title: 21 Guns (song)

text: Green Day has recorded two versions of "21 Guns" with the cast of "American Idiot". The recording was produced by Billie Joe Armstrong. The recording with Armstrong singing the male solo parts was released on December 3 to Spinner.com and also released for digital download on December 22. The video was released February 1.


title: 21 Guns (song)

text: The second version of the song with the cast of American Idiot features Stark Sands, John Gallagher Jr., and Michael Esper singing their respective solos instead of Armstrong.


title: 21 Guns (song)

text: Green Day released a live EP for the song including live performances of "Welcome to Paradise", "Brain Stew/Jaded" and "F.O.D." recorded live in Albany, New York and Madison Square Garden. This EP was released on the Australian iTunes store, Amazon UK, and Napster.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: Ecological systems theory (also called development in context or human ecology theory) was developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner. It offers a framework through which community psychologists examine individuals' relationships within communities and the wider society. The theory is also commonly referred to as the ecological/systems framework. It identifies five environmental systems with which an individual interacts.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: Later work by Bronfenbrenner considered the role of biology in this model as well; thus the theory has sometimes been called the Bioecological model.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: Per this theoretical construction, each system contains roles, norms and rules which may shape psychological development. For example, an inner-city family faces many challenges which an affluent family in a gated community does not, and vice versa. The inner-city family is more likely to experience environmental hardships, like crime and squalor. On the other hand, the sheltered family is more likely to lack the nurturing support of extended family.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, "The Ecology of Human Development" has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of his groundbreaking work in "human ecology", these environments — from the family to economic and political structures — have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through adulthood.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: Bronfenbrenner has identified Soviet developmental psychologist Lev Vygotsky and German-born psychologist Kurt Lewin as important influences on his theory.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: Bronfenbrenner's work provides one of the foundational elements of the ecological counseling perspective, as espoused by Robert K. Conyne, Ellen Cook, and the University of Cincinnati Counseling Program.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: There are many different theories related to human development. Human ecology theory emphasizes environmental factors as central to development.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: The diagram of the ecosystemic model was created by Buehler (2000) as part of a dissertation on assessing interactions between a child, their family, and the school and medical systems.


title: Ecological systems theory

text: (i.e., caregivers’ marital relations, religious social support), and macro-system levels (i.e., cultural


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The Hedgehog (also known as an "Anti-Submarine Projector") was a forward-throwing anti-submarine weapon that was used primarily during the Second World War. The device, which was developed by the Royal Navy, fired up to 24 spigot mortars ahead of a ship when attacking a U-boat. It was deployed on convoy escort warships such as destroyers and corvettes to supplement the depth charges.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: As the mortar projectiles employed contact fuzes rather than time or barometric (depth) fuzes, detonation occurred directly against a hard surface such as the hull of a submarine making it more deadly than depth charges, which relied on damage caused by hydrostatic shockwaves. During WWII out of 5,174 British depth charge attacks there were 85.5 kills, a ratio of 60.5 to 1. In comparison, the Hedgehog made 268 attacks for 47 kills, a ratio of 5.7 to 1.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The "Hedgehog", so named because the empty rows of its launcher spigots resembled the spines on the back of a hedgehog, was a replacement for the unsuccessful Fairlie Mortar that was secretly tested aboard in 1941. The Fairlie was designed to fire depth charges ahead of a ship when attacking a submarine. The principle of firing projectiles forwards, instead of dropping depth charges over the stern, was considered viable, despite the failure of the Fairlie. This research by the Directorate of Miscellaneous Weapons Development (DMWD) led to the development of the Hedgehog.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The weapon was a multiple 'spigot mortar' or spigot discharger, a type of weapon developed between the wars by Lieutenant Colonel Stewart Blacker, RA. The spigot mortar was based on early infantry trench mortars. The spigot design allowed a single device to fire warheads of different sizes. The propelling charge was part of the main weapon and worked against a rod (the spigot) set in the baseplate which fitted inside a tubular tail of the 'bomb'. This principle was first used on the Blacker Bombard 29 mm Spigot Mortar and the later PIAT anti-tank weapon.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The adaptation of the bombard for naval use was made in partnership with MIR(c) under Major Millis Jefferis, who had taken Blacker's design and brought it into use with the Army. The weapon fires a salvo of 24 bombs in an arc, aimed to land in a circular or elliptical area about in diameter at a fixed point about directly ahead of the attacking ship. The mounting initially was fixed, but was later replaced by a gyro-stabilised one to allow for the rolling and pitching of the attacking ship.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The system was developed to solve the problem of the target submarine disappearing from the attacking ship's ASDIC when closer than the sonar's minimum range. The speed of sound in water was such that the time taken for the 'ping' echo to return to the attacking ship from a close-by target submarine became too short to allow the human operator to distinguish the returning audible echo from the initial sound pulse emitted by the sonar – the so-called "instantaneous echo", where the output sound pulse and returning echo merge, with the submarine still out of depth charge range. A submarine in this "blind spot" became effectively invisible to the sonar, allowing it to make evasive manoeuvres undetected. The solution was a weapon mounted on the foredeck that discharged the projectiles up and over the ship's bow while the submarine was still detectable by the sonar, entering the water some distance in front of the ship.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The Hedgehog entered service in 1942. Carrying a Torpex charge, each mortar projectile had a diameter of and weighed about . The spigots were angled so the projectiles would land in a circular pattern with a diameter of , about ahead of the ship's position. The projectiles would then sink at about . They would reach a submerged U-boat, for example at in under 9 seconds. Sympathetic detonation of projectiles near those contacting hard surfaces was a possibility, but the number of explosions counted was usually fewer than the number of projectiles launched.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The prototype launcher was tested aboard in 1941, but there were no submarine kills until November 1942, after it had been installed aboard one hundred ships. Initial success rates, of about 5%, were only slightly better than depth charges. Swells and spray frequently covered the launcher during heavy North Atlantic weather, and subsequent attempts to launch from the soaked launcher were often hindered by firing circuit problems, launching an incomplete pattern. A depth charge total miss would still produce an explosion, leading crews to think that they might have damaged their target or at least demoralised its personnel; a Hedgehog miss was discouragingly quiet. The Royal Navy launched Hedgehog so seldom in early 1943 that a directive was issued ordering captains of ships equipped with Hedgehog to report why they had "not" used Hedgehog on an underwater contact. The results were blamed on crew inexperience and low confidence in the weapon. However, after an officer from the DMWD was sent to the base at Londonderry, where the escort vessels were based, with better training and shipwide talks on examples of successful Hedgehog attacks, the kill rate improved considerably. By the end of the war, statistics showed that on average, one in every five attacks made by Hedgehog resulted in a kill (compared with less than one in 80 with depth charges).


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: In response to this new deadly threat to its U-boats, the "Kriegsmarine" brought forward its programme of acoustic torpedoes in 1943, beginning with the "Falke". These new "homing" acoustic torpedoes could be employed effectively without the use of a periscope, providing submarines a better chance to remain undetected and evade counterattack.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: In the Pacific Theatre, sank six Japanese submarines in a two-week period with the Hedgehog in May 1944.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: In 1946, the destroyer escort was destroyed while unloading ammunition when a crewman accidentally dropped a Hedgehog charge near one of her main turret ammunition rooms, triggering three devastating explosions that wrecked the superstructure.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The launcher had four "cradles", each with six launcher spigots. The firing sequence was staggered so all the bombs would land at about the same time. This had the added advantage of minimising the stress on the weapon's mounting so that deck reinforcement was not needed, allowing the weapon to be easily retrofitted at any convenient place on a ship. Reloading took about three minutes.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: In late 1943 the Royal Navy introduced Squid. This was a three-tubed mortar that launched depth charges. Initially it was used as a single weapon, but when this failed to be successful, it was upgraded to the "double squid" that consisted of two launchers placed in parallel. In 1955 this system was upgraded to the three-barreled Limbo that launched Minol charges.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The United States produced a rocket version of Hedgehog called Mousetrap, then Weapon Alpha as a replacement for both. Still, Hedgehog remained in service with the United States Navy into the Cold War until both Hedgehog and the less satisfactory Weapon Alpha were replaced by ASROC.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: Three "Hedgerow" flotillas of specialized Landing Craft Assault boats carrying the Hedgehog instead of troops were used during the Normandy landings. An addition of impact fuse extensions in the projectile noses enabled detonating the warheads above ground. The bombs were used to clear 100-yard-wide paths through mines and barbed wire obstacles on the beach.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: The Australian Army adapted the marine Hedgehog into a land-based seven-shot launcher that could be mounted on the back of Matilda tanks.


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: From 1949, a copy of Hedgehog was produced in the USSR as MBU-200, developed in 1956 into MBU-600 (also known as RBU-6000) which fired rockets with increased range of .


title: Hedgehog (weapon)

text: Weapons derived from the Hedgehog have been largely phased out from Western navies in favor of homing torpedoes. MBU-600 and its derivatives remain an important part of the Russian Navy's (as well as Russia's allies, such as India) anti-submarine arsenal to this day.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Heatwave is a Dayton, Ohio based funk/disco band formed in 1975. Its most popular line-up featured Americans Johnnie Wilder Jr. and Keith Wilder (vocals) of Dayton, Ohio; Englishmen Rod Temperton (keyboards) and Roy Carter (guitar); Swiss Mario Mantese (bass); Czechoslovak Ernest "Bilbo" Berger (drums); and Jamaican Eric Johns (guitar).


