title: Biostatistics

text: The research question will define the objective of a study. The research will be headed by the question, so it needs to be concise, at the same time it is focused on interesting and novel topics that may improve science and knowledge and that field. To define the way to ask the scientific question, an exhaustive literature review might be necessary. So the research can be useful to add value to the scientific community.


title: Biostatistics

text: Once the aim of the study is defined, the possible answers to the research question can be proposed, transforming this question into a hypothesis. The main propose is called null hypothesis (H) and is usually based on a permanent knowledge about the topic or an obvious occurrence of the phenomena, sustained by a deep literature review. We can say it is the standard expected answer for the data under the situation in test. In general, H assumes no association between . On the other hand, the alternative hypothesis is the denial of H. It assumes some degree of association between the treatment and the outcome. Although, the hypothesis is sustained by question research and its expected and unexpected answers.


title: Biostatistics

text: As an example, consider groups of similar animals (mice, for example) under two different diet systems. The research question would be: what is the best diet? In this case, H would be that there is no difference between the two diets in mice metabolism (H: μ = μ) and the alternative hypothesis would be that the diets have different effects over animals metabolism (H: μ ≠ μ).


title: Biostatistics

text: The hypothesis is defined by the researcher, according to his/her interests in answering the main question. Besides that, the alternative hypothesis can be more than one hypothesis. It can assume not only differences across observed parameters, but their degree of differences ("i.e." higher or shorter).


title: Biostatistics

text: Usually, a study aims to understand an effect of a phenomenon over a population. In biology, a population is defined as all the individuals of a given species, in a specific area at a given time. In biostatistics, this concept is extended to a variety of collections possible of study. Although, in biostatistics, a population is not only the individuals, but the total of one specific component of their organisms, as the whole genome, or all the sperm cells, for animals, or the total leaf area, for a plant, for example.


title: Biostatistics

text: It is not possible to take the measures from all the elements of a population. Because of that, the sampling process is very important for statistical inference. Sampling is defined as to randomly get a representative part of the entire population, to make posterior inferences about the population. So, the sample might catch the most variability across a population. The sample size is determined by several things, since the scope of the research to the resources available. In clinical research, the trial type, as inferiority, equivalence, and superiority is a key in determining sample size.


title: Biostatistics

text: Experimental designs sustain those basic principles of experimental statistics. There are three basic experimental designs to randomly allocate treatments in all plots of the experiment. They are completely randomized design, randomized block design, and factorial designs. Treatments can be arranged in many ways inside the experiment. In agriculture, the correct experimental design is the root of a good study and the arrangement of treatments within the study is essential because environment largely affects the plots (plants, livestock, microorganisms). These main arrangements can be found in the literature under the names of "lattices", "incomplete blocks", "split plot", "augmented blocks", and many others. All of the designs might include control plots, determined by the researcher, to provide an error estimation during inference.


title: Biostatistics

text: In clinical studies, the samples are usually smaller than in other biological studies, and in most cases, the environment effect can be controlled or measured. It is common to use randomized controlled clinical trials, where results are usually compared with observational study designs such as case–control or cohort.


title: Biostatistics

text: Data collection methods must be considered in research planning, because it highly influences the sample size and experimental design.


title: Biostatistics

text: Data collection varies according to type of data. For qualitative data, collection can be done with structured questionnaires or by observation, considering presence or intensity of disease, using score criterion to categorize levels of occurrence. For quantitative data, collection is done by measuring numerical information using instruments.


title: Biostatistics

text: In agriculture and biology studies, yield data and its components can be obtained by metric measures. However, pest and disease injuries in plats are obtained by observation, considering score scales for levels of damage. Especially, in genetic studies, modern methods for data collection in field and laboratory should be considered, as high-throughput platforms for phenotyping and genotyping. These tools allow bigger experiments, while turn possible evaluate many plots in lower time than a human-based only method for data collection.


title: Biostatistics

text: Finally, all data collected of interest must be stored in an organized data frame for further analysis.


title: Biostatistics

text: Data can be represented through tables or graphical representation, such as line charts, bar charts, histograms, scatter plot. Also, measures of central tendency and variability can be very useful to describe an overview of the data. Follow some examples:


title: Biostatistics

text: One type of tables are the frequency table, which consists of data arranged in rows and columns, where the frequency is the number of occurrences or repetitions of data. Frequency can be:


title: Biostatistics

text: Line graphs represent the variation of a value over another metric, such as time. In general, values are represented in the vertical axis, while the time variation is represented in the horizontal axis.


title: Biostatistics

text: A bar chart is a graph that shows categorical data as bars presenting heights (vertical bar) or widths (horizontal bar) proportional to represent values. Bar charts provide an image that could also be represented in a tabular format.


title: Biostatistics

text: In the bar chart example, we have the birth rate in Brazil for the December months from 2010 to 2016. The sharp fall in December 2016 reflects the outbreak of Zika virus in the birth rate in Brazil.


title: Biostatistics

text: The histogram (or frequency distribution) is a graphical representation of a dataset tabulated and divided into uniform or non-uniform classes. It was first introduced by Karl Pearson.


title: Biostatistics

text: A scatter plot is a mathematical diagram that uses Cartesian coordinates to display values of a dataset. A scatter plot shows the data as a set of points, each one presenting the value of one variable determining the position on the horizontal axis and another variable on the vertical axis. They are also called scatter graph, scatter chart, scattergram, or scatter diagram.


title: Biostatistics

text: The arithmetic mean is the sum of a collection of values (formula_3) divided by the number of items of this collection (formula_4).


title: Biostatistics

text: Box plot is a method for graphically depicting groups of numerical data. The maximum and minimum values are represented by the lines, and the interquartile range (IQR) represent 25–75% of the data. Outliers may be plotted as circles.


title: Biostatistics

text: Although correlations between two different kinds of data could be inferred by graphs, such as scatter plot, it is necessary validate this though numerical information. For this reason, correlation coefficients are required. They provide a numerical value that reflects the strength of an association.


title: Biostatistics

text: Pearson correlation coefficient is a measure of association between two variables, X and Y. This coefficient, usually represented by "ρ" (rho) for the population and "r" for the sample, assumes values between −1 and 1, where "ρ" = 1 represents a perfect positive correlation, "ρ" = −1 represents a perfect negative correlation, and "ρ" = 0 is no linear correlation.


title: Biostatistics

text: It is used to make inferences about an unknown population, by estimation and/or hypothesis testing. In other words, it is desirable to obtain parameters to describe the population of interest, but since the data is limited, it is necessary to make use of a representative sample in order to estimate them. With that, it is possible to test previously defined hypotheses and apply the conclusions to the entire population. The standard error of the mean is a measure of variability that is crucial to do inferences.


title: Biostatistics

text: Hypothesis testing is essential to make inferences about populations aiming to answer research questions, as settled in "Research planning" section. Authors defined four steps to be set:


title: Biostatistics

text: A confidence interval is a range of values that can contain the true real parameter value in given a certain level of confidence. The first step is to estimate the best-unbiased estimate of the population parameter. The upper value of the interval is obtained by the sum of this estimate with the multiplication between the standard error of the mean and the confidence level. The calculation of lower value is similar, but instead of a sum, a subtraction must be applied.


title: Biostatistics

text: When testing a hypothesis, there are two types of statistic errors possible: Type I error and Type II error. The type I error or false positive is the incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis and the type II error or false negative is the failure to reject a false null hypothesis. The significance level denoted by α is the type I error rate and should be chosen before performing the test. The type II error rate is denoted by β and statistical power of the test is 1 − β.


title: Biostatistics

text: The p-value is the probability of obtaining results as extreme as or more extreme than those observed, assuming the null hypothesis (H) is true. It is also called the calculated probability. It is common to confuse the p-value with the significance level (α), but, the α is a predefined threshold for calling significant results. If p is less than α, the null hypothesis (H) is rejected.


title: Biostatistics

text: In multiple tests of the same hypothesis, the probability of the occurrence of falses positives (familywise error rate) increase and some strategy are used to control this occurrence. This is commonly achieved by using a more stringent threshold to reject null hypotheses. The Bonferroni correction defines an acceptable global significance level, denoted by α* and each test is individually compared with a value of α = α*/m. This ensures that the familywise error rate in all m tests, is less than or equal to α*. When m is large, the Bonferroni correction may be overly conservative. An alternative to the Bonferroni correction is to control the false discovery rate (FDR). The FDR controls the expected proportion of the rejected null hypotheses (the so-called discoveries) that are false (incorrect rejections). This procedure ensures that, for independent tests, the false discovery rate is at most q*. Thus, the FDR is less conservative than the Bonferroni correction and have more power, at the cost of more false positives.


title: Biostatistics

text: The main hypothesis being tested (e.g., no association between treatments and outcomes) is often accompanied by other technical assumptions (e.g., about the form of the probability distribution of the outcomes) that are also part of the null hypothesis. When the technical assumptions are violated in practice, then the null may be frequently rejected even if the main hypothesis is true. Such rejections are said to be due to model mis-specification. Verifying whether the outcome of a statistical test does not change when the technical assumptions are slightly altered (so-called robustness checks) is the main way of combating mis-specification.


title: Biostatistics

text: Model criteria selection will select or model that more approximate true model. The Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) and The Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) are examples of asymptotically efficient criteria.


title: Biostatistics

text: Recent developments have made a large impact on biostatistics. Two important changes have been the ability to collect data on a high-throughput scale, and the ability to perform much more complex analysis using computational techniques. This comes from the development in areas as sequencing technologies, Bioinformatics and Machine learning (Machine learning in bioinformatics).


