title: Kamehameha III

text: In September 1849 Judd was sent with the heir apparent Prince Alexander Liholiho and Kamehameha V on a diplomatic mission. They returned with a new treaty with the United States but failed in visits to London and Paris.


title: Kamehameha III

text: The Constitution of 1852 and subsequent legislation continued to liberalize politics. The court system was unified, instead of having separate courts for Hawaiians and foreigners. Local Hawaiian magistrates became Circuit Judges, and a Supreme Court was formed with Lee, Andrews, and John Papa ʻĪʻī as members. Voting rules were formalized and the role of the House of Representatives was strengthened.


title: Kamehameha III

text: The California Gold Rush brought increased trade, but also some unwelcome visitors. Previously the long trips around Cape Horn or from Europe meant infected sailors were either recovered or buried at sea by the time they arrived. The short voyage from California brought several waves of diseases that decimated the native Hawaiians who had no immunity.


title: Kamehameha III

text: In the summer of 1853, an epidemic of smallpox caused thousands of deaths, mostly on the island of Oahu. Judd, always at odds with Wyllie, lost the backing of others who blamed him for not containing the disease (or had other political reasons to want him out of power). Judd was forced to resign on September 3 and was replaced by Elisha Hunt Allen as Minister of Finance.


title: Kamehameha III

text: Hawaii became a popular winter destination for frustrated prospectors in the 1850s. Some were rumored to be filibusters hoping to profit from a rebellion. One of the first was a group led by Samuel Brannan, who did not find the popular support for an uprising that they expected. By the end of 1853 the threats, whether real or imagined, caused petitions for the king to consider annexation to the United States. Wyllie and Lee convinced the king to insist that annexation would only be acceptable if Hawaii became a U.S. state.


title: Kamehameha III

text: In 1852 a group of missionaries set out from Hawaii for the islands of Micronesia. They carried with them a letter of introduction that bore the official seal of King Kamehameha III, the then-ruling monarch of the Hawaiian Islands. This letter, originally written in Hawaiian and addressed to the various rulers of the Pacific Islands, said in part: "There are about to sail for your islands some teachers of the Highest God, Jehovah, to make known unto you His Word for your eternal salvation. . . . I commend these good teachers to your esteem and friendship and exhort you to listen to their instructions. . . . I advise you to throw away your idols, take the Lord Jehovah for your God, worship and love Him and He will bless and save you."


title: Kamehameha III

text: On May 16, 1854, King Kamehameha III proclaimed the Hawaiian Kingdom neutral in the Crimean War in Europe. The present crises had passed, but the king's health declined, often attributed to his renewed drinking. The annexation question also did not go away. The British minister William Miller and French representative Louis Emile Perrin objected to the plan. New U.S. Commissioner David L. Gregg received instructions from Secretary of State William L. Marcy and negotiated a treaty of annexation with Wyllie by August 1854. It was never signed, and might not have been ratified by the Senate. Although there was some support in the U.S., it would take 105 more years before full statehood of Hawaii.


title: Kamehameha III

text: Kamehameha III died suddenly on December 15, 1854 after a brief illness, which may have been related to a stroke.


title: Kamehameha III

text: He was succeeded by his nephew and adopted son Alexander Liholiho, who was styled as King Kamehameha IV.


title: Kamehameha III

text: The access to his birthplace at Keauhou Bay is via Kamehameha III Road from the north from Hawaii Belt Road, at and Kaleiopapa Street from the south at .


title: Kamehameha III

text: The age of Kamehameha III was that of progress and of liberty—of schools and of civilization. He gave us a Constitution and fixed laws; he secured the people in the title to their lands, and removed the last chain of oppression. He gave them a voice in his councils and in the making of the laws by which they are governed. He was a great national benefactor, and has left the impress of his mild and amiable disposition on the age for which he was born.


title: Kamehameha III

text: On July 31, 2018, a 12-foot bronze statue of Kamehameha III and a flagpole flying the Hawaiian flag was unveiled at Thomas Square in a ceremony honoring the 175th anniversary of the restoration of Hawaiian sovereignty in 1843. The statue was created by Oregon artist Thomas Jay Warren for $250,000 allotted by the Mayor's Office of Culture and the Arts and is part of Mayor Kirk Caldwell’s plans to revamp the park.


title: Blue plaque

text: A blue plaque is a permanent sign installed in a public place in the United Kingdom and elsewhere to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person, event, or former building on the site, serving as a historical marker. The term is used in the United Kingdom in two different senses. It may be used narrowly and specifically to refer to the "official" scheme administered by English Heritage, and currently restricted to sites within Greater London; or it may be used less formally to encompass a number of similar schemes administered by organisations throughout the UK. The plaques erected are made in a variety of designs, shapes, materials and colours: some are blue, others are not. However, the term "blue plaque" is often used informally to encompass all such schemes.


title: Blue plaque

text: The "official" scheme traces its origins to that launched in 1866 in London, on the initiative of the politician William Ewart, to mark the homes and workplaces of famous people. It has been administered successively by the Society of Arts (1866–1901), the London County Council (1901–1965), the Greater London Council (1965–1986) and English Heritage (1986 to date). It remains focused on London (now defined as Greater London), although between 1998 and 2005, under a trial programme since discontinued, 34 plaques were erected elsewhere in England. The first such scheme in the world, it has directly or indirectly provided the inspiration and model for many others.


title: Blue plaque

text: Many other plaque schemes have since been initiated in the United Kingdom. Some are restricted to a specific geographical area, others to a particular theme of historical commemoration. They are administered by a range of bodies including local authorities, civic societies, residents' associations and other organisations such as the Transport Trust, the Royal Society of Chemistry, the Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America, the Centre for Pagan Studies and the British Comic Society.


title: Blue plaque

text: There are also commemorative plaque schemes throughout the world such as those in Paris, Rome, Oslo, Dublin; and in other cities in Australia, Canada, the Philippines, Russia and the United States. These take various forms, and they are more likely to be known as commemorative plaques or historical markers.


title: Blue plaque

text: The original blue plaque scheme was established by the Society of Arts in 1867, and since 1986 has been run by English Heritage. It is the oldest such scheme in the world. Since 1984 English Heritage have commissioned Frank Ashworth to make the plaques which have then been inscribed by his wife, Sue, at their home in Cornwall.


title: Blue plaque

text: After being conceived by politician William Ewart in 1863, the scheme was initiated in 1866 by Ewart, Henry Cole and the Society of Arts (now the Royal Society of Arts), which erected plaques in a variety of shapes and colours.


title: Blue plaque

text: The first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorate Lord Byron at his birthplace, 24 Holles Street, Cavendish Square. This house was demolished in 1889. The earliest blue plaque to survive, also put up in 1867, commemorates Napoleon III in King Street, St James's. Byron's plaque was blue, but the colour was changed by the manufacturer Minton, Hollins & Co to chocolate brown to save money. The first woman to be honoured with a plaque was the actor Sarah Siddons in 1876. The plaque, placed on her house in Marylebone, London, was retrieved when the house was demolished in 1905 and is now held in the Victoria and Albert Museum.


title: Blue plaque

text: In total the Society of Arts put up 35 plaques, fewer than half of which survive today. The Society only erected one plaque within the square-mile of the City of London, that to Samuel Johnson on his house in Gough Square, in 1876. In 1879, it was agreed that the City of London Corporation would be responsible for erecting plaques within the City to recognise its jurisdictional independence. This demarcation has remained ever since.


title: Blue plaque

text: In 1901, the Society of Arts scheme was taken over by the London County Council (LCC), which gave much thought to the future design of the plaques. It was eventually decided to keep the basic shape and design of the Society's plaques, but to make them uniformly blue, with a laurel wreath and the LCC's title. Though this design was used consistently from 1903 to 1938, some experimentation occurred in the 1920s, and plaques were made in bronze, stone and lead. Shape and colour also varied.


title: Blue plaque

text: In 1921, the most common (blue) plaque design was revised, as it was discovered that glazed Royal Doulton stoneware was cheaper than the encaustic formerly used. In 1938, a new plaque design was prepared by an unnamed student at the LCC's Central School of Arts and Crafts and was approved by the committee. It omitted the decorative elements of earlier plaque designs, and allowed for lettering to be better spaced and enlarged. A white border was added to the design shortly after, and this has remained the standard ever since. No plaques were erected between 1915 and 1919, or between 1940 and 1947, owing to the two world wars. The LCC formalised the selection criteria for the scheme in 1954.


title: Blue plaque

text: When the LCC was abolished in 1965, the scheme was taken over by the Greater London Council (GLC). The principles of the scheme changed little, but now applied to the entire, much larger, administrative county of Greater London. The GLC was also keen to broaden the range of people commemorated. The GLC erected 252 plaques, the subjects including Sylvia Pankhurst, Samuel Coleridge-Taylor, and Mary Seacole.


title: Blue plaque

text: In 1986, the GLC was disbanded and the blue plaques scheme passed to English Heritage. English Heritage erected more than 300 plaques in London.


title: Blue plaque

text: In January 2013 English Heritage suspended proposals for plaques owing to funding cuts. The National Trust's chairman stated that his organisation might step in to save the scheme. In the event the scheme was relaunched by English Heritage in June 2014 with private funding (including support from a new donors' club, the Blue Plaques Club, and from property developer David Pearl). Two members of the advisory panel, Professor David Edgerton and author and critic Gillian Darley, resigned over this transmutation, concerned that the scheme had been "reduced to a marketing tool for English Heritage".


title: Blue plaque

text: In April 2015, English Heritage was divided into two parts, Historic England (a statutory body), and the new English Heritage Trust (a charity, which took over the English Heritage operating name and logo). Responsibility for the blue plaque scheme passed to the English Heritage Trust.


title: Blue plaque

text: In cases of foreigners and overseas visitors, candidates should be of international reputation or significant standing in their own country.


title: Blue plaque

text: Other schemes have different criteria, which are often less restrictive: in particular, it is common under other schemes for plaques to be erected to mark the sites of demolished buildings.


