title: Robert Covington

text: In his junior season, Covington earned first-team All-OVC and first-team NABC Division I All-District 19 honors, and was named the 2011–12 "CollegeInsider.com" OVC co-MVP. He also earned OVC All-Tournament team and Continental Tire Las Vegas Invitational All-Tournament team honors. At the season's end, he had 1,358 points and 693 rebounds, ranking for 16th and 13th in school history respectively. In 33 games (32 starts), he averaged 17.8 points, 7.9 rebounds, 1.3 assists, 1.5 steals and 1.4 blocks in 31.2 minutes per game.


title: Robert Covington

text: In his senior season, Covington earned second-team All-OVC and second-team NABC Division I All-District 19 honors for the second time in his career despite missing ten games due to injury. In 23 games (22 starts), he averaged 17.0 points, 8.0 rebounds, 1.3 assists, 2.3 steals and 1.7 blocks in 31.0 minutes per game. He finished his career ranked seventh on Tennessee State's all-time list in both scoring and rebounding, with 1,749 points and 876 rebounds.


title: Robert Covington

text: After going undrafted in the 2013 NBA draft, Covington joined the Houston Rockets for the 2013 NBA Summer League. On July 15, 2013, he signed a multi-year deal with the Rockets. He spent the majority of the 2013–14 season in the NBA Development League with the Rockets' affiliate team, the Rio Grande Valley Vipers, appearing in just seven NBA games. He participated in the 2014 NBA D-League All-Star Game in February, where scored an NBA D-League All-Star record 33 points, 22 of which came in the game's final six minutes, en route to earning MVP honors in the game. He connected on 12 of his 23 shots, including four-of-eight three-pointers at NBA All-Star festivities in New Orleans. In April, he was named the NBA D-League Rookie of the Year. He played in 42 of the Vipers 50 regular season games, 41 as a starter. He averaged a team-high 23.2 points, good for second best in the NBA D-League, while shooting 44 percent from the field. He also averaged 9.2 rebounds and 2.4 steals per game.


title: Robert Covington

text: After spending Summer League, training camp and preseason with the Rockets, Covington was waived on October 27, 2014.


title: Robert Covington

text: Covington was selected 3rd overall by the Grand Rapids Drive in the 2015 D-League Draft, however he never played for the team.


title: Robert Covington

text: On November 15, 2014, Covington signed a reported five-year contract with the Philadelphia 76ers. He made his debut for the 76ers two days later, recording six points, three rebounds, two assists and two steals in 16½ minutes off the bench in a 100–75 loss to the San Antonio Spurs. On December 3, he scored a career-best 17 points in an 85–77 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. Two nights later against the Oklahoma City Thunder, he set a new career high. In 28 minutes, he scored 21 points on 8-of-13 shooting and 3-of-6 from beyond the arc. A day later, he did it again, dropping 25 points on 9-of-14 shooting in 29 minutes off the bench in a 108–101 overtime victory over the Detroit Pistons. On March 25, he had a second 25-point effort against the Denver Nuggets. On April 8, Covington scored a career-high 27 points on 8-for-11 shooting in a 119–90 loss to the Washington Wizards. Five days later, he had a third 25-point effort against the Milwaukee Bucks.


title: Robert Covington

text: After battling injury early in the 2015–16 season, Covington quickly began to excel, leading the NBA with 3.6 steals per game come December. In the final three games of November, Covington secured six-plus steals in each contest, making him the first NBA player to accomplish the feat in three-consecutive games since Alvin Robertson in 1986. On November 27, he recorded career highs of 28 points and eight steals in a 116–114 loss to the Houston Rockets. On December 1, he scored a game-high 23 points to help the 76ers defeat the Los Angeles Lakers 103–91 and end a 28-game losing streak that began on March 27, 2015, during the 2014–15 season. On February 10, he scored a career-high 29 points and hit a career-high seven three-pointers in a loss to the Sacramento Kings. He set a new career high for scoring on April 8 with 30 points against the New York Knicks. On April 12, in a loss to the Toronto Raptors, Covington had his seventh game of the season with six or more three-pointers, joining Stephen Curry, Klay Thompson and J. R. Smith as the only players to do so in 2015–16. In the team's season finale the following day, Covington scored 27 points and again hit six three-pointers in a 115–105 loss to the Chicago Bulls.


title: Robert Covington

text: On December 14, 2016, Covington had season highs of 26 points and 12 rebounds in a 123–114 loss to the Raptors. On January 20, 2017, he scored 22 points and made two three-pointers in the final 40 seconds to lead the 76ers to a come-from-behind 93–92 win over the Portland Trail Blazers. On January 29, 2017, he scored 21 points and tied his season high of 12 rebounds in a 121–108 loss to the Bulls. In March 2017, he had 13 rebounds on three occasions. On March 31, he was ruled out for the rest of the season with right knee soreness and swelling.


title: Robert Covington

text: In the 76ers' season opener on October 18, 2017, Covington scored 29 points in a 120–115 loss to the Wizards. On November 13, he scored a season-high 31 points against the Los Angeles Clippers. On November 17, after restructuring the terms of his contract for the 2017–18 season, he signed a four-year, $62 million contract extension with the 76ers. In May 2018, he was named to the NBA All-Defensive First Team.


title: Robert Covington

text: On November 12, 2018, Covington was traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves, along with Jerryd Bayless, Dario Šarić and a 2022 second-round pick, in exchange for Jimmy Butler and Justin Patton. He made his debut for the Timberwolves two days later, recording 13 points and seven rebounds in a 107–100 win over the New Orleans Pelicans. On December 31, late in the Timberwolves' loss to the New Orleans Pelicans, Covington sustained a bone bruise on his right knee. After missing 23 games, he was assigned to the Iowa Wolves of the NBA G League on February 27. On March 21, after suffering a setback in his quest for a return, Covington was ruled out for the rest of the season. He underwent successful arthroscopic surgery on April 1.


title: Robert Covington

text: On February 5, 2020, Covington returned to the Rockets in a four-team, 12-player trade with Jordan Bell from the Timberwolves; Minnesota received Jarred Vanderbilt, Malik Beasley, Juan Hernangómez, Evan Turner, and a 2020 first-round draft pick. The following day, Covington made his debut in a 121–111 win over the Los Angeles Lakers, scoring 14 points along with eight rebounds in 30 minutes. On February 29, in a 111–110 overtime win over the Boston Celtics, Covington had 16 points, 16 rebounds, and 3 blocks.


title: Robert Covington

text: On November 22, 2020, Covington was traded to the Portland Trail Blazers in exchange for Trevor Ariza, the draft rights to Isaiah Stewart and a conditional future first-round pick.


title: Robert Covington

text: On February 4, 2022, Covington was traded, alongside Norman Powell, to the Los Angeles Clippers in exchange for Eric Bledsoe, Keon Johnson, Justise Winslow, and a 2025 second-round pick. On April 1, Covington logged a career-high 43 points, along with eight rebounds and three blocks, in a 153–119 blowout win over the Milwaukee Bucks. He also made 11 three-pointers during the game, setting a Clippers franchise record for most three-pointers made in a game. On May 8, Covington signed a two-year, $24 million extension with the Clippers.


title: Robert Covington

text: Covington is the son of Dennis and Teresa Bryant. Covington is in a relationship with model Amirah Dyme. As of March 2022, the couple are expecting their first child.


title: Hierarchy of hazard controls

text: Hierarchy of hazard control is a system used in industry to minimize or eliminate exposure to hazards. It is a widely accepted system promoted by numerous safety organizations. This concept is taught to managers in industry, to be promoted as standard practice in the workplace. It has also been used to inform public policy, in fields such as road safety. Various illustrations are used to depict this system, most commonly a triangle.


title: Hierarchy of hazard controls

text: Physical removal of the hazard is the most effective hazard control. For example, if employees must work high above the ground, the hazard can be eliminated by moving the piece they are working on to ground level to eliminate the need to work at heights.


title: Hierarchy of hazard controls

text: Substitution, the second most effective hazard control, involves replacing something that produces a hazard with something that does not produce a hazard or produces a lesser hazard—for example, replacing lead-based paint with titanium white. To be an effective control, the new product must not produce unintended consequences. Because airborne dust can be hazardous, if a product can be purchased with a larger particle size, the smaller product may effectively be substituted with the larger product.


title: Hierarchy of hazard controls

text: The third most effective means of controlling hazards is engineered controls. These do not eliminate hazards, but rather isolate people from hazards. Capital costs of engineered controls tend to be higher than less effective controls in the hierarchy, however they may reduce future costs. For example, a crew might build a work platform rather than purchase, replace, and maintain fall arrest equipment. "Enclosure and isolation" creates a physical barrier between personnel and hazards, such as using remotely controlled equipment. Fume hoods can remove airborne contaminants as a means of engineered control.


title: Hierarchy of hazard controls

text: Administrative controls are changes to the way people work. Examples of administrative controls include procedure changes, employee training, and installation of signs and warning labels (such as those in the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System). Administrative controls do not remove hazards, but limit or prevent people's exposure to the hazards, such as completing road construction at night when fewer people are driving.


title: Hierarchy of hazard controls

text: Personal protective equipment (PPE) includes gloves, Nomex clothing, overalls, Tyvek suits, respirators, hard hats, safety glasses, high-visibility clothing, and safety footwear. PPE is the least effective means of controlling hazards because of the high potential for damage to render PPE ineffective. Additionally, some PPE, such as respirators, increase physiological effort to complete a task and, therefore, may require medical examinations to ensure workers can use the PPE without risking their health.