title: Biostatistics

text: New biomedical technologies like microarrays, next-generation sequencers (for genomics) and mass spectrometry (for proteomics) generate enormous amounts of data, allowing many tests to be performed simultaneously. Careful analysis with biostatistical methods is required to separate the signal from the noise. For example, a microarray could be used to measure many thousands of genes simultaneously, determining which of them have different expression in diseased cells compared to normal cells. However, only a fraction of genes will be differentially expressed.


title: Biostatistics

text: Multicollinearity often occurs in high-throughput biostatistical settings. Due to high intercorrelation between the predictors (such as gene expression levels), the information of one predictor might be contained in another one. It could be that only 5% of the predictors are responsible for 90% of the variability of the response. In such a case, one could apply the biostatistical technique of dimension reduction (for example via principal component analysis). Classical statistical techniques like linear or logistic regression and linear discriminant analysis do not work well for high dimensional data (i.e. when the number of observations n is smaller than the number of features or predictors p: n < p). As a matter of fact, one can get quite high R-values despite very low predictive power of the statistical model. These classical statistical techniques (esp. least squares linear regression) were developed for low dimensional data (i.e. where the number of observations n is much larger than the number of predictors p: n » p). In cases of high dimensionality, one should always consider an independent validation test set and the corresponding residual sum of squares (RSS) and R of the validation test set, not those of the training set.


title: Biostatistics

text: Often, it is useful to pool information from multiple predictors together. For example, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) considers the perturbation of whole (functionally related) gene sets rather than of single genes. These gene sets might be known biochemical pathways or otherwise functionally related genes. The advantage of this approach is that it is more robust: It is more likely that a single gene is found to be falsely perturbed than it is that a whole pathway is falsely perturbed. Furthermore, one can integrate the accumulated knowledge about biochemical pathways (like the JAK-STAT signaling pathway) using this approach.


title: Biostatistics

text: The development of biological databases enables storage and management of biological data with the possibility of ensuring access for users around the world. They are useful for researchers depositing data, retrieve information and files (raw or processed) originated from other experiments or indexing scientific articles, as PubMed. Another possibility is search for the desired term (a gene, a protein, a disease, an organism, and so on) and check all results related to this search. There are databases dedicated to SNPs (dbSNP), the knowledge on genes characterization and their pathways (KEGG) and the description of gene function classifying it by cellular component, molecular function and biological process (Gene Ontology). In addition to databases that contain specific molecular information, there are others that are ample in the sense that they store information about an organism or group of organisms. As an example of a database directed towards just one organism, but that contains much data about it, is the "Arabidopsis thaliana" genetic and molecular database – TAIR. Phytozome, in turn, stores the assemblies and annotation files of dozen of plant genomes, also containing visualization and analysis tools. Moreover, there is an interconnection between some databases in the information exchange/sharing and a major initiative was the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration (INSDC) which relates data from DDBJ, EMBL-EBI, and NCBI.


title: Biostatistics

text: Nowadays, increase in size and complexity of molecular datasets leads to use of powerful statistical methods provided by computer science algorithms which are developed by machine learning area. Therefore, data mining and machine learning allow detection of patterns in data with a complex structure, as biological ones, by using methods of supervised and unsupervised learning, regression, detection of clusters and association rule mining, among others. To indicate some of them, self-organizing maps and "k"-means are examples of cluster algorithms; neural networks implementation and support vector machines models are examples of common machine learning algorithms.


title: Biostatistics

text: Collaborative work among molecular biologists, bioinformaticians, statisticians and computer scientists is important to perform an experiment correctly, going from planning, passing through data generation and analysis, and ending with biological interpretation of the results.


title: Biostatistics

text: On the other hand, the advent of modern computer technology and relatively cheap computing resources have enabled computer-intensive biostatistical methods like bootstrapping and re-sampling methods.


title: Biostatistics

text: In recent times, random forests have gained popularity as a method for performing statistical classification. Random forest techniques generate a panel of decision trees. Decision trees have the advantage that you can draw them and interpret them (even with a basic understanding of mathematics and statistics). Random Forests have thus been used for clinical decision support systems.


title: Biostatistics

text: Public health, including epidemiology, health services research, nutrition, environmental health and health care policy & management. In these medicine contents, it's important to consider the design and analysis of the clinical trials. As one example, there is the assessment of severity state of a patient with a prognosis of an outcome of a disease.


title: Biostatistics

text: With new technologies and genetics knowledge, biostatistics are now also used for Systems medicine, which consists in a more personalized medicine. For this, is made an integration of data from different sources, including conventional patient data, clinico-pathological parameters, molecular and genetic data as well as data generated by additional new-omics technologies.


title: Biostatistics

text: The study of Population genetics and Statistical genetics in order to link variation in genotype with a variation in phenotype. In other words, it is desirable to discover the genetic basis of a measurable trait, a quantitative trait, that is under polygenic control. A genome region that is responsible for a continuous trait is called Quantitative trait locus (QTL). The study of QTLs become feasible by using molecular markers and measuring traits in populations, but their mapping needs the obtaining of a population from an experimental crossing, like an F2 or Recombinant inbred strains/lines (RILs). To scan for QTLs regions in a genome, a gene map based on linkage have to be built. Some of the best-known QTL mapping algorithms are Interval Mapping, Composite Interval Mapping, and Multiple Interval Mapping.


title: Biostatistics

text: However, QTL mapping resolution is impaired by the amount of recombination assayed, a problem for species in which it is difficult to obtain large offspring. Furthermore, allele diversity is restricted to individuals originated from contrasting parents, which limit studies of allele diversity when we have a panel of individuals representing a natural population. For this reason, the Genome-wide association study was proposed in order to identify QTLs based on linkage disequilibrium, that is the non-random association between traits and molecular markers. It was leveraged by the development of high-throughput SNP genotyping.


title: Biostatistics

text: In animal and plant breeding, the use of markers in selection aiming for breeding, mainly the molecular ones, collaborated to the development of marker-assisted selection. While QTL mapping is limited due resolution, GWAS does not have enough power when rare variants of small effect that are also influenced by environment. So, the concept of Genomic Selection (GS) arises in order to use all molecular markers in the selection and allow the prediction of the performance of candidates in this selection. The proposal is to genotype and phenotype a training population, develop a model that can obtain the genomic estimated breeding values (GEBVs) of individuals belonging to a genotype and but not phenotype population, called testing population. This kind of study could also include a validation population, thinking in the concept of cross-validation, in which the real phenotype results measured in this population are compared with the phenotype results based on the prediction, what used to check the accuracy of the model.


title: Biostatistics

text: Studies for differential expression of genes from RNA-Seq data, as for RT-qPCR and microarrays, demands comparison of conditions. The goal is to identify genes which have a significant change in abundance between different conditions. Then, experiments are designed appropriately, with replicates for each condition/treatment, randomization and blocking, when necessary. In RNA-Seq, the quantification of expression uses the information of mapped reads that are summarized in some genetic unit, as exons that are part of a gene sequence. As microarray results can be approximated by a normal distribution, RNA-Seq counts data are better explained by other distributions. The first used distribution was the Poisson one, but it underestimate the sample error, leading to false positives. Currently, biological variation is considered by methods that estimate a dispersion parameter of a negative binomial distribution. Generalized linear models are used to perform the tests for statistical significance and as the number of genes is high, multiple tests correction have to be considered. Some examples of other analysis on genomics data comes from microarray or proteomics experiments. Often concerning diseases or disease stages.


title: Biostatistics

text: There are a lot of tools that can be used to do statistical analysis in biological data. Most of them are useful in other areas of knowledge, covering a large number of applications (alphabetical). Here are brief descriptions of some of them:


title: Biostatistics

text: Almost all educational programmes in biostatistics are at postgraduate level. They are most often found in schools of public health, affiliated with schools of medicine, forestry, or agriculture, or as a focus of application in departments of statistics.


