title: Paul Lambert

text: Lambert was appointed manager of Championship club Blackburn Rovers on 15 November 2015 on a two-and-a-half-year deal, with the club in 16th place following the dismissal of Gary Bowyer. Lambert secured Championship safety for Blackburn with a 2–2 draw against Bristol City on 23 April 2016. Blackburn ended the season with two consecutive wins, finishing in 15th place. The club confirmed that Lambert had activated a release clause in his contract, and would step down as manager after their last match of the 2015–16 season on 7 May 2016.


title: Paul Lambert

text: On 5 November 2016, Lambert was appointed head coach of Championship club Wolverhampton Wanderers, taking over with the team in 19th place. The team achieved an upset victory in the fourth round of the 2016–17 FA Cup, winning 2–1 against Liverpool at Anfield. The team finished the 2016–17 EFL Championship season in 15th place.


title: Paul Lambert

text: On 30 May 2017 the club announced that they and Lambert had "agreed to part company following a football review".


title: Paul Lambert

text: On 15 January 2018, Lambert was appointed manager of Premier League club Stoke City, signing a two-and-a-half-year contract with the Potters, and officially took up post the following day. He joined Stoke with the club in the relegation zone, having dismissed previous manager Mark Hughes due to a poor run of form. His first game in charge was a vital 2–0 victory over relegation rivals Huddersfield Town to move them out of the relegation places.


title: Paul Lambert

text: His only permanent signing in charge was the deadline day signing of Senegalese midfielder Badou Ndiaye from Turkish club Galatasaray for a fee of £14 million. Furthermore, the club completed the signing of Kostas Stafylidis on loan from FC Augsburg until the end of the season.


title: Paul Lambert

text: Lambert was unable to prevent Stoke's continued decline and relegation to the Championship, leaving the club via mutual agreement in May 2018 after just four months in charge.


title: Paul Lambert

text: On 27 October 2018, Lambert was appointed as the manager of Championship club Ipswich Town, making him the first ever manager to manage both Ipswich and Norwich. He joined his new team on a contract until the summer of 2021, with the side bottom of the Championship. On 10 February 2019, Lambert was sent off following a touchline bust-up with the opposing team staff during a game against former club and rivals Norwich City. He was subsequently fined and handed a two match touchline ban by the FA. Lambert later stated he did not regret his actions that led to his dismissal. Lambert was ultimately unable to keep Ipswich in the division, as relegation was confirmed on 13 April 2019. This ended Ipswich's 17-year stay in the Championship, resulting in them playing third-tier football for the first time since 1957.


title: Paul Lambert

text: Despite the team's relegation, Lambert remained in charge and led Ipswich to the top of the League One table during the first month of the 2019–20 season, winning 14 league points out of possible 18 during August. He won the EFL League One Manager of the Month award for August 2019. On 1 January 2020, Lambert signed a new 5-year contract with the club until 2025. Despite a strong start, Lambert failed to achieve promotion with the team finishing in 11th after the league was determined on a points-per-game basis due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Paul Lambert

text: On 27 October 2020, he was given a one-match touchline ban for directing foul and abusive language towards referee Kevin Johnson. He was also fined £1,000. Lambert tested positive for COVID-19 in December 2020, which resulted in the postponement of two league matches. Despite winning his two last games in charge against Hull City and Doncaster Rovers, Lambert left Ipswich by mutual consent on 28 February 2021 after failing to mount a promotion push during the season due to inconsistent form.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: Audioslave is the debut studio album by American rock supergroup Audioslave, released on November 18, 2002, through Epic Records and Interscope Records. In the United States, it has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The album spawned the singles "Cochise", "Like a Stone", "Show Me How to Live", "I Am the Highway", and "What You Are"; "Like a Stone" was nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: After Zack de la Rocha left Rage Against the Machine, the remaining members of the band began to look for a new vocalist. Producer and friend Rick Rubin suggested they contact Chris Cornell and played them the Soundgarden song "Slaves & Bulldozers" to showcase his ability. Cornell was in the process of writing material for a second solo album when Tom Morello, Tim Commerford, and Brad Wilk approached him, but he decided to shelve that and pursue the opportunity to work with them.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: Speaking about the first time Cornell jammed with the band, Morello said: "He stepped to the microphone and sang the song and I couldn't believe it. It didn't just sound good. It didn't sound great. It sounded transcendent. And ... when there is an irreplaceable chemistry from the first moment, you can't deny it." The new quartet wrote 21 songs during 19 days of rehearsal and started recording their first album in late May 2001.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: On March 19, 2002, the band announced they would be part of the 7th Ozzfest tour that summer, but three days later Cornell quit the group, and the Ozzfest dates were canceled. He rejoined the band six weeks later, after some management issues were resolved.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: Rough versions of thirteen songs from the album were leaked onto various peer-to-peer file sharing networks on May 17, 2002, six months before the official release of the album, under the name "Civilian" (or "The Civilian Project").<ref name="MTV News - Rage/Cornell-Credited Tracks Get Leaked Online"></ref> In an interview with "Metal Sludge" that July, Morello blamed "some jackass intern at Bad Animal Studios in Seattle" for stealing some demos and putting them on the internet without the band's permission. Later, he said that "It was very frustrating, especially with a band like this, there is a certain amount of expectation. For some people the initial time that they are hearing it was not in the form that you would have them hear it. In some cases they weren't even the same lyrics, guitar solos, performances of any kind."


title: Audioslave (album)

text: Cornell was having problems with alcohol while making the album, and in late 2002 there was a rumor that he had checked himself into drug rehabilitation—a rumor that was confirmed when he conducted an interview with "Metal Hammer" from a clinic payphone. He later said that he went through "a horrible personal crisis" during the making of the first Audioslave album, staying in rehab for two months and separating from his wife. He remained sober until shortly before his passing in 2017.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: The album was released on November 18, 2002, in the United Kingdom and a day later in the United States. The band toured through 2003, before taking a break from the road in 2004 to record their second album.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: The album cover was designed by Storm Thorgerson (with Peter Curzon and Rupert Truman), who, as leader of the group of artists known as Hipgnosis, was best known for his cover work for Pink Floyd. About it, he said: "We knew we were going to set this idea of the eternal flame, the graphic flame, in Lanzarote, a volcanic island, since volcanoes suited the brooding menace of Audioslave."


title: Audioslave (album)

text: Thorgerson also said that an unreleased version of the cover featuring a naked man looking at the flame was shot elsewhere at the same location, and "We so nearly used it, but we were not entirely sure of the nude figure."


title: Audioslave (album)

text: "Audioslave" received mixed reviews from critics. Some critics lambasted the group's efforts as uninspired and predictable.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: "Pitchfork"s reviewers Chris Dahlen and Ryan Schreiber praised Cornell's voice, but criticized virtually every other aspect of the album, calling it "the worst kind of studio rock album, rigorously controlled -- even undercut -- by studio gimmickry". They described Cornell's lyrics as "complete gibberish" and called producer Rick Rubin's work "a synthesized rock-like product that emits no heat".


title: Audioslave (album)

text: Jon Monks from "Stylus Magazine" also considered Rubin's production over-polished and wrote that, "lacking individuality, distinction and imagination this album is over-produced, overlong and over-indulgent". On the other hand, other critics praised the supergroup's style as reminiscent of 1970s heavy metal and compared it to Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath,<ref name="BBC – Rock/Indie Review – Audioslave, Audioslave"></ref> saying Audioslave add a much-needed sound and style to contemporary mainstream rock music and have the potential to become one of the best rock bands of the 21st century.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: In 2005, "Audioslave" was ranked number 281 in "Rock Hard" magazine's book of "The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time".


title: Audioslave (album)

text: The album entered the "Billboard" 200 chart at position number seven, after selling 162,000 copies in its first week. It was certified gold by the RIAA less than a month after its release, and by 2006 had achieved triple-platinum status.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: It is the most successful Audioslave album to date, having sold more than three million copies in the United States alone. The singles "Cochise", "Like a Stone", "Show Me How to Live", and "I Am the Highway" all reached the top ten of "Billboard"'s Modern Rock Tracks chart, with "Like a Stone" reaching number one, and those four, plus "What You Are", reached the top ten of the Mainstream Rock chart, with "Like a Stone" again reaching the top spot.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: The album was included among a group of 15 DualDisc releases that were test-marketed in two cities: Boston and Seattle. The DualDisc has the standard album on one side and bonus material on the other side. The DVD side of the "Audioslave" DualDisc featured the entire album in higher resolution 48kHz sound, as well as some videos. The higher resolution DVD side of this disc has been called a demonstration-quality audiophile release.


title: Audioslave (album)

text: For a limited time, the CD could be inserted into a CD-ROM drive and used to access the ConnecteD website. Here, the user was able to download bonus videos, interviews, photos, and a bonus track ("Give").