title: Blue plaque

text: Almost all the proposals for English Heritage blue plaques are made by members of the public who write or email the organisation before submitting a formal proposal.


title: Blue plaque

text: English Heritage's in-house historian researches the proposal, and the Blue Plaques Panel advises on which suggestions should be successful. This is composed of 9 people from various disciplines from across the country. The panel is chaired by Professor Ronald Hutton. The actor and broadcaster Stephen Fry was formerly a member of the panel, and wrote the foreword to the book "Lived in London: Blue Plaques and the Stories Behind Them" (2009).


title: Blue plaque

text: Roughly a third of proposals are approved in principle, and are placed on a shortlist. Because the scheme is so popular, and because a lot of detailed research has to be carried out, it takes about three years for each case to reach the top of the shortlist. Proposals not taken forward can only be re-proposed once 10 years have elapsed.


title: Blue plaque

text: A small minority of GLC and English Heritage plaques have been erected to commemorate events which took place at particular locations rather than the famous people who lived there.


title: Blue plaque

text: In 1998, English Heritage initiated a trial national plaques scheme, and over the following years erected 34 plaques in Birmingham, Merseyside, Southampton and Portsmouth. The scheme was discontinued in 2005. Although English Heritage no longer erects plaques outside Greater London, it does provide advice and guidance to individuals and organisations interested or involved in doing so.


title: Blue plaque

text: The popularity of English Heritage's London blue plaques scheme has meant that a number of comparable schemes have been established elsewhere in the United Kingdom. Many of these schemes also use blue plaques, often manufactured in metal or plastic rather than the ceramic used in London, but some feature plaques of different colours and shapes. In 2012, English Heritage published a register of plaque schemes run by other organisations across England.


title: Blue plaque

text: The criteria for selection varies greatly. Many schemes treat plaques primarily as memorials and place them on the sites of former buildings, in contrast to the strict English Heritage policy of only installing a plaque on the actual building in which a famous person lived or an event took place.


title: Blue plaque

text: The Corporation of London continues to run its own plaque scheme for the City of London, where English Heritage does not erect plaques. City of London plaques are blue and ceramic, but are rectangular in shape and carry the City of London coat of arms. Because of the rapidity of change in the built environment within the City, a high proportion of Corporation of London plaques mark the sites of former buildings.


title: Blue plaque

text: Many of the 32 London boroughs also now have their own schemes, running alongside the English Heritage scheme. Westminster City Council runs a green plaque scheme, each plaque being sponsored by a group with a particular interest in its subject. The London Borough of Southwark started its own blue plaque scheme in 2003, under which the borough awards plaques through popular vote following public nomination: living people may be commemorated. The London Borough of Islington has a similar green heritage plaque scheme, initiated in 2010.


title: Blue plaque

text: Other plaques may be erected by smaller groups, such as residents' associations. In 2007 the Hampstead Garden Suburb Residents Association erected a blue plaque in memory of Prime Minister Harold Wilson at 12 Southway as part of the suburb's centenary celebrations.


title: Blue plaque

text: In Northern Ireland the Ulster History Circle is one of a small number of groups administering blue plaques. Established in 1983, it has erected around 140 plaques. Belfast City Council also has a scheme.


title: Blue plaque

text: There also exist several nationwide schemes sponsored by special-interest bodies, which erect plaques at sites or buildings with historical associations within their particular sphere of activity.


title: Russian dressing

text: Russian dressing is a piquant American salad dressing consisting of mayonnaise, ketchup, and other ingredients.


title: Russian dressing

text: Russian dressing is similar to Thousand Island. Some manufactured versions omit the mayonnaise and are clear rather than creamy, more similar to French or Catalina.


title: Russian dressing

text: Russian dressing is mentioned as early as 1900 in U.S. sources. It is also documented in a 1910 catering book as an alternative to vinaigrette for dressing tomatoes or asparagus. A 1913 cookbook has a recipe which is a vinaigrette with paprika and mustard. A mayonnaise-based recipe is documented in 1914. The condiment came to be called "Russian" since the original recipe included caviar, a staple of Russian cuisine.


title: Russian dressing

text: Local historians claim that the mayonnaise-based version was invented in Nashua, New Hampshire, by James E. Colburn in the 1910s. A 1927 biographical article calls him "the originator and first producer of that delectable condiment known as Russian salad dressing". Colburn had been selling "Colburn's Mayonnaise salad dressing" at his store since at least 1910.


title: Russian dressing

text: By 1914, Colburn's company was manufacturing it, and distributing it to retailers and hotels. He earned enough from its sale that he retired in 1924.


title: Russian dressing

text: Typically piquant, it is today characteristically made of a blend of mayonnaise and ketchup complemented with such additional ingredients as horseradish, pimentos, chives, mustard, and spices.


title: Russian dressing

text: Besides being used as a salad dressing, Russian dressing is also used as a spread for Reuben sandwiches.


title: Russian dressing

text: Russian dressing has largely been supplanted by Thousand Island dressing, which is sweeter and less spicy than Russian.


title: Russian dressing

text: Other combinations of mayonnaise and ketchup, but without the spicy ingredients, are known as fry sauce or other names, and typically served with French fries or tostones.


title: Russian dressing

text: In Australia, sauce made from mayonnaise and ketchup is called Cocktail Sauce and is used to dress prawns/shrimp in the appetiser known as Prawn Cocktail.


title: Russian dressing

text: Tartar sauce has the piquant ingredients of Russian dressing, without the ketchup. It is typically served with fried fish.


title: Russian dressing

text: Marie Rose sauce is similar to Russian dressing, but with different piquant ingredients. It is typically served with seafood.


title: Crush syndrome

text: Crush syndrome (also traumatic rhabdomyolysis or Bywaters' syndrome) is a medical condition characterized by major shock and kidney failure after a crushing injury to skeletal muscle. Crush "injury" is compression of the arms, legs, or other parts of the body that causes muscle swelling and/or neurological disturbances in the affected areas of the body, while crush "syndrome" is localized crush injury with systemic manifestations. Cases occur commonly in catastrophes such as earthquakes, to individuals that have been trapped under fallen or moving masonry.


title: Crush syndrome

text: People with crushing damage present some of the greatest challenges in field medicine, and may need a physician's attention on the site of their injury. Appropriate physiological preparation of the injured is mandatory. It may be possible to free the patient without amputation; however, field amputations may be necessary in drastic situations.


title: Crush syndrome

text: Seigo Minami, a Japanese physician, first reported the crush syndrome in 1923. He studied the pathology of three soldiers who died in World War I due to kidney failure. The renal changes were due to the buildup of excess myoglobin, resulting from the destruction of muscles from lack of oxygen. These changes can also be seen in persons who are buried alive. The progressive acute kidney failure is because of acute tubular necrosis.


title: Crush syndrome

text: The syndrome was later described by British physician Eric Bywaters in patients during the 1941 wartime bombing of London (the Blitz). It is a reperfusion injury that appears after the release of the crushing pressure. The mechanism is believed to be the release into the bloodstream of muscle breakdown products—notably myoglobin, potassium and phosphorus—that are the products of rhabdomyolysis (the breakdown of skeletal muscle damaged by ischemic conditions).


title: Crush syndrome

text: The specific action on the kidneys is not understood completely, but may be due partly to nephrotoxic metabolites of myoglobin.


title: Crush syndrome

text: The most devastating systemic effects can occur when the crushing pressure is suddenly released, without proper preparation of the patient, causing "reperfusion syndrome". In addition to tissue directly suffering the crush mechanism, tissue is then subjected to sudden reoxygenation in the limbs and extremities. Without proper preparation, the patient, with pain control, may be cheerful before recovery, but die shortly thereafter. This sudden failure is called the "smiling death".


title: Crush syndrome

text: These systemic effects are caused by a traumatic rhabdomyolysis. As muscle cells die, they absorb sodium, water and calcium; the rhabdomyolysis releases potassium, myoglobin, phosphate, thromboplastin, creatine and creatine kinase.


title: Crush syndrome

text: Crush syndrome can directly come from compartment syndrome, if the injury is left untreated. Symptoms include the 5 Ps: pain, pallor, paresthesias (pins and needles), paralysis, and pulselessness.


title: Crush syndrome

text: There is no distinct treatment option that can undo the effects and damage from rhabdomyolysis because it is a necrosis. However, the rate of the pathology that can lead to more complications can be decreased by acting early and consistently. Overall treatment depends on preventing kidney failure (renal failure) which is done by rehydrating the patient. It also depends on making urine have a more basic pH (alkalinization of urine).


title: Crush syndrome

text: Immediate untreated crush syndrome death is caused by severe head injury, torso injury with damaged abdominal organs, and asphyxia (excessive loss of oxygen). Early untreated crush syndrome death is caused by hyperkalemia and by hypovolemic shock. Late untreated crush syndrome death is caused by renal failure, coagulopathy and hemorrhage, and sepsis.


title: Crush syndrome

text: Due to the risk of crush syndrome, current recommendation to nonprofessional first-aiders (in the UK) is to not release those with a crush injury who have been trapped for more than 15 minutes. Treatment consists of not releasing the tourniquet, overloading the patient with fluid using Dextran 4000 IU, and slow release of pressure. If pressure is released during first aid, then fluid is restricted and an input-output chart for the patient is maintained, and proteins are decreased in the diet.


title: Crush syndrome

text: As mentioned, permissive hypotension (restrictive fluid therapy) is unwise. Careful fluid overload and administration of intravenous sodium bicarbonate is wise, especially if the crushing weight is on the patient for more than 4 hours, but often if it persists more than one hour. The San Francisco emergency services protocol calls for a basic adult dose of a 2 L bolus of normal saline followed by 500 mL/h, limited for "pediatric patients and patients with history of cardiac or renal dysfunction."


title: Crush syndrome

text: Use of a tourniquet can stall the life-threatening consequences of a crush related injury and can be a second option if the person cannot immediately have the fluids that were lost be medically replaced back into the body. Tourniquet measures should be taken if the person has been entrapped for more than 2 hours.