title: Hierarchy of hazard controls

text: The hierarchy of controls is a core component of Prevention through Design, the concept of applying methods to minimize occupational hazards early in the design process. Prevention through Design emphasizes addressing hazards at the top of the hierarchy of controls (mainly through elimination and substitution) at the earliest stages of project development.


title: Hierarchy of hazard controls

text: While the control hierarchy shown above is traditionally used in the United States and Canada, other countries or entities may use a slightly different structure. In particular, some add isolation above engineering controls instead of combining the two. The variation of the hierarchy used in the ARECC decision-making framework and process for industrial hygiene (IH) includes modification of the material or procedure to reduce hazards or exposures (sometimes considered a subset of the hazard substitution option but explicitly considered there to mean that the efficacy of the modification for the situation at hand must be confirmed by the user). The ARECC version of the hierarchy also includes warnings as a distinct element to clarify the nature of the warning. In other systems, warnings are sometimes considered part of engineering controls and sometimes part of administrative controls.


title: Bowsette

text: Bowsette ( ) or Koopa-hime (), is a fan-made, "moe" anthropomorphized and gender-swapped version of the "Mario" franchise character Bowser, in which he is transformed by the Super Crown power-up to resemble the franchise character Princess Peach. The character was originally created on 19 September 2018 by Ayyk92, a Malaysian online artist, as part of a comic strip which he posted to Twitter. Bowsette subsequently became an Internet meme and rose in popularity internationally, with related hashtags in English and Japanese trending on Twitter; several professional Japanese artists contributed their own renditions of the character on the website.


title: Bowsette

text: Bowsette is typically portrayed as a blonde woman with horns, fangs, a spiked collar with matching armbands and a black strapless dress, essentially combining Princess Peach with elements of Bowser's appearance. Journalists took notice of the trend and were surprised by its longevity, attributing it to various aspects such as the character's appearance and appeal or the possible desire by fans to shock Nintendo's social media handlers. While some noted much of the art that spawned from it was solely pornographic, others were quick to emphasize that some had a wholesome tone instead. Bowsette's rapid popularity led to other fan-made characters in a similar vein in a short timespan, each based on an existing Nintendo character. In Japan, concerns were raised about the legality of fan-made characters under Japan's copyright law.


title: Bowsette

text: Created by Nintendo in 1985, "Super Mario" is a long running series of platform games. The series primarily revolves around the protagonist, Mario and other playable characters, such as his brother Luigi, rescuing the kidnapped princess Princess Peach from the primary antagonist, Bowser. As the player progresses, they can gather in-game power-up items that let the player character gain new abilities or forms. During a prerecorded Nintendo Direct presentation broadcast in September 2018, Nintendo showcased a trailer for their 'Deluxe' re-release of "New Super Mario Bros. U" for the Nintendo Switch, which featured their character Toadette as a new playable option, and a new power-up exclusively for her, the Super Crown. When picked up, it would transform Toadette into "Peachette", a form that resembled Princess Peach but with Toadette's hairstyle and other distinctive features.


title: Bowsette

text: The unveiling of Peachette led to speculation and theories by fans over how the Super Crown item operates within the game's universe. Shortly after, artist Ayyk92 posted a four-panel webcomic on DeviantArt and Twitter with the caption "The Super Crown's some spicy new Mario lore". In the comic, Mario and Bowser are shown disheartened after their simultaneous marriage proposals to Peach are rejected, referencing the ending of "Super Mario Odyssey". However, while Mario consoles him, Bowser reveals that he is holding the Super Crown power-up, and in the last panel, the two are shown walking past Peach and Luigi, who were playing tennis, with Bowser now transformed into a female character resembling Peach but with a black strapless dress, fangs, large horns protruding from the sides of her head, and Bowser's spiked attire and shell.


title: Bowsette

text: Unnamed in the original comic, the character was dubbed "Bowsette" by English-speaking fans. A related hashtag quickly trended on Twitter, amassing over 150,000 mentions and fan art shortly after, with some renders giving the character darker skin and/or red hair as a callback to the original Bowser. Pornhub and YouPorn each reported a dramatic increase in searches for the character on their websites by 500,000 and 2900%, respectively, and by the end of 2018 was the 9th most searched term on the site with 34.6 million searches. The character also trended among Japanese Twitter users under the name "Koopa-hime" ( "Princess Koopa"), with several major Japanese artists contributing their own art of the character. These artists included "Street Fighter" and "Darkstalkers" character designer Akira Yasuda, "One-Punch Man" manga artist Yusuke Murata, "Pop Team Epic" series creator Bkub Okawa and "Miss Kobayashi's Dragon Maid" series creator Coolkyousinnjya. An event dedicated to the character titled "Project Crown" was also planned for 27 October, featuring fan art and crossdressing cosplay. In 2018, pornographic production company Wood Rocket produced a porn parody titled "Wetter Than A Water Level: The Bowsette Porn Parody" based on the meme with April O'Neil as Bowsette and Tommy Pistol as Mario.


title: Bowsette

text: In their "Nintendo Voice Chat" segment, several "IGN" writers spoke at length about the phenomenon, with Brian Altano describing it as "people have latched onto something and made ... a randy or impure version of something that is historically known as pure", and attributing part of the appeal in how it would confuse Nintendo's social media handlers. Casey DeFreitas disagreed, attributing some of the character's popularity to the "monster girl" trend in Japan while also noting several of the fan comics for the character were actually wholesome, but criticizing the name as not following the naming convention established by Peachette's name. "Kotaku" Gita Jackson noted the overabundance of art for the character, stating that she was "overwhelmed by how strongly Bowsette has taken root in video game fandom". In a video with Tim Rogers, she added that she had never seen a trend "hit Twitter this hard", and noted the heavy Japanese support both for the character and original artist. Alex Olney of "Nintendo Life" noted his surprise at the trend's longevity, reasoning that the juxtaposition of something "edgy and sexy" to the "Mario" setting but also fitting within the narrative Nintendo has created might be the reason as why that is the case.


title: Bowsette

text: Don Nero of "Esquire" described the character as "dominatrix-inspired", proposing that the character could be seen as a positive symbol of female empowerment along the likes of Samus Aran or Lara Croft, though complained that a bulk of the art was "overtly male-gazey, dripping with horrendously over-the-top, seam-bursting cliches that call to mind the bodacious sex-dolls of "Dead or Alive Volleyball"". "Ars Technica" Sam Machkovech attributed some of the character's popularity to how it contrasted against Peach, stating the fan art's focus on a "more muscular, less svelte figure [...] lets Peach look a little less Barbie-proportioned". Nick Valdez of "ComicBook" described the character as combining "the cutesy elements of Peach's design with the harder edges and spiky tail of Bowser, making the amalgam of the two characters a delightful artist prompt for fans", though cautioned about the explicit nature of some of the fan art. Ana Valens of "The Daily Dot" noted the character's broad appeal, but also as a relatable figure for trans women, stating, "Bowsette is exactly how we see ourselves: We went from self-hating, gender dysphoric creatures and turned into happy and confident women".


title: Bowsette

text: Bowsette's popularity led to fans exploring concepts of other characters changed by the power-up into figures resembling Peach, including "Super Mario" character King Boo transformed into "Boosette" or "Booette", which also saw a great deal of fan art. Zachary Ryan of "IGN" noted that with all the different artists, it had moved beyond merely being the concept of "what if Bowser was a girl?". He added that "so many artists that you wouldn't know get to flex a little muscle", being able to show works they had created in a similar vein. Other artists such as "Fairy Tail" creator Hiro Mashima also weighed in with reverse-gender versions of their characters as well. He voiced caution for participants in the trend "to be careful not to cause trouble for copyright holders and companies that they are contracted to", and noted that even if he wanted to draw fan art, he would need the approval of publishers and other related parties. Other Japanese news outlets more directly discussed the legality of such characters under copyright law, specifically Bowsette, and whether they infringed on Nintendo's own copyright.


title: Bowsette

text: Despite fan petitions to make the character canon, Nintendo did not comment on it, stating "Concerning the drawings and other things uploaded to the Internet, we have no comment". Additionally the game's release included an in-game note that the crown would only affect Toadette. However, gaming publications noticed a similarity between the character and an unused concept for "Super Mario Odyssey" shown in the artbook, where Bowser took over Peach's body similarly to Mario's capture ability in "Odyssey", and she inherited several of his features from the possession, questioning whether Nintendo would now explore the concept further. Alex Olney stated that it would be unlikely that Nintendo would add the character to a game at some point. However, he did expect to see Nintendo interact with the trend in some fashion, adding "I think it would be a fun little thing and Nintendo are being a lot more fun recently".


title: Bowsette

text: "Newsweek" and "Know Your Meme" named it one of the "Top 10 Video Game Memes of 2018", stating that "Fandomization of Bowsette was not only inevitable, but obligatory", and adding that while previous renditions of a female Bowser existed online, Bowsette's design was "something new". "The Daily Dot" cited it as an example of how "people embraced being horny on Twitter" in 2018, stating that "very nature of the meme—a powerful, masculine villain becoming a buff, domineering woman—fascinated users with transformation and feminization fetishes", and that the character's non-normative appearance added to the appeal, namely with queer women. "Metro" named it one of the "12 Biggest Video Game Stories of 2018", calling it "an easy winner for the most unlikely video game story of the year" and noting its popularity both with Nintendo fans and online porn search results, further adding "It's probably best not to ask". The meme also placed 16th on Japan's Twitter Trend Awards, earning a special "Steering Committee Special Award" due to its rapid growth. Ayyk92 later received a physical trophy from Pixiv and Niconico for the award.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: Lionel Charles Jeffries (10 June 1926 – 19 February 2010) was an English actor, director, and screenwriter. He appeared primarily in films and received a Golden Globe Award nomination during his acting career.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: Jeffries was born in Forest Hill, south London. Both his parents were social workers with the Salvation Army. As a boy, he attended the Queen Elizabeth Grammar School in Wimborne Minster in Dorset.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: In 1945, he received a commission in the Oxford and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry and served in Burma at the Rangoon radio station during the Second World War, being awarded the Burma Star. (He blamed the humidity there for his hair loss at the age of 19.) He also served as a captain in the Royal West African Frontier Force.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: He trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. He entered repertory at the David Garrick Theatre, Lichfield, Staffordshire for two years and appeared in early British television plays.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: Jeffries built a successful career in British films mainly in comic character roles and as he was prematurely bald he often played characters older than himself, such as the role of father to Caractacus Potts (played by Dick Van Dyke) in the film "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" (1968), although Jeffries was actually six months younger than Van Dyke.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: His acting career reached a peak in the 1960s with leading roles in other films like "Two-Way Stretch" (1960), "The Trials of Oscar Wilde" (1960), "Murder Ahoy!" (opposite Margaret Rutherford), "First Men in the Moon" (1964) and "Camelot" (1967).


