios including Nelvana, began producing a growing proportion of the world market in animation.


title: Science fiction on television

text: In the 1990s, Canada became an important player in live action speculative fiction on television, with dozens of series like "Forever Knight", "", and most notably "The X-Files" and "Stargate SG-1". Many series have been produced for youth and children's markets, including "Deepwater Black" and "MythQuest".


title: Science fiction on television

text: In the first decade of the 21st century, changes in provincial tax legislation prompted many production companies to move from Toronto to Vancouver. Recent popular series produced in Vancouver include "The Dead Zone", "Smallville", "Andromeda", "Stargate Atlantis", "Stargate Universe", "The 4400", "Sanctuary" and the reimagined "Battlestar Galactica".


title: Science fiction on television

text: Because of the small size of the domestic television market, most Canadian productions involve partnerships with production studios based in the United States and Europe. However, in recent years, new partnership arrangements are allowing Canadian investors a growing share of control of projects produced in Canada and elsewhere.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Australia's first locally produced Science Fiction series was "The Stranger" (1964–65) produced and screened by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Later series made in the 1960s included "The Interparis" (1968) "Vega 4" (1967), and "Phoenix Five" (1970). The country's best known Science Fiction series was "Farscape"; an American co-production, it ran from 1999 to 2003. A significant proportion of Australian produced Science Fiction programmes are made for the teens/young Adults market, including "The Girl from Tomorrow", the long-running "Mr. Squiggle", "Halfway Across the Galaxy and Turn Left", "Ocean Girl", "Crash Zone", "Watch This Space" and "Spellbinder".


title: Science fiction on television

text: Other series like "Time Trax", "Roar", and "" were filmed in Australia, but used mostly US crew and actors.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Japan has a long history of producing science fiction series for television. Some of the most famous are anime such as Osamu Tezuka's "Astro Boy", the Super Robots such as Mitsuteru Yokoyama's "Tetsujin 28-go" ("Gigantor") and Go Nagai's "Mazinger Z", and the Real Robots such as Yoshiyuki Tomino's "Gundam" series and Shōji Kawamori's "Macross" series.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Other primary aspects of Japanese science fiction television are the superhero "tokusatsu" (a term literally meaning special effects) series, pioneered by programs such as "Moonlight Mask" and "Planet Prince". The suitmation technique has been used in long running franchises include Eiji Tsuburaya's Ultra Series, Shotaro Ishinomori's Kamen Rider Series, and the Super Sentai Series.


title: Science fiction on television

text: In addition, several dramas utilize science fiction elements as framing devices, but are not labeled as "tokusatsu" as they do not utilize actors in full body suits and other special effects.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Danish television broadcast the children's TV-series "Crash" in 1984 about a boy who finds out that his room is a space ship.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Early Dutch television series were "" (Tomorrow it will happen), broadcast from 1957 to 1959, about a group of Dutch space explorers and their adventures, "De duivelsgrot" (The devil's cave), broadcast from 1963 to 1964, about a scientist who finds the map of a cave that leads to the center of the earth and "Treinreis naar de Toekomst" (Train journey to the future) about two young children who are taken to the future by robots who try to recreate humanity, but are unable to give the cloned humans a soul. All three of these television series were aimed mostly at children.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Later television series were "Professor Vreemdeling" (1977) about a strange professor who wants to make plants speak and "" (1997) a nationalistic post-apocalyptic series where the Netherlands has been built full of housing and the highways are filled with traffic jams. The protagonist, a female superhero, wears traditional folkloric clothes and tries to save traditional elements of Dutch society against the factory owners.


title: Science fiction on television

text: Italian TV shows include "A come Andromeda" (1972) which was a remake of 1962 BBC serial, "A for Andromeda" (from the novels of Hoyle and Elliott), "Geminus" (1968), "Il segno del comando" (1971), "Gamma" (1974) and "La traccia verde" (1975).


title: Science fiction on television

text: French series are "", French science-fiction/fantasy television series (both co-produced with Canada) and a number of smaller fiction/fantasy television series, including "Tang" in 1971, about a secret organization that attempts to control the world with a new super weapon, "Les atomistes" and 1970 miniseries "La brigade des maléfices".


title: Science fiction on television

text: Another French-produced science fiction series was the new age animated series (). Anime-influenced animation includes a series of French-Japanese cartoons/anime, including such titles as "Ulysses 31" (1981), "The Mysterious Cities of Gold" (1982), and "Ōban Star-Racers" (2006).