title: Crush syndrome

text: The clinician must protect the patient against hypotension, kidney failure, acidosis, hyperkalemia and hypocalcemia. Admission to an intensive care unit, preferably one experienced in trauma medicine, may be appropriate; even well-seeming patients need observation. Treat open wounds as surgically appropriate, with debridement, antibiotics and tetanus toxoid; apply ice to injured areas. Breathing and circulation must be checked out and the patient should be given oxygen if eligible. Oral or intravenous fluids must be given depending on the measured amounts of electrolytes, arterial blood gases, and muscle enzymes.


title: Crush syndrome

text: Intravenous hydration of up to 1.5 L/h should continue to prevent hypotension. A urinary output of at least 300 mL/h should be maintained with IV fluids and mannitol, and hemodialysis considered if an increase in urine is not achieved. Use intravenous sodium bicarbonate to keep the urine pH at 6.5 or greater, to prevent myoglobin and uric acid deposition in kidneys.


title: Crush syndrome

text: Even so, abnormal heart rhythms may develop; electrocardiographic monitoring is advised, and specific treatment begun promptly.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The Permanent Settlement, also known as the Permanent Settlement of Bengal, was an agreement between the East India Company and Bengali landlords to fix revenues to be raised from land that had far-reaching consequences for both agricultural methods and productivity in the entire British Empire and the political realities of the Indian countryside. It was concluded in 1793 by the Company administration headed by Charles, Earl Cornwallis. It formed one part of a larger body of legislation, known as the Cornwallis Code. The Cornwallis Code of 1793 divided the East India Company's service personnel into three branches: revenue, judicial, and commercial. Revenues were collected by "zamindars", native Indians who were treated as landowners. This division created an Indian landed class that supported British authority.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The Permanent Settlement was introduced first in Bengal and Bihar and later in the south district of Madras and Varanasi. The system eventually spread all over northern India by a series of regulations dated 1 May 1793. These regulations remained in place until the Charter Act of 1833. The other two systems prevalent in India were the Ryotwari System and the Mahalwari System.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: Many argue that the settlement and its outcome had several shortcomings when compared with its initial goals of increasing tax revenue, creating a Western-European style land market in Bengal, and encouraging investment in land and agriculture, thereby creating the conditions for long-term economic growth for both the company and region's inhabitants. Firstly, the policy (Krishna) of fixing the rate of expected tax revenue for the foreseeable future meant that the income of the Company from taxation actually decreased in the long-term because revenues remained fixed while expenses increased over time. Meanwhile, the condition of the Bengali peasantry became increasingly pitiable, with famines becoming a regular occurrence as landlords (who risked immediate loss of their land if they failed to deliver the expected amount from taxation) sought to guarantee revenue by coercing the local agriculturalists to cultivate cash crops such as cotton, indigo, and jute, while long-term private investment by the zamindars in agricultural infrastructure failed to materialise.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: Earlier "zamindars" in Bengal, Bihar and Odisha had been functionaries who held the right to collect revenue on behalf of the Mughal emperor and his representative, the "diwan", in Bengal. The diwan supervised the zamindars to ensure they were neither lax nor overly stringent. When the East India Company was awarded the diwani or overlordship of Bengal by the empire following the Battle of Buxar in 1764, it found itself short of trained administrators, especially those familiar with local custom and law. As a result, landholders were unsupervised or reported to corrupt and indolent officials. The result was that revenues were extracted without regard for future income or local welfare.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: Following the devastating famine of 1770, which was partially caused by this shortsightedness, Company officials in Calcutta better understood the importance of oversight of revenue officials. Warren Hastings, then governor-general, introduced a system of five-yearly inspections and temporary tax farmers. They did not want to take direct control of local administration in villages for several reasons, one being that the Company did not want to upset those who had traditionally enjoyed power and prestige in rural Bengal.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The Company failed to consider the question of incentivisation. Many appointed tax farmers absconded with as much revenue as they could during the time period between inspections. The British Parliament took note of the disastrous consequences of the system, and in 1784, British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger directed the Calcutta administration to alter it immediately. In 1786 Charles Cornwallis was sent out to India to reform the company's practices.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: In 1786, the East India Company Court of Directors first proposed a permanent settlement for Bengal, changing the policy then being followed by Calcutta, which was attempting to increase taxation of "zamindars". Between 1786 and 1790, the new Governor-General Lord Cornwallis and Sir John Shore (later Governor-General) entered a heated debate over whether or not to introduce a permanent settlement with the "zamindars". Shore argued that the native "zamindars" would not trust the permanent settlement to be permanent and that it would take time before they realised it was genuine.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The main aim of the Permanent Settlement was to resolve the problem of agrarian crisis and distress that had resulted in lower agricultural output. The British officials thought that investment in agriculture, trade, and the resources of the revenue of the State could be increased by agriculture. To permanently fix the revenue and secure property rights, the system which came to be known as the 'Permanent Settlement' was adopted. The British thought that once the revenue demands of the State were permanently set, there would be a regular flow of tax income. Furthermore, landholders would invest in their agricultural land as the producer can keep surpluses in excess of the fixed tax. The British officials thought that such a process would lead to the emergence of yeomen class of farmers and rich landowners who would invest their capital to generate further surpluses. This new emergent class would be loyal to the British, who were still gaining a foothold in the Indian subcontinent. While the policy was well-intentioned, it failed to identify individuals who were willing to contract to pay fixed revenue perpetually and to invest in the improvement of agriculture. After much discussion and disagreement between the officials, the Permanent Settlement was made with the existing Rajas and Taluqdars of Bengal who were now classified as Zamindars. They had to pay fixed revenue in perpetuity. Thus, zamindars were not the landowners but rather revenue collector agents of the State. Cornwallis believed that they would immediately accept it and so begin investing in improving their land. In 1790, the Court of Directors issued a ten-year (decennial) settlement to the "zamindars", which was made permanent in 1793.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: By the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793, their right to keep armed forces was removed. They remained just the tax collectors of the land. There were considerably weakened as they were now banned from holding any court, as it was brought under the supervision of a collector appointed by the company. British officials believed that investing in the land would improve the economy. People also killed some British officials


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The system failed in the long run due to operational difficulty as well as because the Permanent Settlement did not take account of the seasonal and precarious nature of Bengali agriculture. The Company also did not understand the structural issues as well as the society.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The question of incentivisation now being understood to be central, the security of tenure of landlords was guaranteed. In short, the former landholders and revenue intermediaries were granted proprietorial rights (effective ownership) to the land they held. Smallholders were no longer permitted to sell their land, but they could not be expropriated by their new landlords.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: Incentivisation of zamindars was intended to encourage improvements of the land, such as drainage, irrigation and the construction of roads and bridges; such infrastructure had been insufficient through much of Bengal. With a fixed land tax, zamindars could securely invest in increasing their income without any fear of having the increase taxed away by the Company. Cornwallis made the motivation quite clear by declaring that "when the demand of government is fixed, an opportunity is afforded to the landholder of increasing his profits, by the improvement of his lands". The British had in mind "improving landlords" in their own country, such as Coke of Norfolk.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The Court of Directors also hoped to guarantee the company's income, which was constantly plagued by defaulting zamindars who fell into arrears, making it impossible for them to budget their spending accurately.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The immediate consequence of the Permanent Settlement was both very sudden and dramatic, one that nobody had apparently foreseen. By ensuring that zamindars' lands were held in perpetuity and with a fixed tax burden, they became desirable commodities. In addition, the government tax demand was inflexible, and the British East India Company's collectors refused to make allowances for times of drought, flood or other natural disaster. The tax demand was higher than that in England at the time. As a result, many zamindars immediately fell into arrears.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The Company's policy of auction of any zamindari lands deemed to be in arrears created a market for land that previously did not exist. Many of the new purchasers of this land were Indian officials within the East India Company's government. The bureaucrats were ideally placed to purchase lands which they knew to be underassessed and therefore profitable. In addition, their position as officials gave them opportunity to acquire the wealth necessary to purchase land. They could also manipulate the system to bring to sale land that they specifically wanted.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: Historian Bernard S. Cohn and others have argued that the Permanent Settlement led to a commercialisation of land that previously did not exist in Bengal and, as a consequence, it led to a change in the social background of the ruling class from "lineages and local chiefs" to "under civil servants and their descendants, and to merchants and bankers". The new landlords were different in their outlook; "often they were absentee landlords who managed their land through managers and who had little attachment to their land".


title: Permanent Settlement

text: The Company hoped that the Zamindar class would not only be a revenue-generating instrument but also serve as intermediaries for the more political aspects of their rule, preserving local custom and protecting rural life from the possibly rapacious influences of its own representatives. However, it worked both ways, as zamindars became a naturally conservative interest group. Once British policy in the mid-19th century changed to one of reform and intervention in custom, the zamindars were vocal in their opposition. The Permanent Settlement had the features that state demand was fixed at 89% of the rent and 11% was to be retained by the zamindar. The state demand could not be increased but payment should be made on the due date, before sunset, so it was also known as the 'Sunset Law'. Failure to pay led to the sale of land to the highest bidder.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: While the worst of the tax-farming excesses were countered by the introduction of the Settlement, the use of land was not part of the agreement. There was a tendency of Company officials and Indian landlords to force their tenants into plantation-style farming of cash crops like indigo and cotton rather than rice and wheat. That was a cause of many of the worst famines of the nineteenth century.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: Once the salient features of the Permanent Settlement were reproduced all over India, and indeed elsewhere in the Empire, including Kenya, the political structure was altered forever. The landlord class held much greater power than they had under the Mughals, who subjected them to oversight by a trained bureaucracy with the power to attenuate their tenure. The power of the landlord caste/class over smallholders was not diluted in India until the first efforts towards land reform in the 1950s, still incomplete everywhere except West Bengal.