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: Uncle Frank is a 2020 American comedy-drama film written, directed, and co-produced by Alan Ball. The film stars Paul Bettany and Sophia Lillis. Set in the 1970s, "Uncle Frank" is a road movie about a gay man who confronts his past.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: It had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2020. It was released on November 25, 2020, by Amazon Studios.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: In 1973, 18-year-old Beth Bledsoe moves from her home in Creekville, South Carolina, to attend college in New York City. Her uncle Frank Bledsoe is a college professor there, and is the relative she feels closest to as he is more refined and thoughtful than the rest of the family.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: Beth meets a boyfriend, Bruce, and shows up with him unannounced to a party at Frank’s apartment. Through events that happen at the party, she discovers that Frank is secretly gay and has been living with a man named Walid (“Wally”) for over ten years. Frank rejects the sexual advance on Bruce's part, caring for Beth when she gets too drunk. He pleads with her not to tell anyone else in the family his secret, and she agrees.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: The next day, Beth’s grandfather and Frank’s father, Daddy Mac, dies of a sudden heart attack. Frank agrees to drive Beth back to South Carolina for the funeral. Wally asks to come along and meet Frank’s family, but Frank refuses, not yet ready to reveal the truth to them. However, Wally rents a car and follows them most of the way there; when Frank catches him, he agrees to let him come but stay in a motel during the funeral, fearful of what the locals might do if they discover their true relationship.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: Along their journey, Frank has flashbacks to his teenage years and a sexual relationship he had with another boy named Samuel; his father caught them in bed together and called Frank an abomination against God. To cope with these memories, Frank begins secretly drinking; he asks Beth not to tell Wally as Frank is a recovering alcoholic.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: Beth and Frank arrive home to attend the funeral. At the reading of the will, Frank learns he has been cut out of his inheritance, and the will bitterly exposes Frank’s homosexuality to the family. An emotional Frank flees, driving away erratically while drinking heavily. A panicked Beth rushes to inform Wally, who drives them to the nearby lake where he suspects Frank went. A final flashback reveals that Frank told Samuel they could not be together as it displeased God, and Samuel drowned himself in the lake shortly after. Wally and Beth discover Frank’s clothes sitting on a dock by the water, but Frank is nowhere to be seen.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: Wally and Beth return to the motel, where Wally grieves for Frank’s supposed death. However, a drunken Frank returns, claiming he just went for a swim. An argument ensues as Wally confronts Frank for his drinking; Frank punches Wally and calls him a faggot before fleeing again. They later reconcile at Samuel’s grave as Frank expresses guilt for his death. Frank laments that he has no family left; Wally reassures him that he is Frank's family. After an impassioned speech from Beth, Frank agrees to let Wally meet his family. While Frank’s brother-in-law is unable to morally accept the truth, his siblings and mother have no problem with the secret and warmly welcome Wally.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: It had its world premiere at the Sundance Film Festival on January 25, 2020. Shortly after, Amazon Studios acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on November 25, 2020.


title: Uncle Frank (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds rating based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critics consensus reads: ""Uncle Frank" finds writer-director Alan Ball still untangling the modern American family dynamic, aided by standout work from Paul Bettany and Sophia Lillis." Metacritic reports a score of 58 out of 100, based on 21 critic reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Discipline (BDSM)

text: Discipline in BDSM is the practice in which the dominant sets rules which the submissive is expected to obey. When rules of expected behaviour are broken, punishment is often used as a means of disciplining.


title: Discipline (BDSM)

text: In BDSM, rules can be made so that a submissive ("sub") knows how they should behave (so that the dominant is not displeased). Rules can also be for reminding subs of their inferior status, or for training a novice sub. When such rules are broken, whether consciously or unconsciously, punishment is often used as a means of discipline. Punishment itself can be physical (ex. whipping or piercing) or psychological (ex. erotic humiliation through public nudity or golden showers) or a combination of both (ex. through predicament bondage).


title: Discipline (BDSM)

text: The goal of discipline is to teach the sub how they should behave as well as the consequences that may arise as a result of breaking the rules of behavior. By undergoing punishment on breaking the set rules, they learn self-restraint and become better subs. The punishment is generally related to the mistake, and is generally proportionate to the severity and frequency of the mistake. For example, a punishment for speaking out of turn for the first time may be a simple restraint (such as being silenced using a gag). Similarly, the punishment for a nude male sub getting penis erection (consciously or unconsciously), despite not being allowed, can be a chastity cage.


title: Discipline (BDSM)

text: The sub may also be given the option of choosing his/her own punishment. For example, for a minor mistake done repeatedly, the punishment can be an option to be either caned few times (physical punishment) or be paraded nude in public with a pet animal leash (mental punishment). For major indiscipline by a female sub, the choice can be between breast torture and pussy torture. For a male sub who does major indiscipline, the choice can be for instrument type (ex. whip or cane) as well as for body part (ex.back of chest or buttocks), on which to receive 50 hard strokes.


title: Discipline (BDSM)

text: Punishments done on BDSM submissives, even harsh ones involving severe pain, should not be confused with sadomasochism. S&M involves giving pain/torture to a "sub" for the sake of enjoyment of "sub" and/or "dom". Contrarily, punishments for disciplining are in response to violations of predetermined rules by a sub, or for otherwise displeasing the dominant. However, the commonality is that there can be limits and safeword in both sadomasochism and disciplinary activities.


title: Discipline (BDSM)

text: Punishment is considered a necessary evil in BDSM, as without it, a sub may repeat mistakes and thus not become a proper sub. 'BDSM punishment' is also not 'forced abuse' – in the former a sub must have granted the trainer prior


title: Discipline (BDSM)

text: authority to punish and so cannot be termed forced. Punishment should also not be confused with BDSM training which may involve giving pain just for increasing the endurance limit of the sub. Sometimes, disciplining may avoid punishment altogether, and just a hard glance or loud voice from the dominant may be effective.


title: Discipline (BDSM)

text: Contrary to punishments, disciplining may also involve positive reinforcement. This includes rewarding the sub for good behaviour (ex. being allowed to sleep on bed rather than on hard floor).


title: Blackbirding

text: Blackbirding involves the coercion of people through deception or kidnapping to work as slaves or poorly paid labourers in countries distant from their native land. The term has been most commonly applied to the large-scale taking of people indigenous to the numerous islands in the Pacific Ocean during the 19th and 20th centuries. These blackbirded people were called Kanakas or South Sea Islanders. They were taken from places such as Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Niue, Easter Island, the Gilbert Islands, Tuvalu, the Fiji islands and the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago amongst others.


title: Blackbirding

text: The owners, captains, and crews of the ships involved in the acquisition of these labourers were termed "blackbirders". The demand for this kind of cheap labour principally came from European colonists in New South Wales, Queensland, Samoa, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tahiti and Hawaii, as well as plantations in Peru, Mexico and Guatemala. Labouring on sugar cane, cotton, and coffee plantations in these lands was the main usage of blackbirded labour, but they were also exploited in other industries. Blackbirding ships began operations in the Pacific from the 1840s which continued into the 1930s. Blackbirders from the Americas sought workers for their haciendas and to mine the guano deposits on the Chincha Islands, while the blackbirding trade organised by colonists in places like Queensland, Fiji, and New Caledonia used the labourers at plantations, particularly those producing sugar cane.


title: Blackbirding

text: Examples of blackbirding outside the South Pacific include the early days of the pearling industry in Western Australia at Nickol Bay and Broome, where aboriginal Australians were blackbirded from the surrounding areas.


title: Blackbirding

text: Practices similar to blackbirding continue to the present day. One example is the kidnapping and coercion, often at gunpoint, of indigenous peoples in Central America to work as plantation labourers in the region. They are subjected to poor living conditions, are exposed to heavy pesticide loads, and do hard labour for very little pay.


title: Blackbirding

text: The term may have been formed directly as a contraction of "blackbird catching"; "blackbird" was a slang term for the local indigenous people.


title: Blackbirding

text: The first major blackbirding operation in the Pacific was conducted out of Twofold Bay in New South Wales. A shipload of 65 Melanesian labourers arrived in Boyd Town on 16 April 1847 on board "Velocity", a vessel under the command of Captain Kirsopp and chartered by Benjamin Boyd. Boyd was a Scottish colonist who wanted cheap labourers to work at his large pastoral leaseholds in the colony of New South Wales. He financed two more procurements of South Sea Islanders, 70 of which arrived in Sydney in September 1847, and another 57 in October of that same year. Many of these Islanders soon absconded from their workplaces and were observed starving and destitute on the streets of Sydney. Reports of violence, kidnap and murder used during the recruitment of these labourers surfaced in 1848 with a closed-door enquiry choosing not to take any action against Boyd or Kirsopp. The experiment of exploiting Melanesian labour was discontinued in Australia until Robert Towns recommenced the practice in Queensland in the early 1860s.


title: Blackbirding

text: The Queensland labour trade in South Sea Islanders, or Kanakas as they were commonly termed, was in operation from 1863 to 1908, a period of 45 years. Some 55,000 to 62,500 were brought to Australia, most being recruited or blackbirded from islands in Melanesia, such as the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), the Solomon Islands and the islands around New Guinea. Although the process of acquiring these "indentured labourers" varied from violent kidnapping at gunpoint to relatively acceptable negotiation, most of the people affiliated with the trade were regarded as blackbirders. The majority of those taken were male and around one quarter were under the age of sixteen. In total, approximately 15,000 Kanakas died while working in Queensland, a figure which does not include those who expired in transit or who were killed in the recruitment process. This represents a mortality rate of 30%, which is high considering most were only on three year contracts. It is also strikingly similar to the estimated 33% death rate of African slaves in the first three years of being imported to America.


title: Blackbirding

text: In 1863, Robert Towns, a British sandalwood and whaling merchant residing in Sydney, wanted to profit from the world-wide cotton shortage due to the American Civil War. He bought a property he named Townsvale on the Logan River south of Brisbane, and planted of cotton. Towns wanted cheap labour to harvest and prepare the cotton and decided to import Melanesian labour from the Loyalty Islands and the New Hebrides. Captain Grueber together with labour recruiter Henry Ross Lewin aboard "Don Juan", brought 73 South Sea Islanders to the port of Brisbane in August 1863. Towns specifically wanted adolescent males. Recruitment and kidnapping was reportedly employed in obtaining these boys. Over the following two years, Towns imported around 400 more Melanesians to Townsvale on one to three year terms of labour. They came on "Uncle Tom" (Captain Archer Smith) and "Black Dog" (Captain Linklater). In 1865, Towns obtained large land leases in Far North Queensland and funded the establishment of the port of Townsville. He organised the first importation of South Sea Islander labour to that port in 1866. They came aboard "Blue Bell" under Captain Edwards. Towns paid his Kanaka labourers in trinkets instead of cash at the end of their working terms. His agent claimed that blackbirded labourers were "savages who did not know the use of money" and therefore did not deserve cash wages. Apart from a small amount of Melanesian labour imported for the beche-de-mer trade around Bowen, Robert Towns was the primary exploiter of blackbirded labour up until 1867.


title: Blackbirding

text: The high demand for very cheap labour in the sugar and pastoral industries of Queensland, resulted in Towns' main labour recruiter, Henry Ross Lewin, and another recruiter by the name of John Crossley opening their services to other land-owners. In 1867, "King Oscar", "Spunkie", "Fanny Nicholson" and "Prima Donna" returned with close to 1,000 Kanakas who were offloaded in the ports of Brisbane, Bowen and Mackay. This influx, together with information that the recently arrived labourers were being sold for £2 each and that kidnapping was at least partially used during recruitment, raised fears of a burgeoning new slave trade. These fears were realised when French officials in New Caledonia complained that Crossley had stolen half the inhabitants of a village in Lifou, and in 1868 a scandal evolved when Captain McEachern of "Syren" anchored in Brisbane with 24 dead islander recruits and reports that the remaining ninety on board were taken by force and deception. Despite the controversy, no action was taken against McEachern or Crossley.