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: Jeffries turned to writing and directing children's films, including a well-regarded version of "The Railway Children" (1970) and "The Amazing Mr Blunden" (1972). He was a member of the British Catholic Stage Guild.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: Jeffries had a negative attitude towards television and avoided the medium for many years. He reluctantly appeared on television in an acting role in the 1980 London Weekend Television Dennis Potter drama "Cream in My Coffee" and realised that television production values were now little different from those in the film industry; as a result he developed a belated career in television. He appeared in an episode of the Thames Television/ITV comedy drama "Minder" in 1983 as Cecil Caine, an eccentric widower, and in an episode of "Inspector Morse" in 1990 (Central Television/Zenith/ITV).


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: He starred as Tom (Thomas Maddisson) in the Thames/ITV situation comedy "Tom, Dick and Harriet" with Ian Ogilvy and Brigit Forsyth. During location filming with Ogilvy for a 1983 episode, a stunt involving a car and a lake went very badly wrong, ending up with Jeffries only just managing to get out of the car's front window before the vehicle sank in of water.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: Jeffries retired from acting in 2001 and his health declined in the following years. He died on 19 February 2010, at a nursing home in Poole, Dorset. He had suffered from vascular dementia for the last twelve years of his life. He was 83.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: He was married to Eileen Mary Walsh from 1951 until his death. They had a son and two daughters. His son Ty Jeffries is a composer, lyricist and cabaret artist. Lionel Jeffries' granddaughter is the novelist and playwright Amy Mason.


title: Lionel Jeffries

text: His name is mentioned before the ending titles in the film "The First Men in the Moon", released in 2010: "For Lionel Jeffries 1926–2010".


title: Internal capsule

text: The internal capsule is a white matter structure situated in the inferomedial part of each cerebral hemisphere of the brain. It carries information past the basal ganglia, separating the caudate nucleus and the thalamus from the putamen and the globus pallidus. The internal capsule contains both ascending and descending axons, going to and coming from the cerebral cortex. It also separates the caudate nucleus and the putamen in the dorsal striatum, a brain region involved in motor and reward pathways.


title: Internal capsule

text: The corticospinal tract constitutes a large part of the internal capsule, carrying motor information from the primary motor cortex to the lower motor neurons in the spinal cord.


title: Internal capsule

text: Above the basal ganglia the corticospinal tract is a part of the corona radiata. Below the basal ganglia the tract is called cerebral crus (a part of the cerebral peduncle) and below the pons it is referred to as the corticospinal tract.


title: Internal capsule

text: The internal capsule consists of three parts and is V-shaped when cut horizontally, in a transverse plane.


title: Internal capsule

text: The "genu" is the flexure of the internal capsule. It is formed by fibers from the corticonuclear tracts. The fibers in this region are named the geniculate fibers; they originate in the motor part of the cerebral cortex and after passing downward through the base of the cerebral peduncle with the cerebrospinal fibers, undergo decussation and end in the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves of the opposite side. It contains the corticobulbar tract, which carries upper motor neurons from the motor cortex to cranial nerve nuclei that mainly govern motion of striated muscle in the head and face.


title: Internal capsule

text: The "posterior limb" of internal capsule (or occipital part) is the portion of the internal capsule posterior to the genu.


title: Internal capsule

text: The anterior two-thirds of the occipital part of the internal capsule contains fibers of the corticospinal tract, which arise in the motor area of the cerebral cortex and, passing downward through the middle three-fifths of the base of the cerebral peduncle, are continued into the pyramids of the medulla oblongata.


title: Internal capsule

text: The superior parts of both the "anterior and posterior limbs" and the "genu" of the internal capsule are supplied by the lenticulostriate arteries, which are branches of the M1 segment of the middle cerebral artery.


title: Internal capsule

text: The inferior half of the "anterior limb" is supplied via the recurrent artery of Heubner, which is a branch of the anterior cerebral artery.


title: Internal capsule

text: The inferior half of the "posterior limb" is supplied by the anterior choroidal artery, which is a branch of the internal carotid artery.


title: Internal capsule

text: As in many parts of the body, some degree of variation in the blood supply exists. For example, thalamoperforator arteries, which are branches of the basilar artery, occasionally supply the inferior half of the posterior limb.


title: Internal capsule

text: The internal capsule provides passage to ascending and descending fibres running to and from the cerebral cortex.


title: Internal capsule

text: The lenticulostriate arteries supply a substantial amount of the internal capsule. These small vessels are particularly vulnerable to narrowing in the setting of chronic hypertension and can result in small, punctate infarctions or intraparenchymal haemorrhage due to vessel rupture.


title: Internal capsule

text: The primary motor cortex sends its axons through the posterior limb of the internal capsule. Lesions, therefore, result in a contralateral hemiparesis or hemiplegia. While symptoms of weakness due to an isolated lesion of the posterior limb can initially be severe, recovery of motor function is sometimes possible due to spinal projections of premotor cortical regions that are contained more rostrally in the internal capsule.


title: Confederados

text: Os Confederados () is the Brazilian name for Confederate expatriates who fled the Southern United States during Reconstruction and their Brazilian descendants. They were enticed to Brazil by offers of cheap land from Emperor Dom Pedro II, who had hoped to gain expertise in cotton farming.


title: Confederados

text: It is estimated that up to 20,000 American Confederates emigrated to the Empire of Brazil from the Southern United States after the American Civil War. Initially, most settled in the current state of São Paulo, where they founded the city of Americana, which was once part of the neighboring city of Santa Bárbara d'Oeste. The descendants of other "Confederados" would later be found throughout Brazil.


title: Confederados

text: The center of Confederado culture is the Campo Cemetery in Santa Bárbara d'Oeste, where most of the original Confederados from the region were buried. Because of their Protestant religion, they could not be buried in a Catholic cemetery, so they created their own cemetery, the first non-Catholic, non-indigenous cemetery in Brazil. The Confederado community has also established a Museum of Immigration at Santa Bárbara d'Oeste to present the history of Brazilian immigration and highlight its benefits to the nation.


title: Confederados

text: The descendants still foster a connection with their history through the Fraternity of American Descendants, an organization dedicated to preserving the unique mixed culture. Os Confederados also have an annual festival, called the Festa Confederada, which is used to fund the Campo Cemetery. The festival is marked by Confederate flags, traditional dress of Confederate uniforms and hoop skirts, food of the American South with a Brazilian flair, and dances and music popular in the American South during the Antebellum period.


title: Confederados

text: After the war, many Confederate planters were unwilling to live by the new rules imposed by the Union's victory and the constitutional changes that followed: an end to chattel slavery, a new labor regime, and the loss of political power that came with African-American suffrage. Accustomed to raising cotton with the labor of enslaved people, some looked elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere for a place where their old life could be continued.


title: Confederados

text: "Many persons who, from long habit and fondly cherished theories, have become strongly attached to the institution of African slavery, fancy that in Brazil they will find an opportunity for the permanent use of that system of labor — Brazil and the Spanish possessions being the only two slaveholding communities remaining in the civilized world," the New Orleans "Daily Picayune" wrote in September 1865.


title: Confederados

text: The Brazilian Emperor Dom Pedro II saw an opportunity in the economic disruption in the southern United States and hoped to build up its cotton production for export to the looms of England and France, which had long relied on the Deep South. The Emperor encouraged the immigration of cotton planters from the former Confederacy to enable that expansion.


title: Confederados

text: Even before the end of the war in 1865, there was already talk of emigrating to Brazil, but very little was known about this country. After the war ended, there was such a revival of the issue that several emigration companies were formed. Representatives were sent to Brazil to check the land, climate, and facilities offered by the emperor.


title: Confederados

text: In November 1865, the state of South Carolina formed a colonization society and sent Major Robert Meriwether and Dr. H. A. Shaw, among others, to Brazil to investigate the possibility of establishing a colony. On the way back, they published a report mentioning that two lords had already bought land and settled here. Slaves were cheap, they reported.


title: Confederados

text: A confederate from South Carolina, James McFadden Gaston, traveled extensively in central Brazil and upon return to the US published a book titled "Hunting a Home in Brazil" in 1867. The book was a guide for would-be colonizers and stated in the introduction, "All the requisites of a desirable home have been found in Brazil."


title: Confederados

text: Many Southerners who accepted the Emperor's offer lost their ownership of humans during the war, were unwilling to live under the American Constitution after the passage of the 13th Amendment, the presence of federal troops to defend newly freed slaves from recapture by southern militias and the first wave of the Klan, or simply did not expect an improvement in the Southern economic situation under what they viewed as abolitionist rule, with slavery prohibited by Constitutional amendment. Furthermore, Brazil would not ban slavery until 1888. The Confederates were the first organized Protestant group to settle in Brazil.