title: Biostatistics

text: In the United States, where several universities have dedicated biostatistics departments, many other top-tier universities integrate biostatistics faculty into statistics or other departments, such as epidemiology. Thus, departments carrying the name "biostatistics" may exist under quite different structures. For instance, relatively new biostatistics departments have been founded with a focus on bioinformatics and computational biology, whereas older departments, typically affiliated with schools of public health, will have more traditional lines of research involving epidemiological studies and clinical trials as well as bioinformatics. In larger universities around the world, where both a statistics and a biostatistics department exist, the degree of integration between the two departments may range from the bare minimum to very close collaboration. In general, the difference between a statistics program and a biostatistics program is twofold: (i) statistics departments will often host theoretical/methodological research which are less common in biostatistics programs and (ii) statistics departments have lines of research that may include biomedical applications but also other areas such as industry (quality control), business and economics and biological areas other than medicine.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Nicole Malliotakis (; born November 11, 1980) is an American politician serving as the U.S. representative for New York's 11th congressional district since 2021. Her constituency covers Staten Island and southern Brooklyn.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis is the only Republican representing any part of New York City in Congress, and is one of four female Republican elected officials in New York City, with the other three serving on the New York City Council. In 2020, she defeated incumbent Representative Max Rose. She was the Republican nominee for mayor of New York City in the 2017 election, which she lost to incumbent Democrat Bill de Blasio.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis was born on November 11, 1980, in the Manhattan borough of New York City. She moved to Staten Island when she was two years old and grew up in Great Kills, the daughter of immigrant parents; her father is from Greece and her mother from Cuba, having left in 1959 following the rise of Fidel Castro. She was raised in the Greek Orthodox faith.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis attended New Dorp High School on Staten Island, and during her senior year was elected class president. She received a B.A. in communications from Seton Hall University and a Master of Business Administration (MBA) from Wagner College.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis worked as a community liaison for former State Senator John Marchi in 2003–04 and former Governor George Pataki in 2004–06. Before her election, she also worked on state energy policy as the Consolidated Edison Company of New York's public affairs manager.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: In November 2015, Senator Marco Rubio of Florida named Malliotakis the New York State chair of his 2016 presidential campaign.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: In 2010, Malliotakis won the election to represent the 60th District in the New York State Assembly, defeating two-term Democratic incumbent Janele Hyer-Spencer by 10 percentage points. Upon her election to the Assembly, she became the first Greek-American woman elected to office in New York State, the first Cuban-American woman elected to office in New York State, and the first person of Hispanic descent elected from Staten Island. As of January 2018, she was one of only two Republicans from the City of New York serving in the Assembly, along with Michael Reilly. Malliotakis was Brooklyn's only Republican lawmaker.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: In October 2011, Malliotakis submitted an "amicus curiae" brief in support of an American Automobile Association lawsuit against the Port Authority in federal court, arguing that recent toll increases were illegal. She successfully brought an Article 78 proceeding in New York State Supreme Court to get the Port Authority to disclose the results of an economic impact study on the effect the toll increases had had on business at New York Container Terminal.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis was reelected in 2012 with 61% of the vote and in 2014 with 73% of the vote in both Brooklyn and Staten Island. After U.S. Representative Michael Grimm's resignation in 2014, she was mentioned as a top contender for his seat, but decided against a run.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: She made elder rights a hallmark of her tenure and successfully fought to keep a senior center in Staten Island from being closed.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis held a series of forums on the MTA Payroll Mobility Tax and its alleged negative impact on small businesses, nonprofit organizations, and private schools. The New York state legislature and Governor Andrew Cuomo subsequently enacted significant repeals. Malliotakis fought for relief from the September 2011 toll increase on Port Authority bridges, calling for divestment of costly non-essential real estate holdings and highlighting mismanaged contributions to community organizations.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: During her first year in the Assembly, Malliotakis was named a "rising star" by "Capitol News", "Home Reporter News", the Hispanic Coalition of New York, and the Greek America Foundation. The Business Council of New York State named her a "top-ranking pro-jobs supporter".


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: On April 25, 2017, Malliotakis filed as a Republican candidate for mayor of New York City in the 2017 election. She won the Republican nomination unopposed after businessman Paul Massey dropped out in June over money concerns. On November 7, 2017, Malliotakis lost the election to incumbent Democratic Mayor Bill de Blasio, 66–28%. She received 70% of the vote in Staten Island.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: In 2020, Malliotakis ran as the Republican nominee for New York's 11th congressional district against incumbent Democrat Max Rose. Her state assembly district included much of the eastern portion of the congressional district.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: The race was considered the only potentially competitive House race in New York City. The 11th has long been the most conservative district of the 12 that divide New York City; it is the only one with a Cook Partisan Voting Index less than D+20, and since the 1990s it has been the only New York City-based district where Republicans usually do well. The GOP had held the seat for all but one term since 1980 before Rose won the seat in an upset in the 2018 midterm elections. The two engaged in a contentious race, with many attack ads on both sides.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis endorsed incumbent Republican President Donald Trump in the 2020 presidential election; in turn, Trump announced, "Nicole has my Complete & Total Endorsement!" She embraced Trump's backing, saying, "I am honored by President Trump's endorsement and his words of support...I plan to defeat Max Rose and return New York's 11th Congressional District to commonsense leadership." Trump's involvement to assist Malliotakis in the race intensified over the summer, when he disparaged Rose as "terrible", a "phony", a "fraud", "weak", and a "puppet" of House Speaker Nancy Pelosi: "He shouldn't represent the people of Staten Island, who I love. That's really Trump country...I love Staten Island. [Rose] shouldn't represent the people of Staten Island; he's too weak." Malliotakis's campaign echoed Trump's sentiments: "President Trump is right; Max Rose is a fraud and a puppet of Nancy Pelosi."


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis declared victory upon taking a commanding lead in election day returns on November 3. Rose did not immediately concede, citing absentee votes yet to be counted. As it became apparent that Malliotakis's lead was too large to overcome, Rose conceded on November 12. Malliotakis took 53% of the vote to Rose's 46.8%.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis is running for reelection in 2022. During the 2020 redistricting process, a Democratic gerrymander shifted New York's 11th congressional district from favoring Republicans by seven points to favoring Democrats by four points.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: In January 2021, Malliotakis was appointed as the Assistant Minority Whip for the Republican Conference, the House Committees On Foreign Affairs and Transportation & Infrastructure, as well as the Select Subcommittee on the Coronavirus.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: On February 4, 2021, Malliotakis joined 10 other Republican House members and all Democrats in voting to strip Marjorie Taylor Greene of her House Education and Labor Committee and House Budget Committee assignments in response to controversial political statements she had made. Malliotakis called Greene’s comments "extraordinarily offensive and hurtful to thousands of 9/11 families and first responders, our Jewish community and many others in my district."


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: On November 5, 2021, Malliotakis joined 12 other Republicans in voting for the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, which passed the House 228–206.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: During her time in Congress, the American Conservative Union, a political action committee (PAC) supporting US American conservatism, gave her a 66% score for voting in line with its positions while the American Civil Liberties Union, a PAC associated with US American liberalism and libertarianism, gave her a 0% score. Upon her election to Congress, Malliotakis indicated an intent to join other freshman Republicans in forming a counterweight to oppose the so-called "Squad" of progressive Democrats led by fellow New York City congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez. "We have a group of new Republicans who love America. We value freedom, liberty, and opportunity", Malliotakis said, referencing several other newly elected members of Congress whose families escaped from Communist regimes, such as Carlos Giménez and Maria Elvira Salazar of Florida and Victoria Spartz of Indiana. "Freedom for a strong economy. Less government. That's why our families fled oppressive regimes. Our families fled from oppressive countries with the very same policies that AOC and the Squad are promoting." The coalition is known as the Freedom Force.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Shortly after Joe Biden defeated Trump in the 2020 presidential election, Malliotakis refused to acknowledge Biden's win, echoing Trump's refusal to concede the election. In the aftermath, Malliotakis supported Trump's false claims of election fraud.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: On January 6, 2021, Malliotakis voted to object to counting either Arizona's or Pennsylvania's electoral votes in the 2020 presidential election based on disproved allegations of voter fraud and unconstitutional procedures. On January 9, more than 300 protesters, including seven New York City and New York State elected officials, gathered outside her Brooklyn office to call for her to either vote to impeach Trump or resign, noting that her vote to object to the election results was premised on spurious voter-fraud theories that had motivated a violent, armed attack on the U.S. Capitol. On January 13, she voted against Trump's second impeachment for inciting the storming of the Capitol.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: As a state legislator, she received a 100% rating in 2011 from the New York State Right to Life Committee, an anti-abortion PAC, and a 50% rating in 2019 from Planned Parenthood Empire State, a pro-abortion rights PAC, indicating how often she voted with their positions. During her run for mayor, she said, "I am not against abortion." She does not support overturning "Roe v. Wade", but has voted against taxpayer-funded abortions and against New York state's late-term abortion bill. During her run for mayor, she did not identify as pro-life or pro-choice, saying, "it's not black or white. I think there's a lot of things that go into a decision of that magnitude." But in her congressional campaign, she identified as pro-life, even as she reiterated that she does not "hold black-and-white views" on abortion.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis voted against the American Rescue Plan in 2021, but after its passage, she touted aspects of the legislation as one of her "achievements".


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis voted for Trump in the 2016 presidential election and opposes sanctuary city status for undocumented immigrants in New York City. During her mayoral campaign, she said that she regretted voting for Trump and that she would "write in Marco Rubio so that I could tell you I voted for Marco Rubio." In 2020, however, she endorsed and said that she voted for Trump.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: On legislation relating to firearms and gun ownership, Malliotakis received an 8% rating from the Gun Owners of America, a PAC opposing gun control laws, and a 33% from the National Rifle Association, another PAC opposing gun control legislation.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: On November 5, 2021, Malliotakis was among the 13 House Republicans who voted with a majority of Democrats to pass the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, a $1.2 trillion infrastructure spending bill.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: After originally opposing same-sex marriage, Malliotakis said she regretted that position and voted to support adoptions by same-sex parents and to protect estate rights for married same-sex couples. She voted against a bill relating to bathroom rights for transgender people. Malliotakis also voted against the Equality Act. She has been endorsed by Log Cabin Republicans, a Republican PAC in favor of same-sex marriage and other LGBTQ rights.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: On July 19, 2022, Malliotakis and 46 other Republican Representatives voted for the Respect for Marriage Act, which would codify the right to same-sex marriage in federal law. She said, "In 2017, I expressed my deep regret for voting against a bill legalizing same-sex marriage in New York State while in the state Assembly six years prior. Over the past decade, I have attended two weddings of couples who deserve equal recognition and protection under the law." On December 8, 2022, she and 38 other Republican Representatives voted for the final passage of the Respect for Marriage Act.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis opposed raising fees on plastic bags in New York and supports reducing bridge tolls. She proposed a plan to cut property taxes for seniors and to limit increases on property taxes. When running for mayor, she argued that these reforms in property taxes would mean the wealthy would pay a fair share while poorer residents would get tax relief.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: In 2022, Malliotakis was one of 39 Republicans to vote for the Merger Filing Fee Modernization Act of 2022, an antitrust package that would crack down on corporations for anti-competitive behavior.