title: Blackbirding

text: Many members of the Queensland government were already either invested in the labour trade or had Kanakas actively working on their land holdings. Therefore, the 1868 legislation on the trade in the form of the Polynesian Labourers Act, that was brought in due to "Syren" debacle, requiring every ship to be licensed and carry a government agent to observe the recruitment process, was poor in protections and even more poorly enforced. Government agents were often corrupted by bonuses paid for labourers 'recruited,' or blinded by alcohol, and did little or nothing to prevent sea-captains from tricking islanders on-board or otherwise engaging in kidnapping with violence. The Act also stipulated that the Kanakas were to be contracted for no more than 3 years and be paid £18 for their work. This was an extremely low wage that was only paid at the end of their three years of work. Additionally, a system whereby the Islanders were heavily influenced to buy overpriced goods of poor quality at designated shops before they returned home, robbed them further. The Act, instead of protecting the South Sea Islanders, actually gave legitimacy to a kind of slavery in Queensland.


title: Blackbirding

text: Certain officials in London were concerned enough with the situation to order a vessel of the Royal Navy based at the Australia Station in Sydney to do a cruise of investigation. In 1869, under Captain George Palmer managed to intercept a blackbirding ship loaded with Islanders at Fiji. under command of Captain Daggett and licensed in Queensland to Henry Ross Lewin, was described by Palmer as being fitted out "like an African slaver". Even though there was a government agent on board, the Islanders recruited appeared in poor condition and, having no understanding of English and no interpreter, had little idea of why they were being transported. Palmer seized the ship, freed the Kanakas and arrested both Captain Daggett and the ship's owner Thomas Pritchard for slavery. Daggett and Pritchard were taken to Sydney to be tried but all charges were quickly dismissed and the prisoners discharged. Furthermore, Sir Alfred Stephen, the Chief Justice of the New South Wales Supreme Court found that Captain Palmer had illegally seized "Daphne" and ordered him to pay reparations to Daggett and Pritchard. No evidence or statements were taken from the Islanders. This decision, which overrode the obvious humanitarian actions of a senior officer of the Royal Navy, gave further legitimacy to the blackbirding trade out of Queensland and allowed it to flourish. It also constrained the actions by naval commanders when dealing with incidents on the high seas and also crimes against the many missionaries working on the islands.


title: Blackbirding

text: Recruiting of South Sea Islanders soon became an established industry with labour vessels from across eastern Australia obtaining Kanakas for both the Queensland and Fiji markets. Captains of such ships would get paid about 5 shillings per recruit in "head money" incentives, while the owners of the ships would sell the Kanakas from anywhere between £4 to £20 per head. The Kanakas who were transported on "Bobtail Nag" had metal discs imprinted with a letter of the alphabet hung around their neck making for easy identification. Maryborough and Brisbane became important centres for the trade with vessels such as "Spunkie", "Jason" and "Lyttona" making frequent recruiting journeys out of these ports. Reports of blackbirding, kidnap and violence were made against these vessels with Captain Winship of "Lyttona" being accused of kidnapping and importing Kanaka boys aged between 12 and 15 years for the plantations of George Raff at Caboolture. The Queensland Governor made enquiries and "found that there were a few islanders between fourteen and sixteen years of age, but that they, like all the others who accompanied them, had engaged without any pressure and were perfectly happy and contented". It was alleged by missionaries in the New Hebrides that one crew member of "Spunkie" murdered two recruits by shooting them, but the immigration agent Charles James Nichols who was on board the vessel denied this occurred. Charges of kidnap were made against Captain John Coath of "Jason". Only Captain Coath was brought to trial and, despite being found guilty, he was soon pardoned and allowed to re-enter the recruiting trade. Up to 45 of the Kanakas brought in by Coath died on plantations around the Mary River. Meanwhile, the famous recruiter Henry Ross Lewin was charged with the rape of a pubescent Islander girl. Despite strong evidence, Lewin was acquitted and the girl was later sold in Brisbane for £20.


title: Blackbirding

text: By the 1870s, South Sea Islanders were being put to work not only in cane-fields along the Queensland coast but were also widely used as shepherds upon the large sheep stations in the interior and as pearl divers in the Torres Strait. They were taken as far west as Hughenden, Normanton and Blackall. A number of Islanders died, one by scurvy on the long journey from Rockhampton to Bowen Downs Station. Captain Sadleir, the Police Magistrate of Tambo, stated that a prosecution would proceed "if the whipping was severe" and that "Sometimes a small amount of correction is necessary" When four Kanakas murdered Mr Gibbie and Mr Bell, two of them were tracked and captured by Native Police. When the owners of the properties they were labouring on went bankrupt, the Islanders would often either be abandoned or sold as part of the estate to a new owner. In the Torres Strait, Kanakas were left at isolated pearl fisheries such as the Warrior Reefs for years with little hope of being returned home. In this region, three ships used to procure pearl-shells and beche-de-mer, including "Challenge" were owned by James Merriman who held the position of Mayor of Sydney.


title: Blackbirding

text: Poor conditions at the sugar plantations led to regular outbreaks of disease and death. The Maryborough plantations and the labour vessels operating out of that port became notorious for high mortality rates of Kanakas. During the measles epidemic of 1875, ships such as "Jason" arrived with Islanders either dead or infected with the disease. There were 30 deaths recorded of measles, followed by dysentery. From 1875 to 1880, at least 443 Kanakas died in the Maryborough region from gastrointestinal and pulmonary disease at a rate 10 times above average. The Yengarie, Yarra Yarra and Irrawarra plantations belonging to Robert Cran were particularly bad. An investigation revealed that the Islanders were overworked, underfed, not provided with medical assistance and that the water supply was a stagnant drainage pond. At the port of Mackay, the labour schooner "Isabella" arrived with half the Kanakas recruited dying on the voyage from dysentery, while Captain John Mackay (after whom the city of Mackay is named), arrived at Rockhampton in "Flora" with a cargo of Kanakas, of which a considerable number were in a dead or dying condition.


title: Blackbirding

text: As the blackbirding activities increased and the detrimental results became more understood, resistance by the Islanders to this recruitment system grew. Labour vessels were regularly repelled from landing at many islands by local people. Recruiter, Henry Ross Lewin, was killed at Tanna Island, the crew of "May Queen" were killed at Pentecost Island, while the captain and crew of "Dancing Wave" were killed at the Nggela Islands. Blackbirders would sometimes make their vessels look like missionary ships, deceiving then kidnapping local Islanders. This led to violence against the missionaries themselves, the best example being the killing of Anglican missionary John Coleridge Patteson in 1871 at Nukapu. A few days before his death, one of the local men had been killed and five others abducted by crew of "Margaret Chessel" who pretended to be missionaries. Patteson may also have been killed due to his desire to take the Islanders' children to a distant mission school and that he had disrupted the local patriarchal hierarchy. At other islands blackbirding vessels, such as "Mystery" under Captain Kilgour, attacked villages, shooting the residents and burning their houses. Ships of the Royal Navy were also called upon to investigate the deeds and deliver appropriate punishment upon islands involved in killings of blackbirding crews and missionaries. For example, HMS Rosario in 1871 whilst investigating the Bishop Patteson murder and other conflicts between islanders, settlers and missionaries as the Commander describes in his book. And later under Captain de Houghton and under Commodore John Crawford Wilson conducted several missions in the late 1870s that involved naval bombardment of villages, raids by marines, burning of houses, destruction of crops and the hanging of an Islander from the yardarms. One of these expeditions involved the assistance of the armed crew of the blackbirding vessel "Sybil" commanded by Captain Satini. Furthermore, two South Sea Islanders were hanged in Maryborough for the rape and attempted murder of a white woman, these being the first legal executions in that town.


title: Blackbirding

text: The violence and death surrounding the Queensland blackbirding trade intensified in the early 1880s. Local communities in the New Hebrides and the Solomon Islands had increased access to modern firearms which made their resistance to the blackbirders more robust. Well known vessels that experienced mortality amongst their crews while attempting to recruit Islanders included "Esperanza" at Simbo, "Pearl" at Rendova Island, "May Queen" at Ambae Island, "Stormbird" at Tanna, "Janet Stewart" at Malaita and "Isabella" at Espiritu Santo amongst others. Officers of Royal Navy warships attempting punitive action were not exempt as targets with Lieutenant Bower and five crew of being killed in the Nggela Islands and Lieutenant Luckcraft of being shot dead at Espiritu Santo. Numerous punitive expeditions were carried out by Royal Navy warships based at the Australia Station. under Captain W.H. Maxwell went on an extensive punitive expedition, shelling and destroying numerous villages, while marines of executed various Islanders suspected of killing white men. Captain Dawson of led a mission to Ambae Island, killing a chief suspected of murdering blackbirders, while went on a "savage-hunting expedition" throughout the Solomon Islands which resulted in no casualties on either side. At Ambrym, the marines of under Commander Moore, raided and burned down a village in retaliation for the killing of Captain Belbin of the blackbirding ship "Borough Belle". Likewise, patrolled the islands, protecting the crews of blackbirding vessels such as "Ceara" from mutinies of the labour recruits.


title: Blackbirding

text: In 1882, the Melbourne newspaper "The Age" published an eight-part series written by journalist and future physician George E. Morrison, who had sailed, undercover, for the New Hebrides, while posing as crew of the brigantine slave ship, "Lavinia", as it made cargo of Kanakas. "A Cruise in a Queensland Slaver. By a Medical Student" was written in a tone of wonder, expressing "only the mildest criticism"; six months later, Morrison "revised his original assessment", describing details of "Lavinia" blackbirding operation, and sharply denouncing the slave trade in Queensland. His articles, letters to the editor, and "The Age" editorials, led to expanded government intervention.