title: Confederados

text: On December 27, 1865, Colonel and Senator William Hutchinson Norris of Alabama landed in the port of Rio de Janeiro. In 1866, William and his son Robert Norris climbed the Serra do Mar, stopped in São Paulo and speculated on land. They were offered land for free in what is now the neighborhood of Brás, but he did not accept it because it was marshy. They were also offered the land where São Caetano do Sul is today, and they refused it for the same reason. They decided to go to Campinas, but at the time, the railroad went only 10 miles beyond São Paulo while Campinas is 35 miles further, so the Norrises bought an ox-cart and headed for Campinas. They took 15 days to reach the city, and there they stayed for a while looking for land, until they cast their sights on the plain that stretched from Campinas to Vila Nova da Constituição, current Piracicaba.


title: Confederados

text: The Norrises bought land from the Domingos da Costa Machado sesmaria and established themselves on the banks of Ribeirão Quilombo, at the time belonging to the municipality of Santa Bárbara d'Oeste, today the city of Americana. Upon his arrival, Colonel Norris began to give practical courses in agriculture to farmers in the region, interested in cotton cultivation and new agricultural techniques. The plow he brought from the United States caused so much sensation and curiosity that, within a short time, they had a practical agricultural school, with many students who paid him for the privilege of learning and still cultivating their gardens. The Colonel wrote to his family that he had made US$5,000 from that alone. In mid-1867, the rest of his family arrived, accompanied by many relatives. Many Confederados besides Norris became known for agricultural education and improvement of cotton productivity.


title: Confederados

text: Numerous farms were founded by immigrants from the United States, commemorated today at the Santa Bárbara d'Oeste Immigration Museum. Cultivation and processing of cotton were significant. They established an intense trade, notably from 1875 onwards, with the arrival of the railroad and the installation of the Santa Barbara Station by the Companhia Paulista de Estrada de Ferro. Due to the constant presence of these immigrants, the village that was formed in the vicinity of the Station became known as "Vila dos Americanos", or "Vila Americana", and gave rise to the current city of Americana.


title: Confederados

text: The installation of the Carioba factory by the North American engineer Clement Willmot and Brazilian associates, located one mile from the train station, also dates from this period. Manufacturing really played a very important role in the foundation and development of Americana. The education of children was one of the priorities for American families, who set up schools on the properties and hired teachers from the United States. The teaching methods developed by American teachers proved to be so efficient that they were later adopted by Brazilian official education.


title: Confederados

text: Religious services were celebrated on the properties by pastors who moved between various properties and the various centers of the American diaspora. In 1895 the first Presbyterian Church was founded in the village of Estação. Due to the prohibition of burying people of other faiths in the cemeteries of cities administered by the Catholic Church, American immigrants began to bury their dead near the farmhouse. This cemetery became known as the Campo Cemetery, currently a tourist attraction in the city of Santa Bárbara d'Oeste. Even today the descendants of American families are buried there. It is in this place that descendants gather periodically for cultish religious ceremonies and parties around the 19th-century chapel.


title: Confederados

text: Jason Williams Stone, an American immigrant of British descent from Dana, Massachusetts, United States, moved to Brazil before the American Civil War, and ended up becoming a tobacco and rubber farmer and becoming very rich. Jason's plantations, which had more than five thousand hectares, were called Colonia Stone, and were located near the city of Itacoatiara, in Amazonas. Many of his descendants still have the surname "Stone". They are found mainly in the cities of Manaus and Itacoatiara, in Amazonas.


title: Confederados

text: The city of Santarém, in the state of Pará, received a wave of refugee families from the American Civil War that took place in the South of the United States. The first to land was the Riker family. In the 1970s, David Afton Riker published a book called "The Last Confederate in the Amazon", which chronicles the saga of this migration and life in the new homeland. The Confederates and their descendants became notable in the business and political life of the region.


title: Confederados

text: It is not known how many immigrants came to Brazil as war refugees, but unprecedented research in the records of the port of Rio de Janeiro, by Betty Antunes de Oliveira, shows that around 20,000 U.S. citizens entered Brazil between 1865 and 1885.


title: Confederados

text: The first generation of Confederates remained an island community. As is typical, in the third generation, most families had already married native Brazilians or immigrants from other origins. Confederate descendants increasingly began to speak the Portuguese language and identify themselves as Brazilians. As the region around the municipalities of Santa Bárbara d'Oeste and Americana became a hub for sugarcane production and society became more mobile, the confederates moved to larger cities in search of jobs in urban areas. Currently, only a few families of descendants still live on land owned by their ancestors. The descendants of the confederates are more spread throughout Brazil. They maintain their organization's headquarters at the Campo Cemetery, in Santa Bárbara d'Oeste, where there is also a chapel and a memorial.


title: Confederados

text: Descendants make a connection to their history through the American Descendant Fellowship, a descendant organization dedicated to preserving immigrant culture. The descendants of the confederates also hold an annual festival in Santa Bárbara d'Oeste called "Festa Confederada", which is dedicated to funding the Campo Cemetery. During the festival, Confederate flags and uniforms are worn, while Southern American food and dances are served and performed. The descendants maintain affection for the Confederate flag, although they identify themselves as fully Brazilian. Many Confederate descendants traveled to the United States at the invitation of Sons of Confederate Veterans, an organization of American descendants, to visit civil war battlefields, participate in reenactments, or visit the places where their ancestors lived.


title: Confederados

text: The Confederate flag in Brazil did not acquire the same political symbolism as it has in the United States. After then-Governor Jimmy Carter's visit to the region in 1972, the government of Americana even incorporated the Confederate flag into its coat of arms (although most of the Italian-descendent population removed it a few years later from the city's official symbol, as the descendants of the Confederates now comprise about a tenth of the city's population). During his visit to Brazil, Carter also visited the city of Santa Bárbara d'Oeste and the grave of a great-uncle of his wife, Rosalynn Carter, at Cemitério do Campo. At the time, Carter noted that Confederate descendants sounded and looked exactly like American southerners.


title: Confederados

text: Today, the Campo Cemetery (and the chapel and memorial located within it) in Santa Bárbara d'Oeste is a memorial, as most of the region's original Confederate immigrants were buried there. As Protestants, they were prohibited by the Catholic Church from burying their dead in local cemeteries and had to establish their own cemetery. The community of descendants also contributed to the Museum of Immigration, also located in Santa Bárbara d'Oeste, to present the history of U.S. immigration to Brazil.


title: Confederados

text: The American immigrants introduced into their new home many new foods, such as pecans, Georgia peanuts and watermelon; new tools such as the iron plow and kerosene lamps; innovations such as modern dentistry, modern agriculture, and the first blood transfusion; and the first non-Catholic churches (Baptist, Presbyterian, and Methodist). Some foods of the American South also crossed over and became part of general Brazilian culture such as chess pie, vinegar pie, and southern fried chicken. The immigrants also established public schools and provided education to their female children, which was unusual in Brazil at the time.


title: Confederados

text: The Confederate emigres were some 20,000 Southerners, from 12 southern states (i.e. Arkansas, Alabama and Mississippi) who preferred the Brazilian wilderness to life under Union rule after the Civil War.


title: Animals in Islam

text: to the Quran, they praise Him, even if this praise is not expressed in human language. Baiting animals for entertainment or gambling is prohibited. It is forbidden to kill any animal except for food or to prevent it from harming people.


title: Animals in Islam

text: The Quran explicitly allows the consumption of the meat of certain "halal" (lawful) animals. Although some Sufis have practised vegetarianism, there has been no serious discourse on the possibility of interpretations of scripture that require vegetarianism. Certain animals can be eaten under the condition that they are slaughtered in a specified way.


title: Animals in Islam

text: In the Arabian Peninsula before the advent of Islam in the 7th century CE, Arabs, like other people, attributed the qualities and the faults of humans to animals. Virility, for example, was attributed to the cock; perfidy to the monkey; stupidity to the lizard; and baldness to the elephant.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Based on the facts that the names of certain tribes bear the names of animals, survivals of animal cults, prohibitions of certain foods and other indications, W.  R. Smith argued for the practice of totemism by certain pre-Islamic tribes of Arabia. Others have argued that this evidence may only imply practice of a form of animalism. In support of this, for example, it was believed that upon one's death, the soul departs from the body in the form of a bird (usually a sort of owl); the soul-as-bird then flies about the tomb for some time, occasionally crying out (for vengeance).


title: Animals in Islam

text: According to Islam, human beings are allowed to use animals, but only if the rights of the animals are respected. The owner of an animal must do everything to benefit the animal. If the owner fails to perform their duties for the animal, the animal goes to someone else. The duties humans have to animals in Islam are based in the Quran, Sunnah and traditions.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Animal protection is more important than the fulfillment of religious obligations in special circumstances.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Muslims may not cut the forelock, mane, or tail of a horse, because it is believed there is goodness in its forelock; its mane provides it warmth and it swats insects away with its tail.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Muslims are not allowed to perform acts such as the interbreeding (as in inbreeding) of animals. Muhammad forbade people from castrating animals.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Muslims are not allowed to harass and misuse animals, which includes snatching a leaf from an ant's mouth. Muslims have no right to brand animals, hamstring or crucify animals before killing, or burn animals even if they cause harm to humans. Humans should obtain animal meat by a swift slaughter and avoid cutting lengthwise. In Islamic slaughter, the spinal cord cannot be broken. Removing wool from animals is prohibited because it causes them vulnerability.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Muslims cannot use any equipment that injures an animal, (i.e., beating them in a circus show, forcing them to carry heavy loads, or running at extreme speeds in races) even to train them. Exposure to sound is also regulated.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Muslims are obliged to provide food and water for any animal they see, even if the animal does not belong to them. In providing food and water considerations are the quality of the provisions and the amount of the provision based on the animal's condition and location.