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Founding member Johnnie Wilder was an American serviceman based in West Germany when he first began performing; upon his discharge from the US Army, he stayed in Germany. He sang in nightclubs and taverns with an assortment of bands while still enlisted. By mid-year, he decided to relocate to the United Kingdom and through an ad placed in a local paper he linked up with songwriter/keyboardist Rod Temperton.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Touring the London nightclub circuit billed as "Chicago's Heatwave" during the mid-1970s allowed them to refine their sound, adding a funk groove to disco beats. In search of a fuller sound vocally, Johnnie Wilder called upon his brother Keith Wilder (who was performing in a local band in Dayton, Ohio) to join the band on vocals. The group signed to GTO Records in 1976 (Epic Records would handle GTO's releases in the states). They were paired in the studio with GTO house producer/session guitarist Barry Blue and rhythm guitarist Jesse Whitten. Rhythm guitarist Roy Carter replaced Whitten after Whitten was stabbed to death. They began creating their first album "Too Hot to Handle" in the fall of 1976.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Their third single, "Boogie Nights" from their debut album, in 1977 reached No. 2 on the British popular music charts in January and in America in November. The single was certified platinum by the RIAA. The group's debut album, "Too Hot to Handle", was released in the spring of 1977, giving Heatwave a No. 11 on the Hot 200 and No. 5 on the R&B charts, while the next single, the soul ballad "Always and Forever", reached No. 18 on the Hot 100 in April 1978 and No. 2 on the R&B charts. The single was certified platinum by the RIAA.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Continuing to use Barry Blue's production skills, Heatwave released their second album "Central Heating" in April 1977. Lead single "The Groove Line," reached No. 7 on the Hot 100 in July 1978. The single was certified platinum by the RIAA.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: During the late 1970s, the band changed. At first Eric Johns quit the band and Billy Jones was his replacement as guitarist. Then Rod Temperton quit the band. Although Temperton would continue writing new songs for Heatwave, he soon became better-known for his songwriting for other artists, penning award-winning songs for some of funk's biggest names, including Rufus, The Brothers Johnson and George Benson. He also wrote for Herbie Hancock and Quincy Jones, but his most famous partnership remains the one forged with Michael Jackson, writing three songs for each of Jackson's first two Epic albums "Off the Wall" (1979) and "Thriller" (1982), including their title tracks.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Despite these changes, Heatwave were about to return to the studio when Mantese attended a party at Elton John's house in London. He was with his girlfriend, who decided to go home early from the party, reason unknown. When Mantese arrived home, she was furious with him, perhaps from an incident that happened at the party and stabbed him. The knife hit him in the heart and for several minutes, he was clinically dead. When, after several months, he awoke from coma, he was blind, mute and paralysed in his entire body. To date, he has no memory of this tragic event. He decided not to press charges against his girlfriend, and moved in with her after leaving the hospital. Mantese was replaced by bassist Derek Bramble. Adding keyboardist Calvin Duke to the group, and now working with new producer Phil Ramone, Heatwave cut "Hot Property", released in May 1979.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Around this time Heatwave performed "Keep Tomorrow for Me" used over the end credits of the action comedy "Escape to Athena". Composed by Barry Blue and written by Rod Temperton with some orchestrations by Christodoulous, the song is considered by some to be one of the group's best but never got a wide release due to the rights being locked up with Lew Grade's ITC Entertainment. The film performed poorly at the box office and the proposed soundtrack (with a score composed by Lalo Schifrin) was cancelled except in Japan where the song was released on the soundtrack to the film under its Japanese title "Offsides 7" and only on vinyl in that country.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: During the spring of 1979, Johnnie Wilder, Jr., suffered injuries in an auto accident while visiting family and friends in Dayton, Ohio. Although he survived, the accident left him paralysed from the neck down and unable to continue performing live with the group, though he did continue to perform vocals in the studio. After the accident, Johnnie remained a co-producer of the group, along with Blue.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: During 1980, Heatwave recorded the "Candles" album, with Temperton again providing the songs, except stand out track "All I Am", written by Blue's former writing partner Lynsey de Paul. The group recruited James Dean "J.D." Nicholas, who later became a member of the Commodores, to sing additional lead vocals in studio and perform live with them.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Heatwave's November single "Gangsters of the Groove" was a popular music success, scoring number twenty-one on the US R&B chart (failing to make the Hot 100 because of the anti-disco backlash), and number 19 in the United Kingdom early in the New Year. But the album peaked at number 71 in the United States in December 1980.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Heatwave's 1982 LP, "Current", marked yet another new era for the band, as they returned to producer Blue. The album managed number 156 on the US "Billboard" 200, although it scored the band a number 21 success on the R&B charts, where Heatwave continued to be a strong presence. A Rod Temperton penned single, "Lettin' It Loose," proved a minor success during August.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Derek Bramble quit the band at the end of 1982, like Roy Carter, for a career in production (he would go on to work with David Bowie on 1984s "Tonight" LP, and later masterminded Jaki Graham's breakthrough). J.D. Nicholas left to replace Lionel Richie as the lead singer of the Commodores.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: In approximately 1986, Keith Wilder and Roy Carter sought the services of Central Line guitarists/songwriters Henri Defoe and Michael Finbarr Murphy (the latter having also recently produced "Unknown Quantity," consisting of the 3 backing vocalists and dancers in the "Chain Reaction" hit music video by Diana Ross, which also featured Michael on guitar). Keith and Roy wanted to enlist them for a tour of the British US Air Force Bases. Michael's distant cousin, Alan Murphy, the now-deceased one-time guitarist for Kate Bush, Go West, and Level 42 also expressed interest in working with Heatwave as a band, though it would never materialize.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Silent as a band since early 1983, Heatwave reconvened in a new line-up to record and release the album "The Fire" in 1988. However, Keith Wilder was the only original member of the band present in this incarnation (although Billy Jones, who had joined the band in the late 1970s returned as well). Meanwhile, that same year, Johnnie Wilder released a solo spiritual album "My Goals on Light". The Wilder brothers once again teamed up the following year for the gospel album, "Sound of Soul". None of these late 1980s albums sold well, but Heatwave's recognition was revitalised in 1991, when a remix version of their "Mind Blowing Decisions" charted in the UK. By the mid to late 1980s, Keith Wilder was joined by bassist Dave Williamson and vocalist Donovan Blackwood and in the 1990s had again reformed the band. Joined by keyboardists Kevin Sutherland and Byron Byrd, guitarist Bill Jones, and original drummer Ernest Berger, the reborn Heatwave launched an American tour with a live album recorded at the Greek Theater in Hollywood, arriving in 1997.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: On 5 October 2016, Temperton's death was announced after what was described by his music publisher as "a brief aggressive battle with cancer". Temperton had died at the age of 66 in London the previous week and his funeral had already taken place. The exact date of his death was not announced.


title: Heatwave (band)

text: Keith Wilder (born Keith Edward Wilder on December 20, 1951 in Dayton, Ohio) died on October 29, 2017, at the age of 65.


title: Duke of Gloucester

text: Duke of Gloucester () is a British royal title (after Gloucester), often conferred on one of the sons of the reigning monarch. The first four creations were in the Peerage of England and the last in the Peerage of the United Kingdom; the current creation carries with it the subsidiary titles of Earl of Ulster and Baron Culloden.


title: Duke of Gloucester

text: The title was first conferred on Thomas of Woodstock, the thirteenth child of King Edward III. The title became extinct at his death, as it did upon the death of the duke of the second creation, Humphrey of Lancaster, fourth son of King Henry IV.


title: Duke of Gloucester

text: The title was next conferred on Richard, brother to King Edward IV. When Richard himself became king, the dukedom merged into the crown. After Richard's death, the title was considered ominous, since the first three such dukes had all died without issue to inherit their titles. The title was not awarded for over 150 years: the next to receive the dukedom was the son of King Charles I, Henry Stuart, upon whose death the title again became extinct.


title: Duke of Gloucester

text: Prince William, son of the future Queen Anne, was styled "Duke of Gloucester" for his whole life (1689–1700), but was never formally created duke. Frederick, Prince of Wales, was styled "Duke of Gloucester" from 1718–1726, but was then created Duke of Edinburgh rather than of Gloucester.


title: Duke of Gloucester

text: There was next a creation of a double dukedom (not two dukedoms) for the brother of King George III, Prince William Henry, his proper title becoming "Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh".


title: Duke of Gloucester

text: The fifth and most recent creation was for Prince Henry, third son of King George V, styled as "His Royal Highness The Duke of Gloucester". Upon Prince Henry's death, the dukedom was inherited by his only surviving son Prince Richard, who still holds the title. The heir-apparent to the title is Alexander Windsor, styled Earl of Ulster. The next in the line of succession is the Earl of Ulster's son Xan Windsor, known by his grandfather's third title of Lord Culloden.