title: Permanent Settlement

text: In Pakistan, where land reform was never carried out, elections in rural areas still suffer from a tendency towards oligarchy, reflecting the concentration of influence in the hands of zamindar families. This is because once Pakistan became separated from India, and the two began to fight over Kashmir, the goal of the government was revenue extraction to fund the military. As a result, the central leadership skewed the relationship between the elected and non-elected institutions of the state.


title: Problem of the creator of God

text: In philosophy, the problem of the creator of God is the controversy regarding the hypothetical cause responsible for the existence of God, on the assumption God exists. It contests the proposition that the universe cannot exist without a creator by asserting that the creator of the Universe must have the same restrictions. This, in turn, may lead to a problem of infinite regress wherein each new presumed creator of a creator is itself presumed to have its own creator. A common challenge to theistic propositions of a creator deity as a necessary first-cause explanation for the universe is the question: "Who created God?"


title: Problem of the creator of God

text: Some faith traditions have such an element as part of their doctrine. Jainism posits that the universe is eternal and has always existed. Isma'ilism rejects the idea of God as the "first cause", due to the doctrine of God's incomparability and source of any existence including abstract objects.


title: Problem of the creator of God

text: Defenders of religion have countered that, by definition, God is the first cause, and thus that the question is improper:


title: Problem of the creator of God

text: Atheists counter that there is no reason to assume the universe was created. The question becomes irrelevant if the universe is presumed to have circular time instead of linear time, undergoing an infinite series of big bangs and big crunches on its own. However, this view itself raises questions such as why the universe would have such a structure, and whether those properties can be extended to apply to objects within it. It may be observed as well that if God is capable of time travel or exists in a time loop itself, it has no need of a separate creator, as it can travel to the origin of its existence and create itself, so that it will always have existed within the loop.


title: Problem of the creator of God

text: Believers, for their part, sustained by the Neoplatonic and Aristotelian-Thomistic metaphysical tradition, are not affected by the possibility of this hypothetical scenario, since for them God, as Subsistent Being, would be the continuous (not punctual) reason for the existence of the ontologically contingent universe, independently of its temporal finitude.


title: Jack Weston

text: Jack Weston (born Morris Weinstein; August 21, 1924 – May 3, 1996) was an American actor. He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1976 and a Tony Award in 1981.


title: Jack Weston

text: Weston, a native of Cleveland, Ohio, usually played comic roles in films such as "Cactus Flower" (1969) and "Please Don't Eat the Daisies" (1960). He occasionally took on heavier parts, such as the scheming crook and stalker, who along with Alan Arkin and Richard Crenna attempts to terrorize and rob a blind Audrey Hepburn in the 1967 film "Wait Until Dark".


title: Jack Weston

text: Weston had numerous other character roles over 25 years, including in major films such as "The Cincinnati Kid" (1965), "The Thomas Crown Affair" (1968), "Gator" (1976), "Cuba" (1979), "High Road to China" (1983), "Dirty Dancing" (1987), "Ishtar" (1987), and "Short Circuit 2" (1988).


title: Jack Weston

text: On television, he made numerous appearances, such as murderer Fred Calvert in the 1958 "Perry Mason" episode, "The Case of the Daring Decoy". In 1961, he was a guest star in the TV drama "Route 66", playing the manager of a traveling group of young women nightclub dancers who mistreats his employees. In 1963, he was a guest star in an episode called "Fatso" in the TV drama "The Fugitive".


title: Jack Weston

text: In 1976, he was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy for his performance in the film "The Ritz". In 1981, Weston appeared on Broadway in Woody Allen's comedy "The Floating Light Bulb", for which he was nominated for a Tony Award as Best Actor. His other stage appearances include "Bells are Ringing" in 1956 (with Judy Holliday), "The Ritz" in 1975, Neil Simon's "California Suite" (1976) and "One Night Stand" in 1980.


title: Jack Weston

text: Weston co-starred in Alan Alda's 1981 film "The Four Seasons", and then reprised his role to star in a television series spinoff on CBS.


title: Jack Weston

text: By age 12, Weston was performing at the Cleveland Playhouse as a member of its "Curtain Pullers" youth program. He also appeared in school productions at Parkwood Elementary, Patrick Henry Jr. High, and Glenville High School. Joining the Army in 1943, he served for 28 months, mostly in Italy with the 34th Infantry Division. After the war, he again appeared at the Playhouse in 1945 as Jack Weinstein and then moved to New York, where former Playhouse director K. Elmo Lowe helped him obtain work managing a USO troupe touring Japan, China, Okinawa, and Korea.


title: Jack Weston

text: Afterward, in New York, he joined the American Theatre Wing with Lee Strasberg. He did not advance far professionally and returned to Cleveland, where he met Marge Redmond, another local actress, and the pair relocated to New York and were married there in 1950. Redmond was later noted for her role in the ABC sitcom "The Flying Nun". They occasionally appeared together, an example being a 1963 episode of "The Twilight Zone" titled "The Bard". Redmond and Weston divorced in the 1980s. The couple had no children.


title: Jack Weston

text: Weston's second marriage was to Laurie Gilkes, and they had one child together. They were married until his death from lymphoma on May 3, 1996, after a six-year struggle. He was 71 years old.


title: Jack Weston

text: Jack was the older brother of Anthony Spinelli, whose birth name was Sam Weinstein and whose first stage name was Sam Weston. The Westons were Jewish.


title: Jack Weston

text: In 1953-54, he appeared as Wilbur Wormser on CBS-TV's "Rod Brown of the Rocket Rangers", a Saturday-morning kiddie show, and he was often recognized on the street or subway by children in and around New York City.


title: Jack Weston

text: In 1960, Weston appeared as Otto in "Alfred Hitchcock Presents", episode 28, season five, called "Forty Detectives", on April 24, 1960.


title: Jack Weston

text: In the 1960–1961 television season, Weston appeared as Chick Adams, a reporter, on the CBS sitcom "My Sister Eileen".


title: Jack Weston

text: The next season, he starred in the short-lived sitcom "The Hathaways" (ABC), in which Peggy Cass and he adopted three chimpanzees (the Marquis Chimps).


title: Jack Weston

text: He also made guest appearances on such television series as "Peter Gunn", "Perry Mason", "Rescue 8", "The Twilight Zone" (episodes "The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street", and "The Bard"), "The Untouchables", "Have Gun – Will Travel", "Johnny Staccato", "Thriller", "The Lawless Years" (two episodes), "Route 66", "Harrigan and Son", "Stoney Burke", "Breaking Point", "The Fugitive", "Bewitched", "Gunsmoke", "Twelve O'Clock High", "Laredo", "Tales of the Unexpected", "The Man from U.N.C.L.E.", "The Carol Burnett Show", "All in the Family", and "The George Burns and Gracie Allen Show".


title: Smalltown Boy

text: "Smalltown Boy" is a song by British synth-pop band Bronski Beat, released in May 1984 as the first single from their debut album, "The Age of Consent" (1984). The song was a big commercial success, reaching number three in the band's native UK. It was also a number one hit in the Netherlands and Belgium, and hit the top 10 in Australia, Canada, France, Ireland, Italy, Switzerland and West Germany. The track reached number 48 in the US pop chart and was a number one US dance hit. A remix by Stephen Hague was released as a single on 24 December 1990. The song was released again in December 2013 after featuring in a Christmas advertising campaign for Boots UK. "Smalltown Boy" was also re-recorded by Jimmy Somerville and released as "Smalltown Boy Reprise" (2014) for the 30th anniversary of its initial release.


title: Smalltown Boy

text: An official music video made by Bernard Rose was shot and released later in 1984. The narrative video features band member Jimmy Somerville as the boy who has experienced the issues described in the lyrics. Seen on a train, he is contemplating his childhood through flashbacks and the events that have caused him to leave his parents' home.


title: Smalltown Boy

text: At a swimming pool, the boy and his friends (played by band members Larry Steinbachek and Steve Bronski) admire another boy in Speedos on the diving board. Seeing them watch, he smiles back. Encouraged, the boy is dared by his friends to approach him, but this results in public rejection. The boy is later attacked in an alley by a homophobic gang, led by the young man he had approached at the swimming pool. A police officer takes him back to his home. It is implied that the boy's parents learn of his sexuality for the first time through this incident and are shocked, but only the father seems unsupportive. The boy is then shown hugging his mother goodbye and getting some travel money from the father. The boy reaches his hand out to shake his father's but his father does not return it. After, the boy catches a train to London, on which he is reunited with his friends.


title: Smalltown Boy

text: "Time Out" ranked "Smalltown Boy" number 12 in their list of "The 50 Best Gay Songs to Celebrate Pride All Year Long" in 2022. They added,


title: Smalltown Boy

text: Same year, "Rolling Stone" ranked it number 163 in their list of "200 Greatest Dance Songs of All Time".


title: 2021 League of Legends World Championship

text: The 2021 "League of Legends" World Championship was an esports tournament for the multiplayer online battle arena video game "League of Legends". It was the eleventh iteration of the "League of Legends" World Championship, an annual international tournament organized by the game's developer, Riot Games. The tournament was held from 5 October to 6 November in Reykjavík, Iceland. Twenty two teams from 11 regions qualified for the tournament based on their placement in regional circuits such as those in China, Europe, North America, South Korea and Taiwan/Hong Kong/Macau/Southeast Asia with ten of those teams having to reach the main event via a play-in stage.


text: "Burn It All Down" was the tournament's theme song, put together by PVRIS, while Denzel Curry, CIFIKA, Besomorph, and Wang Yibo from Uniq, produced their own respective remix versions of "Burn It All Down".


text: Edward Gaming of China's LPL defeated the defending world champions, DWG KIA of Korea's LCK, to win their first World Championship title.


text: The COVID-19 pandemic, which was mainly confined to China in January and early February 2020, once again affected the scheduled multi-city hosting format that was most recently present for the 2019 League of Legends World Championship. On June 16, Riot Games originally announced the dates and locations of the event, with the event taking place in Shanghai, Qingdao, Wuhan, Chengdu, and the finals taking place in Shenzhen. However, due to travel complications arising from the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China, Riot Games announced Reykjavík, Iceland (where the 2021 Mid-Season Invitational had been hosted), as the new host city for the event.