title: Nicole Malliotakis

text: Malliotakis is multilingual, speaking English and Spanish fluently and some Greek. She was baptized into the Greek Orthodox Church.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The Hungarian alphabet () is an extension of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Hungarian language.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, with several added variations of letters. The alphabet consists of the 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet, as well as five letters with an acute accent, two letters with an umlaut, two letters with a double acute accent, eight letters made up of two characters, and one letter made up of three characters. In some other languages, characters with diacritical marks would be considered variations of the base letter, however in Hungarian, these characters are considered letters in their own right.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: One sometimes speaks of the "smaller" (or basic) and "greater" (or "extended") Hungarian alphabets, depending on whether or not the digraphs "Dz" or "Dzs" is counted as a letter, and whether or not letters "Q", "W", "X", "Y", which can only be found in foreign words and traditional orthography of names. (As for Y, however, it exists as part of several digraphs)


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: Each sign shown above counts as a letter in its own right in Hungarian. Some, such as the letter ⟨ó⟩ and ⟨ő⟩, are inter-filed with the letter preceding it when sorting words alphabetically, whereas others, such as ⟨ö⟩, have their own place in collation rather than also being inter-filed with ⟨o⟩.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: While long vowels count as different letters, long (or geminate) consonants do not. Long consonants are marked by duplication: e.g. ⟨tt⟩, ⟨gg⟩, ⟨zz⟩ ("ette" 'he ate' (det.obj.), 'it hangs', 'with that'). For the di- and tri-graphs a simplification rule normally applies (but not when the compound is split at the end of a line of text due to hyphenation), only the first letter being duplicated, e.g.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: An exception is made at the joining points of compound words, for example: "jegygyűrű" 'engagement ring' ( + ) rather than .


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: ⟨Dz⟩ and ⟨dzs⟩ were recognized as individual letters in the 11th edition of Hungarian orthography (1984). Prior to that, they were analyzed as two-letter combinations ⟨d⟩+⟨z⟩ and ⟨d⟩+⟨zs⟩.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The letter "ë" is not part of the Hungarian alphabet; however, linguists use this letter to distinguish between the two kinds of short "e" sounds of some dialects. This letter was first used in 1770 by György Kalmár, but has never officially been part of the Hungarian alphabet, as the standard Hungarian language does not distinguish between these two sounds. However, the "ë" sound is pronounced differently from the "e" sound in 6 out of the 10 Hungarian dialects and the sound is pronounced as "ö" in 1 dialect. It is also used in names. Other letter for this sound is "Ėė" (rarely).


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The digraph "ch" also exists in some words ("technika", "monarchia") and is pronounced the same as "h". In names, however, it is pronounced like "cs" as well as like "h" or "k" (as in German) (see below).


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The letter Y is only used in loanwords and several digraphs (gy, ly, ny, ty), and thus in a native Hungarian word, Y never comes as the initial of a word, except in loanwords. So, for native Hungarian words, the capital Y only exists in all caps or small caps formats, such as the titles of newspapers.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: Old spellings (sometimes similar to German orthography) used in some Hungarian names and their corresponding pronunciation according to modern spelling include the following:


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: Generally, y in historic spellings of names formed with the "-i" affix (not to be confused with a possessive -i- of plural objects, as in "szavai"!) can exist after many other letters (e.g.: "Teleky", "Rákóczy", "Dézsy"). Here are listed only examples which can be easily misread because of such spelling.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The abbreviated form of the conjunction "és" (and), which is always written today as "s", was likely to be written with an apostrophe before — ’s (e.g. "föld ’s nép").


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The di- and the trigraphs are capitalised in names and at the beginning of sentences by capitalising the first glyph of them only.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: In abbreviations and when writing with all capital letters, however, one capitalises the second (and third) character as well.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: While the characters with diacritical marks are considered separate letters, vowels that differ only in length are treated the same when ordering words. Therefore, for example, the pairs O/Ó and Ö/Ő are not distinguished in ordering, but Ö follows O. In cases where two words are differentiated solely by the presence of an accent, the one without the accent is put before the other one. (The situation is the same for lower and upper-case letters: in alphabetical ordering, "varga" is followed by "Varga".)


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The simplified geminates of multigraphs (see above) such as <nny>, <ssz> are collated as <ny>+<ny>, <sz>+<sz> etc., "if" they are double geminates, rather than co-occurrences of a single letter and a geminate.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: Similar 'ambiguities', which can occur with compounds (which are highly common in Hungarian) are dissolved and collated by sense.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: These rules make Hungarian alphabetic ordering algorithmically difficult (one has to know the correct segmentation of a word to sort it correctly), which was a problem for computer software development.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The standard Hungarian keyboard layout is German-based (QWERTZ). This layout allows direct access to every character in the Hungarian alphabet.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The letter "Í" is often placed left of the space key, leaving the width of the left Shift key intact. "Ű" may be located to the left of Backspace, making that key smaller, but allowing for a larger Enter key. Ű being close to Enter often leads to it being typed instead of hitting Enter, especially when one has just switched from a keyboard that has Ű next to backspace. The German "Ä" and "ß", the Polish "Ł", and the Croatian "Đ" are also present.


title: Hungarian alphabet

text: The list below shows the letter frequencies for the "smaller" Hungarian alphabet in descending order.


title: Ionians

text: The Ionians (; , "Íōnes", singular , "Íōn") were one of the four major tribes that the Greeks considered themselves to be divided into during the ancient period; the other three being the Dorians, Aeolians, and Achaeans. The Ionian dialect was one of the three major linguistic divisions of the Hellenic world, together with the Dorian and Aeolian dialects.


title: Ionians

text: When referring to populations, “"Ionian"” defines several groups in Classical Greece. In its narrowest sense, the term referred to the region of Ionia in Asia Minor. In a broader sense, it could be used to describe all speakers of the Ionic dialect, which in addition to those in Ionia proper also included the Greek populations of Euboea, the Cyclades, and many cities founded by Ionian colonists. Finally, in the broadest sense it could be used to describe all those who spoke languages of the East Greek group, which included Attic.


title: Ionians

text: The foundation myth which was current in the Classical period suggested that the Ionians were named after Ion, son of Xuthus, who lived in the north Peloponnesian region of Aigialeia. When the Dorians invaded the Peloponnese they expelled the Achaeans from the Argolid and Lacedaemonia. The displaced Achaeans moved into Aigialeia (thereafter known as Achaea), in turn expelling the Ionians from Aigialeia. The Ionians moved to Attica and mingled with the local population of Attica, and many later emigrated to the coast of Asia Minor founding the historical region of Ionia.


title: Ionians

text: Unlike the austere and militaristic Dorians, the Ionians are renowned for their love of philosophy, art, democracy, and pleasure – Ionian traits that were most famously expressed by the Athenians.


title: Ionians

text: The etymology of the word Ἴωνες or Ἰᾱ́ϝoνες is uncertain. Frisk isolates an unknown root, "*Ia-", pronounced "*ya-". There are, however, some theories:


title: Ionians

text: Unlike "Aeolians" and "Dorians", "Ionians" appears in the languages of different civilizations around the eastern Mediterranean and as far east as Han China. They are not the earliest Greeks to appear in the records; that distinction belongs to the Danaans and the Achaeans. The trail of the Ionians begins in the Mycenaean Greek records of Crete.


title: Ionians

text: A fragmentary Linear B tablet from Knossos (tablet Xd 146) bears the name "i-ja-wo-ne", interpreted by Ventris and Chadwick as possibly the dative or nominative plural case of *Iāwones, an ethnic name. The Knossos tablets are dated to 1400 or 1200 B.C. and thus pre-date the Dorian dominance in Crete, if the name refers to Cretans.


title: Ionians

text: The name first appears in Greek literature in Homer as Ἰάονες, "iāones", used on a single occasion of some long-robed Greeks attacked by Hector and apparently identified with Athenians, and this Homeric form appears to be identical with the Mycenaean form but without the *-w-. This name also appears in a fragment of the other early poet, Hesiod, in the singular Ἰάων, "iāōn".


title: Ionians

text: In the Book of Genesis of the English Bible, Javan is a son of Japheth. Javan is believed nearly universally by Bible scholars to represent the Ionians; that is, Javan is Ion. The Hebrew is Yāwān, plural Yəwānīm.


title: Ionians

text: Additionally, but less surely, Japheth may be related linguistically to the Greek mythological figure Iapetus.


title: Ionians

text: The locations of Biblical tribal countries have been the subjects of centuries of scholarship and yet remain to various degrees open questions. The Book of Isaiah gives what may be a hint by listing "the nations... that have not heard my fame" including Javan and immediately after "the isles afar off." These isles may be considered as an apposition to Javan or the last item in the series. If the former, the expression is typically used of the population of the islands in the Aegean Sea .


title: Ionians

text: Some letters of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 8th century BC record attacks by what appear to be Ionians on the cities of Phoenicia:For example, a raid by the Ionians ("ia-u-na-a-a") on the Phoenician coast is reported to Tiglath-Pileser III in a letter from the 730s BC discovered at Nimrud.


title: Ionians

text: The Assyrian word, which is preceded by the country determinative, has been reconstructed as *Iaunaia. More common is ia-a-ma-nu, ia-ma-nu and ia-am-na-a-a with the country determinative, reconstructed as Iamānu. Sargon II related that he took the latter from the sea like fish and that they were from "the sea of the setting sun." If the identification of Assyrian names is correct, at least some of the Ionian marauders came from Cyprus:Sargon's Annals for 709, claiming that tribute was sent to him by 'seven kings of Ya (ya-a'), a district of Yadnana whose distant abodes are situated a seven-days' journey in the sea of the setting sun', is confirmed by a stele set up at Citium in Cyprus 'at the base of a mountain ravine ... of Yadnana.'