title: Science fiction on television

text: The first Spanish SF series was "Diego Valor", a 22 episode TV adaption of a radio show hero of the same name based on Dan Dare, aired weekly between 1958 and 1959. Nothing was survived of this series, not a single still; it is not known if the show was even recorded or just a live broadcast.


title: Science fiction on television

text: The 60s were dominated by Chicho Ibáñez Serrador and Narciso Ibáñez Menta, who adapted SF works from Golden Age authors and others to a series titled "Mañana puede ser verdad". Only 11 episodes were filmed. The 70s saw three important television films, "Los pajaritos" (1974), "La Gioconda está triste" (1977), and "La cabina" (1972), this last one, about a man who becomes trapped in a telephone booth, while passersby seem unable to help him, won the 1973 International Emmy Award for Fiction.


title: Science fiction on television

text: The series "Plutón B.R.B. Nero" (2008) was a brutal SF comedy by Álex de la Iglesia, in the line of "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy", "Red Dwarf", or "Doctor Who", with 26 episodes of 35 minutes. Other series of the 2010s were "Los protegidos" (2010-2012), "El barco" (2011-2013), and "El internado" (2007-2010), all three inspired by North American productions, with minor SF elements.


title: Science fiction on television

text: The latest success is "El ministerio del tiempo" ("The ministry of time"), premiered on February 24, 2015 on TVE's main channel La 1. The series follows the exploits of a patrol of the fictional Ministry of Time, which deals with incidents caused by time travel. It has garnered several national prizes in 2015, like the Ondas Prize, and has a thick following on-line, called "los ministéricos".


title: Science fiction on television

text: Serbia produced "The Collector" (), a science fiction television series based upon Zoran Živković's story, winner of a World Fantasy Award.


title: Science fiction on television

text: "Návštěvníci" "(The Visitors)" was a Czechoslovak (and Federal German, Swiss and French) TV series produced in 1981 to 1983. The family show aired in a larger number of European countries.