title: Duke of Gloucester

text: The royal dukedom will devolve into an ordinary one when inherited by Alexander Windsor; as a great-grandson of a sovereign he is not entitled to royal style, and will be styled as "His Grace The Duke of Gloucester".


title: Stephanie Adams

text: Stephanie Adams (July 24, 1970 – May 18, 2018) was an American model and author. She was "Playboy" Playmate of the Month for November 1992.


title: Stephanie Adams

text: On May 18, 2018, Adams killed herself and her seven-year-old son in a murder-suicide. According to the New York City Police Department, she pushed her son out of a 25th-story balcony, before jumping herself.


title: Stephanie Adams

text: Adams was born in Orange, New Jersey, and was raised by her aunts Joyce and Pearl, former models who encouraged her to begin modeling at the age of 16. She was of African American, Euro-American, and Cherokee ancestry, and claimed to be a direct descendant of Presidents John Adams and John Quincy Adams.


title: Stephanie Adams

text: Adams graduated from Ophelia DeVore School of Charm and began a career as a model, appearing in photo shoots for "Seventeen" magazine, Venus Swimwear, and commercial advertisements for Clairol. She appeared as "Miss November 1992" in "Playboy" magazine while modeling for Wilhelmina Models. She later moved to Elite Model Management after becoming engaged to its CEO, John Casablancas.


title: Stephanie Adams

text: Adams earned a bachelor's degree from Fairleigh Dickinson University in 1992. She made a cameo appearance for the "Top 10" list on the "Late Show with David Letterman" on November 20, 2003, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of "Playboy" magazine. She appeared on the cover of "The Village Voice" in 2005.


title: Stephanie Adams

text: In 1999, Adams founded Goddessy, according to her a portmanteau of "goddess" and "odyssey". She published her first book in 2003 and started her own publishing company in 2007. Following the death of her aunt from breast cancer in 2003, she dedicated more of her time to writing. That same year, she published a book dedicated to her deceased aunt titled "He Only Takes the Best", followed by another book written in honor of her elderly Aunt Pearl titled "Guardian". Adams produced about two dozen metaphysical books, astrology calendars and a tarot card set marketed under the Goddessy brand. She also published a novel titled "Empress" in 2004, featuring women in ancient Rome.


title: Stephanie Adams

text: Adams was founder and CEO of the skin care product company Goddessy Organics. With her husband, she was co-owner of Wall Street Chiropractic and Wellness.


title: Stephanie Adams

text: Early in her career, Adams was married to an Italian investment banker, but later divorced. In a February 2003 "She" magazine cover story, Adams came out as a lesbian, the first Playmate to have done so. In their 2004 "Best of" feature, "The Village Voice" declared her the "Best lesbian sex symbol", saying it was "hard to turn a page in a queer rag without seeing the willowy model peeking out in a bikini, or nothing at all". However, in 2009, Adams announced that she was engaged to marry a man, and about the same time, described herself in an interview as straight. After her marriage in 2010 to Charles V. Nicholai, a Manhattan chiropractor, Adams said she was retiring from public life and would spend most of her time privately with her husband and son.


title: Stephanie Adams

text: In May 2006, during a dispute over where to drop her off, a New York City taxi driver called the police and falsely reported that Adams was armed with a gun and had threatened to shoot him. The taxi driver's license was subsequently revoked and he was fined $2,700 for the incident. Adams alleged that during the incident police threw her to the ground, causing injuries to her neck and back. Adams filed a lawsuit against the New York City Police Department in 2006. In February 2012, a jury awarded her $1.2 million, $400,000 more than had been sought by her lawyer, but the judge later reduced it to $373,000. Adams stated that she had "no animosity toward the NYPD".


title: Stephanie Adams

text: On the evening of May 17, 2018, Adams checked into a 25th-floor penthouse in the Gotham Hotel on 46th Street in Manhattan with her seven-year-old son Vincent. The next morning, both were found dead on a second-floor balcony in the hotel's rear courtyard. According to law enforcement officials, Adams and her husband were involved in a custody battle, and hours before checking into the hotel, Adams told the "New York Post" that her husband and his lawyer were preventing her from taking her son on vacation. The New York City Medical Examiner ruled Adams's death a suicide and that of her son a homicide.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: Fabrizio Ravanelli (; born 11 December 1968) is an Italian football manager and former international player.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: A former striker, Ravanelli started and ended his playing career at hometown club Perugia Calcio, and also played for Middlesbrough, Juventus and Marseille. He won five titles with Juventus, including a Serie A championship in 1995 and a Champions League title in 1996 where he scored in the final. In all, during his career he played with twelve clubs from four countries; his native Italy, England, France and Scotland. Nicknamed 'The White Feather', he earned 22 caps for the Italian national team, scoring 8 goals, and was a member of the Italian squad that took part at UEFA Euro 1996.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: Ravanelli began his club career with his hometown club Perugia Calcio in 1986, where he remained until 1989. He had a spell with Avellino later that year, and subsequently played with Casertana for a season. In 1990, he moved to Reggiana, where he remained for two seasons.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: After joining Juventus in 1992, he formed a formidable offensive line alongside players such as Roberto Baggio, Gianluca Vialli, Paolo Di Canio, Pierluigi Casiraghi, Andreas Möller, and Alessandro Del Piero. Affectionately known as the "White Feather" (in Italian: "Penna Bianca") in recognition of his prematurely white hair (a nickname which had also previously belonged to former Juventus legend Roberto Bettega), he was one of Europe's top goalscorers in the mid-1990s. After initially struggling to obtain a starting spot under Giovanni Trapattoni, due to competition from several other strikers, he eventually managed to break into the starting line-up. During the 1994–95 season, under Marcello Lippi, he played a key role as the club claimed a domestic double, playing in an attacking trident, alongside Vialli, and either Baggio or Del Piero. With the Turin club, Ravanelli won one Serie A title (1994–95), one Coppa Italia (1994–95), one Supercoppa Italiana (1995), one Champions League (1995–96), where he scored in the final against Ajax, and one UEFA Cup (1992–93). On 27 September 1994, he memorably scored all five goals for Juventus against CSKA Sofia in a 5–1 win. In the 1996 UEFA Champions League Final, he put Juventus 1–0 up at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome.<ref name="1995/96: Juve hold their nerve"></ref> Ajax subsequently equalised, but Juventus still won the game through a penalty shootout.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: Ravanelli made an immediate positive impact on moving to the Premier League with Bryan Robson's Middlesbrough on a £7 million transfer in 1996, where his success was sustained. He scored a hat-trick on his league debut against Liverpool on the opening day of the 1996–97 season. Despite being one of the league's top scorers, Middlesbrough were relegated in the year that he joined. He did, however, help them to the final of both domestic cup competitions that season. He started both finals, as Middlesbrough lost 2–0 against Chelsea in the FA Cup Final, and Leicester City 1–0 in the replay of the League Cup Final. Against Leicester, he scored the first goal in the final of the first meeting, only for Emile Heskey to equalise and send the game to a replay, which Leicester subsequently won. He alienated himself from teammates and fans, with his constant complaints and criticisms of the club's training regime and facilities, as well as the town itself, despite being the highest paid footballer in the Premiership at the time. Whilst at the club, he resided in the local small North Yorkshire village of Hutton Rudby, where Middlesbrough football associates, such as Paul Merson, Gordon McQueen and several other notable individuals have had residences.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: After Middlesbrough's relegation, Ravanelli moved to Olympique de Marseille. In the 1998–99 season, Marseille finished in second place in the French Division 1, one point behind Girondins de Bordeaux. The following season l'OM competed in the 1999–2000 UEFA Champions League, with Ravanelli scoring once against Sturm Graz at the Stade Vélodrome.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: In January 2000, Ravanelli returned to Italy to sign for Lazio. Ravanelli won his second Scudetto as Lazio ended the 1999–2000 season as champions, also winning the Coppa Italia, and the Supercoppa Italiana.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: In July 2001, Ravanelli joined Derby County on a free transfer, signing a two-year deal, but could not save the club from relegation in 2002. Due to Derby's financial problems, they had to defer his wage payments which they paid for several years.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: He then joined Dundee, following the end of his Derby contract, but was sacked after the club released all of their top earners. The only game in which Ravanelli scored for Dundee was against Clyde in a League Cup match, when he scored a hat-trick.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: After the experience in Scotland, he returned to Italy to finish his career with his hometown club Perugia, with whom he had also started his professional career, with the aim of trying to save the club from relegation.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: Ravanelli earned 22 caps for the Italian national team between 1995 and 1999, under managers Arrigo Sacchi, Cesare Maldini, and Dino Zoff, scoring eight goals. He made his international debut under Sacchi on 25 March 1995, in a 4–1 home victory over Estonia, in an UEFA Euro 1996 qualifying fixture in Salerno, also scoring his first international goal during the match. He was a member of the Italian squad that took part at UEFA Euro 1996, and made two appearances throughout the tournament, which came in Italy's opening two group matches, a 2–1 win over Russia, and a 2–1 loss against the Czech Republic, as Italy were eliminated in the first round. He missed out on a spot at the 1998 FIFA World Cup, however, as striker Enrico Chiesa was selected by Maldini in his place.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: Ravanelli was a quick, dynamic, physically strong, and hardworking left-footed striker, with notable temperament, who was known for his eye for goal, as well as his energy and defensive contribution off the ball, which often saw him drop back into deeper positions in order to help his team win back possession. Although he was initially not the most naturally talented or skilful player, he was able to improve his technique and movement significantly during his time with Juventus, where he established himself as a top striker.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: A prolific goalscorer, who was good in the air, and who possessed a powerful and accurate shot, in addition to his ability to score goals, Ravanelli was also capable of playing off his teammates, due to his link-up play, which, combined with his other skills, made him a complete forward. This also enabled him to play in a supporting role, as a second striker or even as a winger, positions in which he often utilised his ability in the air to get on the end of high balls and create chances for other strikers by providing them with headed assists from knockdowns.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: Ravanelli's signature goal celebration involved him pulling his shirt over his head and running around the field. He was therefore a strong opposer of the new FIFA regulation, which impeded players from removing their shirts during post goal-celebrations, and which punished any violators with a yellow card.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: Ravanelli started his coaching career with the Juventus youth team. He joined the club's coaching staff in July 2011 and remained there until 2013.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: On 8 June 2013, Ravanelli signed a two-year contract as the new head coach of Ligue 1 club AC Ajaccio.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: On 2 November 2013, he was sacked from his post after his club had suffered its fifth consecutive Ligue 1 defeat (this time losing 3–1 at home against Valenciennes FC) on the same day that left them in 19th (second from bottom) position (1 win, 4 draws and 7 defeats in 12 Ligue 1 matches) in the Ligue 1 standings. "It is not an easy decision (to sack Ravanelli) for a number of reasons. I really appreciated Fabrizio Ravanelli, I really wanted it to work. I do not remember seeing a staff work that much, from morning till night without stopping. You know what football is like. If things are not going well, the only solution is to change the staff," said Alain Orsoni, the president of AC Ajaccio.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: On 22 June 2018, Ravanelli signed contract with Ukrainian Premier League club Arsenal Kyiv. On 22 September 2018, Ravanelli resigned after the string of unsuccessful results.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: Following his retirement, Ravanelli also worked as a football pundit for Sky Italia, Fox Sports, and Mediaset.


