title: Madelyne Pryor

text: After her apparent resurrection by Nate Grey, Madelyne regained her natural mutant abilities. Without the demonic enhancements, her powers are still considerable. Her telepathy enables her to read minds, broadcast her thoughts, create illusions, change or erase memories, and defend herself against other telepaths. With her telekinesis, Madelyne can lift and manipulate large objects, levitate, fire powerful mental force-blasts, form protective shields, and rearrange small objects on a molecular level. Madelyne also utilizes her powers to augment her physical strength and agility, making her formidable in hand-to-hand combat.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: Madelyne also learned how to use her powers to teleport over long distances by psychokinetically shifting in and out of the astral plane (and was shown to be able to carry along at least one other person with her when teleporting), and was also able to channel psionic energies from other psionic-powered mutants to boost her own abilities or those of another (usually Nate Grey, and on occasion Cable). It is speculated that Selene's tutelage made these added abilities possible.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: As the Red Queen, Madelyne was a non-physical entity of psionic energy (similar to the Shadow King). Along with her usual powers, Madelyne demonstrated other abilities of a mysterious nature which she referred to as "magic", which were probably related to the eldritch magics she had previously wielded. She was shown to heal wounds, locate spirits interdimensionally, and work in conjunction with science to restore life to the dead.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: To prepare Madelyne to rule Limbo as its next queen, Illyana Rasputin has been teaching her other magics. The first example shown is a mystical scythe weapon they created that Pryor puts to use.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: David Harth of "CBR.com" called Madelyne Pryor one of Marvel's "coolest X-Men villains", writing, ""Pryor can't catch a break, which is part of what makes her interesting. She's easy to empathize with for readers, as she is definitely a character readers can feel sorry for and even root for to an extent. Her motivations make her a believable villain, and as a clone of Jean Grey, she wields a jaw-dropping amount of power.""


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: In one alternate reality (Earth-89112), Madelyne Pryor and S'ym were successful in opening a portal between Limbo and Earth (having killed baby Nathan Christopher) and demons overran the planet. The X-Men and X-Factor were dead (with the exception of a possessed Wolverine), and the only resistance left was led by Doctor Strange, who attempted to summon the Phoenix Force through Rachel Summers, the reality-hopping daughter of Scott Summers and Jean Grey. Madelyne however was successful in quelling the resistance and wresting control of the Phoenix Force from Rachel, but was ultimately betrayed and killed by S'ym, using Wolverine's reanimated adamantium skeleton. Rachel, reassuming the mantle of the Phoenix, used the Force to cleanse the planet of the demon plague.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: On Earth-9250, most mutants in the city of Manhattan are vampires ruled by Wolverine. Madelyne was not infected, but became the Goblyn Queen and planned on releasing a demon army to wipe out the vampire mutants and dominate the world. Madelyne made contact with the lord of the Dark Dimension, Dormammu, who became her ally. However, the vampiric Marvel Girl (Jean Grey) bonded with the Phoenix Force, became Dark Phoenix, and killed Madelyne and Dormammu.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: Another reality saw Madelyne Pryor as a member of an "X-Men" team formed by Mr. Sinister alongside Cyclops (Scott Summers), Havok (Alex Summers), and Sabretooth. However this version of Madelyne had never been awakened by the Phoenix Force, so she was simply a mindless shell inhabited by the psychic entity Malice. Scott noticed his physical attraction to Madelyne, but could not respond to her advances; when he encountered Professor Xavier's X-Men and their leader Jean Grey, however, much deeper emotions were stirred. Sinister called for their deaths, and under his orders Cyclops and Havok infiltrated Xavier's X-Men as double agents.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: In the alternate reality known as the Mutant X universe, young Scott Summers was abducted into space along with his father Christopher and mother Kate, leaving his brother Alex to become one of the founders of the X-Men as Havok. This reality's Madelyne Pryor marries Alex and has a son, named Scotty, with him. Just like in Earth-616, Madelyne also makes a deal with Limbo's demons, unlocking her latent psionic abilities, and initiates the "Inferno Crisis". In this instance however, Madelyne survives the crisis; and, using the alias "Marvel Woman", leaves the X-Men team with her husband when he forms the splinter group called "The Six". Her evil side resurfaces a number of times, first as the "Goblyn Queen" and later as the "Goblyn Force". When it returns a second time, it merges with the Beyonder to form a nigh-omnipotent being. Havok supposedly saves Madelyne by placing the "Nexus of Realities" in her body, purging her of the malevolent Goblyn Force and reuniting her with her son Scotty, before Havok returns once more to the void.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: A team of mutants forced against their will to serve in the government's Weapon-X program to hunt and neutralize all other mutants, this group includes a female telepath codenamed "Goblin Queen". Although she appears that she could be either Madelyne Pryor or Jean Grey, her real name is not revealed anywhere in the story, and no discernible reason is given for her codename.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: In the Marvel Mangaverse title "Legacy of Fire", Madelyne Pryor was reinvented as Madelyne Pyre, a powerful sorceress and possessor of the Phoenix Sword, who was training her sister Jena to be her successor.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: Madelyne Pryor plays an important role in "", Chris Claremont's limited series about an alternate future. In the story, Madelyne — through circumstances left unexplained — makes a surprise return. Mysteriously joined with the X-Men's alien enemies (the Skrulls and the Shi'ar), Madelyne affected a disguise to infiltrate the X-Men, planting herself near Cyclops for the rest of the series. Still seeking revenge against her former husband, Madelyne wavered however and protected him instead, after eavesdropping on Scott expressing remorse for everything that happened to her, and even implied that he genuinely loved her after all. Cyclops later admitted to having recognized her at some point, and an understanding and peace was finally reached between them, for the sake of aiding their son Cable in battle. When Cable's effort leaves him dying, a grief-stricken Madelyne is accepted back with the X-Men again. After Cyclops and Jean Grey are also killed, Madelyne cryptically reveals that, since the very beginning, she was always both Madelyne Pryor and a crucial portion of Jean Grey herself (and even hinted to being the Dark Phoenix), explaining that she was the part of Jean that truly and completely loved Scott, and that was why Jean and Scott's marriage failed. Madelyne then sacrifices herself by turning into energy and fusing with Jean Grey, who is once again resurrected. Jean is able to use her power to its fullest again, which allows her and all the dead X-Men to merge with the Phoenix and transcend to a new level of existence. In the story's final panel, Madelyne's image is present next to Cyclops' among the X-Men who died heroically.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: In Claremont's series set in an alternate universe from canon, "X-Men Forever", Pryor does not appear though is mentioned a number of times, as the setting is some years after her death. While nearly every significant X-Men storyline and event from the comics before 1991 is referenced during the series, no mentions are made about "Inferno" or the Goblin Queen, implying that these did not happen here. And while Sinister and his clonings are present, there is also no mention of Madelyne ever being a clone of Jean Grey, implying that this was also not the case here. When and how Pryor died went unrevealed in the series.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: When Doctor Doom became the God-Emperor Doom and saved remnants of the destroyed Multiverse to form Battleworld, among the salvaged worlds was a reality where the X-Men failed to stop the "Inferno" event instigated by the Darkchilde and the Goblin Queen. Contrary to all assumptions, Madelyne Pryor never committed the sacrificial prolicide of her baby son, and had been raising Nathan in the years since.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: Doom had made Pryor the ruling Baroness of the "Domain of Limbo" at first, until the X-Men entrapped the demonic invasion within Manhattan and war broke out between Madelyne and Illyana, leading to Cyclops being appointed Limbo's Baron. Colossus would be forced into an alliance with Madelyne to deal with Illyana, only for Darkchilde to breach the containment and unleash Inferno on the rest of the domain. When Sinister emerged to coerce the defeated X-Men to ally with him against Darkchilde, Madelyne killed Sinister in overdue revenge. Colossus then had to kill Illyana after she massacred all the last remaining X-Men. In the aftermath, Pryor took possession of Darkchilde's demonic magic, making Madelyne the next demonic sorceress and ruler of Limbo domain, with Nathan alongside her.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: Doom himself acknowledged Pryor's re-ascendence to Baroness. Pryor then became one of four Barons (among the others, an alternate version of Sinister) Doom chose as his "Generals" and ordered to field their armies to crush an uprising against the God Emperor. The Goblin Queen followed Doom's wishes, until betrayed and then beaten-down by Sinister and Captain Marvel.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: Following the events of the "Secret Wars" and the restoration of Earth-616, this version of Madelyne Pryor was able to survive the destruction of Battleworld along with her pet dragon Bamfy and a horde of goblins. They opened a portal to a storage facility in Florida, from which they planned to invade Prime Earth, however, their mustering was interrupted by Wolverine and Angel, forcing the horde to withdraw. She later opened another portal to gain access to Earth in Miami and her hordes of demons descended to wreak chaos all over the place. She also revealed that when Battleworld began collapsing, twelve hell gates inexplicably opened near the area she was and she along with Bamfy entered one that took them to Limbo where they remained in the shadows. Now once again on Earth she had her horde of demons capture the small team of X-Men that were taking a break there and was on the verge of using them for her final sacrifice until her plans were interrupted by the arrival of the mystical infused time-displace Hank McCoy which forced her to withdraw by using Bamfy to teleport her to some unknown place.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: Madelyne has since been training the time-displaced Hank on how to hone his mystical capabilities. While training him, she travels across the multiverse collecting supernatural X-Men from alternate realities and promised to give them what they wanted if they help her. Madelyne then has Hank cast a ritual that summons her and her new team of supernatural X-Men, calling them her "Hex Men", and ambushes Magneto's team of X-Men in Madripoor. Her goal is to use the ritual that Beast started to summon alternate versions of herself trapped in the underworld and bring them to the surface to help her gain power. Bloodstorm sees how Madelyne has used them as a means to her own goal and knows that she will throw the Hex Men to the wolves when her main goal is accomplished. Bloodstorm convinces Beast to betray Madelyne and in doing so interrupts the ritual. Because of the interruption, the alternate versions of Madelyne drag all of the Hex Men to the underworld with them except for Bloodstorm and Beast.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: During the "Spider-Geddon" event, an unseen "Goblin Queen" is mentioned by her minions, Green Goblin, Hobgoblin, Demogoblin, and Jack O'Lantern when they attempt to kill Gwen Stacy but are driven away by the "Spiders-Man". It's unrevealed if this Goblin-Queen is Madelyne Pryor or someone different.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: A story by Claremont again, included as an addition with the main story in "The Exterminated" one-shot, appears as if to be a flashback from just after Cyclops and Storm's leadership duel and his moving back to Alaska with Pryor. Circumstances shown here lead to Scott and Madelyne happily reconciling (before the discovery and return of Jean Grey). This and other differences from canon seem to place this story in the setting of Claremont's "X-Men Forever" universe.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: A limited series that does an abridged and condensed retelling of four decades of X-Men related canon from the 1960s debut onward, Pryor's introduction and early storylines are included but substantially rewritten in the second half of the title's "Second Genesis" chapter. Pryor debuts and participates in stories which originally featured Lee Forrester, who is entirely excluded in this retelling (but is name-dropped later in the series' final panel). When Pryor and Cyclops meet and begin their relationship, she is not a pilot in Alaska but is still described as surviving a plane crash in the past, and Mastermind's actions on Pryor never happen at all in this telling before she and Cyclops marry.