title: Ionians

text: Ionians appear in a number of Old Persian inscriptions of the Achaemenid Empire as "Yaunā" (), a nominative plural masculine, singular Yauna; for example, an inscription of Darius on the south wall of the palace at Persepolis includes in the provinces of the empire "Ionians who are of the mainland and (those) who are by the sea, and countries which are across the sea; ..." At that time the empire probably extended around the Aegean to northern Greece.


title: Ionians

text: Inspired by Achaemenid Iranians, Ionians appear in Indic literature and documents as Yavana and Yona. In documents, these names refer to the Indo-Greek Kingdoms: the states formed by the Macedonian Alexander the Great and his successors on the Indian subcontinent. The earliest such documentation is the Edicts of Ashoka. The Thirteenth Edict is dated to 260–258 BC and directly refers to the "Yonas".


title: Ionians

text: Most modern Middle Eastern languages use the terms "Ionia" and "Ionian" to refer to Greece and Greeks. That is true of Hebrew (Yavan 'Greece' / Yevani fem. Yevania 'a Greek'), Armenian (Hunastan 'Greece' / Huyn 'a Greek'), and the Classical Arabic words (al-Yūnān 'Greece' / Yūnānī fem. Yūnāniyya pl. Yūnān 'a Greek', probably from Aramaic Yawnānā) are used in most modern Arabic dialects including Egyptian and Palestinian as well as being used in modern Persian (Yūnānestān 'Greece' / Yūnānī pl. Yūnānīhā/Yūnānīyān 'Greek') and Turkish too via Persian (Yunanistan 'Greece' / Yunan 'a Greek person' pl. Yunanlar 'Greek people').


title: Ionians

text: The literary evidence of the Ionians leads back to mainland Greece in Mycenaean times before there was an Ionia. The classical sources seem determined that they were to be called Ionians along with other names even then. This cannot be documented with inscriptional evidence, and yet the literary evidence, which is manifestly at least partially legendary, seems to reflect a general verbal tradition.


title: Ionians

text: Herodotus of Halicarnassus asserts:all are Ionians who are of Athenian descent and keep the feast Apaturia.


title: Ionians

text: He further explains:The whole Hellenic stock was then small, and the last of all its branches and the least regarded was the Ionian; for it had no considerable city except Athens.


title: Ionians

text: The Ionians spread from Athens to other places in the Aegean Sea: Sifnos and Serifos, Naxos, Kea and Samos. But they were not just from Athens:These Ionians, as long as they were in the Peloponnesus, dwelt in what is now called Achaea, and before Danaus and Xuthus came to the Peloponnesus, as the Greeks say, they were called Aegialian Pelasgians. They were named Ionians after Ion the son of Xuthus.


title: Ionians

text: Achaea was divided into 12 communities originally Ionian: Pellene, Aegira, Aegae, Bura, Helice, Aegion, Rhype, Patrae, Phareae, Olenus, Dyme and Tritaeae. The most aboriginal Ionians were of Cynuria:The Cynurians are aboriginal and seem to be the only Ionians, but they have been Dorianized by time and by Argive rule.


title: Ionians

text: In Strabo's account of the origin of the Ionians, Hellen, son of Deucalion, ancestor of the Hellenes, king of Phthia, arranged a marriage between his son Xuthus and the daughter of king Erechtheus of Athens. Xuthus then founded the Tetrapolis ("Four Cities") of Attica, a rural district. His son, Achaeus, went into exile in a land subsequently called Achaea after him. Another son of Xuthus, Ion, conquered Thrace, after which the Athenians made him king of Athens. Attica was called Ionia after his death. Those Ionians colonized Aigialia changing its name to Ionia also. When the Heracleidae returned the Achaeans drove the Ionians back to Athens. Under the Codridae they set forth for Anatolia and founded 12 cities in Caria and Lydia following the model of the 12 cities of Achaea, formerly Ionian.


title: Ionians

text: During the 6th century BC, Ionian coastal towns, such as Miletus and Ephesus, became the focus of a revolution in traditional thinking about Nature. Instead of explaining natural phenomena by recourse to traditional religion/myth, the cultural climate was such that men began to form hypotheses about the natural world based on ideas gained from both personal experience and deep reflection. These men—Thales and his successors—were called "physiologoi", those who discoursed on Nature. They were skeptical of religious explanations for natural phenomena and instead sought purely mechanical and physical explanations. They are credited as being of critical importance to the development of the 'scientific attitude' towards the study of Nature.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: Frederick I (; 28 April 1676 – 5 April 1751) was prince consort of Sweden from 1718 to 1720, and King of Sweden from 1720 until his death and (as "Frederick I") also Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel from 1730. He ascended the throne following the death of his brother-in-law absolutist Charles XII in the Great Northern War, and the abdication of his wife, Charles's sister and successor Ulrika Eleonora, after she had to relinquish most powers to the Riksdag of the Estates and thus chose to abdicate. His powerless reign and lack of legitimate heirs of his own saw his family's elimination from the line of succession after the parliamentary government dominated by pro-revanchist Hat Party politicians ventured into a war with Russia, which ended in defeat and the Russian tsarina Elizabeth getting Adolf Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp instated following the death of the king. He is known as Frederick I despite being the only Swedish king of that name.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: He was the son of Charles I, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, and Princess Maria Amalia of Courland. In 1692 the young prince made his Grand Tour to the Dutch Republic, in 1695 to the Italian Peninsula and later he studied in Geneva. After this he had a military career, leading the Hessian troops as Lieutenant General in the War of the Spanish Succession on the side of the Dutch. He was defeated in 1703 in the Battle of Speyerbach, but participated the next year in the great victory in the Battle of Blenheim. In 1706 he was again defeated by the French in the Battle of Castiglione. Both in 1716 and 1718 he joined the campaign of Charles XII of Sweden against Norway, and was appointed Swedish Generalissimus.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: He married his second wife, Princess Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, in 1715. He was then granted the title Prince of Sweden, with the style "Royal Highness" by the estates, and was prince consort there during Ulrika Eleonora's rule as queen regnant from 1718 until her abdication in 1720. He is the only Swedish prince consort there has been to date. Frederick I had much influence during the reign of his spouse.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: Some historians have suggested that the bullet which killed his brother-in-law Charles XII of Sweden in 1718 was actually fired by Frederick's aide André Sicre. Charles had been an authoritarian and demanding ruler; one reason the Swedish Estates elected Frederick was because he was taken to be fairly weak, which indeed he turned out to be.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: Frederick succeeded Ulrika Eleonora on the throne upon her abdication in his favor in 1720, elected by the Swedish Estates.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: The defeats suffered by Charles XII in the Great Northern War ended Sweden's position as a first-rank European power. Under Frederick, this had to be accepted. Sweden also had to cede Estonia, Ingria and Livonia to Russia in the Treaty of Nystad, in 1721.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: Frederick I was a very active and dynamic king at the beginning of his 31-year reign. But after the aristocracy had regained power during the wars with Russia, he became not so much powerless as uninterested in affairs of state. In 1723, he tried to strengthen royal authority, but after he failed, he never had much to do with politics. He did not even sign official documents; instead a stamp of his signature was used. He devoted most of his time to hunting and love affairs. His marriage to Queen Ulrika Eleonora was childless, but he had several children by his mistress, Hedvig Taube.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: In 1723 Frederick rewarded the military inventor Sven Åderman with the estate of Halltorps on the island of Öland, for improving the rate of fire of the musket.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: As a king, he was not very respected. When he was crowned, it was said of him: "King Charles we recently buried, King Frederick we crown – suddenly the clock has now passed from twelve to one". It is said about him, that although a lot of great achievements in the country's development happened during his reign, he never had anything to do with them himself. When he died, Carl Gustaf Tessin said about him:


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: Under the reign of King Frederick, science has developed – he never bothered to read a book. The merchant business has flourished – he has never encouraged it with a single coin. The Stockholm Palace has been built – he has never been curious enough to look at it.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: Neither did he have anything to do with the founding of the first Swedish speaking theater at Bollhuset during his reign. One of his few important policies was the banning of duels.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: On 23 February 1748 Frederick I instituted the three Swedish royal orders of the Seraphim, of the Sword and of the North Star, the three principal Swedish orders of chivalry.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: Frederick became Landgrave of Hesse only in 1730, ten years after becoming King of Sweden. He immediately appointed his younger brother William governor of Hesse.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: As Landgrave, Frederick is generally not seen as a success. Indeed, he did concentrate more on Sweden, and due to his negotiated, compromise-like ascension to the throne there, he and his court had a very low income. The money for that very expensive court, then, since the 1730s came from wealthy Hesse, and this means that Frederick essentially behaved like an absentee landlord and drained Hessian resources to finance life in Sweden. Also, Frederick's father, Charles I of Hesse-Kassel, had been the state's most successful ruler, rebuilding the state over his decades-long rule by means of economic and infrastructure measures and state reform, as well as tolerance, such as attracting, for economic purposes, the French Huguenots. His brother the governor, who would succeed Frederick as Landgrave William VIII of Hesse-Kassel, though by background a distinguished soldier, was likewise a great success locally. There are very few physical remainders of Frederick in Hesse today; one of them is his large Royal Swedish paraph (FR) over the old door of the University of Marburg's former riding hall, now the Institute of Physical Education.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: On 31 May 1700, he married his first wife, Louise Dorothea, Princess of Prussia (1680–1705), daughter of Frederick I of Prussia (1657–1713) and Elizabeth Henrietta of Hesse-Kassel (1661–1683). Louise Dorothea died in childbirth in December 1705.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: His second wife, whom he married in 1715, was Ulrika Eleonora, Princess of Sweden, (1688–1741), daughter of Charles XI of Sweden (1655–1697) and of Ulrika Eleonora of Denmark (1656–1693). Ulrika suffered two miscarriages, one in 1715 and another in 1718, after which there are no further recorded pregnancies.