title: Fabrizio Ravanelli

text: It has been mistakenly reported in some sources that Luca Ravanelli, a defender, is Fabrizio's son. According to Luca, he is not.


title: The Villainess

text: The Villainess () is a 2017 South Korean action thriller film directed by Jung Byung-gil, starring Kim Ok-vin. The film had its world premiere at the 70th Cannes Film Festival in May 2017.


title: The Villainess

text: According to the director and writer, the movie was inspired by the European film "La Femme Nikita" (1990), which he had seen at the age of 10.


title: The Villainess

text: Sook-hee, a highly skilled assassin, enters a hallway and kills numerous people before being surrounded by cops and smiling a grim smile. Later, Sook-Hae is drugged and taken to South Korea's intelligence agency, where they give her plastic surgery. To give her a new start, they also fake her death and assign her a new name: Chae Yeon-soo.


title: The Villainess

text: Yeon-soo learns that she is pregnant and offers her freedom if she trains with them and works as an agent for 10 years. She accepts and while in training, gives birth to a daughter, Eun-hye. Having completed her first assignment, Yeon-soo is given an apartment to share with her daughter Eun-hye. Unknown to Yeon-soo, Kwon-sook places an agent in the apartment next door. His name is Jung Hyun-soo, and he is to befriend Yeon-soo and keep tabs on her. After a few meetings, Yeon-soo and Hyun-soo fall for each other.


title: The Villainess

text: Flashback: Sook-hee is trying to kill Jang-Chun, a man with yellow teeth, but gets is captured. While beating her, Jang-Chun tells her he did not kill her father. A man named Lee Joong-sang, arrives, shoots him, and frees Sook-hee. The agency's leader, Kwon-sook, sends Yeon-soo on her first "assignment". The target she kills turns out to be the father of a young girl. This triggers the memories of her father's death when she was 7-years old. Sook-hee does not get a look at the killer's face; she only hears him whistling an eerie tune.


title: The Villainess

text: Later, Jang-Chun, the man with yellow teeth, enters the room and finds her. He sells Sook-hee to a prostitution ring. She is about to be assaulted by a client when Lee Joong-sang arrives and rescues her. He decides to train Sook-hee to be a killing machine, and she becomes devoted to him. Sook-hee and Joong-sang get married. She says that she is willing to let go of her thirst for revenge if she can get married and live a normal life. Seeing that his trained assassin would no longer be of much use, Joong-sang sets up an act.


title: The Villainess

text: While on their honeymoon, Joong-sang fakes saving a gang member called Choi Chun-Mo and stages his own death. When Sook-hee learns about Joong-sang's "death", she goes on a killing rampage and takes out a whole gang that was known to hate Joong-sang. Joong-sang expects her to die killing his rivals, but they are no match to her.


title: The Villainess

text: Present: While on a mission with Min-ju, another agent, Yeon-soo is caught stealing a phone. In the ensuing fight, Min-ju is killed. The stolen phone has documents about Choi Chun-Mo and the agency is worried that since Yeon-soo knew him, she may be a double-agent. Hyun-soo comforts her and this brings them closer together. The agency wants Yeon-soo to kill her next target from a wedding catering company, so they arrange a wedding between her and Hyun-soo.


title: The Villainess

text: While holding the target at gunpoint, Yeon-soo aims a rifle out a window and finds out her target is Joong-sang. Shocked that he is still alive, she fails to kill him. Joong-sang backtracks the location from which the shots come and identifies Yeon-soo as Sook-hee. He meets with her once again and reveals that Hyun-soo is actually an undercover agent. Joong-sang's gang gets to Hyun-soo and Eun-hye. Hyun-soo reveals that Eun-hye is, in fact, Joong-sang's daughter, hoping for all the killing to stop.


title: The Villainess

text: Joong-sang says he does not care and plants a bomb near them. As Yeon-soo reaches her apartment, she watches the bomb go off. Hyun-soo and her daughter die. Consumed with revenge, Yeon-soo tracks down Joong-sang to a parking garage and kills a lot of his men. She confronts Joong-sang, who escapes to the street and meets with his remaining henchmen. They all speed off in a shuttle bus. Yeon-soo chases after them and boards the bus, where she finally holds an axe over Joong-sang's head, who puts his head down and starts whistling the same eerie tune. She strikes him in the head with the axe. Before walking out of the wreckage with the police surrounding her, Yeon-soo smiles a grim smile.


title: The Villainess

text: According to the distributor Next Entertainment World the film was sold prior to the local release to 115 countries including North America, South America, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Australia, Taiwan and the Philippines. Later it was sold to additional territories which includes Japan, China, Singapore, India increasing to a total of 136 countries worldwide.


title: The Villainess

text: The film was also screened at the 16th New York Asian Film Festival which was held from June 30 to July 16, 2017. At the festival, the film received the Daniel E. Craft Award for Excellence in Action Cinema.


title: The Villainess

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 84% based on 85 reviews with an average rating of 6.84/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""The Villainess" offers enough pure kinetic thrills to satisfy genre enthusiasts -- and carve out a bloody niche for itself in modern Korean action cinema." Review aggregator website Metacritic gave the film a rating of 64 out of 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Villainess

text: In July 2021, it was announced a TV series based on the film is in development with Amazon with writer Francisca Hu writing and executive producing the pilot.


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: "Another Day in Paradise" is a song recorded by English drummer and singer-songwriter Phil Collins. Produced by Collins along with Hugh Padgham, it was released as the first single from his number-one album "...But Seriously" (1989). As with his song for Genesis, "Man on the Corner", the track has as its subject the problem of homelessness and paradise; as such, the song was a substantial departure from the dance-pop music of his previous album, "No Jacket Required" (1985).


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: Collins sings the song from a third-person perspective, as he observes a man crossing the street to ignore a homeless woman, and he implores listeners not to turn a blind eye to homelessness because, by drawing a religious allusion, "it's just another day for you and me in paradise". Collins also appeals directly to God by singing: "Oh Lord, is there nothing more anybody can do? Oh Lord, there must be something you can say."


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: The song was Collins' seventh and final "Billboard" Hot 100 No. 1 single, the last No. 1 single of the 1980s and the first No. 1 single of the 1990s. It was also a worldwide success, eventually becoming one of the most successful songs of his solo career. It won Collins and Padgham the Grammy Award for Record of the Year at the 1991 awards ceremony, while it was also nominated for Song of the Year, Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male and Best Music Video, Short Form. "Another Day in Paradise" also won an award for British Single at the 1990 Brit Awards. Despite the awards gained following its release, the song also generated controversy over its subject matter and has received a largely unfavourable reaction from music critics.


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: The live performance of the song at the 1991 Grammy Awards by Collins and David Crosby, who provided backing vocals on the track, was released on the 1994 album "Grammy's Greatest Moments Volume I". In 2009, Collins' version was listed 86th on "Billboard"s Greatest Songs of All Time. "Another Day in Paradise" has since been covered by several artists, including Brandy and her brother Ray J, Jam Tronik, Axxis, Novecento, Brad Arnold and Hank Marvin.