title: Madelyne Pryor

text: Pryor's history continues in the first half of the "X-Tinction" chapter that follows, starting with the birth of Nathan/Cable and the marriage's disintegration, to concluding at her death during "Inferno". While the encounter with Loki with her moment as Anodyne and her later abduction by Genosha are excluded, all the rest of her story with the X-Men is here. Pryor is emphasized as the victim in everything, not culpable for "Inferno" nor intending to harm her son. And her death is presented as more accidental instead of suicide.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: Bamboo shoots or bamboo sprouts are the edible shoots (new bamboo culms that come out of the ground) of many bamboo species including "Bambusa vulgaris" and "Phyllostachys edulis". They are used as vegetables in numerous Asian dishes and broths. They are sold in various processed shapes, and are available in fresh, dried, and canned versions.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: Raw bamboo shoots contain cyanogenic glycosides, natural toxins also contained in cassava. The toxins must be destroyed by thorough cooking and for this reason fresh bamboo shoots are boiled before being used in other ways. The toxins are also destroyed in the canning process.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: Most young shoots of bamboo are edible after being boiled to remove toxins, but only around a hundred or so species are harvested regularly for edible shoots. These are usually from species that are also cultivated for other uses. These include:


title: Bamboo shoot

text: Freshly collected bamboo shoots is a good source of thiamine, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin B6, and vitamin E. 17 different amino acids have been reported, 8 of them essential for humans. The amount of amino acids in canned and fermented shoots is lower than when freshly prepared.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In certain parts of Japan, China and Taiwan, shoots from the giant timber bamboo "Bambusa oldhamii" are harvested in spring or early summer. Young shoots from this species are highly sought after due to their crisp texture and sweet taste. Older shoots, however, have an acrid flavor and should be sliced thin and boiled in a large volume of water several times. The sliced bamboo is edible after boiling. "B. oldhamii" is more widely known as a noninvasive landscaping bamboo.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: Pickled bamboo, used as a condiment, may also be made from the pith of the young shoots. In Japan, "menma" is a common topping for ramen noodle soup. In China, luosifen river snail noodles, a popular dish from Guangxi, get their famously pungent smell from pickled bamboo shoots.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Nepal, they are used in dishes which have been well known in Nepal for centuries. A popular dish is "tama" (fermented bamboo shoot), with potato and beans. An old popular song in Nepali mentions "tama" as "my mother loves vegetable of recipe containing potato, beans, and "tama"". Some varieties of bamboo shoots commonly grown in the Sikkim Himalayas of India are "Dendrocalamus hamiltonii", "Dendrocalamus sikkimensis" and "Bambusa tulda" locally known as "choya bans", "bhalu bans" and "karati bans". These are edible when young. These bamboo shoots are collected, defoliated and boiled in water with turmeric powder for 10–15 minutes to remove the bitter taste of the bamboo after which the "tama" is ready for consumption. "Tama" is commonly sold in local markets during the months of June to September when young bamboo shoots sprout.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Assam, bamboo shoots are part of traditional Assamese cuisine. They are called "khorisa" and "bah gaj" in Assamese and "hen-up" in Karbi in Assam.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Northern Tamilnadu, the bamboo shoots are used as a special dish during the monsoons (due to seasonal availability). It is common in Tulunadu and Malnad regions. It goes by the name "kanile" or "'kalale" in Tulu, "Veduru Kommulu" in Telugu, and "Moongil Kuruthu" in Tamil. The shoots are usually sliced and soaked in water for two to three days, after which the water is drained and replenished each day to extricate and remove toxins. It is also used as a pickle. It is consumed as a delicacy by all communities in the region.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In the Diyun region of Arunachal Pradesh, the Chakma people call them "bashchuri". The fermented version is called "medukkeye", and is often served fried with pork. The bamboo shoots can also be fermented and stored with vinegar.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Jharkhand, India, the bamboo shoots used as vegetable. Young shoot and stored shoots are known as "karil" and "shandhna" respectively.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In the western part of Odisha, India, they are known as "karadi" and are used in traditional curries such as Ambila, pithou bhaja and pickle. In monsoon, it can be abundantly found in Bamboo forest of Karlapat wildlife sanctuary and mostly prepared in homes using mustard paste. They can be stored for months in an air tight container. They are also dried in sun increasing their shelf life and these dried shoots are called "Hendua". The dried shoots are used in curries of roasted fish, called "Poda Macha".