title: Blackbirding

text: The usual recruiting grounds of the New Hebrides and Solomon Islands became too dangerous and too expensive to obtain labour from. However, the well-populated islands around New Guinea were soon targeted for recruiting as these people were less aware of the blackbirding system and had less access to firearms. A new rush for labour from these islands began, with James Burns and Robert Philp of Burns Philp & Co. purchasing several well-known blackbirding ships to quickly exploit the human resource in this region. Plantation owners such as Robert Cran also bought vessels and made contact with missionaries like Samuel MacFarlane in the New Guinea area to help facilitate the acquisition of cheap workers. Kidnapping, forced recruitment, killings, false payment and the enslavement of children was again the typical practice. Captain William T. Wawn, a famous blackbirder working for the Burns Philp company on the ship "Lizzie", freely acknowledged in his memoirs that he took boatloads of young boys with no information given about contracts, pay or the nature of the work. Up to 530 boys were recruited per month from these islands, most of whom were transported to the new large company plantations in Far North Queensland, such as the Victoria Plantation owned by CSR. This phase of the trade was very profitable, with Burns Philp selling each recruit for around £23. Many of them could not speak any English and died on these plantations at a rate of up to 1 in every 5 from disease, violence and neglect.


title: Blackbirding

text: In April 1883, the Premier of Queensland, Thomas McIlwraith attempted to annex New Guinea to be part of Queensland. This was rejected by the British Colonial Secretary mostly because of fears that it would expose even more of its inhabitants to be forcibly taken to work and possibly die in Queensland. The large influx of New Guinea labourers also sparked concern from white supremacist anti-immigration groups, which led to the election in late 1883 of Samuel Griffith on an anti-Kanaka policy platform. Griffith quickly banned recruitment from the New Guinea islands and spearheaded a number of high-profile criminal cases against blackbirding crews operating in the area. The crew of "Alfred Vittery" were charged with the murder of South Sea Islanders, while Captain Joseph Davies of "Stanley", Captain Millman of "Jessie Kelly", Captain Loutit of "Ethel" as well as the owners of "Forest King" were all charged with kidnapping. All of these cases, despite strong evidence against them, resulted in acquittal. Charges of neglect resulting in death against plantation managers were also made. For example, Mr Melhuish of the Yeppoon Sugar Plantation was tried, but even though he was found responsible, the judge involved imposed only the minimum £5 fine and wished it could be an even lesser amount. During a riot at the Mackay racetrack, several South Sea Islanders were beaten to death by mounted white men wielding stirrup irons. Only one man, George Goyner, was convicted and received a minor punishment of two months imprisonment.


title: Blackbirding

text: In 1884, in one specific case, a significant judicial punishment was imposed on the blackbirders. This was in regards to the crew of "Hopeful" vessel which was owned by Burns Philp. Captain Lewis Shaw and four crew were charged and convicted of kidnapping people from the Bismarck Archipelago, while the recruiter Neil McNeil and the boatswain were charged and convicted of murdering a number of Islanders. The kidnappers received jail terms of 7 to 10 years, while McNeil and the boatswain were sentenced to death, later commuted to life imprisonment. Despite evidence showing that at least 38 Islanders had been killed by "Hopeful" crew, all the prisoners (except for one who died in jail) were released in 1890 in response to a massive public petition signed by 28,000 Queenslanders. This case sparked a Royal Commission into the recruitment of Islanders from which the Premier of Queensland concluded that it was no better than the African slave trade, and in 1885 the vessel S.S. "Victoria" was commissioned by the Government of Queensland to return 450 New Guinea Islanders to their homelands. Just like the global slave trade, the plantation owners, instead of being held criminally responsible, were financially compensated by the government for the loss of these returned workers.


title: Blackbirding

text: Fourteen sugar companies and individual planters including The Colonial Sugar Refining Company and David Adolphus Louis, took the Queensland Government to court to demand financial recompense and were collectively awarded £18,500. This is despite consistent evidence given in court of each plantation recording labourer death rates of up to 60% over the term of their servitude.


title: Blackbirding

text: Forceful recruitment of South Sea Islanders persisted in the New Guinea region, as well as in the Solomons and the New Hebrides islands, as did the high death rates of these labourers at Queensland plantations. At the Yeppoon Sugar Company, deliberate poisonings of Kanakas also occurred and when this plantation was later put up for sale, the Islander labourers were included as part of the estate. Resistance and conflict also continued. For instance, at Malaita three crew members of the recruiting vessel "Young Dick" were killed together with about a dozen Islanders in a skirmish, while at Paama a large gun battle between the residents and the crew of "Eliza Mary" occurred. This ship later sank during a cyclone causing the drowning deaths of 47 Kanakas. The policy of extensive punitive expeditions carried out by the Royal Navy against the Islanders persisted as well. The official report of the lengthy mission of which bombarded and burnt numerous villages in 1885 was kept secret. also bombarded numerous villages in punitive expeditions which elicited condemnation from some sections of the media.


title: Blackbirding

text: Legislation was passed to end the South Sea Islander labour trade in 1890 but it was not effectively enforced and it was officially recommenced in 1892. Reports such as those by Joe Melvin, an investigative journalist who in 1892 joined the crew of Queensland blackbirding ship "Helena" and found no instances of intimidation or misrepresentation and concluded that the Islanders recruited did so "willingly and cannily", helped the plantation owners secure the resumption of the trade. "Helena" under Captain A.R. Reynolds, transported Islanders to and from Bundaberg and in this region there was a very large mortality rate of Kanakas in 1892 and 1893. South Sea Islanders made up 50% of all deaths in this period even though they only made up 20% of the total population in the Bundaberg area. The deaths were due to the hard manual labour and diseases such as dysentery, influenza and tuberculosis.


title: Blackbirding

text: In the 1890s, other important recruiting vessels were "Para", "Lochiel", "Nautilus", "Rio Loge", "Roderick Dhu" and "William Manson". Joseph Vos, a well known blackbirder for many years and the captain of "William Manson", would use phonographic recordings and enlarged photographs of relatives of Islanders to induce recruits on board his vessel. Vos and his crew were involved in killings, stealing women and setting fire to villages and were charged with kidnapping. However, they were found not guilty and released. "Roderick Dhu", a vessel owned by the sugar magnate Robert Cran, was another ship regularly involved in blackbirding investigations and conflict with Islanders. In 1890, it was involved in the shooting of people at Ambae Island, and evidence of kidnapping by the crew was later published. In 1893, conflict with Islanders at Espiritu Santo resulted in the death of a crew member of "Roderick Dhu".


title: Blackbirding

text: In 1901, the government of the newly federated British colonies of Australia legislated the "Regulation, Restriction and Prohibition of the Introduction of Labourers from the Pacific Islands" bill, better known as the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901. This Act, which was part of a larger White Australia policy, made it illegal to import South Sea Islanders after March 1904 and mandated for the forcible deportation of all Islanders from Australia after 1906. Strong lobbying from Islander residents in Australia forced some exemptions to be made, for example, those who were married to an Australian, who owned land or who had been living for 20 years in Australia were exempt from compulsory repatriation. However, many Islanders were not made aware of these exemptions. Around 4000 to 7500 were deported in the period 1906 to 1908, while approximately 1600 remained in Australia. The Burns Philp company won the contract to deport the Islanders and those taken back to the Solomon Islands were distributed to their home islands by vessels of Lever's Pacific Plantations company. Deported Solomon Islanders who were unable to go to their villages of origin or who were born in Australia, were often put to work in plantations in these islands. In some localities, serious conflict between these workers and white colonists in the Solomon Islands ensued. Around 350 of the South Sea Islanders banished from Queensland were transferred to plantations in Fiji. At least 27 of these died while being transported.


title: Blackbirding

text: Today, the descendants of those who remained are officially referred to as Australian South Sea Islanders. A 1992 census of Australian South Sea Islanders reported around 10,000 descendants living in Queensland. In the 2016 census, 6830 people in Queensland declared that they were descendants of South Sea Islander labourers.


title: Blackbirding

text: In 2012, the Australian government introduced a seasonal worker scheme under the 416 and 403 visas to bring in Pacific Islander labour to work in the agricultural industry performing tasks such as picking fruit. By 2018, around 17,320 Islanders, mostly from Vanuatu, Fiji and Tonga, had been employed with the majority being placed on farms in Queensland. Workers under this programme have often been subject to working long hours in extreme temperatures and being forced to live in squalid conditions. Poor access to clean water, adequate food and medical assistance has resulted in several deaths. These reports, together with allegations of workers receiving as little as $10 a week after rent and transport deductions, resulted in the "Harvest Trail Inquiry" into the conditions of migrant horticultural workers. This inquiry confirmed widespread exploitation, intimidation and underpayment of workers with at least 55% of employers being non-compliant in regard to payments and conditions. It found many workers were contracted under a "piece rate" of pay with no written agreement and no minimum hourly rate (as is typical for Australian seasonal agricultural workers). Even though some wages were recovered and a number of employers and contractors were fined, the inquiry found that much more regulation was needed. Despite this report, the government expanded the programme in 2018 with the Pacific Labour Scheme which includes three-year contracts. Strong parallels have been drawn with the working conditions observed under this programme to those of blackbirded Pacific Islander labourers in the 19th Century.


title: Blackbirding

text: The introduction of the "Modern Slavery Act 2018" into Australian law was partly based upon concerns of slavery being evident in the Queensland agricultural sector. Some commentators have also drawn parallels between blackbirding and the early 21st-century recruitment of labour under the (unconnected) 457 visa scheme.


title: Blackbirding

text: The early days of the pearling industry in Western Australia at Nickol Bay and Broome, saw Aboriginal Australians blackbirded from the surrounding areas. After settlement the Aborigines were used as slave labour in the emerging commercial industry.


title: Blackbirding

text: During the early 1870s, Francis Cadell became involved in whaling, trading, pearling and blackbirding in North-West Australia. Cadell and others became notorious for their coercion, capture and sale of Aboriginal people as slaves. The slaves were often detained temporarily at camps known as "barracoons" on Barrow Island, offshore. In 1875 magistrate Robert Fairbairn was sent to investigate pearling conditions at Shark Bay, following reports that people, described as Malays, employed by Cadell and Charles Broadhurst were unpaid, unable to return home and some had starved to death. Fairbairn held that Cadell had not paid 10 Malays from the time they were engaged at Batavia in 1874 and he was required to pay the 10 Malays plus an additional 4 months wages as amends for the lack of food, totaling £198. 14s. 4d. They received just £16. 16s. from the sale of Cadell's property at Shark Bay as Cadell had left the Colony of Western Australia some months previously. Broadhurst was also found to have underpaid 18 Malays totaling £183. 4s. 2d. however the judgement was set aside by the Supreme Court on the technicality that Broadhurst had not been given proper notice of the claim.