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: The song was another hit for Collins. On 23 December 1989, it became his seventh () No. 1 single in the U.S. The song was also the final No. 1 song of the 1980s in the U.S., and remained at No. 1 for four weeks, which classifies the song as a hit from the 1990s as well. This song is notable for keeping Janet Jackson's "Rhythm Nation" from reaching No. 1. It also saw out the 1980s and saw in the 1990s at the top of the German singles chart. The song had already reached No. 2 in the UK in November of that year. The single version is slightly different from the album version in that it uses a shorter intro.


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: The song's music video was directed by Jim Yukich and produced by Paul Flattery of FYI. The video, shot entirely in black and white, features Collins singing in a dark background, interspersed with images of the homeless, the refugees and the poverty of children in the streets. The music video also features many messages about the homeless, to convey the full message of the song. Collins' part was shot in less than an hour in New York.


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: "Another Day in Paradise" provoked controversy upon release. Some critics found the wealthy Collins unqualified to sing about the poor, while others accused him of profiteering from homelessness. Collins responded, "When I drive down the street, I see the same things everyone else sees. It's a misconception that if you have a lot of money you're somehow out of touch with reality." "Billboard" nevertheless gave a positive review, calling it a "poignant" track whose "subject matter is complemented nicely by a subdued, ethereal musical context".


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: Commentary of the song has been largely unfavourable. Singer-songwriter and political activist Billy Bragg gave a 2000 interview in which he negatively compared Collins to the Clash, stating, "Collins might write a song about the homeless, but if he doesn't have the action to go with it he's just exploiting that for a subject." In 2007, "Blender" remarked that Collins "wrote the worst song ever about homelessness", while Caroline Sullivan of "The Guardian" said the track addresses homelessness with the "same insight" as Melanie C's critically reviled "If That Were Me". Writing for the BBC in 2010, David Sheppard described the song's lyrics as "cringe-worthy" and gave it as an example of Collins "painting the bull's-eye on his own forehead" when it came to his negative status with music critics.


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: It was reported that Collins left the UK for Switzerland in 1997, in response to the election of a socialist Labour government; Collins stated that he left to be with future wife Orianne Cevey. In 2013, MSN's Hugh Wilson said this relocation led to further accusations of hypocrisy, since Collins "bemoaned the plight of the homeless in the song 'Another Day in Paradise' " then "lugged his estimated £130 million fortune to Switzerland where the tax regime is far less punishing for the super wealthy".


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: In a 2016 article for "The Guardian", Michael Hann wrote, "Collins has been unfairly criticised for many things, but 'Another Day in Paradise' is not one of them. Criticism of that is manifestly fair." Hann argued that the song patronizes the general public, who "almost certainly encounter poverty more often than [Collins]", and chided Collins for "[equating] his material wealth with his listener's by pointing out that both 'you and me' are in paradise". On the other hand, Jamie Wales of "Gigwise" described the track as a "classic", and said of the hypocrisy allegations levelled at Collins, "The truth is Phil collected money for homeless charities from fans who attended his concerts and then donated double the total takings out of his own money."


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: Less than six months after the release of the original Phil Collins version, a cover version by German dance act Jam Tronik was released as their debut single. In the United Kingdom, the song first charted in March 1990, reaching a peak of number 19 on the UK Singles Chart in the first week of April. It also charted in Germany and Belgium. Sampled in this version is the drum loop from the 1988 Raze song "Break 4 Love". The B-side, "Get on the Raze", also samples "Break 4 Love".


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: In 2001, siblings Brandy and Ray J covered the song for the Phil Collins tribute album "Urban Renewal". Produced by Guy Roche and released as the album's lead single in March 2001, the cover version became a top-10 success in Australia and across Europe, receiving gold certifications in Australia (35,000), France (250,000), Germany (250,000), and Switzerland (20,000). In 2002, this version of the song was included on the European edition of Brandy's "Full Moon" album.


title: Another Day in Paradise

text: The music video follows a homeless woman wandering the streets being chastised by various people, including a waitress, a businessman, and a police officer. The video is intercut with scenes of Brandy and Ray J singing on a fire escape and along alleyways, while also following the woman and taking photographs of each incident with a camera. The homeless woman then walks into a luxurious shoe boutique, and the receptionist calls the police to escort her out. When she is dropped back to her makeshift shelter in an alleyway, one of the policemen comes across a series of Polaroids depicting all of the previous characters, including himself, in the homeless woman's place. At the end of the video, Brandy and Ray J come to pick up the homeless woman and walk off with her into the distance.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: Vicki Lynch, known professionally as Hyapatia Lee, is an American former adult film actress. As part Cherokee, she was the only Native American in the adult business during her tenure; this contributed to her becoming one of the best-known actresses of the Golden Age of Porn. Lee is an AVN and XRCO Hall of Fame inductee.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: Lee was born in Haughville, Indianapolis, to teenage parents and is of Cherokee and Irish descent. She attended the local high school, where she performed in several musicals.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: Over time, her husband Bud Lee joined the cast and crew of her films. Together they created the second-most-expensive pornographic film (at the time), "The Ribald Tales of Canterbury" (1985), a version of Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales".


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: In 1993, she was inducted into the AVN Hall of Fame, and the XRCO Hall of Fame in 1994. She was also given the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Free Speech Coalition in 1995.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: In 1998, members of her fan club received a report that she had died due to diabetes. The report was inaccurate.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: For SRO Records, Lee recorded the 7-inch single "Telephone Man", released in 1988; and the album "Two Sides Of Hyapatia Lee" in 1989. "Rub-a-Dub-Dub" from the album featured on Dr. Demento's 'Funny Five' playlist, airing April 30, 1989.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: In 1994, Lee recorded the album "Double Euphoric" with her band W4IK. She toured with the same band, which was based in Los Angeles, and also with another band, based in Indiana, called Vision Quest.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: "Double Euphoric" was re-released in September 2010, both in physical and digital versions, via outlets such as CD Baby, Amazon and Apple iTunes.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: In 1993, Lee co-wrote an autobiography comic book with Jay Allen Sanford, "Carnal Comics: Hyapatia Lee," featuring her true life story illustrated by the Vampirella artist Louis Small Jr.. She also took part in and appeared within the Carnal Comics title "Triple-X Cinema: A Cartoon History," as well as co-starring with her friend Porsche Lynn in another issue of the adult comic book line. In 2000, Lee self-published an autobiography, "The Secret Life of Hyapatia Lee". In 2016, she authored a self-help book, "Native Strength – The First Step on the Path to an Indomitable Life", the first in a series.