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Nagaland, India, bamboo shoots are both cooked and eaten as a fresh food item or fermented for a variety of culinary uses. Fermented bamboo shoot is commonly known as "bas tenga". Cooking pork with a generous portion of fermented bamboo shoot is very popular in Naga cuisine.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Manipur, India, they are known as "u-soi". They are also fermented and preserved after which they are known as "soibum". They are used in a wide variety of dishes – among which are "iromba, ooti" and "kangshu etc." The fermented bamboo shoot which is preserved for many months is known as "soijin". "Soijin" can be stored up to 10 years in Andro village. Generally, "soijin" or "usoi" is in a big basket made of bamboo. However, they are stored in earthen pot in Andro village.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Meghalaya Bamboo shoots are either used fresh or fermented and made into pickles, soups with pork or dried fish, or curried and seasoned with sesame seeds or made into a sauce with fermented fish. It sometimes cooked along with yam leaves and dried fish.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, bamboo shoots are a traditional food of the indigenous Jumma people. The preparation of their dishes consist of several steps. First, bamboo shoots are collected from the bamboo forest then defoliated and boiled in water. Afterwards, the bamboo shoot is prepared with shrimp paste, chili, garlic paste, and salt.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In the Philippines, bamboo shoots are primarily harvested from bolo bamboo ("Gigantochloa levis"), giant bamboo ("Dendrocalamus asper"), common bamboo ("Bambusa vulgaris"), spiny bamboo ("Bambusa blumeana"), and two endemic species, bayog ("Bambusa merrilliana") and laak ("Bambusa philippinensis"). Other economically important species also harvested for bamboo shoots include kayali ("Gigantochloa atter"), male bamboo ("Dendrocalamus strictus"), and climbing bamboos ("Dinochloa" spp.) Another endemic species, the lumampao or bagakay bamboo ("Schizostachyum lumampao"), which are used for making "sawali" (woven bamboo strips), are also occasionally harvested for bamboo shoots. In Filipino cuisine, the shoots are commonly called "labóng" (other names include "rabong", "dabong", or "tambo"). The two most popular dishes for these are "ginataáng labóng" (shoots in coconut milk and chilies) and "dinengdeng na labóng" (shoots in fish "bagoóng" and stew of string beans, "saluyot", and "tinapa"). They are also sautéed alone or with other ingredients as in "paklay", or cooked as fried or fresh "lumpia". Bamboo shoots are also preserved as "atchara", traditional sweet pickles that are often made from papaya.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Thai cuisine bamboo shoots are called "no mai". It can be used in stir-fries, soups such as "tom kha kai", curries such as "kaeng tai pla", as well as in salads such as "sup no-mai". Some dishes ask for fresh bamboo shoots, others for pickled bamboo shoots ("no mai dong").


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Vietnamese cuisine, shredded bamboo shoots are used alone or with other vegetable in many stir-fried vegetable dishes. It may also be used as the sole vegetable ingredient in pork chop soup. Duck and bamboo shoot noodles ("Bún măng vịt") is also a famous noodle dish in Vietnam.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Burma, Myanmar, bamboo shoots are called "hmyit" (). They can be used in a soup called "myahait hcaut tar la bot". The preparation of this dish generally follows three steps. First, the bamboo shoots are collected from a bamboo forest. Bamboo can be found in the whole of Myanmar but the bamboo shoots from the two northernmost regions (Kachin State and Sagaing Region) are soft and good in taste. The bamboo shoots are then boiled in water after which they can be cooked with curry powder, rice powder etc. One of the most famous dishes in Burmese cuisine is a sour bamboo shoot curry called "hmyit chin hin" (မျှစ်ချဉ်ဟင်း), a specialty of Naypyidaw in central Burma.


title: Bamboo shoot

text: In Indonesia, they are sliced thinly to be boiled with coconut milk and spices to make "gulai rebung". Other recipes using bamboo shoots are "sayur lodeh" (mixed vegetables in coconut milk) and "lun pia" (sometimes written "lumpia": fried wrapped bamboo shoots with vegetables). The shoots of some species contain cyanide that must be leached or boiled out before they can be eaten safely. Slicing the bamboo shoots thinly assists in this leaching.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: Abigail "Nabby" Amelia Adams Smith (July 14, 1765 – August 15, 1813) was the daughter of Abigail and John Adams, founding father and second President of the United States, and the sister of John Quincy Adams, sixth President of the United States. She was named for her mother.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: At the age of 18, Nabby met and fell in love with Royall Tyler. Her father thought she was too young to be courted, but he eventually accepted it. At one point the two were even engaged to be married. But John Adams, then the U.S. minister to the Kingdom of Great Britain, eagerly called for his wife and daughter to join him in London. For a time, Nabby maintained a long-distance relationship with Tyler, but eventually broke off the engagement, leaving Tyler depressed.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: Shortly afterward Nabby met Colonel William Stephens Smith, who was serving as her father's secretary and was 10 years her senior. They would later be related by marriage—Col. Smith's sister was the wife of Nabby's brother Charles Adams (1770–1800). They were married at the American minister's residence in London on June 12, 1786. Nabby's observations of European life and customs, and of many of the distinguished statesmen of the day, were later published.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: Their courtship was thought to be too short by Nabby's parents, and historians have not considered it to be a good marriage. While Colonel Smith was kind to his family, he never settled, continually seeking a better lot in life. He spent more money than he earned and lost everything to real estate speculation in the early 1800s. This left them on a small farm along the Chenango River in central New York.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: In 1810, Nabby was diagnosed with breast cancer. On October 8, 1811, a mastectomy was performed by John Warren and several assistants without any anesthesia in an upstairs room of the Adams home. Her mother, husband, and daughter, Caroline, were also on hand to assist.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: The exact details of the surgery are not known but it was described as a typical 19th-century operation. The instruments used during the surgery consisted of a large fork with a pair of six-inch prongs sharpened to a needle point, a wooden-handled razor, a small oven filled with heated coals, and a thick iron spatula. Before the surgery began Dr. Warren strapped Abigail into a chair to restrain her, and then began to remove the clothing to expose the area on which he would operate. Once the diseased breast was exposed, other physicians held her left arm back so that Warren would have better access to the diseased tissue. He began the surgery by thrusting the large fork into her breast and lifting it from the chest wall. He then sliced at the base of the breast until it was completely severed from her chest. After removing the breast, he saw that the cancer had spread to the lymph nodes under Abigail's arms, and he worked to remove those tumors as well. To stop Abigail's bleeding, Warren applied the heated spatula to cauterize the open cuts, and then sutured the wounds. The surgery took around 25 minutes, and dressing the wounds took more than an hour. Warren and his assistants later expressed astonishment that Abigail endured the pain of the surgery and cauterization without crying out, despite the gruesomeness of the operation, which was so horrifying it caused her mother, husband, and daughter to turn away.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: In 1812, Abigail finally started to feel well and returned to the family farm in New York. In early 1813, she began feeling pain in her abdomen and spine, as well as suffering from painful headaches. At first a local doctor in New York said that the pain was from rheumatism, but later that year new tumors began to appear in the scar tissue as well as on her skin. She then returned to Quincy, telling her husband that she preferred to die at her parents' home. She died in August 1813 at the age of 48. She was buried at Hancock Cemetery in Quincy.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: Nabby's death is a poignant part of the 2008 "John Adams" miniseries, in which she is played by Sarah Polley; Nabby Adams as a young girl was played by Madeline Taylor in the first three episodes of the same series. The series took artistic license by shifting Abigail's cancer diagnosis to 1803, and changing many other aspects of her life.