text: Due to complications arising from the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam, two teams from the VCS (Vietnam) were once again unable to participate in the tournament.


text: South Korea (LCK) and China (LPL) received an additional spot in the group stage, totaling up to four representatives each for their respective region. The qualification format for North America (LCS) changed to a one-season-per-year system, with the seeding decided by the cumulative scoreboard from the whole season and the results from their respective championship series.


text: Due to Vietnam (VCS) being unable to field teams for the event, the third seed from Europe (LEC) received direct entry into the group stage.


text: Top 4 regions in 2021 Mid-Season Invitational (LPL, LCK, LEC, PCS) are seeded to pool 1 in the main event's group stage for the summer champion.


text: Reykjavík was the city chosen to host the competition. All matches were played at Laugardalshöll without spectators.


text: Cloud9, FunPlus Phoenix and Rogue were in a three-way-tie for second place at the end of the group stage. Because all three teams had a tied record (1–1) with the other two, placement in the subsequent tiebreaker matches was determined by the combined game time of each team's wins. Cloud9 was awarded a bye to the second tiebreaker match for having the shortest total game time.


text: All four teams in Group D were tied at the end of the group stage due to each team having a tied record (1–1) with the other three. The bracket of the subsequent tiebreaker matches was determined by the combined game time of each team's wins, with LNG Esports (shortest total time) facing MAD Lions (longest total time) and Team Liquid facing Gen.G in the first two matches. The losers were eliminated, while the winners qualified for the knockout stage and faced each other to decide the first and second place teams of the group.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Billy Joe Shaver (August 16, 1939 – October 28, 2020) was an American outlaw country singer and songwriter, as well as an actor.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver was born in Corsicana, Texas, and raised by his mother, Victory Watson Shaver. Until he was 12, he spent a great deal of time with his grandmother in Corsicana, so his mother could work in Waco. He sometimes accompanied his mother to her job at a local nightclub, where he began to be exposed to country music.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver's mother remarried about the time that his grandmother died, so his older sister Patricia and he moved in with their mother and new stepfather. Shaver left school after the eighth grade to help his uncles pick cotton, but occasionally returned to school to play sports.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver joined the U.S. Navy on his 17th birthday. Upon his discharge, he worked a series of dead-end jobs, including trying to be a rodeo cowboy. About this time, he met and married Brenda Joyce Tindell. They had one son, John Edwin, known as Eddy, who was born in 1962. The two divorced and remarried several times.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver took a job at a lumber mill to make ends meet. One day, his right (dominant) hand became caught in the machinery, and he lost the better part of two fingers and contracted a serious infection. He eventually recovered, and taught himself to play the guitar without those missing fingers.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver set out to hitchhike to Los Angeles, California. He could not get a ride west, so he went to the other side of the highway and headed east, accompanying a man who dropped him off just outside Memphis, Tennessee. The next ride brought him to Nashville, where he found a job as a songwriter for $50 per week. His work came to the attention of Waylon Jennings, who filled most of his album "Honky Tonk Heroes" with Shaver's songs. Other artists, including Elvis Presley and Kris Kristofferson, began to record Shaver's music. This led to him getting his own record deal.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: The first few recording companies he signed with soon folded. He was never able to gain widespread recognition as a singer, although he never stopped recording his own music. On his records, he has been accompanied by other major rock and country music musicians such as Willie Nelson, Nanci Griffith, Chuck Leavell and Dickey Betts (of the Allman Brothers), Charlie Daniels, Flaco Jiménez, and Al Kooper.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: After losing his wife, Brenda, and his mother to cancer in 1999, Shaver lost his son and longtime guitarist Eddy, who died at age 38 of a heroin overdose on December 31, 2000. Folk country artist Todd Snider wrote and dedicated his song "Waco Moon" to Eddy. Shaver nearly died himself the following year when he had a heart attack on stage during an Independence Day show at Gruene Hall in New Braunfels, Texas. After successful heart surgery, Shaver came back to release "Freedom's Child" in 2002.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: In 1999, Shaver performed at the Grand Ole Opry. In November 2005, he performed on the CMT Outlaws 2005. In 2006, Shaver was inducted in the Texas Country Music Hall of Fame. He later served as spiritual advisor to Texas independent gubernatorial candidate Kinky Friedman. For his efforts, the Americana Music Convention awarded him their Lifetime Achievement Award in Songwriting. He lived in Waco, Texas.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Bob Dylan mentioned Shaver in his song "I Feel a Change Comin' On" (Bob Dylan and Robert Hunter) on the album, "Together Through Life" (2009) – "I'm listening to Billy Joe Shaver, And I'm reading James Joyce". Shaver is also the "hero" of the song, "Wish I Could Write Like Billy Joe" on the album "Stormy Love" by Bugs Henderson.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver's voice is heard on the themes to the Adult Swim television show, "Squidbillies". The opening themes are only a stanza long and end with a "sotto voce" spoken-word portion.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver's debut album, "Old Five and Dimers Like Me" (1973), contained many songs noted for being performed by other artists that were written by him, such as David Allan Coe and Waylon Jennings. "When I Get My Wings" (1976) included "Ain’t No God In Mexico" (also a hit for Waylon Jennings). "Gypsy Boy" (1977) included "Honky Tonk Heroes" and "You Asked Me To" both songs written by Billy Joe for Jennings’ 1973-album Honky Tonk Heroes.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver is also known for his hit "Live Forever", co-written by his son Eddy; Robert Duvall performs it in the movie "Crazy Heart", and it is included in the soundtrack. The song was also performed by The Highwaymen, Willie Nelson and Joe Ely. Shaver also wrote numerous songs for artists such as Patty Loveless and Willie Nelson.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver continued to release records throughout the 1980s and 1990s; the most notable was the critically acclaimed "Tramp On Your Street," released in 1993, which prominently featured the guitar playing of Eddy Shaver.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Shaver's 2007 album country gospel style "Everybody's Brother" was Grammy-nominated. Many of the songs are duets with artists such as Johnny Cash, Kris Kristofferson, and Tanya Tucker. Musicians playing on the album included Randy Scruggs, Laura Cash, John Anderson, and Marty Stuart.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: On May 22, 2014, "Rolling Stone" premiered the single-duet with Willie Nelson "Hard To Be An Outlaw". The album, "Long in the Tooth" was released on August 5, 2014, by Lightning Rod Records. After a 41-year career, "Long in the Tooth" became Billy Joe Shaver's first album to chart in "Billboard's" Top Country Albums, entering the chart at 19. The album also entered the "Billboard 200", peaking at 157.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: In 2019, Shaver received the Poet's Award from the Academy of Country Music to honor his achievements in songwriting.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Bob Dylan's book The Philosophy of Modern Song includes Willy The Wandering Gypsy as its 6th chapter.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: On April 2, 2007, police in Lorena, Texas, issued two arrest warrants for Shaver on charges of aggravated assault and possessing a firearm in a prohibited place, in connection with an incident outside a tavern, Papa Joe's Texas Saloon, in Lorena two days prior, on March 31, in which Shaver shot a man, Billy Bryant Coker, in the face with a handgun. Coker's injuries, however, were not reported as life-threatening.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Witnesses interviewed by police report hearing Shaver say "Where do you want it?" and then, after the shot was fired, "Tell me you are sorry." and "No one tells me to shut up." Coker told police the attack was unprovoked. Shaver's attorney declared that Shaver had shot Coker "in self-defense" after Coker threatened Shaver with a knife.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: In an August 2014 NPR interview, Shaver said that he shot Coker because he was "Such a bully" and that "I hit him right between a mother and a fucker. That was the end of that. He dropped his weapons and said, 'I'm sorry.' And I said, 'Well, if you had said that inside, there would have been no problem.'"


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: After unsuccessfully attempting to surrender to police in Austin, who were unaware of the warrant, Shaver turned himself in at McLennan County Jail in Waco on Tuesday, April 3. He was released after an hour on $50,000 bond and gave his scheduled performance at Waterloo Records in Austin that evening, where he reportedly told fans, "Don't forget to pray for me, and tell your kids to pray for me, too."


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Texas-based country musician Dale Watson wrote a song about the incident titled "Where Do You Want It?". The song has been recorded by Whitey Morgan and the 78's and appears on their self-titled second album, released by Bloodshot Records. Texas artist Tim Menchu, who grew up in Waco, wrote "Billy Joe Saviour", a song about Billy Joe and the shooting. Before it was recorded Tim told Billy Joe the lyrics behind the Granada Theater in Dallas, Billy Joe spit-laughed and said he loved it.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: In 1996, Shaver took a part in the film "The Apostle" playing opposite Robert Duvall. He had additional speaking roles in the Duvall film "Secondhand Lions" (2003) and in "The Wendell Baker Story" (2005).