title: Animals in Islam

text: In Islam, the rights of animals are respected in both life and death. Animal bodies may never be used for malicious purposes.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Although over two hundred verses in the Qur'an deal with animals and six Quranic chapters ("surah") are named after animals, animal life is not a predominant theme in the Qur'an. The Qur'an teaches that God created animals from water. God cares for all his creatures and provides for them. All creation praises God, even if this praise is not expressed in human language. God has prescribed laws for each species (laws of nature). Since animals follow the laws God has ordained for them, they are to be regarded as "Muslim", just as a human who obeys the laws prescribed for humans (Islamic law) is a Muslim. Just like humans, animals form "communities". In verse , the Qur'an applies the term "ummah", generally used to mean "a human religious community", for genera of animals. The "Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an" states that this verse has been "far reaching in its moral and ecological implications."


title: Animals in Islam

text: The Qur'an says that animals benefit humans in many ways and that they are aesthetically pleasing to look at. This is used as proof of God's benevolence towards humans. Animals that are slaughtered in accordance with sharia may be consumed. According to many verses of the Qur'an, the consumption of pork is sinful, unless there is no alternative other than starving to death (in times, for example, of war or famine). "Surat Yusuf" of the Quran mentions that a reason why Ya'qub was reluctant to let his son Yusuf to play in the open, even in the presence of his brothers, was that a "dhiʾb" () could eat him.


title: Animals in Islam

text: The above verses are seen as portraying dogs positively. An alleged hadith which regards black dogs as "evil" has been rejected by majority of Islamic scholars as fabricated. Nevertheless, Islamic scholars have tended to regard dogs' saliva as impure; practically, this means anything licked by a dog necessitates washing. Many Islamic jurists allowed owning dogs for herding, farming, hunting, or protection, but prohibited ownership for reasons they regarded as "frivolous".


title: Animals in Islam

text: There is a whole chapter in the Quran named "The Ants". As a result, the killing of ants in Sunni Islam is prohibited. Within the aforementioned chapter of "The Ant", there is an account of Sulaymaan (Solomon) talking to the eponymous ant as well as birds, most famously the hoopoe.


title: Animals in Islam

text: The Quran talks about a miraculous "She-Camel of God" (, 'she-camel') that came from stone, in the context of the Prophet Salih, Thamudi people and Al-Hijr.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Pork is "haram" (forbidden) to eat, because its essence is considered impure, this is based on the verse of the Qur'an where it is described as being "rijs" (, impure) ().


title: Animals in Islam

text: Forbidden ("haram") is also the meat of domesticated donkeys, mules, any predatory animal with canine teeth and birds with talons.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Verses 50 and 51 of "Surat al-Muddaththir" in the Quran talk about "ḥumur" ('asses' or 'donkeys') fleeing from a "qaswarah" ('lion', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter'), in its criticism of people who were averse to Muhammad's teachings, such as donating wealth to the less wealthy.


title: Animals in Islam

text: The Arabic word meaning "animal" ("hayawān"/"haywān" (; plural "haywānāt" ())) appears only once in the Qur'an but in the sense of everlasting life (personal). On the other hand, the term "dābbah" (; plural "dawābb"), usually translated as "beast" or "creature" to sometimes differentiate from flying birds while surprisingly including humans, occurs a number of times in the Qur'an, while remaining rare in medieval Arabic works on zoology. Animals in the Qur'an and early Muslim thought may usually (though not necessarily) be seen in terms of their relation to human beings, producing a tendency toward anthropocentrism.


title: Animals in Islam

text: "Sunnah" refers to the traditional biographies of Muhammad wherein examples of sayings attributed to him and his conduct have been recorded. "Sunnah" consists of "hadith" (anecdotes about Muhammad).


title: Animals in Islam

text: Animals must not be mutilated while they are alive. Muhammad is also reported (by Ibn Omar and Abdallah bin Al-As) to have said: "there is no man who kills [even] a sparrow or anything smaller, without its deserving it, but God will question him about it [on the judgment day]" and "Whoever is kind to the creatures of God is kind to himself."


title: Animals in Islam

text: Muhammad issued advice to kill animals that were "Fawāsiq" ( "Harmful ones"), such as the rat and the scorpion, within the "haram" (holy area) of Mecca. Killing other non-domesticated animals in this area, such as equids and birds, is forbidden.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Muslims are required to sharpen the blade when slaughtering animals to ensure that no pain is felt. Muhammad is said to have said: "For [charity showed to] each creature which has a wet liver [i.e. is alive], there is a reward."


title: Animals in Islam

text: There is a "hadith" in Muwatta' Imam Malik about Muslim Pilgrims having to beware of the wolf, besides other animals.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Muhammad is also reported as having reprimanded some men who were sitting idly on their camels in a marketplace, saying "either ride them or leave them alone". Apart from that, the camel has significance in Islam. Al Qaswa () was a female Arabian camel that belonged to Muhammad, and was dear to him. Muhammad rode on Qaswa during the "Hijrah" ('Migration') from Mecca to Medina, his Hajj in 629 CE, and the Conquest of Mecca in 630. The camel was also present during the Battle of Badr in 624. After the death of the Prophet, the camel is reported to have starved herself to death, refusing to take food from anyone.


title: Animals in Islam

text: In the "Nahj al-Balagha", the Shi'a book of the sayings of Ali, an entire sermon is dedicated to praising peacocks. Bees are highly revered in Islam. The structural genius of a bee is thought as due to divine inspiration. Their product honey is also revered as medicine. Killing a bee is considered a great sin.


title: Animals in Islam

text: The wolf may symbolize ferocity. As for the "kalb" (, dog), there are different views regarding it. The Sunni Maliki school of Islamic jurisprudence distinguishes between wild dogs and pet dogs, only considering the saliva of the former to be impure; on the other hand, some schools of Islamic law consider dogs as unclean ("najis"). The historian William Montgomery Watt states that Muhammad's kindness to animals was remarkable, citing an instance of Muhammad while traveling with his army to Mecca in 630 AD, posting sentries to ensure that a female dog and her newborn puppies were not disturbed. Muhammad himself prayed in the presence of dogs and many of his cousins and companions, who were the first Muslims, owned dogs; the Mosque of the Prophet in Medina allowed dogs to frolic about in Muhammad's time and for several centuries afterwards. In "two separate narrations by Abu Hurayrah, the Prophet told his companions of the virtue of saving the life of a dog by giving it water and quenching its thirst. One story referred to a man who was blessed by Allah for giving water to a thirsty dog, the other was a prostitute who filled her shoe with water and gave it to a dog, who had its tongue rolling out from thirst. For this deed she was granted the ultimate reward, the eternal Paradise under which rivers flow, to live therein forever." The Qur'an (Surah 18, verse 9-26) praises the dog for guarding the Seven Sleepers fleeing religious persecution; Islamic scholar Ingrid Mattson thus notes that "This tender description of the dog guarding the cave makes it clear that the animal is good company for believers." Umar, the second Caliph of Islam, said that if a dog was hungry in his kingdom, he would be derelict of his duty. According to the Qur'an the use of hunting dogs is permitted, which is a reason the Maliki school draws a distinction between feral and domesticated dogs―since Muslims can eat game that has been caught in a domesticated dog's mouth, the saliva of a domesticated dog cannot be impure. Abou El Fadl "found it hard to believe that the same God who created such companionable creatures would have his prophet declare them 'unclean, stating that animosity towards dogs in folk Islam "reflected views far more consistent with pre-Islamic Arab customs and attitudes". Furthermore, "he found that a hadith from one of the most trustworthy sources tells how the Prophet himself had prayed in the presence of his playfully cavorting dogs." According to a story by Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, black dogs are a manifestation of evil in animal form and the company of dogs voids a portion of a Muslim's good deeds; however, according to Khaled Abou El Fadl, the majority of scholars regard this to be "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet". Mattson teaches that for followers of other schools, "there are many other impurities present in our homes, mostly in the form of human waste, blood, and other bodily fluids" and that since it is common for these impurities to come in contact with a Muslim's clothes, they are simply washed or changed before prayer. However, this is not necessary for adherents of the Sunni Maliki school as "jurists from the Sunni Maliki School disagree with the idea that dogs are unclean." Individual "fatāwā" ("rulings") have indicated that dogs be treated kindly or otherwise released, and earlier Islamic literature often portrayed dogs as symbols of highly esteemed virtues such as self-sacrifice and loyalty, which, in the hands of despotic and unjust rulers, become oppressive instruments.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Domestic cats have a special place in Islamic culture. Muhammad is said to have loved his cat Muezzah to the extent that "he would go without his cloak rather than disturb Muezza that was sleeping on it."


title: Animals in Islam

text: Big cats like the "asad" (lion), "namir" (, leopard), and "namur" (, Tiger), can symbolize ferocity, similar to the wolf.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Apart from ferocity, the lion has an important position in Islam and Arab culture. Men noted for their bravery, like Ali, Hamzah ibn Abdul-Muttalib and Omar Mukhtar, were given titles like "Asad Allāh" ("Lion of God") and "Asad aṣ-Ṣaḥrāʾ" ("Lion of the Desert").