title: Abigail Adams Smith

text: The Abigail Adams Smith Museum, now known as the Mount Vernon Hotel Museum and Garden, was a carriage house built in 1799 by a wealthy New York china merchant on property purchased from Abigail and her husband Col. William Stephens Smith. The carriage house was purchased by Joseph Hart and converted into a day hotel. Day hotels were popular at the time as they provided the burgeoning New York middle class an escape from the overcrowded and oppressive city. It was called the Mount Vernon Hotel after George Washington's home in Virginia and functioned in this capacity from 1826 to 1833. The property changed hands again when it was purchased by Jeremiah Towle. It served as the Towle family's private residence until 1905 when, with the spread of industrialization, it was purchased by Standard Gas Light Company. The building was preserved until its ultimate purchase by the Colonial Dames of America in 1924. In 1939, the building was opened to the public as the Abigail Adams Smith Museum. The Colonial Dames of America reinterpreted the house as a day hotel and reopened it as the Mount Vernon Hotel Museum and Garden in 2000. It remains open to the public with museum tours daily (except Monday).


title: Agni (missile)

text: The Agni missile (अग्नि IAST: Agni ""Fire"") is a family of medium to intercontinental range ballistic missiles developed by India, named after one of the five elements of nature. Agni missiles are long range, nuclear weapons capable, surface to surface ballistic missiles. The first missile of the series, Agni-I was developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (lGMDP) and tested in 1989. After its success, Agni missile program was separated from the GMDP upon realizing its strategic importance. It was designated as a special program in India's defence budget and provided adequate funds for subsequent development. , the missiles in the Agni series are being inducted into service. The family comprises the following:


title: Agni (missile)

text: The two-stage Agni technology demonstrator, with a solid-fuel first stage, was first tested at the Interim Test Range in Chandipur in 1989. It was capable of carrying a conventional payload of 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) or a nuclear warhead. This original technology demonstrator evolved into the solid-fuel Agni-1 and Agni-2 missiles. India first developed the two-stage 2000  km range Agni-2, testing it in 1999. It then used the first stage of this system to develop the 700  km range single-stage Agni-1, which was first tested in January 2002


title: Agni (missile)

text: Weighing 12 tonne with a length of 15 metres, Agni-1 has a range of 700–900 km and is capable of carrying a conventional payload of or a nuclear warhead at a speed of 2.5 km/s. Agni missiles consist of one (short range) or two stages (intermediate range). These are rail and road mobile and powered by solid propellants. Agni-I is used by the Strategic Force Command (SFC) of the Indian Army. The latest missile test occurred on 13 July 2012, when India test fired Agni I successfully at Wheeler Island off Orissa coast. On 11 April 2014 the missile was test fired for the first time in a night trial exercise to its full range of 700 km from the Wheeler island off the Odisha coast. The missile randomly picked from production line was test fired by the Strategic Forces Command after 11 pm. This test was first night after 2 previous test failed due to technical glitches. The missile was test fired from a mobile launcher with logistics support from DRDO at the Integrated Test Range as part of the regular training exercise by the armed forces.


title: Agni (missile)

text: With a special weapons load Agni-I can reach 1200 km. As compared to Agni-II, Agni-I is less costly, simple, accurate and more mobile.


title: Agni (missile)

text: Agni-II with a range of 2,000–2,500 km is 20 metres long, has a diameter of one metre, and weighs around 18 tonnes. Agni – II uses solid propellant in both of its two stages. They are claimed to be a part of the "credible deterrence" against China and Pakistan. India stated that its nuclear and missile development programmes are not Pakistan-centric, that the Pakistani threat is only a marginal factor in New Delhi's security calculus, and that Agni is at the heart of deterrence in the larger context of Sino-Indian equation.


title: Agni (missile)

text: The 2000 km range nuclear weapon capable missile, already inducted into country's arsenal, was successfully launched as a training exercise by the Strategic Forces Command on 9 August 2012. India on 7 April 2013 conducted its latest test of its nuclear capable Agni-II strategic ballistic missile from a missile testing range in Odisha. The test was conducted from Abdul Kalam Island (formerly known as Wheeler Island) in Bhadrak district, by army personnel as part of a training exercise. India successfully conducted the first night trial of nuclear-capable intermediate range ballistic missile Agni-II from the Abdul Kalam Island of the Odisha coast at 16 Nov 2019. The 20-metre-long, two-stage ballistic missile has a strike range of 2,000 km To 3000 km. It has a launch weight of 17 tonnes and can carry a payload of 1,000 kg.


title: Agni (missile)

text: Agni-III is the third in the Agni series of missiles. Agni III uses solid propellant in both stages. Agni-III was first tested on 9 July 2006 from Wheeler Island off the coast of the eastern state of Odisha. After the launch, it was reported that the second stage of the rocket did not separate and the missile had fallen well short of its target. Agni-III was again tested on 12 April 2007, this time successfully, again from Wheeler Island. On 7 May 2008 India again successfully test-fired this missile. This was the third consecutive test; it validated the missile's operational readiness while extending the reach of India's nuclear deterrent to the most high-value targets of the nation's most likely adversaries. Agni-III has a range of 3,500  km, and can take a warhead of 1.5 tonnes.


title: Agni (missile)

text: It has been reported that the missile's circular error probable (CEP) lies in the range of 40 meters, This would make Agni-III the most accurate strategic ballistic missile of its range class in the world. This is of special significance because a highly accurate ballistic missile increases the "kill efficiency" of the weapon; it allows Indian weapons designers to use smaller yield nuclear warheads (200 kiloton thermonuclear or boosted fission) while increasing the lethality of the strike. This permits India to deploy a much larger nuclear force using less fissile/fusion material (plutonium/lithium deuteride) than other nuclear powers. Older ballistic missiles, such as those deployed by earlier nuclear powers required larger yield (1–2 megaton) warheads to achieve the same level of lethality. It has also been reported that with smaller payloads, the Agni-III can hit strategic targets well beyond 3,500  km.


title: Agni (missile)

text: Agni-IV is the fourth in the Agni series of missiles which was earlier known as "Agni II prime". Agni-IV was first tested on 15 November 2011 and 19 September 2012 from Wheeler Island off the coast of the eastern state of Orissa for its full range of 4,000 km. The missile lifted off from a road mobile launcher at 11.48 a.m. and after climbing to an altitude of over 800 km, it re-entered the atmosphere and impacted near the pre-designated target in the Indian Ocean with remarkable degree of accuracy following a 20-minute flight. Carrying a payload of explosives weighing a tonne, the missile re-entered the atmosphere and withstood temperatures of more than 3,000 °C. With a range of 3,000–4,000 km, Agni-IV bridges the gap between Agni II and Agni III. It was again successfully test fired on 20 January 2014. Agni IV can take a warhead of 1 tonne. It is designed to increase the kill efficiency along with a higher range performance. Agni IV is equipped with state-of-the-art technologies, that includes indigenously developed ring laser gyro and composite rocket motor. It is a two-stage missile powered by solid propellant. Its length is 20 meters and launch weight 17 tonnes. It can be fired from a road mobile launcher.


title: Agni (missile)

text: Agni-V is a solid fueled intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) of India. It will greatly expand India's reach to strike targets more than 7,000 km away. Agni-V was first test fired on 19 April 2012 at 08:07 am IST from Wheeler Island off the coast of Orissa, the test was successful. The second test launch of Agni-V was successfully done on 15 September 2013 at 08:43 am IST from Wheeler Island. In January 2015, the canisterized version was successfully tested from Wheeler Island.