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: After the death of Hedvig Taube, his official mistress was the noblewoman Catharina Ebba Horn, whom he gave the title and recognition of German-Roman Countess (1745–1748).


title: Frederick I of Sweden

text: Thus, the Hessian line in Sweden ended with him and was followed by that of Holstein-Gottorp. In Hesse-Kassel, he was succeeded by his younger brother William VIII, a famous general.


title: Geeta Basra

text: Geeta Basra Singh (born 13 March 1984) is a British actress who has appeared in Bollywood films. She is married to Indian cricketer Harbhajan Singh. Cricketer Harbhajan Singh and model/actor Geeta Basra got married at a ceremony in a gurudwara near Jalandhar. Bollywood actress, Geeta Basra revealed how she was written off as a married woman, even when she and Harbhajan Singh were just friends.


title: Geeta Basra

text: Basra was born to Indian Punjabi Hindu parents in Portsmouth, Hampshire on the south coast of England, but now resides in Mumbai, India. She has one younger brother, Rahul and sister Ruby.


title: Geeta Basra

text: She was first seen in the Emraan Hashmi-starrer "Dil Diya Hai" in 2006 in which she played a girl who is sold into prostitution by her lover. Her second release, "The Train" (2007), was also opposite Hashmi. She played Roma, a working woman who gets caught up in an extramarital affair.


title: Geeta Basra

text: Basra was also seen in the music video for the Sukshinder Shinda and Rahat Fateh Ali Khan song "Ghum Sum Ghum Sum", playing the love interest of the male protagonist played by Rahul Bhat.


title: Geeta Basra

text: Basra married Indian cricketer Harbhajan Singh on 29 October 2015 in Jalandhar, Punjab. They have a daughter, Hinaya Heer Plaha, born on 27 July 2016 in Portsmouth, Hampshire. and a son, Jovan Veer Singh Plaha, born on 10 July 2021.


title: Distribution board

text: A distribution board (also known as panelboard, breaker panel, electric panel, DB board or DB box) is a component of an electricity supply system that divides an electrical power feed into subsidiary circuits while providing a protective fuse or circuit breaker for each circuit in a common enclosure. Normally, a main switch, and in recent boards, one or more residual-current devices (RCDs) or residual current breakers with overcurrent protection (RCBOs) are also incorporated.


title: Distribution board

text: In the United Kingdom, a distribution board designed for domestic installations is known as a consumer unit.


title: Distribution board

text: North American distribution boards are generally housed in sheet metal enclosures, with the circuit breakers positioned in two columns operable from the front. Some panelboards are provided with a door covering the breaker switch handles, but all are constructed with a "dead front"; that is to say the front of the enclosure (whether it has a door or not) prevents the operator of the circuit breakers from contacting live electrical parts within. Busbars carry the current from incoming line ("hot") conductors to the breakers, which are secured to the bus with either a "bolt-on" connection (using a threaded screw) or a "plug-in" connection using a retaining clip. "Panelboards" are more common in commercial and industrial applications and employ bolt-on breakers. Residential and light commercial panels are generally referred to as "load centers" and employ plug-in breakers. The neutral conductors are secured to a neutral bus using screw terminals. The branch circuit bonding conductors are secured to a terminal block attached directly to the panelboard enclosure, which is itself grounded.


title: Distribution board

text: During servicing of the distribution board, when the cover has been removed and the cables are visible, American panelboards commonly have some live parts exposed. In Canadian service entrance panelboards the main switch or circuit breaker is located in a "service box", a section of the enclosure separated from the rest of the panelboard, so that when the main switch or breaker is switched off no live parts are exposed when servicing the branch circuits.


title: Distribution board

text: Breakers are usually arranged in two columns. In a U.S.-style board, breaker positions are numbered left-to-right, along each row from top to bottom. This numbering system is universal with numerous competitive manufacturers of breaker panels.


title: Distribution board

text: Each row is fed from a different phase ("A", "B", and "C" below), to allow 2- or 3-pole common-trip breakers to have one pole on each phase. In North America, it is common to wire large permanently installed equipment line-to-line. This takes two slots in the panel (two-pole) and gives a voltage of 240 V for split-phase electric power, or 208 V for three-phase power.


title: Distribution board

text: The photograph to the right shows the interior of a residential service panelboard manufactured by General Electric. The three service conductors—two 'hot' lines and one neutral—can be seen coming in at the top. The neutral wire is connected to the neutral busbar to the left with all the white wires, and the two hot wires are attached to the main breaker. Below the main breaker are the two bus bars carrying the current between the main breaker and the two columns of branch circuit breakers, with each respective circuit's red and black hot wires leading off. Three wires (hot black, neutral white, and bare ground) can be seen exiting the left side of the enclosure running directly to a NEMA 5-15 electrical receptacle with a power cord plugged into it. The incoming bare, stranded ground wire can be seen near the bottom of the neutral bus bar.


title: Distribution board

text: The photograph on the left shows a dual panel configuration: a main panel on the right (with front cover in place) and a subpanel on the left (with cover removed). The subpanel is fed by two large hot wires and a neutral wire running through the angled conduit near the top of the panels. This configuration appears to display two violations of the current U.S. National Electric Code: the main panel does not have a grounding conductor (here it is fed through the subpanel instead) and the subpanel neutral bar is bonded to the ground bar (these should be separate bars after the first service disconnect, which in this case is the main panel).


title: Distribution board

text: A common design of fuse box that was featured in homes built from 1940 through 1965 was the 60-amp fuse box that included four plug fuses (i.e. Edison base) for branch circuits and one or more fuse blocks containing cartridge fuses for purposes such as major appliance circuits. After 1965, the more substantial 100 A panel with three-wire (230 V) service became common; a fuse box could have fuse blocks for the main shut-off and an electric range circuit plus a number of plug fuses (Edison base or Type S) for individual circuits.


title: Distribution board

text: This picture shows the interior of a typical distribution panel in the United Kingdom. The three incoming phase wires connect to the busbars via a main switch in the centre of the panel. On each side of the panel are two busbars, for neutral and earth. The incoming neutral connects to the lower busbar on the right side of the panel, which is in turn connected to the neutral busbar at the top left. The incoming earth wire connects to the lower busbar on the left side of the panel, which is in turn connected to the earth busbar at the top right. The cover has been removed from the lower-right neutral bar; the neutral bar on the left side has its cover in place.


title: Distribution board

text: Down the left side of the phase busbars are two two-pole RCBOs and two single-pole breakers, one unused. The two-pole RCBOs in the picture are not connected across two phases, but have supply-side neutral connections exiting behind the phase busbars. Down the right side of the busbars are a single-pole breaker, a two-pole RCBO and a three-pole breaker.


title: Distribution board

text: The illustrated panel includes a great deal of unused space; it is likely that the manufacturer produces 18- and 24-position versions of this panel using the same chassis.


title: Distribution board

text: Larger commercial, public, and industrial installations generally use three-phase supplies, with distribution boards which have twin vertical rows of breakers. Larger installations will often use subsidiary distribution boards.


title: Distribution board

text: In both cases, modern boards handling supplies up to around 100 A (CUs) or 200 A (distribution boards) use circuit breakers and RCDs on DIN rail mountings. The main distribution board in an installation will also normally provide a main switch (known as an "incomer") which switches the phase and neutral lines for the whole supply. (n.b., an incomer may be referred to, or sold as, an "isolator", but this is problematic, as it will not necessarily be used as an isolator in the strict sense.)


title: Distribution board

text: For each phase, power is fed along a busbar. In split-phase panels, separate busbars are fed directly from the incomer, which allows RCDs to be used to protect groups of circuits. Alternatively RCBOs may be used to provide both overcurrent and residual-current protection to single circuits.


title: Distribution board

text: Other devices, such as transformers (e.g. for bell circuits) and contactors (relays; e.g. for large motor or heating loads) may also be used.


title: Distribution board

text: New British distribution boards generally have the live parts enclosed to IP2X, even when the cover has been removed for servicing.


title: Distribution board

text: In the United Kingdom, BS 7671 defines a consumer unit as "A particular type of distribution board comprising a type tested coordinated assembly for the control and distribution of electrical energy, principally in domestic premises..." These installations usually have single-phase supplies at 230 V (nominal standard); historically, they were known as fuse boxes, as older consumer units used fuses until the advent of mini-circuit breakers (MCBs).


title: Distribution board

text: A normal new domestic CU used as a main panel might have from 6 to 24 ways for devices (some of which might occupy two ways), and will be split into two or more sections (e.g. a non-RCD section for alarms etc., an RCD-protected section for socket outlets, and an RCD-protected section for lighting and other built-in appliances). Secondary CUs used for outbuildings usually have 1 to 4 ways plus an RCD.


title: Distribution board

text: Recent (pre-17th edition wiring regulations) CUs would not normally have RCD protected sections for anything other than socket outlets, though some older CUs featured RCD incomers. Before 1990, RCDs (and split busbars) were not standard in CUs.


title: Distribution board

text: Fuse boxes normally use cartridge or rewirable fuses with no other protective device, and basic 4-ways boxes are very common. Some older boxes are made of brown-black bakelite, sometimes with a wooden base. Although their design is historic, these were standard equipment for new installs as recently as the 1980s, so they are very common. Fuseholders in these boxes may not provide protection from accidental contact with live terminals.