title: Animals in Islam

text: A spider is told to have saved Muhammad and Abu Bakr by spinning a web over the entrance of the cave in which they hid. Because of the spider web, their persecutors thought the cave must be empty; otherwise, there would not have been a web. Therefore, Muslims consider killing spiders ("'ankabūt") a sin.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Usually, in Muslim majority cultures, animals have names (one animal may be given several names), which are often interchangeable with names of people. Muslim names or titles like "asad" and "ghadanfar" (Arabic for lion), "shir" and "arslan" (Persian and Turkish for lion, respectively) and "fahad" (Could mean either a cheetah or leopard, however ""nimr"" is more common for the latter) are common in the Muslim world. Prominent Muslims with animal names include: Hamzah, Abd al-Rahman ibn Sakhr Al-Dawsi Al-Zahrani (more commonly known by his kunya "Abu Hurairah" or the Father of the kitten), Abdul-Qadir Gilani (called "al-baz al-ashhab", the wise falcon) and Lal Shahbaz Qalander of Sehwan (called "red falcon").


title: Animals in Islam

text: Islamic literature has many stories of animals. Arabic and Persian literature boast many animal fables. The most famous, "Kalilah wa-Dimnah" or "Panchatantra", translated into Arabic by Abd-Allāh Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ in the 8th century, was also known in Europe. In the 12th century, Shihab al-Din al-Suhrawadi wrote many short stories of animals. At about the same time, in north-eastern Iran, Attar Neyshapuri (Farid al-Din Attar) composed the epic poem "Mantiq al-Tayr" (meaning "The Conference of the Birds").


title: Animals in Islam

text: In Malaysia in 2016, the Malaysian Islamic Development Department, a religious governing body, prohibited the use of the term "hot dog" to refer to the food of that name. It asked food outlets selling them to rename their products or risk refusal of halal certification. Per local media, Malaysian halal food guidelines prohibit naming halal products after non-halal products. Islamist organization Hamas which controls the Gaza Strip, banned public dog walking in May 2017, stating it was to "protect our women and children". Hamas officials stated that the ban was in response to rise in dog walking on the streets which they stated was "against culture and traditions in Gaza".


title: Animals in Islam

text: UK animal welfare organizations have decried some ritual methods of slaughter practiced in Islam ("dhabihah") and Judaism ("shechita") as inhumane and causing "severe suffering". According to Judy MacArthur Clark, Chairperson of the Farm Animal Welfare Council, cattle require up to two minutes to bleed to death when halal or kosher means of slaughter are used on cattle: "This is a major incision into the animal and to say that it doesn't suffer is quite ridiculous." In response, Majid Katme of the Muslim Council of Britain stated that "[i]t's a sudden and quick haemorrhage. A quick loss of blood pressure and the brain is instantaneously starved of blood and there is no time to start feeling any pain."


title: Animals in Islam

text: In permitting "dhabiha", the German Constitutional Court cited the 1978 study led by Professor Wilhelm Schulze at the University of Veterinary Medicine Hanover which concluded that "[t]he slaughter in the form of ritual cut is, if carried out properly, painless in sheep and calves according to the EEG recordings and the missing defensive actions." Muslims and Jews have also argued that traditional British methods of slaughter have meant that "animals are sometimes rendered physically immobile, although with full consciousness and sensation. Applying a sharp knife in "shechita" and "dhabh", by contrast, ensures that no pain is felt: the wound inflicted is clean, and the loss of blood causes the animal to lose consciousness within seconds."


title: Animals in Islam

text: The depiction of animals serve numerous functions in Islamic art. Various animal motifs may work to serve as symbolic metaphors for human beings in a variety objects but their use may vary a great degree from object to object ultimately dependent upon context in which these figures are situated in. The depiction of animals may also serve the purpose of being decorative motifs, examples of the use of animals for decorative purposes can be found in textiles, ceramics, metal work, mosaics, and in general, a wide spectrum of Islamic artistic mediums. Furthermore, depictions of animals in Islam can potentially be a combination of both decorative and symbolic in their respective usage, e.g. royal tapestries with animal motifs used to cover furniture such as the "Double-Face Textile with a Tree of Life & a Winged Lion," hailing from Rayy, Iran circa the Early Islamic Period. In the instance of the "Double-Face Textile with a Tree of Life and a Winged Lion," the use of lions can serve as a great study for reoccurring animal motifs which are used as a representational link between the symbolic power of the lion in nature and the sultan's power. Which in term demonstrates a dual use in visually portraying a lions.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Many animals are often represented alongside "vegetal" (Arabesque) patterns and are often found in an adorsed position (represented twice, symmetrically, and often side by side). Often we can find these adorsed or flanking animals surrounding an actual visual representation of a tree, this seems to be a common motif. The "Tree of Life" mosaic found at the desert palace of Khirbat al-Mafjar built under Caliph Walid II's rule during the Umayyad period, is perhaps one of the most well known mosaics depicting animals in figural form in the Islamic world. This particular mosaic was found in a private room of the desert palace which served as a bathhouse complex for the purpose of leisure. There is no religious context to this particular mosaic which explains the figural depictions of animals, under a religious context we would not see such figural depictions due to aniconism in the Islamic faith. In this mosaic we see a lion attacking a gazelle on the right side of the mosaic, and on the left side we see a depiction of two other gazelles casually grazing. Although there are multiple interpretations of this mosaic, one major interpretation seems to be that the actual physical depiction of the tree of life is a metaphor for the great and vast knowledge growing from the Islamic world. The lion attacking the gazelle is a borrowed motif from previous civilizations that is meant to represent Islam and the Islamic caliphates power as continuing the legacy of the great civilizations the preceded them (e.g. Mesopotamia). Another main interpretation is that this mosaic was a private erotic piece of art that depicted the caliphates sexual prowess, seeing as it was located in a private room of the bath complex. The entanglement of branches on the trees bearing fruit, the female gazelles grazing by the tree, and of course the lion (a stand in for the sultan) taking down his "prey" (a sole female gazelle), are all a testament to the sultan's (Walid II) reputation and exploits, which were well documented in the sultan's own writings.


title: Animals in Islam

text: Live animals or trophy pieces of deceased animals would sometimes be gifted to royal courts from one sultan to another sultan in the Islamic world. In some instances, this exchange of animals as gifts would come from outside the Islamic world as well. There is a documented instance for example of Charlemagne gifting a sultan a live animal (a living, breathing elephant to be exact). In many instances, we can observe these acquired pieces of animals such as ivory tusks, being repurposed, not only as a trophies but as a decorations. A great example of the aforementioned is "The Pyxis of al-Mughira," made at the Royal Workshop at Madinat al-Zahra, Spain, This Ivory Casket was gifted to the prince for the purpose of serving as a decorative piece with a nefarious political connotation behind it. Perhaps most interesting is that these caskets would be intricately carved from ivory, and depict various animal motifs, in various relations to pleasure, power, etc. Once again these pieces were not anionic for they were meant to be displayed in palaces or in private quarters. They did not have religious connotations behind them. Upon viewing "The Pyxis of al-Mughira" we see the adorned animals figures depicted time and time again in Islamic art. We can observe, two bulls, two men on horses, and of course two lions attacking stags. This ivory casket also depicts numerous birds, two men engaged in wrestling, what is presumed to be the sultan and his sons, musicians, the vegetal or arabesque pattern we have previously seen in other examples of Islamic art carved throughout the entirety of this casket, and a tiraz band across the upper area of the casket which serves as the aforementioned political warning.


title: Animals in Islam

text: The general overarching Idea of the examples given above are that the use of animals as symbolic representations of humans, royal accoutrements, symbolic representations of power, etc. were not necessarily exclusive in their use. Instead, they could cross the entire gamut in terms of art and culture. There is a multitude of usage and meanings in the depiction of animals in Islamic art. The context could range from political, religious, decorative, etc. These animal representations in the Islamic are not static and tell countless stories.


title: Culture of England

text: The culture of England is defined by the cultural norms of England and the English people. Owing to England's influential position within the United Kingdom it can sometimes be difficult to differentiate English culture from the culture of the United Kingdom as a whole. However, since Anglo-Saxon times, England has had its own unique culture, apart from Welsh, Scottish or Northern Irish culture.


title: Culture of England

text: Many scientific and technological advancements originated in England, the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. England has also played an important role in cinema, literature, music, art, technology, engineering, democracy, shipbuilding, aircraft, motor vehicles, philosophy, music, science, mathematics and sport.


title: Culture of England

text: Humour, tradition, and good manners are characteristics commonly associated with being English. The secretary of state for digital, culture, media and sport is the government minister responsible for the cultural life of England.


title: Culture of England

text: Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period; amongst the best known are Stonehenge, Avebury, Devil's Arrows, Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg. With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas, baths, amphitheaters, triumphal arches, villas, Roman temples, Roman roads, Roman forts, stockades and aqueducts. It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London, Bath, York, Chester and St Albans. Perhaps the best-known example is Hadrian's Wall stretching right across northern England. Another well-preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath, Somerset.


title: Culture of England

text: English architecture begins with the architecture of the Anglo-Saxons. At least fifty surviving English churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small and much-altered. All except one timber church are built of stone or brick, and in some cases show evidence of reused Roman work. The architectural character of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical buildings ranges from Coptic-influenced architecture in the early period, through Early Christian basilica influenced architecture, to (in the later Anglo-Saxon period) an architecture characterised by pilaster-strips, blank arcading, baluster shafts and triangular-headed openings.


title: Culture of England

text: Many cathedrals of England are ancient, dating from as far back as around 700. They are a major aspect of the country's artistic heritage. Medieval Christianity included the veneration of saints, with pilgrimages to places where particular saints' relics were interred. The possession of the relics of a popular saint was a source of funds for an individual church, as the faithful made donations and benefices in the hope that they might receive spiritual aid, a blessing or a healing from the presence of the physical remains of the holy person. Among those churches to benefit in particular were St Albans Abbey, which contained the relics of England's first Christian martyr; Ripon with the shrine of its founder St. Wilfrid; Durham, which was built to house the body of Saints Cuthbert of Lindisfarne and Aidan; Ely with the shrine of St. Ethelreda; Westminster Abbey with the magnificent shrine of its founder St. Edward the Confessor; at Chichester, the remains of St. Richard; and at Winchester, those of St. Swithun.