title: Agni (missile)

text: It is a medium-range ballistic missile under development that incorporates technological advances from Agni-IV and Agni-V projects. Although it looks similar to Agni-III the weight is reduced by half. Agni-P will replace the older generation missile such as Prithvi, Agni-I and Agni-II.


title: Agni (missile)

text: Agni-VI is an intercontinental ballistic missile reported to be in the early stages of development by India and is being developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation. It is to be the latest and most advanced version among the Agni missile program. It will be capable of being launched from submarines as well as from land, and will have a strike-range of 8,000–10,000 km with MIRVed warheads.


title: Agni (missile)

text: In May 2008 Indian scientists announced they had developed and patented a path-breaking technology that increases the range of missiles and satellite launch vehicles by at least 40%. The enhanced range is made possible by adding a special-purpose coating of chromium-based material to a rocket's blunt nose cone. The material acts as a reactive-ablative coating that forms a thin low density gaseous layer at the tip of the rocket as it approaches hypersonic speeds; this super-heated gas layer reduces drag by 47% (at mach 7–8), thereby allowing range enhancements at least 40%. It has been announced that this technology will be incorporated in future Agni deployments after having undergone ranging and calibration tests.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Dame Antonia Susan Duffy ( Drabble; born 24 August 1936), known professionally by her former marriage name as A. S. Byatt ( ), is an English critic, novelist, poet and short story writer. Her books have been widely translated, into more than thirty languages.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: After attending the University of Cambridge, she married in 1959 and moved to Durham. It was during Byatt's time at university that she began work on her first two novels, subsequently published by Chatto & Windus as "Shadow of a Sun" (1964; reprinted in 1991 with its originally intended title, "The Shadow of the Sun") and "The Game" (1967). Byatt took a teaching job in 1972 so as to help pay for the education of her only son. In the same week she accepted, a drunk driver killed her son as he walked home from school. He was 11 years of age. Byatt spent a symbolic 11 years teaching (the same length of time as her son had lived), then began full-time writing in 1983. "The Virgin in the Garden" (1978) was the first of "The Quartet", a tetralogy of novels that continued with "Still Life" (1985), "Babel Tower" (1996) and "A Whistling Woman" (2002).


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt's novel "Possession: A Romance" received the 1990 Booker Prize, whilst her short story collection "The Djinn in the Nightingale's Eye" (1994) received the 1995 Aga Khan Prize for Fiction. Her novel "The Children's Book" was shortlisted for the 2009 Booker Prize and won the 2010 James Tait Black Memorial Prize. Her critical work includes two studies of Dame Iris Murdoch (who was a friend and mentor), "Degrees of Freedom: The Early Novels of Iris Murdoch" (1965) and "Iris Murdoch: A Critical Study" (1976). Her other critical studies include "Wordsworth and Coleridge in Their Time" (1970) and "Portraits in Fiction" (2001).


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt was awarded the Shakespeare Prize in 2002, the Erasmus Prize in 2016, the Park Kyong-ni Prize in 2017 and the Hans Christian Andersen Literature Award in 2018. She has been mentioned as a candidate for the Nobel Prize in Literature.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt was born in Sheffield as Antonia Susan Drabble, the eldest child of John Drabble, QC, and Kathleen Bloor, a scholar of Browning. Her sisters are the novelist Margaret Drabble and the art historian Helen Langdon. Her brother Richard Drabble KC is a barrister. The Drabble father participated in the placement of Jewish refugees in Sheffield during the 1930s. The mother was a Shavian and the father a Quaker. As a result of the bombing of Sheffield during the Second World War the family moved to York.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt was educated at two independent boarding schools, Sheffield High School and The Mount School, a Quaker boarding school at York. She noted in an interview in 2009, "I am not a Quaker, of course, because I'm anti-Christian and the Quakers are a form of Christianity but their religion is wonderful — you simply sat in silence and listened to the nature of things."


title: A. S. Byatt

text: A "deeply unhappy" child, Byatt did not enjoy boarding school, citing her need to be alone and her difficulty in making friends. She attended Newnham College, Cambridge, Bryn Mawr College (in the United States), and Somerville College, Oxford. Having studied French, German, Latin, and English at school, she later studied Italian while attending Cambridge so that she could read Dante. "This means that I can actually read European literature with its own rhythms even if I have to have a side-by-side text for the difficult bits", she said in 1998.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt lectured in the Department of Extra-Mural Studies of the University of London (1962–71), the Central School of Art and Design and from 1972 to 1983 at University College London. She began writing full-time in 1983.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt married Ian Charles Rayner Byatt in 1959 and moved to Durham. They had a daughter together, as well as a son, Charles, who was killed by a drink-driver at the age of 11 whilst walking home from school. She spoke of her son's death and its influence on her lecturing and subsequent career after publishing "The Children's Book", in which the image of a dead child features: Byatt said she wished to become a full-time writer, but "if I had a job we could send my son to a fee-paying school. My son got killed on Frank Kermode's doorstep, the day I accepted the job more or less — so there was no point in having the job except what else was I going to do". Byatt stayed in the job for "as long as he had lived, which was 11 years", then, she said, "it was like being released from a spell". She came to regard her academic career "very symbolically". She later wrote the poem "Dead Boys". The marriage was dissolved in 1969. Byatt has two daughters with her second husband, Peter Duffy.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt's relationship with her sister Margaret Drabble has sometimes been strained due to the presence of autobiographical elements in both their writing. While their relationship is no longer especially close and they do not read each other's books, Drabble describes the situation as "normal sibling rivalry" and Byatt says it has been "terribly overstated by gossip columnists" and that the sisters "always have liked each other on the bottom line." Byatt is an agnostic and a grandmother. She is interested in snooker.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt has been influenced by Henry James and George Eliot as well as Emily Dickinson, T. S. Eliot, Coleridge, Tennyson and Robert Browning, in merging realism and naturalism with fantasy. She is not an admirer of the Brontë family, admitting to finding their "joint imagination absolutely appalling". Nor does she like Christina Rossetti. She is ambivalent about D. H. Lawrence and also stated: "I don't like the English gentlemanly high-church sort of refined person, except for George Herbert, who is perfect and unexpected". She had learnt Jane Austen off before her teens.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: In her books, Byatt alludes to, and builds upon, themes from Romantic and Victorian literature. She cited art historian John Gage's book on the theory of colour as one of her favourite books to reread. Frank Kermode she regarded as "writing criticism about a literature that one might hope to add things to. In a way, what Kermode said William Golding and Lawrence Durrell were doing was more important to me than what Golding or Durrell "were" doing", Byatt said in her interview for "The Paris Review"'s "The Art of Fiction" series.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: She began writing her first novel whilst at the University of Cambridge, where she did not attend many lectures but when she did passed the time attempting to write a novel, which — given her limited experience of life — involved a young woman at university trying to write a novel, a novel, her novel, which — she knew — was "no good". She left it in a drawer when she was done. After departing Cambridge, she spent one year as a postgraduate student in the United States and there began her second novel, "The Game", continuing to write it at Oxford when she returned to England. After getting married in 1959 and moving to Durham, she left "The Game" aside and resumed work on her earlier novel. She sent it to literary critic John Beer, whom she had befriended whilst at Cambridge and, she later said, "whose ideas, I think, run through almost everything I write". Beer sent Byatt's novel to the independent book publishing company Chatto & Windus. From there Cecil Day-Lewis wrote her a response and invited her to lunch at The Athenaeum, where he shared his thoughts on "poetry and Yeats and Auden and Shakespeare, and it was the literary conversation I had never had. When we got out on the pavement I rather tremblingly said, Might you be thinking of publishing this novel? He said, Oh yes, of course, of course". Day-Lewis was Byatt's first editor; D. J. Enright would succeed him.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: "Shadow of a Sun", Byatt's first novel, is about a girl and her father and was published in 1964. It was reprinted in 1991 with its originally intended title, "The Shadow of the Sun", intact. "The Game", published in 1967, concerned the dynamics between two sisters. The reception for Byatt's first books became confused with her sister's writing, as well as her sister's quicker rate of publication.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: The family theme is continued in "The Quartet", Byatt's tetralogy of novels, which begins with "The Virgin in the Garden" (1978) and continues with "Still Life" (1985), "Babel Tower" (1996) and "A Whistling Woman" (2002). Her quartet is inspired by D. H. Lawrence, particularly "The Rainbow" and "Women in Love". The family portrayed in the quartet are from Yorkshire. Byatt said the idea for "The Virgin in the Garden" came in part from an class she taught in which she had read Tolstoy and Dostoevsky and in part from her time living in Durham in 1961, the year in which her son was born. The book was an attempt to understand what could be achieved if "Middlemarch" were written in the middle of the twentieth century. Byatt's book features a powerful death scene, which she invented in 1961 (inspired by Byatt's reading of Angus Wilson's book "The Middle Age of Mrs Eliot" and the accident in its opening), a death scene which has drawn complaints from numerous readers for its vividness. Describing mid-20th-century Britain, the books follow the life of Frederica Potter, a young intellectual studying at Cambridge at a time when women were heavily outnumbered by men at that university, and then tracing her journey as a divorcée with a young son as he makes a new life for herself in London. Byatt says some of the characters in her fiction represent her "greatest terror which is simple domesticity... I had this image of coming out from under and seeing the light for a bit and then being shut in a kitchen, which I think happened to women of my generation." Like "Babel Tower", "A Whistling Woman" touches on the utopian and revolutionary dreams of the 1960s. Byatt described herself as "a naturally pessimistic animal": "I don't believe that human beings are basically good, so I think all utopian movements are doomed to fail, but I am interested in them."