title: Distribution board

text: The popular 4-way fusebox normally had two lighting and two socket circuits, with heavy or sustained loads such as immersion heater and oven on a socket circuit. This arrangement is not recommended practice today, but it is common for existing installations. Larger boxes with more ways will have separate fuses for large loads such as immersion heater, oven and shower.


title: Distribution board

text: A small number of pre-1950 fuseboxes are still in service. These should be treated with caution because exposed live parts are common on these boxes. The installations they supply will not meet modern standards for electrical safety. Another characteristic of very old installations is that there may be two fuses for each circuit; one on the live and one on the neutral. In rare instances, old ring circuits may be encountered with no fewer than 4 15 A fuses per ring, one on each of L and N, and this duplicated for each of the two feeds for the ring.


title: Distribution board

text: Most of the time, the panels and the breakers inserted inside them must be by the same manufacturer. Each manufacturer has one or more "systems", or kinds of breaker panels, that will only accept breakers of that type. In Europe, this is still the case, despite the adoption of a standard DIN rail for mounting and a standard cut-out shape, as the positions of the busbar connections are not standardized.


title: Distribution board

text: Certain panels use seemingly interchangeable breakers. However, a given manufacturer will specifically mention exactly which devices may be installed in their equipment. These assemblies have been tested and approved for use by a recognized authority. Replacing or adding equipment which "just happens to fit" can result in unexpected or even dangerous conditions. Such installations should not be done without first consulting knowledgeable sources, including manufacturers.


title: Distribution board

text: For reasons of aesthetics and security, domestic circuit breaker panels and consumer units are normally located in out-of-the-way closets, attics, garages, or basements, but sometimes they are also featured as part of the aesthetic elements of a building (as an art installation, for example) or where they can be easily accessible. However, current U.S. building codes prohibit installation of a panel in a bathroom (or similar room), in closets intended for clothing, or where there is insufficient space for an electrician to gain access to the panel. Specific situations, such as an installation outdoors, in a hazardous environment, or in other out-of-the-ordinary locations might require specialized equipment and more stringent installation practices.


title: Distribution board

text: Distribution boards may be designated for three phase or single phase and normal power or emergency power, or designated by use such as distribution panels for supplying other panels, lighting panels for lights, power panels for equipment and receptacles and special uses. Panels are located throughout the building in electric closets serving a section of the building.


title: Distribution board

text: In a theatre, a specialty panel known as a "dimmer rack" is used to feed stage lighting instruments. A U.S. style dimmer rack has a 208Y/120 volt 3-phase feed. Instead of just circuit breakers, the rack has a solid state electronic dimmer with its own circuit breaker for each stage circuit. This is known as a "dimmer-per-circuit" arrangement. The dimmers are equally divided across the three incoming phases. In a 96 dimmer rack, there are 32 dimmers on phase A, 32 dimmers on phase B, and 32 on phase C to spread out the lighting load as equally as possible. In addition to the power feed from the supply transformer in the building, a control cable from the lighting desk carries information to the dimmers in a control protocol such as DMX-512. The information includes lighting level information for each channel, by which it controls which dimmer circuits come up and go out during the lighting changes of the show (light cues), and over what fade time.


title: Distribution board

text: Distribution boards may be surface-mounted or flush. The former arrangement provides easier alteration or addition to wiring at a later date, but the latter arrangement might be neater, particularly for a residential application. The other problem with recessing a distribution board into a wall is that if the wall is solid, a lot of brick or block might need to be removed—generally for this reason, recessed boards would only be installed on new-build projects when the required space can be built into the wall.


title: The Circle (American season 2)

text: The second season of the American reality competition streaming series "The Circle" began on April 14, 2021, on Netflix, and concluded on May 5, 2021. The season was announced in March 2020 when Netflix renewed "The Circle" for a second and third season. Michelle Buteau returned as host.


title: The Circle (American season 2)

text: Like the previous season, players compete against each other to become the most popular, but do not actually meet their competitors. Instead, they communicate through a specially designed app and are able to portray themselves in any way they choose.


title: The Circle (American season 2)

text: On May 5, 2021, the season was won by DeLeesa St. Agathe, who had played the game as her husband, Trevor, and won the US$100,000 prize that came along with it. Chloe Veitch was the runner-up and won the Fan Favorite award and US$10,000.


title: The Circle (American season 2)

text: The contestants, or "players", move into the same apartment building. However, the contestants do not meet face-to-face during the course of the competition, as they each live in their own individual apartment. They communicate solely using their profiles on a specially-designed social media app that gives them the ability to portray themselves in any way they choose. Players can thus opt to present themselves as a completely different personality to the other players, a tactic otherwise known as catfishing.


title: The Circle (American season 2)

text: Throughout the series, the contestants "rate" one another from first to last place. At the end of the ratings, their average ratings are revealed to one another from lowest to highest. Normally, the two highest-rated players become "Influencers", while the remaining players will be at risk of being "blocked" by the Influencers. However, occasionally there may be a twist to the blocking process – varying from the lowest rating players being instantly blocked, the identity of the Influencers being a secret, or multiple players being blocked at one time. Blocked players are eliminated from the game, but are given the opportunity to meet one player still in the game in-person. A video message is shown to the remaining players to reveal if they were real or fake the day after.


title: The Circle (American season 2)

text: During the finale, the contestants rate each other one final time, where the highest rated player wins the game and US$100,000. Also, fans of "The Circle" are able to vote for their favorite player. The player that receives the most votes is known as the Fan Favorite and receives US$10,000.


title: The Circle (American season 2)

text: The first eight players taking part in the season were revealed on April 5, 2021, with additional players being revealed during the run of the show.


title: The Circle (American season 2)

text: Chloe Veitch also starred on season 1 of "Too Hot to Handle", "Celebrity Ghost Trip" "and Celebrity Hunted". Lee Swift starred on "The Grindhouse Radio." Terilisha has starred on "#Washed and Triple D Revenge." Jack Atkins, Savannah Palacio, and Courtney Revolution starred on "Floor Is Lava". Courtney and DeLeesa St. Agathe starred on "Netflix’s Reality Games" and were two of the four players representing team "The Circle". Bryant Wood has appeared on season 22 of "America's Next Top Model".


title: Modern Family (season 10)

text: The tenth season of "Modern Family" debuted on September 26, 2018 on ABC. The season was produced by 20th Century Fox Television, Steven Levitan Productions, and Picador Productions, with creators Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd as showrunners. "Modern Family" was renewed for its tenth season in May 2017. The season concluded on May 8, 2019 and contained 22 episodes.


title: Modern Family (season 10)

text: In January 2018, creators Levitan and Lloyd stated that the tenth season would most likely be the series' final although later in August 2018, it was reported that ABC were in discussions to renew the series for a potential 18-episode eleventh and final season. The series was renewed for an eleventh and final season on February 5, 2019.


title: The Red Pill

text: The Red Pill is a 2016 American documentary film directed by Cassie Jaye. The film explores the men's rights movement, as Jaye spends a year filming the leaders and followers within the movement. It premiered on October 7, 2016 in New York City, followed by several other one-time screenings internationally. It was released on DVD and Blu-ray in 2017 by Gravitas Ventures.


title: The Red Pill

text: The title of the film refers to a scene in the film "The Matrix", in which the protagonist is offered the choice of a red pill, representing truth and self-knowledge, or a blue pill representing a return to blissful ignorance. By analogy it seeks to bring awareness to the contrast between the men's rights movement, fathers' rights groups, and what they perceive as gynocentrism in wider society.


title: The Red Pill

text: "The Red Pill" shifts from Jaye's investigation of what she initially believed to be a hate movement to more sympathetic coverage of the movement. The shift is shown in the film through Jaye's questions about her own views on gender, power, and privilege. "The Red Pill" also discusses issues facing men and boys, including interviews with men's rights activists and those supportive of the movement, such as Paul Elam, founder of A Voice for Men; Harry Crouch, president of the National Coalition for Men; Warren Farrell, author of "The Myth of Male Power"; and Erin Pizzey, who started the first domestic violence shelter in the modern world. It also includes interviews with feminists critical of the movement, such as "Ms." magazine executive editor Katherine Spillar, and sociologist Michael Kimmel. It also contains excerpts from Jaye's video diary.


title: The Red Pill

text: Some of the issues discussed as facing men and boys are male suicide rates, workplace fatalities and high-risk jobs, military conscription, lack of services for male victims of domestic violence and rape, higher rates of violent victimization, issues concerning divorce and child custody, disparity in criminal sentencing, disproportionately less funding and research on men's health issues, educational inequality, societal tolerance of misandry, routine circumcision, men's lack of reproductive rights, lower life expectancy, false rape allegations, paternity fraud and homelessness.


title: The Red Pill

text: According to Jaye, she initially struggled to find financiers for a film about the men's rights movement. In an October 2015 interview with Breitbart News, Jaye said "we weren't finding executive producers who wanted to take a balanced approach, we found people who wanted to make a feminist film." Jaye started a campaign on the crowdfunding platform Kickstarter, which she called a last resort. The Kickstarter page, which described the project as a fair and balanced look at the men's rights movement, was strongly criticized by some feminists. The campaign raised $211,260, exceeding its goal of $97,000.


title: The Red Pill

text: Alan Scherstuhl's review for "The Village Voice" suggested that many of those providing funding for the film may have themselves been men's rights activists (MRAs), thereby creating a conflict of interest. Jaye stated that "our five highest backers ... are neither MRA nor feminist. I would say three out of five of them didn't even know about the men's rights movement, but wanted to defend free speech," and that the film's backers and producers would have no influence or control of the film.