title: Blackbirding

text: The blackbirding era began in Fiji on 5 July 1865 when Ben Pease received the first licence to transport 40 labourers from the New Hebrides to Fiji in order to work on cotton plantations. The American Civil War had cut off the supply of cotton to the international market and cultivation of this cash crop in Fiji was potentially an extremely profitable business. Thousands of Anglo-American and Anglo-Australian planters flocked to Fiji to establish plantations and the demand for cheap labour boomed. Transportation of Kanaka labour to Fiji continued up until 1911 when it became prohibited by law. A probable total of around 45,000 Islanders were taken to work in Fiji during this 46-year period with approximately a quarter of these dying while under their term of labour.


title: Blackbirding

text: Albert Ross Hovell, son of the noted explorer William Hilton Hovell, was a prominent blackbirder in the early years of the Fijian labour market. In 1867 he was captain of "Sea Witch", recruiting men and boys from Tanna and Lifou. The following year, Hovell was in command of "Young Australian" which was involved in an infamous voyage resulting in charges of murder and slavery being laid. After being recruited, at least three Islanders were shot dead aboard the vessel and the rest sold in Levuka for £1,200. Hovell and his supercargo, Hugo Levinger, were arrested in Sydney in 1869, found guilty by jury and sentenced to death. This was later commuted to life imprisonment but both were discharged from prison only after a couple of years.


title: Blackbirding

text: In 1868 the Acting British Consul in Fiji, John Bates Thurston, brought only minor regulations upon the trade through the introduction of a licensing system for the labour vessels. Melanesian labourers were generally recruited for a term of three years at a rate of three pounds per year and issued with basic clothing and rations. The payment was half of that offered in Queensland and like that colony was only given at the end of the three-year term usually in the form of poor quality goods rather than cash. Most Melanesians were recruited by combination of deceit and violence, and then locked up in the ship's hold to prevent escape. They were sold in Fiji to the colonists at a rate of £3 to £6 per head for males and £10 to £20 for females. After the expiry of the three-year contract, the government required captains to transport the surviving labourers back to their villages, but many were disembarked at places distant from their homelands.


title: Blackbirding

text: A notorious incident of the blackbirding trade was the 1871 voyage of the brig "Carl", organised by Dr James Patrick Murray, to recruit labourers to work in the plantations of Fiji. Murray had his men reverse their collars and carry black books, so to appear to be church missionaries. When islanders were enticed to a religious service, Murray and his men would produce guns and force the islanders onto boats. During the voyage Murray and his crew shot about 60 islanders. He was never brought to trial for his actions, as he was given immunity in return for giving evidence against his crew members. The captain of "Carl", Joseph Armstrong, along with the mate Charles Dowden were sentenced to death, which was later commuted to life imprisonment.


title: Blackbirding

text: Some Islanders brought to Fiji against their will demonstrated desperate actions to escape from their situation. Some groups managed to overpower the crews of smaller vessels to take command of these ships and attempt to sail back to their home islands. For example, in late 1871, Islanders aboard "Peri" being transported to a plantation on a smaller Fijian island, freed themselves, killed most of the crew and took charge of the vessel. Unfortunately, the ship was low in supplies and was blown westward into the open ocean where they spent two months adrift. Eventually, "Peri" was spotted by Captain John Moresby aboard near to Hinchinbrook Island off the coast of Queensland. Only thirteen of the original eighty kidnapped Islanders were alive and able to be rescued.


title: Blackbirding

text: Labour vessels involved in this period of blackbirding for the Fijian market also included "Donald McLean" under the command of captain McLeod, and "Flirt" under captain McKenzie who often took people from Erromango. Captain Martin of "Wild Duck" stole people from Espiritu Santo, while other ships such as "Lapwing", "Kate Grant", "Harriet Armytage" and "Frolic" also participated in the kidnapping trade. The famous blackbirder, Bully Hayes kidnapped Islanders for the Fiji market in his Sydney-registered schooner, "Atlantic". Many captains engaged in violent means to obtain the labourers. The crews of "Margaret Chessel", "Maria Douglass" and "Marion Renny" were involved in fatal conflict with various Islanders. Captain Finlay McLever of "Nukulau" was arrested and tried in court for kidnapping and assault but was discharged due to a legal technicality.


title: Blackbirding

text: The passing of the Pacific Islanders Protection Act in 1872 by the British government was meant to improve the conditions for the Islanders but instead it legitimised the labour trade and the treatment of the blackbirded Islanders upon the Fiji plantations remained appalling. In his 1873 report, the British Consul to Fiji, Edward March, outlined how the labourers were treated as slaves. They were given insufficient food, subjected to regular beatings and sold on to other colonists. If they became rebellious they were either imprisoned by their owners or sentenced by magistrates (who were also plantation owners) to heavy labour. The planters were allowed to inflict punishment and restrain the Islanders as they saw fit and young girls were openly bartered for and sold into sexual slavery. Many workers were not paid and those who survived and were able to return to their home islands were regarded as lucky.


title: Blackbirding

text: The British annexed Fiji in October 1874 and the labour trade in Pacific Islanders continued as before. In 1875, the year of the catastrophic measles epidemic, the chief medical officer in Fiji, Sir William MacGregor, listed a mortality rate of 540 out of every 1,000 Islander labourers. The Governor of Fiji, Sir Arthur Gordon, endorsed not only the procuring of Kanaka labour but became an active organiser in the plan to expand it to include mass importation of indentured coolie workers from India. The establishment of the Western Pacific High Commission in 1877, which was based in Fiji, further legitimised the trade by imposing British authority upon most people living in Melanesia.


title: Blackbirding

text: Violence and kidnapping persisted with Captain Haddock of "Marion Renny" shooting people at Makira and burning their villages. Captain John Daly of "Heather Belle" was convicted of kidnapping and jailed but was soon allowed to leave Fiji and return to Sydney. Many deaths continued to occur upon the blackbirding vessels bound for Fiji, with perhaps the worst example from this period being that which occurred on "Stanley". This vessel was chartered by the colonial British government in Fiji to conduct six recruiting voyages for the Fiji labour market. Captain James Lynch was in command and on one of these voyages he ordered 150 recruits to be locked in the ship's hold during an extended period of stormy weather. By the time the ship arrived in Levuka, around fifty Islanders had died from suffocation and neglect. A further ten who were hospitalised were expected to die. Captain Lynch and the crew of "Stanley" faced no recriminations for this disaster and were soon at sea again recruiting for the government.


title: Blackbirding

text: This conflict together with competition for Pacific Islander labour from Queensland made recruiting sufficient workers for the Fiji plantations difficult. Beginning in 1879 with the arrival of "Leonidas", the transport of Indian indentured labourers to Fiji commenced. However, this coolie labour was more expensive and the market for blackbirded Islander workers remained strong for much of the 1880s. In 1882, the search for new sources of Islander labour expanded firstly to the Line Islands and then to New Britain and New Ireland. The very high death rate of Line Islanders taken for the Fiji market quickly forced the prohibition of taking people from there. Although the death rates of recruits from New Britain and New Ireland were also high, the trade in humans from these islands was allowed to continue. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company made major investments in the Fijian sugar industry around this time with much of the labour being provided by workers from New Britain. Many of the recruits taken from this island on the labour vessel "Lord of Isles" were put to work on the CSR sugar mill at Nausori. The Fijian labour report for the years 1878 to 1882 revealed that 18 vessels were engaged in the trade, recruiting 7,137 Islanders with 1270 or nearly 20% of these dying while in Fiji. Fijian registered ships involved in the trade at this stage included "Winifred", "Meg Merrilies", "Dauntless" and "Ovalau".


title: Blackbirding

text: By 1890, the number of Melanesian labourers declined in preference to imported Indian indentured workers, but they were still being recruited and employed in such places as sugar mills and ports. In 1901, Islanders continued to be sold in Fiji for £15 per head and it was only in 1902 that a system of paying monthly cash wages directly to the workers was proposed. When Islander labourers were expelled from Queensland in 1906, around 350 were transferred to the plantations in Fiji. After the system of recruitment ended in 1911, those who remained in Fiji settled in areas like the region around Suva. Their multi-cultural descendants identify as a distinct community but, to outsiders, their language and culture cannot be distinguished from native Fijians. Descendants of Solomon Islanders have filed land claims to assert their right to traditional settlements in Fiji. A group living at Tamavua-i-Wai in Fiji received a High Court verdict in their favour on 1 February 2007. The court refused a claim by the Seventh-day Adventist Church to force the islanders to vacate the land on which they had been living for seventy years.


title: Blackbirding

text: In 1863, British capitalist William Stewart set up the Tahiti Cotton and Coffee Plantation Company at Atimaono on the south-west coast of Tahiti. Initially Stewart used imported Chinese coolie labour but soon shifted to blackbirded Polynesian labour to work the plantation. Bully Hayes, an American ship-captain who achieved notoriety for his activities in the Pacific from the 1850s to the 1870s, arrived in Papeete, Tahiti in December 1868 on his ship "Rona" with 150 men from Niue. Hayes offered them for sale as indentured labourers. The French Governor of Tahiti, who was invested in the company, used government ships such as "Lucene" to recruit South Sea Islanders for Stewart. These people were unloaded in a "half-naked and wholly starved" condition and on arrival at the plantation they were treated as slaves. Captain Blackett of the vessel "Moaroa", was also chartered by Stewart to acquire labourers. In 1869, Blackett bought 150 Gilbert Islanders from another blackbirding ship for £5 per head. On transferring them to "Moaroa", the islanders, including another 150 already imprisoned on the vessel, rebelled killing Blackett and some of the crew. The remaining crew managed to isolate the islanders to a part of the ship and then used explosives to blow them up. Close to 200 people were killed in this incident with "Moaroa" still able to offload about 60 surviving labourers at Tahiti.


title: Blackbirding

text: Conditions at the Atimaono plantation were appalling with long hours, heavy labour, poor food and inadequate shelter being provided. Harsh punishment was meted out to those who did not work and sickness was prevalent. The mortality rate for one group of blackbirded labourers at Atimaono was around 80%. William Stewart died in 1873 and the Tahiti Cotton and Coffee Plantation Company went bankrupt a year later.