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Also an accomplished short story writer, Byatt's first published collection was "Sugar and Other Stories" (1987). "The Matisse Stories" (1993) features three pieces, each describing a painting by the eponymous painter, each the tale of an initially smaller crisis that shows the long-present unravelling in the protagonists' lives. "The Djinn in the Nightingale's Eye", published in 1994, is a collection of fairy tales. Byatt's other short story collections are "Elementals: Stories of Fire and Ice", published in 1998, and "Little Black Book of Stories", published in 2003. Her books reflect a continuous interest in zoology, entomology, geology, and Darwinism among other repeated themes. She is also interested in linguistics and takes a keen interest in the translation of her books. Byatt said: "I can't say how important it was to me when Angela Carter said 'I grew up on fairy stories — they're much more important to me than realist narratives'. I hadn't had the nerve to think that until she said it, and I owe her a great deal". Carter, in an earlier (first) meeting with Byatt after a Stevie Smith poetry reading, had dismissed Byatt's work, so this change of heart vindicated Byatt's approach to writing and Byatt readily acknowledged it.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: "Possession" (1990) parallels the emerging relationship of two contemporary academics with the lives of two (fictional) 19th-century poets whom they are researching. It won the 1990 Booker Prize and was adapted for a film released in 2002.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt's novella "Morpho Eugenia" was included in "Angels & Insects" (1992), which was turned into the eponymous 1995 film; that film received an Academy Award for Best Costume Design nomination in 1997.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt's novel "The Biographer's Tale", published in 2000, she originally intended as a short story titled "The Biography of a Biographer", based on her notion of a biographer's life in a library investigating another person's life. This she developed into writing about a character called Phineas G. Nanson, who is attempting to learn about a biographer for a book he intends to write but who can only locate fragments of his three unwritten biographies instead: on Galton, Ibsen and Linnaeus. Phineas Gilbert Nanson (to give him his full name) is called after an insect and is a near anagram of Galton, Ibsen and Linnaeus, though Byatt said this was an "uncanny" coincidence which she did not realise until afterwards.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: "The Children's Book", published in 2009, is a novel spanning from 1895 until the end of the First World War and centring on the fictional writer Olive Wellwood. She is based upon E. Nesbit. Another character — Herbert Methley — is a combination of H. G. Wells and D. H. Lawrence, according to Byatt. The novel also features Rupert Brooke, Emma Goldman, Auguste Rodin, George Bernard Shaw, Virginia Woolf and Oscar Wilde, all appearing as themselves. Byatt initially intended to title the book as "The Hedgehog, the White Goose and the Mad March Hare".


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt said in 2009: "I think of writing simply in terms of pleasure. It's the most important thing in my life, making things. Much as I love my husband and my children, I love them only because I am the person who makes these things. I, who I am, is the person that has the project of making a thing. Well, that's putting it pompously — but constructing. I do see it in sort of three-dimensional structures. And because that person does that all the time, that person is able to love all these people." Her preference for "making things" is also present in a 2003 interview, when she said: "I don't like to talk about creative writing, which is a vestigial religious tic in me. If anything is created, God does it. I don't. I make things--making is a nice word". She writes at her home in West London and at another house in the Cévennes in Southern France, where she spends her summers. She does not write her fiction on a computer, she does so by hand, though she has deployed a computer for non-fiction articles. According to a 1991 unpublished interview with the "Los Angeles Times Book Review", Byatt said she began her writing day at around 10 a.m., prompting herself by reading something easy and then something harder: "And then after a bit if I read something difficult that's really interesting I get this itch to start writing. So what I like to do is to write from about half past twelve, one, through to about four". At this point, she said, she began reading again.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt wrote two critical studies of Dame Iris Murdoch, who was a friend, mentor and another significant influence on her own writing. They were titled "Degrees of Freedom: The Early Novels of Iris Murdoch" (1965) and "Iris Murdoch: A Critical Study" (1976). "[B]ecause I actually didn't want a mentor I found the friendship very difficult to handle... she simply used you as material", Byatt said. "She loved you very much but she would take you out to lunch and just fire questions at you like a clay pigeon shoot". Byatt also described Murdoch's husband John Bayley's decision to publish a memoir of his time with her as "wicked" and "unforgivable", saying: "I knew her enough to know that she would have hated it... it's had a horrible effect on how people feel about her and see her and think about her... Feelings were in her work but it wasn't restricted to feelings. There was thought in it. There was structure in it. An intelligent, complicated world."


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt's other critical studies include "Wordsworth and Coleridge in Their Time" (1970). 2001's "Portraits in Fiction" is about painting in novels, and features references to Emile Zola, Marcel Proust and Iris Murdoch; Byatt had earlier touched upon this subject in a 2000 lecture she delivered at the National Portrait Gallery in London.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: She had no time for the so-called "angry young men", e.g. John Osborne and Kingsley Amis, and had little more time for Evelyn Waugh (though she considers him a superior artist to Amis), and, whilst she initially mistook Anthony Burgess for "another angry young man", she later realised her error and admitted he was "full of rich invention and a complete lack of narrowness". Georgette Heyer's books she finds "deeply moving".


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt has been a public encourager of the new young generation of British writers, including Philip Hensher ("Kitchen Venom"), Robert Irwin ("Exquisite Corpse"), A. L. Kennedy, Lawrence Norfolk, David Mitchell ("Ghostwritten"), Ali Smith ("Hotel World"), Zadie Smith ("White Teeth") and Adam Thirlwell, saying in 2009 that she was "not entirely disinterested, because I wish there to be a literary world in which people are not writing books only about people's feelings... all the ones I like write also about ideas". She contrasted some of those preferences with the work of Martin Amis, Julian Barnes, Ian McEwan and Graham Swift — then added, "In fact I admire all four of those writers... they don't only do people's feelings... nevertheless it's become ossified". Norfolk she described in 2003 as "the best of the young novelists now writing". She also spoke of her admiration for American writer Helen DeWitt's book "The Last Samurai". Hensher, who counts Byatt as a friend, said: "She's very unusual for an English person, in that she's quite suspicious of comedy. With most people, sooner or later, every intellectual position comes down to a joke — it never does with her. This is where I think she fights with Kingsley Amis".