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: In 2004, a documentary of his life, "A Portrait of Billy Joe", was released. The documentary was directed by Luciana Pedraza. In 2006, a documentary of a concert, "Billy Joe Shaver – North Carolina 2006" was released on YouTube along with a limited number of DVDs. The documentary was directed by Guy Schwartz, whom Eddie Shaver listed as a musical mentor, and was shot at the Stevens Center at University of North Carolina School of the Arts in Winston-Salem, North Carolina.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: In 2008, he co-starred with Bill Engvall and Billy Ray Cyrus in the made-for-TV USA Network movie, "Bait Shop". In 2016, he had a cameo in the TV series "Still the King", also alongside Cyrus.


title: Billy Joe Shaver

text: Comedian Norm Macdonald was an avid Shaver fan, opening his book Based On A True Story with a quote from one of his songs, and praising his songwriting on his podcast "Norm Macdonald Live". In 2018, Shaver appeared as a guest on Macdonald's Netflix program "Norm Macdonald Has a Show". In addition, Shaver's song "I'm Just an Old Chunk of Coal", was chosen as the closing music for Norm Macdonald's posthumous Netflix comedy release of 2022 "".


title: Mephitidae

text: Mephitidae is a family of mammals comprising the skunks and stink badgers. They are noted for the great development of their anal scent glands, which they use to deter predators. Skunks were formerly classified as a subfamily of the Mustelidae (the weasel family); however, recent genetic evidence has caused skunks to be treated as a separate family. Similarly, the stink badgers had been classified with badgers, but genetic evidence shows they share a more recent common ancestor with skunks, so they are now included in the skunk family. A 2017 study using retroposon markers indicated that they are most closely related to the Ailuridae (red pandas and allies) and Procyonidae (raccoons and allies).


title: Mephitidae

text: There are twelve extant species of mephitids in four genera: "Conepatus" (hog-nosed skunks, four species); "Mephitis" (the hooded and striped skunks, two species); "Mydaus" (stink badgers, two species); and "Spilogale" (spotted skunks, four species). The two stink badgers in the genus "Mydaus" inhabit Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia and the Philippines; the other members of the family inhabit the Americas, ranging from Canada to central South America. All other mephitids are extinct, known through fossils, including those from Eurasia.


title: Desperado (Eagles song)

text: "Desperado" is a power ballad by the American rock band the Eagles. The track was written by Glenn Frey and Don Henley and appeared on the 1973 album "Desperado" as well as numerous compilation albums. Although it was never released as a single, it became one of Eagles' best-known songs. It ranked No. 494 on "Rolling Stone"s 2004 list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".


title: Desperado (Eagles song)

text: According to Henley, "Desperado" was based on a song he started in 1968, written in the style of old songs by Stephen Foster. The song was originally about a friend named Leo and with the opening line "Leo, my God, why don't you come to your senses..." In 1972, after they had recorded their first album, "Eagles", in London, Glenn Frey and Henley decided that they should write songs together, and within a day or two after returning from London they wrote "Desperado". They also wrote "Tequila Sunrise" in the first week of their collaboration.


title: Desperado (Eagles song)

text: In their first songwriting session at Henley's home in Laurel Canyon, Los Angeles, Henley played Frey the unfinished version of the song, and said: "When I play it and sing it, I think of Ray Charles and Stephen Foster. It's really a Southern Gothic thing, but we can easily make it more Western." According to Henley, Frey "leapt right on it – filled in the blanks and brought structure", and the song became "Desperado". Henley added: "And that was the beginning of our songwriting partnership ... that's when we became a team."


title: Desperado (Eagles song)

text: The song was recorded at Island Studios in London, with musicians from the London Philharmonic Orchestra. The orchestra was conducted by Jim Ed Norman, Henley's friend from his former band Shiloh, who also wrote and arranged the strings for the song. According to Henley, he was given only four or five takes to record the song by the producer Glyn Johns who wanted to record the album quickly and economically. Henley felt intimidated by the large orchestra, and would later express regret that he did not sing as well as he could. He said: "I didn't sing my best ... I wish I could have done that song again."


title: Desperado (Eagles song)

text: "Desperado" is one of Eagles' most famous songs, and it was ranked No. 494 on the "Rolling Stone"s list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time" in 2004. It was voted the second-most-favorite Eagles song in a poll of "Rolling Stone" readers. In 2000, the song was included in "MOJO" magazine's list of greatest songs, nominated by songwriters such as Paul McCartney, Hal David, and Brian Wilson. Members of the Western Writers of America included it in their list of the Top 100 Western songs of all time. In 2017, "Billboard" ranked the song number two on their list of the 15 greatest Eagles songs, and in 2019, "Rolling Stone" ranked the song number three on their list of the 40 greatest Eagles songs.


title: Desperado (Eagles song)

text: According to an interview with Don Henley, "Desperado" was not a hit for the Eagles until Linda Ronstadt recorded it.


title: Desperado (Eagles song)

text: William Ruhlmann of AllMusic considered it one of Eagles' major compositions. Paul Gambaccini of "Rolling Stone" felt it was Henley's rough voice that made the song memorable. The Eagles' recording never charted on "Billboard" until the death of Glenn Frey, when it reached No. 20 on the Rock Digital Songs chart. After the antagonist of the film "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" claimed that "Brandy" by Looking Glass was "Earth's finest composition", that band's lead guitarist and songwriter Elliot Lurie countered that "Desperado" should have that title.


title: Desperado (Eagles song)