title: Blackbirding

text: Another notorious blackbirder was a fellow countryman of Bully Hayes, who was also given the nickname "Bully". Captain "Bully" Proctor procured workers for the New Caledonian nickel mines, and who was well known in the 1870s to 1890s, in Noumea, inbNew Caledonian and Samoa. He was master of the "Ika Vula" and the "Ernestine". He was also known as "Captain One Leg", and would put fear into people by firing his pistol into his wooden leg. He boasted of murdering 15 people, and was notorious for shooting the husband of New Hebridean woman who Proctor was sexually abusing. After an incident on Futuna in 1876 when he assaulted 2 missionaries, he was subdued and removed from the island.


title: Blackbirding

text: Blackbirding and recruitment of South Sea Islanders as labourers to the French colony of New Caledonia began in 1865 and lasted until the 1930s. Around 15,000 people were transported during this period, the vast majority coming from the New Hebrides. In 1865 the French colonial government contracted sandalwood merchant Andrew Henry to bring 33 people from Erromango. Henry had previously been involved in sending labourers to Queensland for the cotton plantations of Robert Towns. Another recruiter, John Higginson, entered the trade in 1868, and by 1870, around 720 Islanders had been brought to labour in New Caledonia. A mining boom in 1873 saw a large increase in labour demand and many more ships became involved in the blackbirding trade with 900 Islanders being recruited in 1874 alone. Apart from some early government controls in the 1860s, the recruitment of Islanders was highly unregulated and open to abuse. Children as young as six years old could be legally recruited on lengthy contracts of up to twelve years. These children could also be legally paid at only half the rate of adults and given only half the required rations. Somewhere between a quarter and half of all the Islanders transported and forced to labour at New Caledonia were children.


title: Blackbirding

text: The blackbirded labourers in New Caledonia worked in the plantation, mining, pastoral, domestic servant and sailing industries. Approximately 33% of these workers died while in New Caledonia and around half of those who survived did not receive any payment for their toil. They were often not returned to their islands of origin and of those who were, about a third died in the first year of returning from poor health acquired from working in terrible conditions at New Caledonia. The labourers were subjected to inadequate food, poor shelter and harsh punishments whilst in New Caledonia. They could be imprisoned for not working to their employer's satisfaction, where the colonial government exploited them further as unpaid prison labour. They were also sold-on and transferred to other colonists upon the death or bankruptcy of their original employer. Well-known blackbirding vessels involved in the labour trade to New Caledonia were "Aoba", "Annette", "Venus", "Aurora", "Ika Vuka", "Idaho", "Ambroua" and "Effie Meikle". Captains and recruiters notorious for kidnap and blackbirding for the New Caledonia market included James Toutant Proctor, "Black Tom", Jean-Louis Villedieu, Martial Briault, Charles Peterson Stuart, Walter Champion, Gabriel Madezo and Captain H. McKenzie. The company Joubert & Carter run by Didier Numa Joubert and Douglas Carter owned many of the blackbirding vessels in the early years of trade. Recruiting to New Caledonia continued well into the 20th Century but at a much lower rate and less violent manner. It was only brought to an end in the 1930s with the approach of World War II.


title: Blackbirding

text: In the late 1880s, a worldwide boom in coffee demand fuelled the expansion of coffee growing in many regions including the south-west of Mexico and in neighbouring Guatemala. This expansion resulted in local labour shortages for the European plantation owners and managers in these areas. William Forsyth, an Englishman with expert knowledge on tropical plantations, promoted a scheme of recruiting people from the Gilbert Islands to counteract the shortage of workers in Mexico and Guatemala. In 1890, Captain Luttrell of the vessel "Helen W. Almy" was chartered and sent out to the Pacific where he recruited 300 Gilbert Islanders. They were offloaded in Mexico and sent to work at a coffee plantation near Tapachula owned by an American named John Magee. By 1894, despite supposedly having a three-year contract, none had been returned home and only 58 were still living.


title: Blackbirding

text: In 1891, the barque "Tahiti" under command of Captain Ferguson was assigned to bring another load of Gilbert Islanders to Tapachula. This ship acquired around 370 islanders including about 100 children. While bringing its human cargo to the Americas, "Tahiti" suffered storm damage and was forced to anchor in Drakes Bay north of San Francisco. Amid accusations of slavery and blackbirding, Ferguson transferred command of the ship to another officer and abandoned the islanders in what amounted to a floating prison. Repairs were delayed for months and in early 1892, "Tahiti" was found capsized with all but a few survivors drowned.


title: Blackbirding

text: Despite this tragedy another ship, "Montserrat", was fitted out to contract more Gilbert Islanders, this time for coffee plantations in Guatemala. Ferguson was again employed, but this time as recruiter not as captain. A journalist aboard "Montserrat" described the recruiting of islanders as clear slavery and even though Royal Navy officers had boarded the vessel for inspection, an understanding existed whereby the authorities intentionally refused to detain the crew of "Montserrat". "Montserrat" sailed to Guatemala with around 470 islanders and once disembarked they were sold for $100 each and force marched 70 miles to the plantations in the highlands. Overwork and disease killed around 200 of them.


title: Blackbirding

text: Approximately 1,200 Gilbert Islanders were recruited in three shiploads for the Mexican and Guatemalan coffee plantations. Only 250 survived, most of these being returned to their homeland in two voyages in 1896 and 1908. This represented a mortality rate of 80%.


title: Blackbirding

text: For several months between 1862 and 1863, crews on Peruvian ships combed the islands of Polynesia, from Easter Island in the eastern Pacific to the Gilbert Islands (now Kiribati) in the west, seeking workers to fill an extreme labour shortage in Peru. Joseph Charles Byrne, an Irish speculator, received financial backing to import South Sea Islanders as indentured workers. Byrne's ship, "Adelante", set forth across the Pacific and at Tongareva in the Northern Cook Islands he was able to acquire 253 recruits of which more than half were women and children. "Adelante" returned to the Peruvian port of Callao where the human cargo were sold off and sent to work as plantation labourers and domestic servants. A considerable profit was made by the scheme's financiers and almost immediately other speculators and ship owners set out to make money on Polynesian labour.


title: Blackbirding

text: At the end of 1862, eight Peruvian ships organised under Captain Marutani of "Rosa y Carmen" conducted an armed operation at Easter Island where, over several days, the combined crews systematically surrounded villages and captured as many of the Islanders as possible. In these raids and others like them that occurred at Easter Island during this period, 1407 people were taken for the Peruvian labour trade. This represented a third of the island's population. In the following months, "Rosa y Carmen" together with about 30 other vessels involved in recruiting for Peru, kidnapped or deceptively obtained people throughout Polynesia. Captain Marutani's vessel alone took people from Niue, Samoa and Tokelau, as well as those that he kidnapped from Easter Island.


title: Blackbirding

text: In June 1863 about 350 people were living on 'Ata, an atoll in Tonga. Captain Thomas James McGrath of the Tasmanian whaler "Grecian", having decided that the new slave trade was more profitable than whaling, went to the atoll and invited the islanders on board for trading. However, once almost half of the population was on board, he ordered the ship's compartments locked, and the ship departed. These 144 people never returned to their homes. "Grecian" met with a Peruvian slave vessel, "General Prim", and the islanders were transferred to this ship which transported them to Callao. Due to new government regulations in Peru against the blackbirding trade, the islanders were not allowed to disembark and remained aboard for many weeks while their repatriation was organised. Finally on 2 October 1863, by which time many of the imprisoned 'Ata people had died or were dying from neglect and disease, a vessel was organised to take them back. However, this ship dumped the Tongans on uninhabited Cocos Island. A month later the Peruvian warship "Tumbes" went to rescue the remaining 38 survivors and took them to the Peruvian port of Paita, where they probably died.


title: Blackbirding

text: The Rev. A. W. Murray, the earliest European missionary in Tuvalu, described the practices of blackbirders in the Ellice Islands. He said they promised islanders that they would be taught about God while working in coconut oil production, but the slavers' intended destination was the Chincha Islands in Peru. Rev. Murray reported that in 1863, about 180 people were taken from Funafuti and about 200 were taken from Nukulaelae, leaving fewer than 100 of the 300 recorded in 1861 as living on Nukulaelae.


title: Blackbirding

text: The Peruvian labour trade in Polynesians was short-lived, only lasting from 1862 to 1863. In this period an estimated 3,634 Polynesians were recruited. Over 2,000 died from disease, starvation or neglect either aboard the blackbirding ships or at the places of labour they were sent to. The Peruvian government shut down the operation in 1863 and ordered the repatriation of those who survived. A smallpox and dysentery outbreak in Peru accompanied this operation resulting in the death of a further 1,030 Polynesian labourers. Some of the islanders survived long enough to bring these contagious diseases to their home islands causing local epidemics and additional mortality. By 1866, only around 250 of those recruited had survived with about 100 of these remaining in Peru. The death rate was therefore 93%.


title: Blackbirding

text: In the late 1850s, German merchant Johann Cesar VI. Godeffroy, established a trading company based at Apia on the island of Upolu in Samoa. His company, J.C. Godeffroy & Sohn, was able to obtain large tracts of land from the indigenous population at times of civil unrest by selling firearms and exacerbating factional conflict. By 1872, the company owned over 100,000 acres on Upolu and greatly expanded their cotton and other agricultural plantations on the island. Cheap labour was required to work these plantations and the blackbirding operations of the Germans expanded at this time. After initially utilising people from Niue, the company sent labour vessels to the Gilbert Islands and the Nomoi Islands, exploiting food shortages there to recruit numerous people for their plantations in Samoa. Men, women and children of all ages were taken, separated and sent to work in harsh conditions with many succumbing to illness and poor diet.


title: Blackbirding

text: In 1880 the company became known as Deutsche Handels und Plantagen Gesellschaft (DHPG) and had further expanded their Samoan plantations. Labour recruitment at this stage turned to New Britain, New Ireland and the Solomon Islands. The German blackbirding vessel, "Upolu", became well known in the area and was involved in several conflicts with islanders while recruiting. Imported Chinese workers eventually became more favourable but labour recruiting from Melanesian islands continued until at least the transfer of power from the Germans to New Zealand at the start of World War I.