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Questioned about whether her writing was "gendered", Byatt responded: "I've played with trying to understand what the word means, but use either "sex" or "men and women" instead, partly because the word gendered has caused a great many of my friends to write work that is bordering on not saying anything. I have always had a romantic idea that the writer or the artist was, as Coleridge and Virginia Woolf said, androgynous. The whole of "The Virgin in the Garden" quartet is about the desirability of an androgynous mind. I am too old for the women's movement in America or this country. I was fighting battles for the freedom of women, all by myself as I saw it, in the Fifties. I was partly amazed by the organised fight and partly appalled, because freedoms it had been hard for us to win--to be taken seriously by men as equal people to talk to--were suddenly thrown away by the idea that women should band together and talk to each other about each other, about women, and have Women's Studies in women's buildings.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: I learnt never to write a list of my favourite painters or writers without women in, but equally I would never write one without men in. I don't think you can live in the world if the battle between the sexes is more important than communication between the sexes. It never was, to me--I like men. My father was one of the most important presences in my life and he was rational and sane and liked women".


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt has been a judge on many literary award panels, including the Betty Trask Award, the David Higham Prize for Fiction, the Hawthornden Prize and the Booker. She has also written for media, including for "The Times Literary Supplement", British journal "Prospect" and newspapers "The Guardian", "The Independent" and "The Sunday Times".


title: A. S. Byatt

text: Byatt was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1990 New Year Honours, and was promoted to Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE), "for services to Literature", in Elizabeth II's 1999 Birthday Honours.


title: A. S. Byatt

text: The following books form a tetralogy known as "The Quartet": "The Virgin in the Garden" (1978), "Still Life" (1985), "Babel Tower" (1996) and "A Whistling Woman" (2002).


title: Phocas

text: Phocas (; ; 5475 October 610) was Eastern Roman emperor from 602 to 610. Initially, a middle-ranking officer in the Eastern Roman army, Phocas rose to prominence as a spokesman for dissatisfied soldiers in their disputes with the court of the Emperor Maurice. When the army revolted in 602, Phocas emerged as the natural leader of the mutiny. The revolt proved to be successful and led to the capture of Constantinople and the overthrow of Maurice on 23 November 602 with Phocas declaring himself emperor on the same day.


title: Phocas

text: Phocas deeply mistrusted the uncooperative elite of Constantinople to whom he was a usurper and a provincial boor. He, therefore, attempted to base his regime on relatives whom he installed in high military and administrative positions. He immediately faced multiple challenges in domestic and foreign affairs to which he responded with little success. He dealt with domestic opposition with increasing ruthlessness which alienated even wider circles, including some members of his own household. At the same time, the Empire was threatened on multiple frontiers. Avars and Slavs renewed their destructive raids of the Balkans, and the Sassanid Empire launched a massive invasion of the eastern provinces. Finally, the Exarch of Africa, Heraclius the Elder, rebelled against Phocas and gained wide support throughout the empire. Phocas attempted to use border troops to crush the rebellion, which however only resulted in allowing the foreign invaders to break into the heartlands of the Empire. Heraclius the Elder's son, Heraclius, succeeded in taking Constantinople on 5 October 610, and executed Phocas on the same day, before declaring himself the emperor.


title: Phocas

text: Surviving sources are universally extremely hostile to Phocas. He is described as an incompetent tyrant and usurper who brutally purged any real or perceived opposition and left the Empire wide open to foreign aggression. The veracity of these sources is difficult to ascertain since emperors of the Heraclian dynasty who succeeded Phocas had a vested interest in tarnishing his reputation.


title: Phocas

text: Phocas was probably born in 547, as he was said to be aged 55 when he became emperor. He and his family were likely of Thraco-Roman or Cappadocian origin. The life of Phocas before his usurpation of the Byzantine Empire's throne is obscure, but it is known that he served as a low-ranking officer under Emperor Maurice.


title: Phocas

text: In 602, the Byzantine army rebelled against Emperor Maurice, largely due to exhaustion and outrage over orders to continue campaigning north of the Danube in winter as well as previous cuts in wages. The army declared Phocas, by then a centurion, to be the new emperor, raising him on a shield (the traditional method of declaring emperors). On 23 November 602, Phocas was crowned by the patriarch Cyriacus in the church of St John the Baptist at the Hebdomon. He entered Constantinople two days later, on 25 November.


title: Phocas

text: Maurice fled the city with his sons, Theodosius and Tiberius, but they were soon after captured and executed. Maurice's wife and daughters were put in the monastery of Nea Metanoia and later killed.


title: Phocas

text: Despite the executions of the previous emperor and his dynastic successors, Phocas remained in a precarious position, which led him to devote his energy to purging enemies and destroying conspiracies. Because of this focus, and the local resistance he faced all throughout the Byzantine Empire, he was unable to confront foreign attacks on the empire's frontiers. The Avars and Slavs launched numerous raids into the Balkan provinces of the Byzantine Empire, and the Sassanian Empire launched an invasion of the eastern provinces of the empire.


title: Phocas

text: The Avars were able to take all land in the Balkans north of Thessalonica. The populations of Christian cities were slaughtered or captured. The Byzantines transferred most of their forces to the eastern front due to the threat from the Persians.


title: Phocas

text: The Sassanid Persians had formerly been at peace with Maurice as a result of a treaty they made with him in 591. After Phocas usurped and killed Maurice, the Persians invaded the empire in 603. The Sassanids rapidly occupied the eastern provinces, leading the "Magister militum per Orientem", Narses, to defect to their side. Phocas swiftly dealt with him, by inviting him to Constantinople under the promise of safe conduct, then having him burnt alive when he arrived. By 607, the Sassanids had occupied Mesopotamia, Syria, and much of Asia Minor, as far as the Bosphorus.


title: Phocas

text: By the time his reign ended in 610, the Persians had already crossed the Euphrates and taken Zenobia. Contemporary accounts describe the Persians as being very brutal to the occupied population. The 'miracle of St Demetrios' described the carnage:


title: Phocas

text: [T]he devil raised the whirlwind of hatred in all the East, Cilicia, Asia, Palestine and all the lands from there to Constantinople: the factions, no longer content simply to spill blood in public places, attacked homes, slaughtered women, children, the aged, and the young who were sick; those whose youth and frailty impeded their escape from the massacre, [saw] their friends, acquaintances, and parents pillaged, and after all that, even set on fire so that the most wretched inhabitant was not able to escape.


title: Phocas

text: Phocas was unable to control either the state or the army effectively. Due to his distrust of the bulk of Constantinople's elite, with whom he had had no connection before becoming emperor, frequently filling senior military positions with his relatives. He installed: his brother Domentziolus as "Magister officiorum" in 603; his nephew Domentziolus as "Magister militum per Orientem" in 604, giving him command over the eastern provinces; and his brother Comentiolus as "Magister militum per Orientem" around 610. All three remained loyal to Phocas until they were killed by Heraclius. Of the three known male blood-relatives of Phocas, all three were appointed to senior posts, two in military positions and one in an administrative position. Phocas also appointed Priscus, who was his son-in-law by way of his marriage to Phocas' daughter Domentzia, as "Comes excubitorum", the captain of the Excubitors, in 603.