title: Culture of England

text: All these saints brought pilgrims to their churches, but among them the most renowned was Thomas Becket, the late Archbishop of Canterbury, assassinated by henchmen of King Henry II in 1170. As a place of pilgrimage Canterbury was, in the 13th century, second only to Santiago de Compostela. In the 1170s Gothic architecture was introduced at Canterbury and Westminster Abbey. Over the next 400 years it developed in England, sometimes in parallel with and influenced by Continental forms, but generally with great local diversity and originality.


title: Culture of England

text: Following the Norman Conquest Romanesque architecture (known here as Norman architecture) superseded Anglo-Saxon architecture; later there was a period of transition into English Gothic architecture (of which there are three periods, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular). Norman architecture was built on a vast scale from the 11th century onwards in the form of castles and churches to help impose Norman authority upon their dominion. Many castles remain from the medieval period, such as Windsor Castle (longest-occupied castle in Europe), Bodiam Castle (a moated castle), Tower of London, and Warwick Castle. Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles, palaces, great houses, universities and parish churches.


title: Culture of England

text: English Gothic architecture flourished from the 12th to the early 16th century, and famous examples include Westminster Abbey, the traditional place of coronation for the British monarch, which also has a long tradition as a venue for royal weddings, Canterbury Cathedral, one of the oldest and most famous Christian structures in England; Salisbury Cathedral, which has the tallest church spire in the UK; and York Minster, which is the largest Gothic cathedral in Northern Europe.


title: Culture of England

text: Secular medieval architecture throughout England has left a legacy of large stone castles. The invention of gunpowder and canons made castles redundant, and the English Renaissance which followed facilitiated the development of new artistic styles for domestic architecture, notably Tudor, Elizabethan, Jacobean, English Baroque, Queen Anne and Palladian. Architecture during the Tudor dynasty flourished with magnificent royal palaces, such as Nonsuch Palace, Palace of Placentia, Hampton Court Palace, Hatfield House, Richmond Palace and Palace of Beaulieu.


title: Culture of England

text: One of the most acclaimed English architects was Sir Christopher Wren. He was employed by King Charles II to design and rebuild London and many of its ruined ancient churches following the Great Fire of London in 1666. Georgian and Neoclassical architecture advanced after the Age of Enlightenment, evoking achievements in elegant architecture and city planning; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this. The Regency of George IV is noted for its elegance and achievements in architecture and urban planning. Regency style is also applied to interior design and decorative arts of the period, typified by elegant furniture and vertically striped wallpaper, and to styles of clothing; for men, as typified by the dandy Beau Brummell and for women the Empire silhouette. In early modern times there was an influence from Renaissance architecture until by the 18th century. Gothic forms of architecture had been abandoned and various classical styles were adopted. During the Victorian era, Gothic Revival architecture developed in England and was preferred for many types of buildings and city planning. Victorian was widespread with vast innovations and engineering achievements (bridges, canals, railway stations, etc.).


title: Culture of England

text: In addition to this, around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace. The introduction of the sheet glass method into England by Chance Brothers in 1832 made possible the production of large sheets of cheap but strong glass, and its use in the Crystal Palace created a structure with the greatest area of glass ever seen in a building. It astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights. Edwardian followed in the early 20th century. Other buildings such as cathedrals and parish churches are associated with a sense of traditional Englishness, as is often the palatial 'stately home'. Many people are interested in the English country house and the rural lifestyle, evidenced by the number of visitors to properties managed by English Heritage and the National Trust.


title: Culture of England

text: Landscape gardening as developed by Capability Brown set an international trend for the English garden. Gardening, and visiting gardens, are regarded as typically English pursuits. By the end of the 18th century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the form of the public parks and gardens which appeared around the world in the 19th century.


title: Culture of England

text: Inspired by the great landscape artists of the seventeenth century, the English garden presented an idealized view of nature. At large country houses, the English garden usually included lakes, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. The English garden was centred on the English country house, stately homes and parks. English Heritage and the National Trust preserve large gardens and landscape parks throughout the country. The RHS Chelsea Flower Show is held every year by the Royal Horticultural Society and is said to be the largest gardening show in the world.


title: Culture of England

text: Following the building of the world's first seaside pier at Ryde, the pier became fashionable at seaside resorts in England during the Victorian era, peaking in the 1860s with 22 being built in that decade. A symbol of the typical English seaside holiday, by 1914 more than 100 pleasure piers were located around the UK coast. Regarded as being among the finest Victorian architecture, there are still a significant number of seaside piers of architectural merit still standing, although some have been lost, including two at Brighton in East Sussex and one at New Brighton in the Wirral. Two piers, Brighton's now derelict West Pier and Clevedon Pier, were Grade 1 listed. The Birnbeck Pier in Weston-super-Mare is the only pier in the world linked to an island. The National Piers Society gives a figure of 55 surviving seaside piers in England.


title: Culture of England

text: England has Europe's earliest and northernmost ice-age cave art. Prehistoric art in England largely corresponds with art made elsewhere in contemporary Britain, but early medieval Anglo-Saxon art saw the development of a distinctly English style, and English art continued thereafter to have a distinct character. English art made after the formation in 1707 of the Kingdom of Great Britain may be regarded in most respects simultaneously as art of the United Kingdom. The two periods of outstanding achievement were the 7th and 8th centuries, with the metalwork and jewellery from Sutton Hoo and a series of magnificent illuminated manuscripts, and the final period after about 950, when there was a revival of English culture after the end of the Viking invasions.


title: Culture of England

text: As in most of Europe at the time, metalwork was the most highly regarded form of art by the Anglo-Saxons, but hardly any survives – there was enormous plundering of Anglo-Saxon churches, monasteries and the possessions of the dispossessed nobility by the new Norman rulers in their first decades, as well as the Norsemen before them, and the English Reformation after them, and most survivals were once on the continent. Anglo-Saxon taste favoured brightness and colour. Opus Anglicanum ("English work") was recognised as the finest embroidery in Europe. Perhaps the best known piece of Anglo-Saxon art is the Bayeux Tapestry which was commissioned by a Norman patron from English artists working in the traditional Anglo-Saxon style. Anglo-Saxon artists also worked in fresco, stone, ivory and whalebone (notably the Franks Casket), metalwork (for example the Fuller brooch), glass and enamel. Medieval English painting, mainly religious, had a strong national tradition and was influential in Europe.


title: Culture of England

text: The English Reformation, which was antipathetic to art, not only brought this tradition to an abrupt stop but resulted in the destruction of almost all wall-paintings. Only illuminated manuscripts now survive in large numbers.


title: Culture of England

text: There is in the art of the English Renaissance a strong interest in portraiture, and the portrait miniature was more popular in England than anywhere else. English Renaissance sculpture was mainly architectural and for monumental tombs. Interest in English landscape painting had begun to develop by the time of the 1707 Act of Union. English art was dominated by imported artists throughout much of the Renaissance, but in the 18th century a native tradition became much admired. It is considered to be typified by landscape painting, such as the work of J.M.W. Turner and John Constable. Portraitists like Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds are also significant.


title: Culture of England

text: The first famous native English portrait miniaturist is Nicholas Hilliard (c. 1537–1619), whose work was conservative in style but very sensitive to the character of the sitter; his best works are beautifully executed. The colours are opaque, and gold is used to heighten the effect, while the paintings are on card. They are often signed, and have frequently also a Latin motto upon them. Hilliard worked for a while in France, and he is probably identical with the painter alluded to in 1577 as "Nicholas Belliart". Hilliard was succeeded by his son Lawrence Hilliard (died 1640); his technique was similar to that of his father, but bolder, and his miniatures richer in colour.


title: Culture of England

text: Isaac Oliver and his son Peter Oliver succeeded Hilliard. Isaac (c. 1560–1617) was the pupil of Hilliard. Peter (1594–1647) was the pupil of Isaac. The two men were the earliest to give roundness and form to the faces they painted. They signed their best works in monogram, and painted not only very small miniatures, but larger ones measuring as much as 10 in × 9 in (250 mm × 230 mm). They copied for Charles I of England (1600–1649) on a small scale many of his famous pictures by the old masters. Samuel Cooper (1609–1672) was a nephew and student of the elder Hoskins, and is considered the greatest English portrait miniaturist. He spent much of his time in Paris and Holland, and very little is known of his career. His work has a superb breadth and dignity, and has been well called life-size work in little. His portraits of the men of the Puritan epoch are remarkable for their truth to life and strength of handling. His work is frequently signed with his initials, generally in gold, and very often with the addition of the date.


title: Culture of England

text: Pictorial satirist William Hogarth pioneered Western sequential art, and political illustrations in this style are often referred to as "Hogarthian". Following Hogarth, political cartoons developed in England in the late 18th century under the direction of James Gillray. Regarded as one of the two most influential cartoonists (the other is Hogarth), Gillray has been referred to as the father of the political cartoon, with his satirical work calling the King (George III), prime ministers and generals to account. The early 19th century saw the emergence of the Norwich school of painters, the first provincial art movement outside of London. Its prominent members were "founding father" John Crome (1768–1821), John Sell Cotman (1782–1842), James Stark (1794–1859), and Joseph Stannard (1797–1830).