title: Blackbirding

text: Large British and American plantations which owned blackbirding vessels or exploited blackbirded labour also existed in colonial Samoa. The W & A McArthur Company representing Anglo-Australian interests was one of these and recruiting vessels such as "Ubea", "Florida" and "Maria" were based in Samoa. In 1880, the crew of the British blackbirding ship, "Mary Anderson", was involved in shooting recruits on board, while in 1894 "Aele" was involved in recruiting starving Gilbert Islanders.


title: Blackbirding

text: The sugar industry in the Hawaiian Islands was expanding rapidly during the early 1870s and despite over 50% of all male able-bodied Indigenous Hawaiians being utilised as workers on these plantations, there were an insufficient number to keep up with production. From 1868 to 1872, around 200 people from places such as Tahiti, Caroline Islands and the Line Islands were recruited to work on the Hawaiian plantations owned by European colonists. Most of these people died and the operation was considered a failure. However, in 1877 British officials in Hawaii planned a more organised system of Pacific Islander recruitment. Captain H.W. Mist of the Royal Navy was employed to arrange a large shipment of Islanders to be recruited for Hawaii. Mist bought the vessel "Stormbird" in Sydney and appointed another ex-navy officer, Captain George Jackson, to conduct the expedition. On this first voyage, "Stormbird" recruited 85 people from Rotuma, Nonouti, Maiana and Tabiteuea. Jackson called in at Pohnpei on the way to Hawaii where he chained up a local headman and shot another trying to attempt a rescue. During the voyage, Jackson had attempted to kidnap at gunpoint a number of young women from Maiana but was interrupted by the presence of another ship.


title: Blackbirding

text: "Stormbird" made around another five recruiting voyages involving further violence and kidnapping, mostly sailing to the Gilbert Islands. On one occasion, the government agent aboard the vessel, Henry Freeman, bought a boatload of Gilbert Islanders from another blackbirding vessel named the "Sea Waif". By 1880 the labour trade to Hawaii expanded to the New Hebrides. Captain Cadigan of "Pomare" took people from these islands via night raids, armed attacks and firing cannon at canoes. The death rates of the recruits on board "Pomare" as they were transported to Hawaii were as high as 20%. Captain Tierney of the labour vessel "Hazard" was paid by the Planters' Labour and Supply Company of Hawaii $15 per recruit and consequently used much deception in obtaining a profitable quota of human cargo. Other ships involved were "Kaluna", "Elsinore", "Hawaii", "Nickolaus", "Mana" and "Allie Rowe". "Allie Rowe" undertook the last recruiting voyage to the Pacific Islands for the Hawaiian plantations in 1887. This vessel, commanded by Captain Phillips, proceeded illegally without a license and Phillips was also later charged and convicted of kidnap in relation to this final voyage.


title: Blackbirding

text: From 1868 until the year 1887 when the recruiting of Pacific Islanders to Hawaii was largely replaced with the more cost effective Japanese immigration scheme, some 2,600 Islanders were recruited. From 1880 to 1883 these people were protected by strong government measures which included an appointed Protector of Pacific Islanders, routine checks of worker conditions and the ability of the labourers to take employers to court for maltreatment. These workers, usually on 3 year contracts, were also paid cash wages at the end of each month which amounted from £10 to £16 per annum. In spite of these conditions during these years, the mortality rate of the workers was still over 10% for each year. Outside of these years, where protections were less, the death rate was much higher.


title: Blackbirding

text: When recruiting ended in 1887, 650 Pacific Islander workers remained or were left abandoned in Hawaii and by 1895 this number had reduced to less than 400. In 1904, 220 mostly Gilbert Islanders continued to live in poverty at Honolulu and at Maui. These people were gathered together and repatriated in that same year to the Gilbert Islands where they faced further destitution in a land they had been absent from for twenty years.


title: Blackbirding

text: Since colonial times in the United States, the Reverse Underground Railroad existed to capture free African-Americans and fugitive slaves and sell them into slavery, being particularly prevalent in the 19th century after the Atlantic slave trade was outlawed. People of European ancestry were responsible for this. New York City and Philadelphia were particularly prominent places for these kidnappers to work, causing fear of being kidnapped by anyone to become prevalent.


title: Blackbirding

text: American author Jack London recounted in his memoir, "The Cruise of the Snark" (1907), an incident at Langa Langa Lagoon Malaita, Solomon Islands, when the local islanders attacked a "recruiting" ship:


title: Blackbirding

text: "Georges Baudoux's" "Jean M'Baraï the Trepang Fisherman", a semi-fictional novella, relates the brutal history of the Kanaka trade and highlights 19th century imperial connections between the French and British Pacific. Translated from the original French by Karin Speedy in 2015, it offers a French/New Caledonian perspective on blackbirding in the Pacific, first published in 1919.


title: Blackbirding

text: Artist Jasmine Togo-Brisby makes art about blackbirding. She is a fourth-generation descendant of slaves who were kidnapped from Vanuatu in 1863. She is currently based in New Zealand, her exhibitions include "Bitter Sweet" at Te Uru in 2016, and "Birds of Passage" at the Dunedin School of Art gallery in 2019.


title: Karla LaVey

text: Karla Maritza LaVey (born July 31, 1952) is the daughter and eldest child of Church of Satan founder Anton LaVey. She is an American radio host, former high priestess of her father's organization and founder and administrator of the First Satanic Church in San Francisco, California.


title: Karla LaVey

text: Karla has been featured on television, on radio, and in news and magazine articles, including Fox News. She has lectured on the subject of Satanism around the world. She can be seen in the films "" (1970), "Witchcraft 70" (1970), and "" (1993).


title: Karla LaVey

text: Karla was born to Carole Lansing and Anton LaVey in San Francisco. She has two half siblings, Zeena Schreck and Satan Xerxes Carnacki LaVey. She founded the First Satanic Church headquartered in San Francisco in 1999. She was a founding member of her father's Church of Satan, and acted as a public representative for both the church and her father for the better part of four decades. In the 1970s, she was very close friends with Alice Cooper, whom she later introduced to her father.


title: Karla LaVey

text: In 1979, Karla was dispatched to Amsterdam to oversee the International Church of Satan headquarters which acted as a liaison to its members overseas. During this time, Karla was given the title High Priestess of the Church of Satan, which she would occasionally use in interviews with print media and her lecture tours. Throughout the 1990s, Karla made numerous appearances on television combating the Satanic Panic that seemed so prevalent for that time. Some of her appearances included the "Joan Rivers Show", "Ron Reagan Show", "20/20", and "60 Minutes".


title: Karla LaVey

text: On October 29, 1997 Anton LaVey died of pulmonary edema. Being the next of kin to Anton LaVey, Karla held a press conference on November 7, 1997, to announce her father's death. It was at this time that Blanche Barton and Karla LaVey announced that they would run the Church of Satan jointly as co-high priestesses.


title: Karla LaVey

text: Several days after Anton LaVey's death, Barton produced a hand written will claiming that LaVey had left all of his belongings, property, writings, and royalties, including the Church of Satan, to Barton's toddler son who had been fathered by LaVey. The entire LaVey estate, Barton claimed, was to be put in a trust for the son, managed by Barton. Karla contested this will, and the San Francisco probate court subsequently decreed the will to be invalid.


title: Karla LaVey

text: A few years later, on October 31, 2001, a court settlement was reached in which Anton's belongings, intellectual property, and royalties would be split equally among his three children: Karla; Zeena; and LaVey's son by Barton (Satan Xerxes Carnacki LaVey, also known as Ethan Clarke). The settlement also stipulated that Barton would receive the "corporation known as Church of Satan".


title: Karla LaVey

text: Under Blanche Barton's leadership, the Church of Satan was moved to New York City, and Barton handed the corporate title over to Peter Gilmore, who now runs the business with his wife Peggy Nadramia.


title: Karla LaVey

text: In 1999, Karla decided to continue her father's work by starting her own Satanic organization in his memory called the First Satanic Church, running it out of San Francisco just as her father had. Currently, Karla LaVey promotes and sponsors live Satanic events, shows, and concerts. She also hosts a weekly radio show in San Francisco. She is married.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: The Middle East Treaty Organization (METO), also known as the Baghdad Pact and subsequently known as the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), was a military alliance of the Cold War. It was formed in 24 February 1955 by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United Kingdom. The alliance was dissolved in 16 March 1979.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: US pressure and promises of military and economic aid were key in the negotiations leading to the agreement, but the United States could not initially participate. John Foster Dulles, who was involved in the negotiations as United States Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, claimed that was due to "the pro-Israel lobby and the difficulty of obtaining Congressional Approval." Others said that the reason was "for purely technical reasons of budgeting procedures."