text: The original song, along with "Witchy Woman", were both featured in the "Seinfeld" episode "The Checks". In the episode, the song's impact is poked fun at, as various characters have to pause whatever they are doing and listen to the song, often becoming somber and withdrawn when they do so.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The "Nevada" class comprised two dreadnought battleships— and —built for the United States Navy in the 1910s. They were significant developments in battleship design, being the first in the world to adopt "all or nothing" armor, a major step forward in armor protection because it emphasized protection optimized for long-range engagements before the Battle of Jutland demonstrated the need for such a layout. They also introduced three-gun turrets and oil-fired water-tube boilers to the US fleet. The two "Nevada"s were the progenitors of the standard-type battleship, a group that included the next four classes of broadly similar battleships that were intended to be tactically homogeneous.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: "Nevada" and "Oklahoma" deployed to Ireland in 1918 to escort convoys during World War I but saw no action. After the war, they were transferred to the Pacific Fleet, where they spent most of the 1920s and 1930s. During this period, they conducted extensive training operations and made several long-distance cruises, including to Australia and New Zealand in 1925 and "Oklahoma"s voyage to Europe in 1936. Both vessels were extensively modernized between 1927 and 1930, having their armament improved, protection scheme strengthened, and new boilers installed. They were moored in Battleship Row in Pearl Harbor when the Japanese attacked on 7 December 1941; "Oklahoma" was sunk in the attack while "Nevada" was able to get underway before being forced to ground herself to avoid sinking in deeper water.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: Only "Nevada" was salvageable, and she was repaired and modernized by mid-1943 when she joined the Aleutian Islands campaign. She then supported the Normandy landings in June 1944 and Operation Dragoon in August before returning to the Pacific in time for the Battle of Iwo Jima in February 1945, followed by the Battle of Okinawa from March to June. Worn out by the end of the war, she was allocated to Operation Crossroads in late 1945 for use in the nuclear weapons tests in mid-1946. She survived both of the Crossroads blasts and was ultimately sunk with conventional weapons off Hawaii in 1948. "Oklahoma", meanwhile, was raised over the course of 1943, partially dismantled in 1944, and sold to ship breakers in 1946. While under tow to San Francisco in May 1947, she became separated from the vessel towing her and foundered.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The design of the "Nevada" class took place in the context of strong political opposition to the continual growth (and thus increases in cost) of battleship building that had accelerated with the development of the dreadnought type. In the early 1900s, the Navy had settled on a program of two new battleships per year, a plan approved by President Theodore Roosevelt, but beginning in 1904, Congress began to reject the Navy's requests, frequently authorizing only one ship per year, and at times, no new vessels. William Howard Taft, Roosevelt's successor, attempted to pressure Congress to build more ships, but had little success, though he did secure a pair of ships for Fiscal Year 1912, which would become the "Nevada" class. Woodrow Wilson, who was elected in 1912, opposed what he saw as excessive naval spending and his Secretary of the Navy, Josephus Daniels, blocked proposals from the General Board for larger, more powerful ships as part of an effort to return to two vessels per year. The resulting stabilization of designs produced the standard-type battleship, of which the two "Nevada"s were the first.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The General Board was not satisfied with the adoption of 5 and 6 twin-gun turrets in earlier dreadnoughts and so requested the next ship be equipped with three-gun turrets. Three-gun turrets would provide a main battery of twelve guns, two more than the preceding , but with four turrets instead of five. Design work on the ships that would be authorized for FY1912 had begun in 1910, with the first sketch prepared by the Bureau of Construction and Repair (C&R) in May that was based on the preceding "New York"s. The aft superfiring No. 4 turret was removed, the amidships No. 3 turret was moved up to superfire over what had been No. 5 turret in an arrangement similar to contemporary British battlecruisers. It was a complicated arrangement that required an ammunition magazine to separate the engine and boiler rooms; the naval historian Norman Friedman suggests it may have been adopted to reduce the concentration of weight aft, which would have put greater stress on the hull and thus required significant strengthening of the hull structure. The ship would also carry four torpedo tubes and a secondary battery of seventeen guns, while belt armor was to be thick.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: By this time, the Navy had come to the conclusion that naval engagements would be fought at very long range, and primarily with armor-piercing shells (AP) instead of high-explosive shells, since the latter would be defeated by even medium armor, and at long range, there was no ability to aim specifically at unarmored portions of ships. And because AP shells would easily perforate medium armor plate, only the thickest possible protection should be carried. Another important development that resulted from the assumption of long battle ranges was the adoption of thick deck armor. This was necessitated by the trajectory of the projectiles; as range increased significantly, the angle of impact increased, and thus shells would tend to strike the horizontal deck, not the heavily armored sides, an effect known as plunging fire. The result was the "all or nothing" principle of armor protection, which reserved armor protection only for the ship's vitals, including magazines, propulsion machinery spaces, and command spaces. The arrangement was made watertight to create an armored raft that contained enough reserve buoyancy to keep the ship afloat even if the unarmored ends were completely flooded. The "Nevada" design was the first of any navy to introduce the concept.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: In June, the Board sent a set of requirements to C&R that incorporated the twelve-gun battery already projected, a minimum speed of , and an armor layout based on the "all or nothing" concept. The engineers at C&R noted that the armor deck would considerably strengthen the hull, but pointed out that the 11-inch belt of the original design would be wholly insufficient to defeat the latest main guns in foreign navies. The Board suggested the addition of a splinter bulkhead behind the belt, which would contain shell fragments. In late 1910, before a final design was accepted, the Navy had to submit estimates for FY1912 to be voted on by Congress in 1911; they used figures based on the "New York"s, which were accepted by Congress, and in turn limited the size of the new ships to a displacement of around ; this was too low for C&R's existing proposals, necessitating a redesign. By this time, the first generation of American dreadnoughts had begun to enter service, so experiences operating them could be incorporated into the redesign.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The first major change was the arrangement of the aft pair of turrets. The amidships magazine of the battleship had difficulty remaining cool, as it was adjacent to the boiler room and the steam lines for the propulsion system ran alongside it. Since the thicker deck increased hull strength, the initial arrangement proposed for "Nevada" could be abandoned in favor of a closely spaced superfiring pair. This shortened the length of hull that required armor protection, and thus reduced displacement. Experience with "Delaware"s propulsion system—which mixed coal and oil fired boilers—provided the next improvement: boilers that were exclusively oil fired. These would confer a number of advantages, including the ability to refuel at sea, a significant reduction in boiler room crews, greater fuel efficiency, and more compact boiler rooms, among others. Again, the smaller boiler rooms shortened the length of armor necessary to protect the vitals. C&R was not convinced, since coal bunkers had been used to reinforce the side armor, but the Board approved the change in November 1910. Even by that time, the engineers at C&R continued to lobby for their original design based on the "New York" class, but the Board refused to entertain the proposal. Next, the Board decided to return to steam turbines rather than triple-expansion engines, as they believed the greater efficiently of fuel oil would allow the notoriously voracious turbines to achieve the long cruising radius necessary for operations in the Pacific Ocean.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: C&R submitted its next proposal on 13 February 1911; it generally aligned with the Board's ideas for the armor layout, but it retained some medium armor to protect the secondary guns and it incorporated triple-expansion machinery (though they noted that the engine rooms could accommodate Curtis turbines). The Board rejected it, leading the designers to remove the medium armor, producing a series of studies with speeds of , , and 21 knots and main batteries that ranged from eight to twelve guns. During this period, on 4 March, Congress authorized a pair of ships, designated BB-36 and BB-37 for FY1912. With the ships now authorized, the Board selected one of the ten-gun, 20.5-knot variations on 30 March, which had a belt that was increased to 14 in but included a series of tapers at the top and bottom edge to save weight. The Bureau of Ordnance pointed out that the belt could not be manufactured in a single strake with the tapers, so a joint between upper and lower strakes—a design weakness the engineers had been attempting to avoid—would have to be used. The problem was resolved in July, when C&R proposed removing the 1.5-inch splinter bulkhead in favor of increasing the belt to and incorporating only one taper at the lower edge.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The next issue to address was the triple turret that was the linchpin of the design, since the weight savings made the heavier belt possible and it corrected design defects present in the earlier 5- and 6-turret classes. The US Navy had never built a three-gun turret, and there were concerns that a single hit could disable all three guns, and that three holes in the turret face would weaken the armor too much. C&R suggested conducting firing trials with the old battleship , but nothing came of the proposal. Daniels approved the finalized "Nevada" design on 31 March, without a completed turret design, which was a significant gamble because the turret design might not have been successful. An experimental turret was completed in August 1912, proving the concept, though it required some modifications to reduce shell interference. Since the finalized design adopted a ten-gun battery, only two of the four turrets would be triple mounts, one forward and one aft, with twin-gun turrets superfiring over them.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: With the design nearly finalized, the Board began to circulate it with fleet officers for comment; Captain John Hood, who was soon to become a member of the Board, criticized the placement of the secondary battery, as experience with the early dreadnoughts had shown casemate batteries to be completely unusable in all but the calmest seas. The Board pointed out that the increasing range of torpedoes meant that the standard 5-inch /51 caliber guns could not effectively engage destroyers before they launched their weapons, so retaining the weapons at all might not be worthwhile. But there were no suitable alternative, so the Board decided to keep the 5-inch guns as they were. This proved to be the correct decision, as the development of fire-control systems improved the guns' ability to hit at longer ranges.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The ships of the "Nevada" class were long at the waterline and long overall. They had a beam of and a draft of at normal displacement and at full load. They displaced as designed and fully laden. The ships had a ram bow and a forecastle deck that extended half of the length of the ship. As built, the ships had a minimal superstructure, consisting of a heavily-armored conning tower directly aft of the forward main battery turrets. They were completed with two lattice masts fitted with spotting tops to assist in directing the main battery, a common feature of American capital ships of the period. They had a crew of 55 officers and 809 enlisted men.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: Since the Board expected turbines to achieve greater efficiency, "Nevada" was equipped with a pair of direct-drive Curtis steam turbines, with steam provided by twelve oil-fired Yarrow water-tube boilers. "Nevada" was the first US capital ship to use reduction geared cruising turbines, which could be clutched into the high-pressure turbines to improve fuel economy at low speeds. Geared turbines were fitted in most subsequent US battleships, except those with turbo-electric propulsion. "Oklahoma", meanwhile, received two vertical triple-expansion engines and twelve oil-fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers. "Oklahoma"s reciprocating engines were prone to excessive vibration, prompting the Navy to consider converting her to double-acting, two-stroke diesel engines in 1925, but the great weight of diesels at the time led to the idea being abandoned. Both ships' boilers were ducted into a single funnel located amidships.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: "Nevada"s engines were rated at , while those of "Oklahoma" were projected to produce . Both ships had a designed top speed of 20.5 knots, though "Nevada" reached from on speed trials upon completion. Their designed endurance was at a speed of . Under service conditions, "Nevada" was found to have an endurance of at a speed of , which fell considerably at to . With a freshly-cleaned hull, these figures improved slightly, to and , respectively. "Nevada" had a tactical diameter—the distance it took to turn the ship 180 degrees—of at and at . The only figure available for "Oklahoma" is her high-speed turning circle: at .