title: Hyapatia Lee

text: She views Hyapatia as a particular personality that allowed her to perform. She met and married Bud Lee, with whom she bought land in rural southern Indiana, where she has lived since. The couple had two children, whom she homeschooled at their Indiana home. In 1993 she retired from the industry and separated from Bud the same year. She has since remarried and had another child.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarchism is the political philosophy which holds ruling classes and the state to be undesirable, unnecessary and harmful, or alternatively as opposing authority and hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Proponents of anarchism, known as anarchists, advocate stateless societies based on non-hierarchical voluntary associations. However, anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism to more syncretic tendencies (such as Insurrectionary anarchism). Strains of anarchism have often been divided into the categories of social anarchism and individualist anarchism or similar dual classifications, also including green anarchism and post-left anarchism.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarchism is usually considered a radical left-wing or far-left ideology and much of anarchist economics and legal philosophy reflect anti-authoritarian, anti-statist and libertarian interpretations of radical left-wing and socialist politics such as communism, collectivism, the free-market, individualism, mutualism, parecon and syndicalism, among other libertarian socialist philosophies. At some point, "the collectivist, communist, and liberal and individualist strands of thought from which anarchists drew their inspiration began to assume an increasingly distinctive quality, supporting the rise of a number of anarchist schools".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anthropologist David Graeber has noted that while the major Marxist schools of thought always have founders (e.g. Leninism, Trotskyism and Maoism), schools of anarchism "almost invariably emerge from some kind of organizational principle or form of practice", citing anarcho-syndicalism, individualist anarchism and platformism as examples.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: The decades of the late 19th and the early 20th centuries constitute the belle époque of anarchist history. In this classical era, roughly defined as the 1840s or the 1860s to 1939, anarchism played a prominent role in working-class struggles alongside Marxism in Europe as well as North and Latin America, Asia and Australia. Modernism, mass migration, railroads and access to printing all helped anarchists to advance their causes.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Mutualism began in 18th-century English and French labor movements, then took an anarchist form associated with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in France and others in the United States. This influenced individualist anarchists in the United States such as Benjamin Tucker and William B. Greene. Josiah Warren proposed similar ideas in 1833 after participating in a failed Owenite experiment. In the 1840s and 1850s, Charles A. Dana and William Batchelder Greene introduced Proudhon's works to the United States. Greene adapted Proudhon's mutualism to American conditions and introduced it to Benjamin Tucker.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Mutualist anarchism is concerned with reciprocity, free association, voluntary contract, federation and credit and currency reform. Many mutualists believe a market without government intervention drives prices down to labor-costs, eliminating profit, rent and interest according to the labor theory of value. Firms would be forced to compete over workers just as workers compete over firms, raising wages.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Some see mutualism as between individualist and collectivist anarchism. In "What Is Property?", Proudhon develops a concept of "liberty", equivalent to "anarchy", which is the dialectical "synthesis of communism and property". Greene, influenced by Pierre Leroux, sought mutualism in the synthesis of three philosophies—communism, capitalism and socialism. Later individualist anarchists used the term mutualism, but retained little emphasis on synthesis while social anarchists such as the authors of "An Anarchist FAQ" claim mutualism as a subset of their philosophical tradition.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Social anarchism is a broad category of anarchism independent of individualist anarchism. Where individualist forms of anarchism emphasize personal autonomy and the rational nature of human beings, social anarchism sees "individual freedom as conceptually connected with social equality and emphasize community and mutual aid". Social anarchism is used to specifically describe anarchist tendencies within anarchism that have an emphasis on the communitarian and cooperative aspects of anarchist theory and practice. Social anarchism includes (but is not limited to) collectivist anarchism, anarcho-communism, libertarian socialism, anarcho-syndicalism and social ecology.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary form of anarchism most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, Johann Most and the anti-authoritarian section of the First International. Unlike mutualists, collectivist anarchists oppose all private ownership of the means of production, instead advocating that ownership be collectivized. This was to be initiated by small cohesive elite group through acts of violence, or "propaganda by the deed", which would inspire the workers to revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production. Workers would be compensated for their work on the basis of the amount of time they contributed to production, rather than goods being distributed "according to need" as in anarcho-communism. Although the collectivist anarchists advocated compensation for labor, some held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. Collective anarchism arose contemporaneously with Marxism, but it opposed the Marxist dictatorship of the proletariat despite Marxism striving for a collectivist stateless society.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Some collectivist anarchists do not oppose the use of currency. Some support workers being paid based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase commodities in a communal market. This contrasts with anarcho-communism where wages would be abolished and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods "to each according to his need". Many modern-day collectivist anarchists hold their form of anarchism as a permanent society rather than a carryover to anarcho-communism or a gift economy. Some collectivist anarchists such as proponents of participatory economics believe in remuneration and a form of credit but do not believe in money or markets.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Although collectivist anarchism shares many similarities with anarchist communism, there are several key differences between them. For example, collectivist anarchists believe that the economy and most or all property should be collectively owned by society while anarchist communists by contrast believe that the concept of ownership should be rejected by society and replaced with the concept of usage. In addition, collectivist anarchists often favor using a form of currency to compensate workers according to the amount of time spent contributing to society and production while anarcho-communists believe that currency and wages should be abolished all together and goods should be distributed "to each according to his or her need".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, markets, money, private property (while retaining respect for personal property) and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Some forms of anarchist communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom. Most anarcho-communists view it as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-communism developed out of radical socialist currents after the French Revolution, but it was first formulated as such in the Italian section of the First International. The theoretical work of Peter Kropotkin took importance later as it expanded and developed pro-organizationalist and insurrectionary anti-organizationalist sections.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: To date, the best-known examples of an anarchist communist society, i.e. established around the ideas as they exist today and achieving worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon) are the anarchist territories after the Russian Revolution, the Korean People's Association in Manchuria and the Spanish Revolution.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: During the Russian Civil War, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked through the Revolutionary Insurgent Army of Ukraine to create and defend anarcho-communism in Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. In 1929, anarcho-communism was achieved in Manchuria by the Korean People's Association in Manchuria (KPAM), with help from anarchist general and independence activist Kim Chwa-chin, lasting until 1931, when Imperial Japan assassinated Kim and invaded from the south while the Chinese Nationalists invaded from the north, resulting in the creation of Manchukuo, a puppet state of the Empire of Japan. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarcho-communism existed in most of Aragon; parts of Andalusia and the Levante; and in the stronghold of Revolutionary Catalonia, before being crushed by the combined forces of fascist Francoism, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy as well as Spanish Communist Party repression backed by the Soviet Union and economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Individualist anarchism is a set of several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions and ideological systems.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: In founding philosophical anarchism, William Godwin developed what many consider the first expression of modern anarchist thought. According to Peter Kropotkin, Godwin was "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work". Philosophical anarchism contends that the state lacks moral legitimacy; that there is no individual obligation or duty to obey the state and conversely that the state has no right to command individuals, but it does not advocate revolution to eliminate the state. According to "The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought", philosophical anarchism "is a component especially of individualist anarchism".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Philosophical anarchists may accept the existence of a minimal state as an unfortunate and usually temporary "necessary evil", but argue that citizens do not have a moral obligation to obey the state when its laws conflict with individual autonomy. As conceived by Godwin, it requires individuals to act in accordance with their own judgments and to allow every other individual the same liberty—conceived egoistically as by Max Stirner, it implies that "the unique one" who truly "owns himself" recognizes no duties to others; and within the limit of his might, he does what is right for him. Godwin opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present "necessary evil" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated extreme individualism, proposing that all cooperation in labor be eliminated. Godwin felt discrimination on any grounds besides ability was intolerable.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Rather than throwing bombs or taking up arms to bring down the state, philosophical anarchists "have worked for a gradual change to free the individual from what they thought were the oppressive laws and social constraints of the modern state and allow all individuals to become self-determining and value-creating". They may oppose the immediate elimination of the state by violent means out of concern that it would be left unsecured against the establishment of a more harmful and oppressive state. This is especially true among those anarchists who consider violence and the state as synonymous, or who consider it counterproductive where public reaction to violence results in increased "law enforcement" efforts.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Egoist anarchism originated in the philosophy of Max Stirner, a 19th-century Hegelian philosopher whose "name appears with familiar regularity in historically orientated surveys of anarchist thought as one of the earliest and best-known exponents of individualist anarchism". Stirner's philosophy is usually called "egoism" as he says that the egoist rejects devotion to "a great idea, a cause, a doctrine, a system, a lofty calling", saying that the egoist has no political calling but rather "lives themselves out" without regard to "how well or ill humanity may fare thereby". Stirner held that the only limitation on the rights of the individual is his power to obtain what he desires. He proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions – including the notion of state, property as a right, natural rights in general and the very notion of society – were mere "spooks" in the mind. Stirner wanted to "abolish not only the state but also society as an institution responsible for its members".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Stirner's idea of the Union of egoists was first expounded in "The Ego and Its Own". The Union is understood as a non-systematic association, which Stirner proposed in contradistinction to the state. The Union is understood as a relation between egoists which is continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will. The Union requires that all parties participate out of a conscious egoism. If one party silently finds themselves to be suffering, but puts up with it and keeps up appearances, the Union has degenerated into something else. This Union is not seen as an authority above a person's own will. This idea has received interpretations for politics, economic and sex/love.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Forms of libertarian communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are influenced by Stirner. Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin and blended their philosophies together in her own.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: The Scottish-born German writer John Henry Mackay found out about Stirner while reading a copy of Friedrich Albert Lange's "History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance". Later, Mackay looked for a copy of "The Ego and Its Own" and after being fascinated with it he wrote a biography of Stirner ("Max Stirner – sein Leben und sein Werk"), published in German in 1898. Mackay's propaganda of stirnerist egoism and of male homosexual and bisexual rights affected Adolf Brand, who in 1896 published the world's first ongoing homosexual publication, "Der Eigene". Another later German anarchist publication influenced deeply by Stirner was "Der Einzige". It appeared in 1919, as a weekly, then sporadically until 1925 and was edited by cousins Anselm Ruest (pseud. for Ernst Samuel) and Mynona (pseudonym for Salomo Friedlaender).