title: Culture of England

text: In England, landscapes had initially been mostly backgrounds to portraits. The English tradition was founded by Anthony van Dyck and other mostly Flemish artists working in England, but in the 18th century the works of Claude Lorrain were keenly collected and influenced not only paintings of landscapes, but the English landscape gardens of Capability Brown and others. In the 18th century, watercolour painting, mostly of landscapes, became an English specialty, with both a buoyant market for professional works, and a large number of amateur painters, many following the popular systems found in the books of Alexander Cozens and others. By the beginning of the 19th century the English artists with the highest modern reputations were mostly dedicated landscape painters, showing the wide range of Romantic interpretations of the English landscape found in the works of John Constable and J.M.W. Turner.


title: Culture of England

text: During the Baroque and Rococo periods, the first major native portrait painters of the British school were English painters Thomas Gainsborough and Sir Joshua Reynolds, who also specialised in clothing their subjects in an eye-catching manner. Gainsborough's "Blue Boy" is one of the most famous and recognized portraits of all time, painted with very long brushes and thin oil colour to achieve the shimmering effect of the blue costume. Gainsborough was also noted for his elaborate background settings for his subjects.


title: Culture of England

text: The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood achieved considerable influence after its foundation in 1848 with paintings that concentrated on religious, literary, and genre subjects executed in a colourful and minutely detailed style. Its artists included John Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rossetti and subsequently Edward Burne-Jones. Also associated with it was the designer William Morris, whose efforts to make beautiful objects affordable for everyone led to his wallpaper and tile designs to some extent defining the Victorian aesthetic and instigating the Arts and Crafts movement. The Royal Society of Arts is an organisation committed to the arts and culture.


title: Culture of England

text: The Royal Academy in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in England. Major schools of art in England include: the six-school University of the Arts London, which includes the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design and Chelsea College of Art and Design; Goldsmiths, University of London; the Slade School of Fine Art (part of University College London); the Royal College of Art; and The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art (part of the University of Oxford). The Courtauld Institute of Art is a leading centre for the teaching of the history of art. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the National Gallery, National Portrait Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).


title: Culture of England

text: A number of umbrella organisations are devoted to the preservation and public access of both natural and cultural heritage, including English Heritage and the National Trust. Membership with them, even on a temporary basis, gives priority free access to their properties thereafter.


title: Culture of England

text: English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. It is currently sponsored by the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport. English Heritage manages more than 400 significant buildings and monuments in England. They also maintain a register of thousands of listed buildings, those which are considered of most importance to the historic and cultural heritage of the country.


title: Culture of England

text: The National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty is a charity which also maintains multiple sites. One of the largest landowners in the United Kingdom, the Trust owns almost 250,000 hectares of land and 780 miles of coast. Its properties include over 500 historic houses, castles, archaeological and industrial monuments, gardens, parks and nature reserves.


title: Culture of England

text: 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England. Some of the best known of these include Hadrian's Wall, Stonehenge, Avebury and Associated Sites, Tower of London, Jurassic Coast, Westminster, Roman Baths in Bath, Saltaire, Ironbridge Gorge, and Studley Royal Park. The northernmost point of the Roman Empire, Hadrian's Wall, is the largest Roman artefact anywhere: it runs a total of 73 miles in northern England.


title: Culture of England

text: London's British Museum hosts a collection of more than seven million objects is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world, sourced from every continent, illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. The library has two of the four remaining copies of the original Magna Carta (the other two copies are held in Lincoln Castle and Salisbury Cathedral) and has a room devoted solely to them. The British Library Sound Archive has over six million recordings, many from the BBC Sound Archive, including Winston Churchill's wartime speeches.


title: Culture of England

text: The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world's largest research libraries, holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats; including around 25 million books. The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, which houses a collection of over 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize. The Ashmolean Museum was founded in 1677 from the personal collection of Elias Ashmole, was set up in the University of Oxford to be open to the public and is considered by some to be the first modern public museum. In 2011 there were more than 1,600 museums in England. Most museums and art galleries are free of charge.


title: Culture of England

text: A blue plaque, the oldest historical marker scheme in the world, is a permanent sign installed in a public place in the UK to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person or event. The scheme was the brainchild of politician William Ewart in 1863 and was initiated in 1866.


title: Culture of England

text: It was formally established by the Royal Society of Arts in 1867, and since 1986 has been run by English Heritage. The first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorate Lord Byron at his birthplace, 24 Holles Street, Cavendish Square, London. Examples that commemorate events include John Logie Baird's first demonstration of the television at 22 Frith Street, Westminster, W1, London, and the first sub 4-minute mile run by Roger Bannister on 6 May 1954 at Oxford University's Iffley Road Track.


title: Culture of England

text: Tourism plays a significant part in the economic life of England. In 2018, the United Kingdom as a whole was the world's 10th most visited country for tourists, and 17 of the United Kingdom's 25 UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England. VisitEngland is the official tourist board for England. VisitEngland's stated mission is to build England's tourism product, raise Britain's profile worldwide, increase the volume and value of tourism exports and develop England and Britain's visitor economy. In 2020, the "Lonely Planet" travel guide rated England as the second best country to visit that year, after Bhutan.


title: Culture of England

text: The Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Arts, Heritage and Tourism is the minister with responsibility over tourism in England, including museums, art galleries, public libraries and the National Archives.


title: Culture of England

text: Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin. The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem "Beowulf" and the fragmentary The Battle of Maldon, the sombre and introspective The Seafarer, The Wanderer, the pious Dream of the Rood, The Order of the World, and the secular prose of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", along with Christian writings such as "Judith", Cædmon's "Hymn" and hagiographies. Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes, as well as an Anglo-Norman literature.


title: Culture of England

text: Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer, author of "The Canterbury Tales", along with Gower, the Pearl Poet and Langland. William of Ockham and Roger Bacon, who were Franciscans, were major philosophers of the Middle Ages. Julian of Norwich, who wrote "Revelations of Divine Love", was a prominent Christian mystic. With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared. William Shakespeare, whose works include "Hamlet", "Romeo and Juliet", "Macbeth", and "A Midsummer Night's Dream", remains one of the most championed authors in English literature.


title: Culture of England

text: Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age. Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism, including scientific method and social contract. Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings. Marvell was the best-known poet of the Commonwealth, while John Milton authored "Paradise Lost" during the Restoration.


title: Culture of England

text: Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke, Thomas Paine, Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham. More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism. The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded. The English played a significant role in romanticism: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, John Keats, Mary Shelley, Percy Bysshe Shelley, William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures.


title: Culture of England

text: In response to the Industrial Revolution, agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition; William Cobbett, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents, while the founder of guild socialism, Arthur Penty, and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related. Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell, while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics. Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens, the Brontë sisters, Jane Austen, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll. Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell, D. H. Lawrence, Virginia Woolf, C. S. Lewis, Enid Blyton, Aldous Huxley, Agatha Christie, Terry Pratchett, J. R. R. Tolkien, and J. K. Rowling.


title: Culture of England

text: Due to the expansion of English into a world language during the British Empire, literature is now written in English across the world. Writers often associated with England or for expressing Englishness include Shakespeare (who produced two tetralogies of history plays about the English kings), Jane Austen, Arnold Bennett, and Rupert Brooke (whose poem "Grantchester" is often considered quintessentially English). Other writers are associated with specific regions of England; these include Charles Dickens (London), Thomas Hardy (Wessex), A. E. Housman (Shropshire), and the Lake Poets (the Lake District). The English playwright and poet William Shakespeare is widely regarded as the greatest dramatist of all time.


title: Culture of England

text: The 20th-century English crime writer Agatha Christie is the best-selling novelist of all time. Agatha Christie's mystery novels are outsold only by Shakespeare and The Bible. Described as "perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture", the non-fiction works of George Orwell include "The Road to Wigan Pier" (1937), documenting his experience of working class life in the north of England. Orwell's eleven rules for making tea appear in his essay "A Nice Cup of Tea", which was published in the "London Evening Standard" on 12 January 1946.


title: Culture of England

text: In 2003 the BBC carried out a UK survey entitled "The Big Read" to find the "nation's best-loved novel" of all time, with works by English novelists J. R. R. Tolkien, Jane Austen, Philip Pullman, Douglas Adams and J. K. Rowling making up the top five on the list. In 2005, some 206,000 books were published in the United Kingdom and in 2006 it was the largest publisher of books in the world. The Royal Society of Literature was founded in 1820, by King George IV, to "reward literary merit and excite literary talent". The society is a cultural tenant at London's Somerset House.


title: Culture of England

text: England has a long and rich musical history. In the United Kingdom, more people attend live music performances than football matches. The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently; mostly sea shanties, jigs, hornpipes and dance music. It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities. Ballads featuring Robin Hood, printed by Wynkyn de Worde in the 16th century, are an important artefact, as are John Playford's "The Dancing Master" and Robert Harley's "Roxburghe Ballads" collections.


title: Culture of England

text: Some of the best-known songs are "Greensleeves", "Pastime with Good Company", "Maggie May" and "Spanish Ladies" amongst others. Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as "Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary", "Roses Are Red", "Jack and Jill", "London Bridge Is Falling Down, The Grand Old Duke of York, Hey Diddle Diddle" and "Humpty Dumpty". Traditional English Christmas carols include "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships" and "God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen".


title: Culture of England

text: The United Kingdom has, like most European countries, undergone a roots revival in the last half of the 20th century. English music has been an instrumental and leading part of this phenomenon, which peaked at the end of the 1960s and into the 1970s. The English Musical Renaissance was a hypothetical development in the late 19th and early 20th century, when English composers, often those lecturing or trained at the Royal College of Music, were said to have freed themselves from foreign musical influences, to have begun writing in a distinctively national idiom, and to have equalled the achievement of composers in mainland Europe.