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The "Nevada"s were equipped a main battery of ten 14-inch /45 caliber Mark III guns mounted in two twin and two triple turrets. To save weight and keep the mounts as compact as possible, the triple turrets had all three barrels supported by two trunnions, which required all three guns to be elevated as a unit. Both of the twin turrets had armored rangefinders installed atop their roofs, with a centralized fire control room in the conning tower.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The guns fired a armor-piercing (AP) shell at a muzzle velocity of . Trials with the triple turret revealed excessive dispersion caused by interference between the projectiles while in flight, so a system was adopted to fire each gun individually, separated by a tenth of a second apiece. The turrets allowed elevation to 15 degrees and depression to −5 degrees. At maximum elevation, the guns had a range of about . Two shell hoists serviced all three guns, which were electrically loaded and operated.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: For defense against destroyers and torpedo boats, the ships carried a secondary battery of twenty-one 5-inch /51 caliber Mark VIII guns in individual mounts. Twelve of the guns were in casemates in the forecastle deck, six on either side, and another six were in casemates toward the stern at main deck level, with another weapon directly in the stern. These guns proved to be excessively wet in heavy seas and thus were frequently unusable, as experience with earlier vessels had already demonstrated. The last two guns were in open mounts on either side of the conning tower. The guns had a muzzle velocity of firing a shell.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: As was customary for capital ships of the period, both vessels were armed with a pair of torpedo tubes submerged below the waterline, one on each broadside. They were supplied with Bliss-Leavitt torpedoes of the Mark VII type; these carried a warhead and had a range of at a speed of . "Nevada" and "Oklahoma" were the first battleships to carry the Mark 7 torpedoes.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The "Nevada" class was protected by side armor that was 13.5 in thick in the central portion where it protected the ship's vitals, the magazines and propulsion machinery spaces. It was wide, of which was below the waterline. At the bottom edge, the belt was reduced to to save weight, relying on the assumption that shells that fell short and passed through the water, they would be slowed significantly, thus reducing their ability to penetrate heavy armor. On either end of the belt, both sides were connected by a transverse bulkhead that was 8 to thick. The bow and stern were left unarmored. The ships had a armored deck that consisted of special treatment steel (STS) in three layers over the central armored raft; further aft, the deck was increased in thickness to , where it covered the propeller shafts. The armor deck was connected to the top of the belt. One deck below, another layer of armor thick was intended to contain splinters from shells and bombs that were detonated by the upper deck. The sides of the deck sloped down and were increased slightly to thick, and they were connected to the bottom edge of the belt. The lower deck consisted of nickel steel.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The ships' main battery turrets received very heavy armor protection; the triple turret faces were thick, with sides and 5 in roofs. The twin-gun turrets had slightly thinner protection, consisting of faces and sides. Both turret types had 9 in rears and they rested atop barbettes that were 13 in thick. The conning tower had 16 in sides and a 8 in roof, the latter consisting of STS. The uptakes from the boilers to the funnel were protected by a conical mantlet that was 13 in thick.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: The ships underwent a series of changes over the course of their careers, particularly with regards to their secondary batteries, along with the addition of a tertiary anti-aircraft battery. The first such alteration, the addition of a pair of /50 cal. anti-aircraft guns, was made at the time the ships were completed. In 1918, "Nevada" had her seven aft-most 5-inch guns removed along with the two guns in open mounts; "Oklahoma" had the same reduction in her secondary battery, though she retained the centerline gun in the stern. These were used to arm merchant ships that would have a greater likelihood of encountering a German U-boat on the voyage to Europe. In 1919, both ships received flying-off platforms for aircraft on their superfiring turrets, but these proved to be problematic in service, as they prevented the guns from being fired without destroying the ramps and they severely limited the ability of the guns to be elevated and depressed.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: In the late 1920s, both ships were substantially modernized. Both were re-boilered with six Bureau Express boilers that were significantly more efficient than the original twelve boilers. In addition, "Nevada" was re-engined using the turbines that had been installed in in 1917 and removed before the latter was scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty. Design speed remained the same, but designed horsepower fell slightly to for "Nevada". She nevertheless achieved on trials, for a top speed of . Fuel capacity was also substantially increased, to normally and for wartime conditions. This increased the ships' range to at 10 knots and at . The re-boilering saved a considerable amount of weight that was used to increase the deck armor and add torpedo bulges that increased their beam to . Both vessels' main armor deck was increased in thickness by , bringing the total to 5 inches, though because it consisted of layers, it was not as effective as a single plate of the same thickness.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: Both vessels' armament was significantly improved. The main battery turrets were modified to allow elevation to thirty degrees, which increased their maximum range to . The remaining 5-inch casemates were plated over and the guns were moved a deck higher in an attempt to improve their ability to be used in heavy seas. The eight 3-inch anti-aircraft guns were replaced with an equal number of 5-inch /25 cal. guns, also in individual mounts. In addition, they received eight Browning machine guns. Both vessels had their torpedo tubes removed at this time. Their lattice masts were replaced with more robust tripod masts, and they had a pair of aircraft catapults installed, one of which was placed on the fantail, the other being mounted atop her rear superfiring turret. The alterations increased the ships' displacement to as designed and a maximum of at full load. The ships' crews increased to 1,374. At some point in 1941, "Nevada" was fitted with an SC air search radar.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: In 1942, during repairs for the damage sustained in the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, "Nevada" was again heavily reconstructed. Her tripod mainmast was removed, along with her heavily-armored conning tower, the former to clear up firing arcs for the anti-aircraft weaponry and the latter to save weight for further additions to the anti-aircraft battery. In place of the conning tower and mast, a large bridge structure was installed She had both her 51-cal. and 25-cal. guns removed. They were replaced with battery of sixteen 5-inch /38 cal. Mark 12 dual purpose guns in eight twin gun mounts. Four were mounted on either side of the vessel amidships. The guns fired a shell to a maximum range of or a maximum altitude of at an elevation of 45 degrees. Her light anti-aircraft battery was completely replaced as well; she now carried thirty-six Bofors guns in nine quadruple mounts and thirty-eight Oerlikon autocannon in individual mounts. By the end of the war, she had received an additional quadruple 40 mm mount, while her 20 mm guns were reorganized into five single and twenty twin mounts, for a total of forty-five barrels. Unlike many of the other battleships rebuilt after the attack, "Nevada" did not receive fire-control radar for her main battery, but she was fitted with Mark 37 directors for her new secondary battery.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: After entering service in 1916, both vessels were assigned to the Atlantic Fleet. They were occupied with training exercises off the East Coast of the United States into early 1918, by which time the United States had entered World War I on the side of the Allies. Both vessels were sent to Ireland in August 1918 to escort troopship convoys against German warships that might try to break out of the North Sea to intercept them, though no such attacks materialized. Both were present for President Wilson's arrival in France to participate in the Versailles Conference at the end of the conflict. After the war, both vessels returned to the Atlantic Fleet, though in 1919, "Nevada" was transferred to the Pacific Fleet; "Oklahoma" joined her there in 1921.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: Throughout the 1920s, both ships participated in a yearly routine of training exercises with the rest of the fleet, including shooting practice, tactical training, and annual, large-scale Fleet Problems, the latter providing the basis for the US Navy's operations in the Pacific War, and experience that demonstrated that the standard-type battleships were too slow to operate with aircraft carriers led to the development of the fast battleships built in the 1930s. They were also involved in cruises around the Americas and further abroad, such as a goodwill visit to Australia and New Zealand in 1925. Between 1927 and 1930, both ships were heavily modernized. The standard peacetime routine continued through the 1930s. In 1936, "Oklahoma" embarked on a training cruise to Europe; she was there when the Spanish Civil War broke out that year, and she went to Spain to evacuate Americans in the country.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: As tensions with Japan began to rise in the late 1930s over the latter's waging of the Second Sino-Japanese War, the United States began to prepare for the increasingly likely prospect of war. In 1940, the Pacific Fleet was transferred from its homeport, San Pedro, California, to Pearl Harbor in Hawaii in an effort to deter further aggression. Both ships were at anchor in Battleship Row along Ford Island in December 1941.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: On the morning of 7 December 1941, the Japanese aircraft carriers of the 1st Air Fleet launched a surprise attack on the American fleet in Pearl Harbor. "Oklahoma" was struck by three torpedoes early in the attack and quickly began to capsize before receiving six more torpedo hits. As she rolled over, her superstructure prevented her from fully inverting and she came to rest on her port side. Her crew suffered heavy casualties in the sinking, with 20 officers and 395 enlisted men killed. "Nevada" was hit by a single torpedo in her bow early in the attack, but she nevertheless got underway, the only battleship to do so during the attack. She was hit by between six to ten bombs as she moved through the harbor and fears that she might sink in the channel out of Pearl Harbor, thus blocking the port, led her commander to decide to beach the vessel. She suffered relatively minor casualties, with 50 killed and 109 wounded. "Nevada" was refloated in February 1942 and was immediately dry-docked for repairs and modernization, while "Oklahoma" was too seriously damaged to be returned to service; she was righted in 1943 and partially dismantled in 1944 before being sold for scrap in 1946. While being towed from Pearl Harbor to San Francisco on 17 May 1947, she slipped her towing line and sank.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: After returning to service in 1943, "Nevada" was primarily used to support amphibious operations. She took part in the Aleutian Islands campaign in April and May, before returning to the United States for further modifications in preparation for her role as a bombardment vessel for the Normandy landings. She steamed to Britain in April 1944 to join the assault fleet, which conducted the landing on 6 June; "Nevada" remained off the beaches for the next eleven days to bombard German positions as the Allied soldiers fought inland, withdrawing only once to replenish ammunition. She and several other vessels from the bombardment force were sent to shell other ports in occupied France, including Cherbourg before being reassigned to the force tasked with supporting Operation Dragoon, the landing in southern France conducted on 15 August. During the landings, she shelled the damaged French fast battleship , which was at that time under German control, scoring hits that inflicted further damage on the vessel.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: "Nevada" then returned to the United States to have her badly-worn barrels relined before returning to the Pacific Fleet. She arrived in the advance base at Ulithi in January 1945 and began preparations for the next major operation, the landing at Iwo Jima the following month. She joined several other battleships for an intensive bombardment of the island for three days before the Marines went ashore on 19 February. The ship operated off the island providing fire support through 7 March, when she departed to prepare for the invasion of Okinawa. The initial bombardment began on 24 March and continued until the landing on 1 April, and "Nevada" remained off the island until 14 April when she was withdrawn for an overhaul. The ship returned for patrols in the East China Sea in July, though she saw no further action before the end of the war on 15 August.


title: Nevada-class battleship

text: Worn out after nearly thirty years of service by late 1945, she was slated for disposal in nuclear weapons tests in November 1945. She was allocated to the fleet of target ships to be used for Operation Crossroads in January 1946 and she arrived in Bikini Atoll in May. The target fleet included several other battleships, including the captured Japanese vessel . "Nevada" was used as the aiming point for the first test, an air-dropped bomb on 1 July, because the Navy deemed her to be the most resilient of the battleships. The bomb missed the target and inflicted minimal damage. Another test, an underwater blast, was conducted on 24 July, which also failed to sink the ship. She was taken to Pearl Harbor to be examined and was ultimately sunk off Hawaii in conventional weapon tests in 1948.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: A transponder (short for "trans"mitter-res"ponder" and sometimes abbreviated to XPDR, XPNDR, TPDR or TP) is an electronic device that produces a response when it receives a radio-frequency interrogation. Aircraft have transponders to assist in identifying them on air traffic control radar. Collision avoidance systems have been developed to use transponder transmissions as a means of detecting aircraft at risk of colliding with each other.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Air traffic control units use the term "squawk" when they are assigning an aircraft a transponder code, "e.g.", "Squawk 7421". Squawk thus can be said to mean "select transponder code" or "squawking "xxxx"" to mean "I have selected transponder code "xxxx"".


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: The transponder receives interrogation from the Secondary Surveillance Radar on 1030 MHz and replies on 1090 MHz.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is referred to as "secondary", to distinguish it from the "primary radar" that works by passively reflecting a radio signal off the skin of the aircraft. Primary radar determines range and bearing to a target with reasonably high fidelity, but it cannot determine target elevation (altitude) reliably except at close range. SSR uses an active transponder (beacon) to transmit a response to an interrogation by a secondary radar. This response most often includes the aircraft's pressure altitude and a 4-digit octal identifier.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: A pilot may be requested to squawk a given code by an air traffic controller, via the radio, using a phrase such as "Cessna 123AB, squawk 0363". The pilot then selects the 0363 code on their transponder and the track on the air traffic controller's radar screen will become correctly associated with their identity.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Because primary radar generally gives bearing and range position information, but lacks altitude information, mode C and mode S transponders also report pressure altitude. Mode C altitude information conventionally comes from the pilot's altimeter, and is transmitted using a modified Gray code, called a Gillham code. Where the pilot's altimeter does not contain a suitable altitude encoder, a "blind encoder" (which does not directly display altitude) is connected to the transponder. Around busy airspace there is often a regulatory requirement that all aircraft be equipped with altitude-reporting mode C or mode S transponders. In the United States, this is known as a Mode C veil. Mode S transponders are compatible with transmitting the mode C signal, and have the capability to report in 25-foot increments; they receive information from a GPS receiver and also transmit location and speed. Without the pressure altitude reporting, the air traffic controller has no display of accurate altitude information, and must rely on the altitude reported by the pilot via radio. Similarly, the traffic collision avoidance system (TCAS) installed on some aircraft needs the altitude information supplied by transponder signals.


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: All mode A, C, and S transponders include an "IDENT" switch which activates a special thirteenth bit on the mode A reply known as IDENT, short for "identify". When ground-based radar equipment receives the IDENT bit, it results in the aircraft's blip "blossoming" on the radar scope. This is often used by the controller to locate the aircraft amongst others by requesting the ident function from the pilot, "e.g.", "Cessna 123AB, squawk 0363 and ident".


title: Transponder (aeronautics)

text: Ident can also be used in case of a reported or suspected radio failure to determine if the failure is only one way and whether the pilot can still transmit "or" receive, but not both, "e.g.", "Cessna 123AB, if you read, squawk ident".