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Stirnerian egoism became a main influence on European individualist anarchism including its main proponents in the early 20th century such as Émile Armand and Han Ryner in France, Renzo Novatore in Italy, Miguel Giménez Igualada in Spain and in Russia Lev Chernyi. Illegalism was an anarchist practice that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s that found justification in Stirner's philosophy. The illegalists openly embraced criminality as a lifestyle. Some American individualist anarchists such as Benjamin Tucker, abandoned natural rights positions and converted to Max Stirner's egoist anarchism. John Beverley Robinson wrote an essay called "Egoism" in which he states that "[m]odern egoism, as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche, and expounded by Ibsen, Shaw and others, is all these; but it is more. It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual; that, as far as they are concerned, they are the only individual". Anarchist communist Emma Goldman was influenced by both Stirner and Peter Kropotkin as well as the Russian strain of individualist anarchism and blended these philosophies together in her own, as shown in books of hers such as "Anarchism And Other Essays". Enrico Arrigoni (pseudonym: Frank Brand) was an Italian American individualist anarchist Lathe operator, house painter, bricklayer, dramatist and political activist influenced by the work of Stirner. Stirner's philosophy also found followers in Colombia in Biófilo Panclasta and in Japan in Jun Tsuji and Sakae Osugi.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: In the 1980s, it emerged in the United States the tendency of post-left anarchy which was influenced profoundly by Stirnerist egoism in aspects such as the critique of ideology.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, "The Peaceful Revolutionist", was the first anarchist periodical published. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent...that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews...William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form". Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his books "Walden", a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, as well as his essay, "Civil Disobedience", an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state. Later, Benjamin Tucker fused Stirner's egoism with the economics of Warren and Proudhon in his eclectic influential publication "Liberty".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: An important concern for American individualist anarchism was free love. Free love particularly stressed women's rights since most sexual laws discriminated against women—for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures. The most important American free love journal was "Lucifer the Lightbearer" (1883–1907) edited by Moses Harman and Lois Waisbrooker, but also there existed Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood's ""The Word"" (1872–1890, 1892–1893). "Free Society" (1895–1897 as "The Firebrand"; 1897–1904 as "Free Society") was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. The publication staunchly advocated free love and women's rights and critiqued "Comstockery" – censorship of sexual information. Also M. E. Lazarus was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Freethought also motivated activism in this movement. "Freethought was a basically anti-christian, anti-clerical movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to "Liberty" (anarchist publication) were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of "Freethought" and, for a time, "The Truth Seeker". E.C. Walker was co-editor of the excellent free-thought / free love journal "Lucifer, the Light-Bearer"". "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as "Lucifer, the Light-Bearer", "Freethought" and "The Truth Seeker" appeared in "Liberty"...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: European Individualist anarchism proceeded from the roots laid by William Godwin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Max Stirner. Proudhon was an early pioneer of anarchism as well as of the important individualist anarchist current of mutualism. Stirner became a central figure of individualist anarchism through the publication of his seminal work "The Ego and Its Own" which is considered to be "a founding text in the tradition of individualist anarchism". Another early figure was Anselme Bellegarrigue. Individualist anarchism expanded and diversified through Europe, incorporating influences from North American individualist anarchism.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: European individualist anarchists include Max Stirner, Albert Libertad, Anselme Bellegarrigue, Émile Armand, Enrico Arrigoni, Lev Chernyi, John Henry Mackay, Han Ryner, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Giménez Igualada and currently Michel Onfray. Two influential authors in European individualist anarchists are Friedrich Nietzsche (see Anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche) and Georges Palante.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: From the legacy of Proudhon and Stirner there emerged a strong tradition of French individualist anarchism. An early figure was Anselme Bellegarrigue. He participated in the French Revolution of 1848, was author and editor of "Anarchie, Journal de l'Ordre and Au fait ! Au fait ! Interprétation de l'idée démocratique" and wrote the important early "Anarchist Manifesto" in 1850. "Autonomie Individuelle" was an individualist anarchist publication that ran from 1887 to 1888. It was edited by Jean-Baptiste Louiche, Charles Schæffer and Georges Deherme. This tradition later continued with such intellectuals as Albert Libertad, André Lorulot, Émile Armand, Victor Serge, Zo d'Axa and Rirette Maîtrejean, who in 1905 developed theory in the main individualist anarchist journal in France, "L'Anarchie". Outside this journal, Han Ryner wrote "Petit Manuel individualiste" (1903) and later appeared the journal "L'En-Dehors" created by Zo d'Axa in 1891.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: French individualist circles had a strong sense of personal libertarianism and experimentation. Naturism and free love contents started to have a strong influence in individualist anarchist circles and from there it expanded to the rest of anarchism also appearing in Spanish individualist anarchist groups.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-naturism was promoted by Henri Zisly, Émile Gravelle and Georges Butaud. Butaud was an individualist "partisan of the "milieux libres", publisher of "Flambeau" ("an enemy of authority") in 1901 in Vienna. Most of his energies were devoted to creating anarchist colonies ("communautés expérimentales") in which he participated in several.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: "In this sense, the theoretical positions and the vital experiences of french individualism are deeply iconoclastic and scandalous, even within libertarian circles. The call of nudist naturism, the strong defence of birth control methods, the idea of "unions of egoists" with the sole justification of sexual practices, that will try to put in practice, not without difficulties, will establish a way of thought and action, and will result in sympathy within some, and a strong rejection within others".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Illegalism is an anarchist philosophy that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the early 1900s as an outgrowth of Stirner's individualist anarchism. Illegalists usually did not seek moral basis for their actions, recognizing only the reality of "might" rather than "right" and for the most part illegal acts were done simply to satisfy personal desires, not for some greater ideal, although some committed crimes as a form of propaganda of the deed. The illegalists embraced direct action and propaganda by the deed.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Spain received the influence of American individualist anarchism but most importantly it was related to the French currents. At the start of the 20th century, individualism in Spain takes force through the efforts of people such as Dorado Montero, Ricardo Mella, Federico Urales and J. Elizalde, who will translate French and American individualists. Important in this respect were also magazines such as "La Idea Libre", "La Revista Blanca", "Etica", "Iniciales", "Al margen" and "Nosotros". In Germany, the Scottish-German John Henry Mackay became the most important propagandist for individualist anarchist ideas. Adolf Brand (1874–1945) was a German writer, stirnerist anarchist and pioneering campaigner for the acceptance of male bisexuality and homosexuality. In 1896, Brand published a German homosexual periodical, "Der Eigene". The Irish anarchist writer of the Decadent movement Oscar Wilde influenced individualist anarchists such as Renzo Novatore and gained the admiration of Benjamin Tucker.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Following the end of the Spanish Revolution and World War II, the anarchist movement was a "ghost" of its former self as proclaimed by anarchist historian George Woodcock. In his work "", published 1962, Woodcock wrote that after 1936 it was "a ghost that inspires neither fear among governments nor hope among peoples nor even interest among newspapermen".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Capitalism continued to grow throughout the post-war period despite predictions from Marxist scholars that it would soon collapse under its own contradictions, yet anarchism gained a surprising surge in popular interest during the 1960s. Reasons for this were believed to be the gradual demystification of the Soviet Union and tensions at the climax of the Cold War. The New Left which arose in the 1950s was a libertarian socialist movement that was closer to anarchism. Prominent thinkers such as Herbert Marcuse and C. Wright Mills were critical of the United States and Soviet Marxism.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Green anarchism is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues. An important early influence was the thought of the American anarchist Henry David Thoreau and his book "Walden" as well as Leo Tolstoy and Élisée Reclus. In the late 19th century there emerged anarcho-naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain and Portugal.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Important contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology. Notable contemporary writers espousing green anarchism include Murray Bookchin, Daniel Chodorkoff, anthropologist Brian Morris and people around Institute for Social Ecology; and those critical of technology such as Layla AbdelRahim, Derrick Jensen, George Draffan and John Zerzan; and others such as Alan Carter.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-primitivism is an anarchist critique of the origins and progress of civilization. According to anarcho-primitivism, the shift from hunter-gatherer to agricultural subsistence gave rise to social stratification, coercion and alienation.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-naturism appeared in the late 19th century as the union of anarchist and naturist philosophies. Mainly it had importance within individualist anarchist circles in Spain, France, Portugal and Cuba.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-naturism advocated vegetarianism, free love, nudism, hiking and an ecological world view within anarchist groups and outside them. Anarcho-naturism promoted an ecological worldview, small ecovillages and most prominently nudism as a way to avoid the artificiality of the industrial mass society of modernity. Naturist individualist anarchists saw the individual in his biological, physical and psychological aspects and tried to eliminate social determinations.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Social ecology is a social anarchist philosophy developed by Murray Bookchin in the 1960s which holds that present ecological problems are rooted in deep-seated social problems, particularly in coercive, hierarchical political and social systems. These have resulted in an uncritical acceptance of an overly competitive grow-or-die philosophy. It suggests that this cannot be resisted by individual action such as ethical consumerism, but must be addressed by more nuanced ethical thinking and collective activity grounded in radical democratic ideals. The complexity of relationships between people and with nature is emphasized, along with the importance of establishing social structures that take account of this.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Veganarchism is the political philosophy of veganism (more specifically animal liberation) and green anarchism. This encompasses viewing the state as unnecessary and harmful to both human and animals whilst practicing a vegan diet.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcha-feminism is a form of anarchism that synthesizes radical feminism and anarchism that views patriarchy (male domination over women) as a fundamental manifestation of involuntary hierarchy which anarchists often oppose. Anarcha-feminism was inspired in the late 19th century by the writings of early feminist anarchists such as Lucy Parsons, Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticize and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and gender roles. Anarcha-feminists are especially critical of marriage. For instance, the feminist anarchist Emma Goldman has argued that marriage is a purely economic arrangement and that "[woman] pays for it with her name, her privacy, her self-respect, her very life".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcha-feminists also often criticize the views of some of the traditional anarchists such as Mikhail Bakunin who believed that patriarchy is only a minor problem and is dependent only on the existence of the state and capitalism and will disappear soon after such institutions are abolished. Anarcha-feminists by contrast view patriarchy as a fundamental problem in society and believe that the feminist struggle against sexism and patriarchy is an essential component of the anarchist struggle against the state and capitalism. As Susan Brown puts it, "as anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-pacifism is a form of anarchism which completely rejects the use of violence in any form for any purpose. The main precedent was Henry David Thoreau who through his work Civil Disobedience influenced both Leo Tolstoy and Mohandas Gandhi's advocacy of nonviolent resistance. As a global movement, anarchist pacifism emerged shortly before World War II in the Netherlands, Great Britain and the United States and was a strong presence in the subsequent campaigns for nuclear disarmament.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Violence has always been controversial in anarchism. While many anarchists during the 19th century embraced propaganda of the deed, Leo Tolstoy and other anarcho-pacifists directly opposed violence as a means for change. Tolstoy argued that anarchism must by nature be nonviolent, since it is by definition opposition to coercion and force and that since the state is inherently violent, meaningful pacifism must likewise be anarchistic. His philosophy was cited as a major inspiration by Gandhi, an Indian independence leader and pacifist who self-identified as an anarchist. Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis was also instrumental in establishing the pacifist trend within the anarchist movement. In France in December 1902, Georges Yvetot was one of the founders of the , along with fellow anarchists Henri Beylie, Paraf-Javal, Albert Libertad and Émile Janvion. The was to become the French section of the (AIA) founded in Amsterdam in 1904.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Religious anarchism is a set of related anarchist ideologies that are inspired by the teachings of (organized) religions, but many anarchists have traditionally been skeptical of and opposed to organized religion. Many different religions have served as inspiration for religious forms of anarchism, most notably Christianity, as Christian anarchists believe that biblical teachings give credence to anarchist philosophy. Non-Christian forms of religious anarchism include Buddhist anarchism, Jewish anarchism and most recently Neopaganism. Neopaganism focuses on the sanctity of the environment and equality and is often of a decentralized nature. This led to a number of Neopagan-inspired anarchists, one of the most prominent of which is Starhawk, who writes extensively about both spirituality and activism.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Christian anarchism is a form of religious anarchism that seeks to combine anarchism with Christianity, claiming that anarchism is justified by the teachings of Jesus Christ. Early Christian communities have been described by Christian anarchists and some historians as possessing anarcho-communist characteristics. Christian anarchists such as Leo Tolstoy and Ammon Hennacy believe that the teachings of Paul of Tarsus caused a shift from the earlier more egalitarian and anarchistic teachings of Jesus. However, others believe that Paul with his strong emphasis on God's Providence is to be understood as a holding to anarchist principles.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: In the words of historian George Richard Esenwein, anarchism without adjectives "referred to an unhyphenated form of anarchism, that is, a doctrine without any qualifying labels such as communist, collectivist, mutualist, or individualist. For others, [...] [i]t was simply understood as an attitude that tolerated the coexistence of different anarchist schools". Anarchism without adjectives emphasizes harmony between various anarchist factions and attempts to unite them around their shared anti-authoritarian beliefs. The expression was coined by Cuban-born Fernando Tarrida del Mármol, who used it in Barcelona in November 1889 as a call for tolerance, after being troubled by the "bitter debates" between the different movements. Rudolf Rocker said that the different types of anarchism presented "only different methods of economy, the practical possibilities of which have yet to be tested, and that the first objective is to secure the personal and social freedom of men no matter upon which economics basis this is to be accomplished".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Voltairine de Cleyre was an anarchist without adjectives who initially identified herself as an individualist anarchist but later espoused a collectivist form of anarchism, while refusing to identify herself with any of the contemporary schools ("The best thing ordinary workingmen or women could do was to organise their industry to get rid of money altogether . . . Let them produce together, co-operatively rather than as employer and employed; let them fraternise group by group, let each use what he needs of his own product, and deposit the rest in the storage-houses, and let those others who need goods have them as occasion arises"). She commented that "Socialism and Communism both demand a degree of joint effort and administration which would beget more regulation than is wholly consistent with ideal Anarchism; Individualism and Mutualism, resting upon property, involve a development of the private policeman not at all compatible with my notion of freedom" although she stopped short of denouncing these tendencies as un-anarchistic ("There is nothing un-Anarchistic about any of [these systems] until the element of compulsion enters and obliges unwilling persons to remain in a community whose economic arrangements they do not agree to").