title: Science fiction on television

text: For a list of notable science fiction series and programs on television, see: List of science fiction television programs.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: Since at least the 1600s, Great Britain and Ireland have been connected politically, reaching a height in 1801 with the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. About five-sixths of the island of Ireland seceded from the United Kingdom in 1921 as the Irish Free State. Historically, relations between the two states have been influenced heavily by issues arising from their shared (and frequently troubled) history, the independence of the Irish Free State and the governance of Northern Ireland. These include the partition of Ireland and the terms of Ireland's secession, its constitutional relationship with and obligations to the UK after independence, and the outbreak of political violence in Northern Ireland. Additionally, the high level of trade between the two states, their proximate geographic location, their common status as islands in the European Union until Britain's departure, common language and close cultural and personal links mean political developments in both states often closely follow each other.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: Irish and British citizens are accorded equivalent reciprocal rights and entitlements (with a small number of minor exceptions) and a Common Travel Area exists between Ireland, United Kingdom, and the Crown Dependencies. The British–Irish Intergovernmental Conference acts as an official forum for co-operation between the Government of Ireland and the Government of the United Kingdom on matters of mutual interest generally, and with respect to Northern Ireland in particular. Two other bodies, the British–Irish Council and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly act as a forum for discussion between the executives and assemblies, respectively, of the region, including the devolved regions in the UK and the three Crown dependencies. Co-operation between Northern Ireland and Ireland, including the execution of common policies in certain areas, occurs through the North/South Ministerial Council. In 2014, the UK Prime Minister David Cameron, and the Irish Taoiseach Enda Kenny described the relationship between the two countries as being at 'an all time high'.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: Both Ireland and the United Kingdom joined the European Union (then the European Communities) in 1973. However, the three Crown dependencies remained outside of the EU. In June 2016 the United Kingdom held a referendum in which the majority of the voters voting in the referendum voted to leave the European Union. Brexit became effective on 31 January 2020, with a deal being reached on 24 December 2020, keeping Northern Ireland in the European Union Single Market for goods and keeping a free border between the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: The three devolved administrations of the United Kingdom, in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, and the three dependencies of the British Crown, the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey, also participate in multilateral bodies created between the two states.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: There have been relations between the people inhabiting the British Isles for as much as we know of their history. A Romano-Briton, Patricius, later known as Saint Patrick, brought Christianity to Ireland and, following the fall of the Roman Empire, missionaries from Ireland re-introduced Christianity to Britain.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: The expansion of Gaelic culture into what became known as Scotland (after the Latin "Scoti", meaning Gaels) brought close political and familial ties between people in Ireland and people in Great Britain, lasting from the early Middle Ages to the 17th century, including a common Gaelic language spoken on both islands. Norse-Gaels in the Kingdom of Dublin and Norman invasion of Ireland added religious, political, economic and social ties between Northumbria and Wales with Leinster in the Pale, the Isle of Man and Galloway, including Hiberno-English.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: War and colonisation made Ireland completely subject to growing British colonial powers in the early 1600s. Forced settlement of newly conquered land and inequitable laws defined life for the Irish under British rule. England had previously conquered Scotland and Wales, leaving many people from western Scotland to seek opportunity in settling about 500,000 acres of newly seized land in Ireland. Some Irish people were displaced to an attempted "reservation". This resulted in Gaelic ties between Scotland and Ireland withering dramatically over the course of the 17th century, including a divergence in the Gaelic language into two distinct languages.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: Although Ireland gained near-independence from Great Britain in 1782, there were revolutionary movements in the 1790s that favored France, Britain's great enemy. Secret societies staged the failed 1798 Rebellion. Therefore the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland were merged in 1801 to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: On 1 January 1801, Great Britain and Ireland joined to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Act of Union 1800 was passed in both the Parliament of Great Britain and the Parliament of Ireland, dominated by the Protestant Ascendancy and lacking representation of the country's Roman Catholic population. Substantial majorities were achieved, and according to contemporary documents this was assisted by bribery in the form of the awarding of peerages and honours to opponents to gain their votes.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: The separate Parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland were now abolished, and replaced by a united Parliament of the United Kingdom. Ireland thus became an integral part of the United Kingdom, sending around 100 MPs to the House of Commons at Westminster and 28 representative peers to the House of Lords, elected from among their number by the Irish peers themselves, except that Roman Catholic peers were not permitted to take their seats in the Lords. Part of the trade-off for the Irish Catholics was to be the granting of Catholic Emancipation, which had been fiercely resisted by the all-Anglican Irish Parliament. However, this was blocked by King George III, who argued that emancipating the Roman Catholics would breach his Coronation Oath. The Roman Catholic hierarchy had endorsed the Union. However the decision to block Catholic Emancipation fatally undermined the appeal of the Union.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: In the 19th century, violent and constitutional campaigns for autonomy or independence culminated in an election in 1918 returning almost 70% of seats to Sinn Féin, who declared Irish independence from Britain and set up a parliament in Dublin, and declared the independence of Ireland from the United Kingdom. A war of independence followed that ended with the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which partitioned Ireland between the Irish Free State, which gained dominion status within the British Empire, and a devolved administration in Northern Ireland, which remained part of the UK. In 1937, Ireland declared itself fully independent of the United Kingdom.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: Today, the British Isles contain two sovereign states: Ireland (alternatively described as the "Republic of Ireland") and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The United Kingdom comprises four countries of the United Kingdom. All but Northern Ireland have been independent states at one point.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: There are also three Crown dependencies, Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man, in the archipelago which are not part of the United Kingdom, although the United Kingdom maintains responsibility for certain affairs such as international affairs and ensuring good governance, on behalf of the British crown, and can legislate directly for them. These participate in the shared institutions created between Ireland and the United Kingdom under the Good Friday Agreement. The United Kingdom and the Crown dependencies form what are called the "British Islands".


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: The devolved administrations of the United Kingdom and the three Crown Dependencies also participate in the shared institutions established under the Good Friday Agreement.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: The British monarch was head of state of all of these states and countries of the archipelago from the Union of the Crowns in 1603 until their role in Ireland became ambiguous with the enactment of the Constitution of Ireland in 1937. The remaining functions of the monarch in Ireland were transferred to the President of Ireland, with coming into effect of the Republic of Ireland Act in 1949.


title: Ireland–United Kingdom relations

text: Several academic perspectives are important in the study and understanding of Ireland–United Kingdom relations. Important strands of scholarship include research on identity, especially Britishness and Irishness, and studies of the major political movements, such as separatism, unionism and nationalism. The concept of post-nationalism is also contemporary trend in studies of history, culture and politics in the isles.