title: Baghdad Pact

text: In 1958, the US joined the military committee of the alliance. It is generally viewed as one of the least successful of the Cold War alliances.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: The organisation’s headquarters was in Baghdad, Iraq from 1955 to 1958 and thereafter in Ankara, Turkey from 1958 to 1979. Cyprus was also an important location for METO due to the British military bases in Akrotiri and Dhekelia along with the island's proximity to the Middle East.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: Modeled after the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), METO committed the nations to mutual cooperation and protection, as well as non-intervention in each other's affairs. Its goal was to contain the Soviet Union (USSR) by having a line of strong states along the Soviet Union's southwestern frontier. Similarly, it was known as the 'Northern Tier' to prevent Soviet expansion into the Middle East. Unlike NATO, METO did not have a unified military command structure, nor were many American or British military bases established in member countries, although the United States had communications and electronic intelligence facilities in Iran, and operated U-2 intelligence flights over the Soviet Union from bases in Pakistan. The United Kingdom had access to facilities in Pakistan and Iraq at various times while the treaty was in effect.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: On July 14, 1958, the Iraqi monarchy was overthrown in a military coup. The new government was led by General Abdul Karim Qasim who withdrew Iraq from the Baghdad Pact, opened diplomatic relations with Soviet Union and adopted a non-aligned stance. The organization dropped the name 'Baghdad Pact' in favor of 'CENTO' at that time.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: The Middle East and South Asia became extremely volatile areas during the 1960s with the ongoing Arab–Israeli conflict and the Indo-Pakistani wars. CENTO was unwilling to get deeply involved in either dispute. In 1965 and 1971, Pakistan tried unsuccessfully to get assistance in its wars with India through CENTO, but this was rejected under the idea that CENTO was aimed at containing the Soviet Union, not India.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: CENTO did little to prevent the expansion of Soviet influence to non-member states in the area. Whatever containment value the pact might have had was lost when the Soviets 'leap-frogged' the member states, establishing close military and political relationships with governments in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, South Yemen, Somalia, and Libya. By 1970, the Soviet Union had deployed over 20,000 troops to Egypt, and had established naval bases in Syria, Somalia, and South Yemen.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: The Iranian Revolution spelled the end of the organization in 1979, but in reality, it essentially had been finished since 1974, when Turkey invaded Cyprus. This led the United Kingdom to withdraw forces that had been earmarked to the alliance, and the United States Congress halted military aid to Turkey despite two Presidential vetoes. With the fall of the Iranian monarchy, whatever remaining rationale for the organization was lost. Future U.S. and British defence agreements with regional countries—such as Pakistan, Egypt, and the Persian Gulf states—were conducted bilaterally.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: With the withdrawal of Iran, the Secretary-General of CENTO, Turkish diplomat Kamuran Gurun, announced on March 16, 1979, that he would call a meeting of the pact's council in order to formally dissolve the organization.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: A Secretary General, appointed by the council of ministers for a renewable three years, oversaw CENTO activities. Secretaries general were:


title: Baghdad Pact

text: CENTO sponsored a railway line, some of which was completed, to enable a rail connection between London and Tehran via Van. A section from Lake Van in Turkey to Sharafkhaneh in Iran was completed and funded in large part by CENTO (mainly the UK). The civil engineering was especially challenging because of the difficult terrain. Part of the route included a rail ferry across Lake Van with a terminal at Tatvan on the Western side of the lake. Notable features of the railway on the Iranian side included 125 bridges, among them the Towering Quotor span, measuring in length, spanning a gorge deep.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: Like its counterparts NATO and SEATO, CENTO sponsored a number of cultural and scientific research institutions:


title: Baghdad Pact

text: The institutions supported a wide range of non-military activities, with a particular focus on agriculture and development, In 1960, for example, CENTO had funded 37 projects covering agriculture, education, health, economic development and transportation. It also arranged at least one symposium on the problem of foot-and-mouth and rinderpest.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: The organisation that became the CENTO Institute of Nuclear Science was established by Western powers in the Baghdad Pact, as CENTO was then known. It was initially located in Baghdad, Iraq, but was relocated to Tehran, Iran in 1958 after Iraq withdrew from CENTO. Students from Pakistan and Turkey as well as those from Iran were trained at the Institute.


title: Baghdad Pact

text: The CENTO Scientific Council organized a number of scientific symposia and other events, including a meeting in Lahore, Pakistan, in 1962, entitled "The Role of Science in the Development of Natural Resources with Particular Reference to Pakistan, Iran and Turkey".


title: Hannah Brown

text: Hannah Kelsey Brown (born September 24, 1994) is an American television personality and former beauty pageant titleholder. She starred as the lead in season 15 of "The Bachelorette". Brown had previously placed in the top seven in season 23 of "The Bachelor". As a beauty pageant titleholder, Brown was crowned Miss Alabama USA 2018, and competed in Miss USA 2018. Following "The Bachelorette", she competed on season 28 of "Dancing with the Stars" with partner, Alan Bersten, and was declared the winner on November 25, 2019.


title: Hannah Brown

text: Brown was born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama to parents Robert Walker Brown and Susanne Brown. She was raised both in Tuscaloosa and in nearby Northport, Alabama. She graduated from Tuscaloosa County High School, and later from the University of Alabama in 2017, receiving a degree "magna cum laude" from the university's College of Communication and Information Sciences. In college, she was a member of the Alpha Upsilon chapter of the Alpha Chi Omega sorority. Brown then worked as an interior designer in Northport.


title: Hannah Brown

text: Brown began her pageantry career at age 15, competing in local Alabama teen pageants. As a teenager, she had placed first runner-up in Miss Alabama's Outstanding Teen 2010 and second runner-up in Miss Alabama Teen USA 2011. Brown later competed in Miss Alabama 2013, representing Tuscaloosa, however she did not place in the competition. After a brief hiatus from pageantry, Brown returned to compete in Miss Alabama USA 2017, but did not place in the competition. She returned the following year, representing West Alabama, and was crowned Miss Alabama USA 2018.


title: Hannah Brown

text: As Miss Alabama USA 2018, Brown was given the opportunity to represent Alabama at the Miss USA 2018 competition, held in Shreveport, Louisiana. While at Miss USA, Brown was roommates with future "The Bachelor" castmate Caelynn Miller-Keyes, who had been crowned Miss North Carolina USA 2018. For the pageant, Brown adopted a platform of mental health awareness, as she had previously suffered from anxiety and depression which caused her to leave pageantry for several years. Brown ultimately did not place in the competition and the pageant was won by Sarah Rose Summers of Nebraska. She resumed her reign after filming of "The Bachelor" had completed and crowned Hannah McMurphy as her successor in November 2018.


title: Hannah Brown

text: In 2018, Brown was cast in season 23 of "The Bachelor", starring former professional football player Colton Underwood. Filming for the season took place throughout fall 2018, and Brown was later revealed by ABC to be a contestant on December 6, 2018. Brown went on to place seventh in the competition, being eliminated by Underwood during the episode airing February 18, 2019 and filmed in Denver, Colorado. During the second part of the season finale, aired on March 12, 2019, Brown was announced by host Chris Harrison as the lead for the upcoming fifteenth season of "The Bachelorette". Brown is the first Bachelorette cast to not have placed in the top four of a season of "The Bachelor".


title: Hannah Brown

text: In the season finale of "The Bachelorette", Brown chose Jed Wyatt as her fiancé, although they later broke up after filming after it emerged through "People" that Wyatt had been in a relationship with another woman prior to and during his stint on the show. Brown later asked runner-up Tyler Cameron out on a date during the finale, although their relationship did not progress.


title: Hannah Brown

text: In August 2019, Brown was announced as one of the celebrities to compete on season 28 of "Dancing with the Stars". Her appearance makes her the second woman in the show's history to participate from "The Bachelorette", following Trista Sutter in the first season. She was partnered with professional dancer Alan Bersten during her tenure on the show. In the finale, which aired on November 25, Brown and Bersten were announced as the winners.


title: Hannah Brown

text: On November 10, 2019, Brown won "The Competition Contestant of 2019" at the 45th People's Choice Awards for her time as lead on "The Bachelorette".


title: Hannah Brown

text: On May 16, 2020, Brown used a racial slur while singing along to the lyrics of "Rockstar," a song by rapper DaBaby, on Instagram Live. She was criticized by numerous media outlets, as well as other well-known cast members of "The Bachelor", including former Bachelorette Rachel Lindsay. After initially denying that she used the slur, Brown issued a written apology on Instagram the next day promising "to do better". Two weeks later, she made another, much longer apology on Instagram that was well received.


title: Hannah Brown

text: Brown began dating Adam Woolard in early 2021. The pair made their relationship official in February 2021 with a Valentine's Day tribute.


title: Hannah Brown

text: Brown wrote an autobiographical book titled "God Bless This Mess: Learning to Live and Love Through Life’s Best (and Worst) Moments". She opens up about her struggles with depression, body image and more in the book, and details the joys and frustrations that have accompanied her newfound celebrity.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: The Chief Secretary is the top-most executive official and senior-most civil servant of the state government. The Chief Secretary is the "ex-officio" head of the state Civil Services Board, the State Secretariat, the state cadre Indian Administrative Service and all civil services under the rules of business of the state government. The Chief Secretary acts as the principal advisor to the chief minister on all matters of state administration.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: The Chief Secretary is an officer of the Indian Administrative Service. The Chief Secretary is the senior-most cadre post in the state administration, ranking 23rd on the Indian order of precedence. The Chief Secretary acts as an "ex-officio" secretary to the state cabinet, therefore called ""Secretary to the Cabinet"". The status of this post is equal to that of a Secretary to the Government of India.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: The salary of Chief Secretary of United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Punjab and Burma was fixed and was same to Joint Secretary to Government of India during the British Raj. As per Warrant or Precedence of 1905, Secretary to Government of India was listed together with Joint Secretary to Government of India and was ranked above the rank of Chief Secretary.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: Chief Secretaries are members of the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) who are the administrative head of state governments. A Chief Secretary functions as the central point of interdepartmental coordination at the departmental level and is classified as being in the Apex Grade. Chief Secretary is considered to be 'a linchpin' in the administration. Chief Secretary of the state also acts as the "ex-officio" Chairman of the State Civil Service Board, which recommends transfer/postings of officers of All India Services and State Civil Services in the state.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: Traditionally, the most senior IAS officer within a state is chosen as the Chief Secretary; however, there are exceptions.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: Chief Secretaries are assisted by Additional Chief Secretaries or Special Chief Secretaries, depending on the state, and Principal Secretaries, who are the administrative heads of departments they are assigned to.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: Chief Secretaries are chosen by the state's Chief Minister. State Chief Secretaries are IAS officers generally equivalent in rank to a Secretary to Government of India and are placed 23rd on Indian Order of Precedence.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: The post of Chief Secretary of a State Government is equivalent to Vice Chief of the Army Staff/Commanders and officers in the rank of full General and its equivalents in the Indian Armed Forces, and are listed as such in the Order of Precedence.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: In the union territories, which are governed by Administrators, Chief Secretaries are absent. In these territories an Adviser to the Administrator is appointed by the Union Government. However, the union territories of Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir and Puducherry, which have been granted partial statehood, do have Chief Secretaries. In Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir and Puducherry, the Chief Minister chooses the Chief Secretary and is appointed by the Lieutenant Governor.


title: Chief secretary (India)

text: Chief Secretaries and Advisers to the Administrators of Union territories, in general, are junior in rank compared to the Chief Secretaries of the States. The office bearers generally are of the rank Joint Secretary to Government of India and its equivalents. However, in Delhi and Chandigarh, the topmost civil servant is either of the ranks of Secretary to Government of India and its equivalents or Additional Secretary to Government of India and its equivalents.