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Errico Malatesta was another proponent of anarchism without adjectives, stating that "[i]t is not right for us, to say the least, to fall into strife over mere hypotheses".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the revival of anarchism in the mid 20th century, a number of new movements and schools have appeared. Anarchist anthropologist David Graeber has posited a rupture between generations of anarchism, with those "who often still have not shaken the sectarian habits of the last century" contrasted with the younger activists who are "much more informed, among other elements, by indigenous, feminist, ecological and cultural-critical ideas" and who by the start of the 21st century formed "by far the majority" of anarchists.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: The anti-capitalist tradition of classical anarchism has remained prominent within post-classical and contemporary currents. Anarchists are committed against coercive authority in all forms, namely "all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism". Anarchist schools of thought disagree on the methods by which these forms should be opposed.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: For the English anarchist scholar Simon Critchley, "contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary neo-liberalism. One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally". This might also have been motivated by "the collapse of 'really existing socialism' and the capitulation to neo-liberalism of Western social democracy".


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-transhumanism is the synthesis of anarchism with transhumanism that is concerned with both social and physical freedom, respectively. Anarcho-transhumanists define freedom as the expansion of one's own ability to experience the world around them.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: The philosophy draws heavily from the individualist anarchism of William Godwin and Voltairine de Cleyre as well as the cyberfeminism presented by Donna Haraway in "A Cyborg Manifesto". It looks at issues surrounding bodily autonomy, disability, gender, neurodiversity, queer theory science and sexuality.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarcho-transhumanism presents a critique through an anarchist and transhumanist lens of ableism, cisheteropatriarchy and primitivism. Anarcho-transhumanists also criticise non-anarchist forms of transhumanism such as democratic transhumanism and libertarian transhumanism as incoherent and unsurvivable due to their preservation of capitalism and the state. They view such instruments of power as inherently unethical and incompatible with the acceleration of social and material freedom for all individuals.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Post-anarchism is articulated by Saul Newman as a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought. Although it first received popular attention in his book "From Bakunin to Lacan", it has taken on a life of its own subsequent to Newman's use of the term and a wide range of ideas including post-modernism, autonomism, post-left anarchy, situationism, post-colonialism and Zapatismo. By its very nature, post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or should not be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless, key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include Saul Newman, Todd May, Lewis Call, Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari and Michel Onfray.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Post-left anarchy is a recent current in anarchist thought that promotes a critique of anarchism's relationship to traditional leftism. Some post-leftists seek to escape the confines of ideology in general also presenting a critique of organizations and morality. Influenced by the work of Max Stirner and by the Situationist International, post-left anarchy is marked by a focus on social insurrection and a rejection of leftist social organisation.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: The magazines "", "Green Anarchy" and "Fifth Estate" have been involved in developing post-left anarchy. Individual writers associated with the tendency are Hakim Bey, Bob Black, John Zerzan, Jason McQuinn, Fredy Perlman, Lawrence Jarach and Wolfi Landstreicher. The contemporary network of collectives CrimethInc. is an exponent of post-left anarchist views.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Queer anarchism suggests anarchism as a means of queer liberation and solution to the issues faced by the LGBT community such as homophobia, lesbophobia, transmisogyny, biphobia, transphobia, heteronormativity, patriarchy and the gender binary.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: People who campaigned for LGBT rights both outside and inside the anarchist and LGBT movements include John Henry Mackay, Adolf Brand and Daniel Guérin. Individualist anarchist Adolf Brand published "Der Eigene" from 1896 to 1932 in Berlin, the first sustained journal dedicated to gay issues.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Anarchists creates different forms of organization to meet each other, share information, organize struggles and trace ways to spread the anarchist ideas through the world. Those organizations tend to be structured around the principles of anarchism, i.e. without hierarchy, coercion, and with voluntary association, since they understand that the only way to achieve a free and egualitarian society in the end is through equally free and egualitarian means.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Synthesis anarchism is a form of anarchist organization which tries to join anarchists of different tendencies under the principles of anarchism without adjectives. It intends to bringing together anarchists of the anarchists main tendencies, namely individualist anarchism, anarchist communism and mutualism. In the 1920s, this form found as its main proponents Volin and Sébastien Faure. It is the main principle behind the anarchist federations grouped around the contemporary global International of Anarchist Federations.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: Platformism is a tendency within the wider anarchist movement which shares an affinity with organising in the tradition of Dielo Truda's "Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists (Draft)". The document was based on the experiences of Russian anarchists in the 1917 October Revolution which led eventually to the victory of Bolsheviks over the anarchists and other like-minded groups. The "Platform" attempted to explain and address the anarchist movement's failures during the Russian Revolution. As a controversial pamphlet, the document drew both praise and criticism from anarchists worldwide. Today, platformism is an important current in international anarchism. Around thirty platformists and specifists are linked together in the "Anarkismo" project, including groups from Africa, Europe, Latin America and North America.


title: Anarchist schools of thought

text: In the early 20th century, anarcho-syndicalism arose as a distinct school of thought within anarchism. More heavily focused on the labour movement than previous forms of anarchism, syndicalism posits radical trade unions as a potential force for revolutionary social change, replacing capitalism and the state with a new society, democratically self-managed by the workers. Anarcho-syndicalists seek to abolish the wage system and private ownership of the means of production, which they believe lead to class divisions. Important principles of syndicalism include workers' solidarity, direct action (such as general strikes and workplace recuperations) and workers' self-management.