title: The Red Pill

text: "The Red Pill" had its world premiere on October 7, 2016 at Cinema Village in New York City. It played there for a week before opening in Los Angeles on October 14, 2016. One-time screenings were also scheduled at various locations in the United States, Canada, Europe, and Australia.


title: The Red Pill

text: The Australian premiere at the Palace Kino cinema in Melbourne cancelled their planned November 6 screening after a petition circulated that called the film "misogynistic propaganda". The Change.org petition gained 2,370 signatures. A counter-petition to reverse the decision gained close to 5,000 supporters in the following days, characterizing the original petition as an "effort to close down free speech in Australia" by those who wished to prevent "a screening of a movie that discusses issues that they fear might interfere with their agenda." Organizer David Williams was critical of the original petition, stating that nobody who signed the petition would have seen the film.


title: The Red Pill

text: The Mayfair Theatre in Ottawa cancelled a private screening of the film. Lee Demarbre, co-owner and programmer of the theater, said long-time patrons and a sponsor threatened to stop doing business with the venue if the film screening went ahead. The screening was organized by the Canadian Association for Equality (CAFE). Justin Trottier, co-founder of CAFE, said that the screening was an attempt to find common ground instead of polarizing the debate. Julie S. Lalonde, who runs Hollaback! Ottawa was one of several people who made complaints to the theater. She said the idea of freedom of expression was being abused, and that "no one has the right to have their film shown."


title: The Red Pill

text: A screening had been planned by the Wildrose on Campus club at the University of Calgary, an organization for student supporters of the Wildrose Party of Alberta, but was cancelled after an email about the screening was sent out by the club with the subject line "Feminism is Cancer" and beginning "You and I both know that feminism is cancer. To create a dialogue on campus, we have decided to take action." The club later posted an apology to Twitter and cancelled the screening. In response to the controversy, Jaye said she would never equate feminism with cancer but "would be curious why do they think that."


title: The Red Pill

text: After initially agreeing to finance a student screening, Sydney University's student union defunded the event, claiming the film promoted violence against women. In a public post on its website, the union said "We believe there is the distinct possibility that the planned screening of this documentary would be discriminatory against women, and has the capacity to intimidate and physically threaten women on campus". The screening was moved back a week and had to be financed privately by the clubs that had initially organized it.


title: The Red Pill

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes has given the documentary a 29% rating based on 7 critic reviews, with an average rating of 4/10.


title: The Red Pill

text: Katie Walsh of "Los Angeles Times" said the documentary "lacks a coherent argument" because it "is built on a fundamental misunderstanding" of key terms. Walsh said the terms could have been better defined "to comprehend the ways in which patriarchal systems control resources to exploit both women and men". She recognized that "there are many dire and urgent troubles men face that should be addressed" but concluded of the documentary, "[It] only exacerbates that divide with its uncritical, lopsided presentation and inability to craft a compelling argument regarding a topic this controversial."


title: The Red Pill

text: John DeFore of "The Hollywood Reporter" said, "Cassie Jaye's "The Red Pill" is clumsy and frustrating in many ways. But it demonstrates enough sincerity and openness to challenging ideas — letting representatives of this problematic movement make their case clearly and convincingly — that one wishes it were able to look at multiple sides of this debate at the same time." DeFore summarized the film as "an admirable attempt at evenhandedness whose journalistic and aesthetic failings dilute its arguments".


title: The Red Pill

text: Alan Scherstuhl of "The Village Voice", critical of the men's rights movement, considered the film's production quality weak due to being Kickstarter-funded and highlighted that it was campaigned for by A Voice for Men and Reddit's men's rights forums. Scherstuhl considered the documentary to be "amateurish" with weak visuals. He said, "What the film and the movement fail to demonstrate is any kind of systemic cause. Instead, the author of men’s troubles here is always that vague bugaboo feminism, which we're told is designed to silence its opponents."


title: The Red Pill

text: Cathy Young of "Heat Street" gave the film a positive review, saying it raised important issues that often go undiscussed and made "well-deserved" criticisms of feminism. She criticized the film for failing to devote attention to "the dark side of the men's movement", and stated that the film would have benefited from onscreen discussion of the subjects in which MRAs are on "far shakier ground".


title: The Red Pill

text: Corrine Barraclough, of the Australian tabloid newspaper "The Daily Telegraph", said "the message of "The Red Pill" is compassion" and the film made her "wonder why feminists tried so hard to silence this crucial conversation."


title: The Red Pill

text: "The Red Pill" won three awards at the 2017 Idyllwild International Festival of Cinema: "Best of Festival", "Excellence in Directing Documentary", and "Excellence in Producing a Documentary". Cassie Jaye also won the "Women in Film Award" at the Hollywood Digifest Festival for her work on the film.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: Buffalo Bills Stadium is an American football stadium that has been proposed for use by the Buffalo Bills to be constructed in Orchard Park, New York and succeed Highmark Stadium with the opening planned to begin in 2026.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: The 62,000 seat stadium would cost $1.35 billion and be built adjacent to Erie Community College’s south campus across the street from Highmark Stadium, which would be demolished. The stadium will be designed by Populous, who previously designed Sahlen Field in downtown Buffalo and 12 other active NFL stadiums, with which the new Orchard Park stadium will share numerous design elements and features.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: The Buffalo Bills' lease included a provision allowing for the creation of a working group to explore options for either a new stadium for the team, or an extensive retrofit of their current Highmark Stadium.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: On February 10, 2014, Governor Andrew Cuomo's administration appointed Buffalo Mayor Byron Brown, Niagara Falls Mayor Paul Dyster, Lt. Gov. Robert Duffy, Buffalo Niagara Partnership CEO Dottie Gallagher-Cohen and Empire State Development President Kenneth Adams to a new study board to discuss the feasibility and plans for a new stadium.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: Later, on March 6, 2014, the County of Erie appointed its seven members to the board, including future New York State governor Kathy Hochul, then with M&T Bank, and Richard Tobe, the Deputy Erie County Executive.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: Shortly after the death of owner Ralph Wilson, on March 27, 2014, the Bills selected their members for the panel, including U.S. Senator Charles Schumer, Bills CEO and President Russ Brandon, local developer Louis Ciminelli, Bills CFO Jeff Littman, New Era Cap Co. CEO Christopher Koch among others. The group's first meeting was held on April 1.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: In mid-January 2015, AECOM, retained by the State of New York, released a report detailing suggested stadium sites based upon criteria of site size, cost of land, infrastructure and external development, among other factors. The study narrowed the search to four sites.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: The Pegulas indicated on July 31, 2015 that they had no immediate plans to pursue a new stadium. The situation remained unchanged as of November 2017. By March 2018, the Pegulas had entered the "very early stages" of exploring long-term stadium options for the Bills. In September 2018, the Pegulas stated that they would begin planning the new stadium, or possibly renovating the current one, after the November 2018 gubernatorial elections, as state funding would likely be required.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: During the fall of 2018, PS&E hired consultant CAA ICON to handle stadium planning for both the Bills and the Buffalo Sabres, with no constraints on potential locations. Concurrently, Erie County has created a new stadium fund, for which $500,000 was set aside in 2018 with the same amount earmarked for 2019. The first focus groups were assembled in February 2019.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: Mark Poloncarz, the current county executive of Erie County, New York, stated in 2012 that a stadium in the city of Buffalo would not be feasible, as too much property in the city remained in private hands, which would trigger an eminent domain lawsuit if it were seized to build the stadium. He reiterated those concerns in 2019, though in that case he stopped short of ruling out a stadium within the city so as not to disrupt negotiations.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: During the January 2020 State of the League address, commissioner Roger Goodell stated in regard to the Bills' stadium plans: “Those are things that the group has to settle collectively and to address over the next several months, if not sooner.”


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: On June 18, 2021, the Pegulas chose Legends Global Planning to represent ownership, consult on a new stadium and sell sponsorships and premium seats for the venue. In addition, an unnamed source claimed that the Bills were planning to build a new stadium in Orchard Park to replace Highmark Stadium, with two of the television stations in Rochester, New York reporting the unnamed source's claims as fact. A June 19 report from WGRZ in Buffalo, also neither confirmed nor denied by any officials, stated that the Bills strongly preferred to build a new stadium and not attempt any further renovations on Highmark Stadium.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: In early August it was reported that Pegula Sports and Entertainment had made their first offer demanding full taxpayer funding of a new stadium in Orchard Park at a cost of $1.1 billion, part of a broader $1.5 billion package that would also include renovations to KeyBank Center, Buffalo's indoor sports arena. The Pegulas reportedly threatened to relocate the team to Austin, Texas if their demands were not met, though they had not contacted anybody in Austin prior to suggesting the idea.


title: Future Buffalo Bills stadium

text: On August 31, 2021, the Bills submitted their plans for a $1.4 billion, 60,000-seat stadium in Orchard Park to representatives of the state and Erie County to be completed by 2027. The proposed capacity is 12,000 seats less than Highmark Stadium and 1,500 seats less than Soldier Field, the lowest capacity stadium currently used in the NFL (and whose main tenant the Chicago Bears are also exploring a new stadium). Unusually for an American sports venue, the stadium would not be an all-seater: a 5,000-person standing room only deck would also be included in the venue, potentially increasing capacity to 68,000. The new venue will not include a roof, but it would be designed so that a majority of the seats would be protected from the elements, and thus the stadium would be ineligible to host the Super Bowl; civic leaders in Buffalo argued that Buffalo lacked the infrastructure to host the Super Bowl, nor any other event large enough to make full use of the venue outside of football, and that the team should not bother trying to build a stadium for such events, nor bid for them. The city's reputation for cold, snowy weather also played into the team's decision to make the new stadium open-air, as the snowy conditions often make for compelling television.