title: Phocas

text: When Phocas was emperor, Byzantine Italy was under continual attack from Lombards, but the Byzantine government spent few resources to aid Italy due to troubles elsewhere. In the entirety of Phocas' reign, the only public structure built with taxes in the city of Rome was a statue of Phocas completed in 608.


title: Phocas

text: When Phocas usurped Maurice, Gregory the Great was bishop of Rome and he praised Phocas as a restorer of liberty. Gregory referred to him as a pious and clement lord, and compared his wife (the new Empress) Leontia to Marcian's consort Pulcheria (whom the Council of Chalcedon called the new Helena). In May 603, portraits of the imperial couple arrived in Rome and were ordered by the pope to be placed in the oratory of St. Caesarius in the imperial palace on the Palatine.


title: Phocas

text: Imperial approval was needed at that time to appoint a new pope, but the approval was delayed by a year upon the death of Pope Sabinian in 606, as Phocas was occupied with killing internal enemies that threatened his rule. He finally gave approval in 607 and Boniface III became pope. Phocas declared Rome "the head of all churches". Shortly afterwards, Phocas had a gilded statue of himself erected on a monumental column in the Roman Forum, known as the Column of Phocas.


title: Phocas

text: Despite being appointed as "Comes excubitorum", Priscus was not loyal to Phocas, and in 608 he appealed to Heraclius the Elder, the Exarch of Carthage, to rebel against Phocas. Heraclius the Elder agreed, and began to prepare to invade, by cutting off the supply of grain to Constantinople and assembling a large army and navy. Heraclius the Elder launched his invasion in 609, with his nephew, Nicetas, marching troops overland to the capital, and his son, Heraclius, leading a naval invasion of Thessalonica, before marching to Constantinople. Heraclius arrived outside Constantinople on 3 October 610, and seized the city on 5 October. Heraclius was declared emperor on the same day, and swiftly had Phocas executed.


title: Phocas

text: Phocas is generally depicted as a villain by Byzantines and modern historians alike, but some of the earliest sources available about Phocas’ reign were written during the reign of Heraclius. The writings that survive are not reliably neutral and the writers would have good reason to demonize him in order to strengthen the rule of Heraclius.


title: Phocas

text: In the cultural sphere, the reign of Phocas is marked by the change of Imperial fashion set by Constantine the Great. Constantine and all his successors, except Julian the Apostate, were beardless. Phocas again introduced the wearing of the beard. This fashion lasted until the end of the Byzantine Empire.


title: Phocas

text: On 19 February 607, Emperor Phocas appointed Boniface III as the new bishop of Rome, then Phocas issued an imperial decree by the Roman government, recognizing Boniface III as the "Head of all Churches" and "Universal Bishop". Phocas transferred the title of "Universal Bishop" from Diocese of Constantinople to Diocese of Rome. Boniface sought and obtained a decree from Phocas in which he restated that "the See of Blessed Peter the Apostle should be the head of all the Churches" and ensured that the title of "Universal Bishop" belonged exclusively to the Bishop of Rome. This act effectively ended the attempt by Patriarch Cyriacus of Constantinople to establish himself as "Universal Bishop".


title: Phocas

text: In calling the Pope the "head of all churches", Phocas' decree has been important in discussions about papal primacy and papal supremacy. Some Protestant historicist commentators have seen the decree of Phocas (usually taken to be in 606) as having eschatological significance. For example, in his "Horae Apocalypticae", Edward Bishop Elliott took the 1260 days of Revelation 11:3 to be the period between 606 and the Unification of Italy in 1866.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: In mathematics, more specifically in multivariable calculus, the implicit function theorem is a tool that allows relations to be converted to functions of several real variables. It does so by representing the relation as the graph of a function. There may not be a single function whose graph can represent the entire relation, but there may be such a function on a restriction of the domain of the relation. The implicit function theorem gives a sufficient condition to ensure that there is such a function.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: More precisely, given a system of equations (often abbreviated into ), the theorem states that, under a mild condition on the partial derivatives (with respect to each ) at a point, the variables are differentiable functions of the in some neighborhood of the point. As these functions can generally not be expressed in closed form, they are "implicitly" defined by the equations, and this motivated the name of the theorem.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: In other words, under a mild condition on the partial derivatives, the set of zeros of a system of equations is locally the graph of a function.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Augustin-Louis Cauchy (1789–1857) is credited with the first rigorous form of the implicit function theorem. Ulisse Dini (1845–1918) generalized the real-variable version of the implicit function theorem to the context of functions of any number of real variables.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: If we define the function , then the equation cuts out the unit circle as the level set . There is no way to represent the unit circle as the graph of a function of one variable because for each choice of , there are two choices of "y", namely formula_1.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: However, it is possible to represent "part" of the circle as the graph of a function of one variable. If we let formula_2 for , then the graph of provides the upper half of the circle. Similarly, if formula_3, then the graph of gives the lower half of the circle.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: The purpose of the implicit function theorem is to tell us that functions like and almost always exist, even in situations where we cannot write down explicit formulas. It guarantees that and are differentiable, and it even works in situations where we do not have a formula for .


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Let formula_4 be a continuously differentiable function. We think of formula_5 as the Cartesian product formula_6 and we write a point of this product as formula_7 Starting from the given function formula_8, our goal is to construct a function formula_9 whose graph formula_10 is precisely the set of all formula_11 such that formula_12.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: As noted above, this may not always be possible. We will therefore fix a point formula_13 which satisfies formula_14, and we will ask for a formula_15 that works near the point formula_16. In other words, we want an open set formula_17 containing formula_18, an open set formula_19 containing formula_20, and a function formula_21 such that the graph of formula_15 satisfies the relation formula_23 on formula_24, and that no other points within formula_25 do so. In symbols,


title: Implicit function theorem

text: To state the implicit function theorem, we need the Jacobian matrix of formula_8, which is the matrix of the partial derivatives of formula_8. Abbreviating formula_29 to formula_16, the Jacobian matrix is


title: Implicit function theorem

text: where formula_32 is the matrix of partial derivatives in the variables formula_33 and formula_34 is the matrix of partial derivatives in the variables formula_35. The implicit function theorem says that if formula_34 is an invertible matrix, then there are formula_37, formula_38, and formula_15 as desired. Writing all the hypotheses together gives the following statement.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Let formula_4 be a continuously differentiable function, and let formula_5 have coordinates formula_11. Fix a point formula_43 with formula_44, where formula_45 is the zero vector. If the Jacobian matrix (this is the right-hand panel of the Jacobian matrix shown in the previous section):


title: Implicit function theorem

text: is invertible, then there exists an open set formula_17 containing formula_18 such that there exists a unique continuously differentiable function formula_49 such that and Moreover, denoting the left-hand panel of the Jacobian matrix shown in the previous section as:


title: Implicit function theorem

text: the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives of formula_15 in formula_37 is given by the matrix product:


title: Implicit function theorem

text: If, moreover, formula_8 is analytic or continuously differentiable formula_55 times in a neighborhood of formula_16, then one may choose formula_37 in order that the same holds true for formula_15 inside formula_37. In the analytic case, this is called the analytic implicit function theorem.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Suppose formula_60 is a continuously differentiable function defining a curve formula_61. Let formula_62 be a point on the curve. The statement of the theorem above can be rewritten for this simple case as follows:


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Since we are restricted to movement on the curve formula_64 and by assumption formula_65 around the point formula_62 (since formula_67 is continuous at formula_62 and formula_69). Therefore we have a first-order ordinary differential equation:


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Now we are looking for a solution to this ODE in an open interval around the point formula_62 for which, at every point in it, formula_72. Since "F" is continuously differentiable and from the assumption we have


title: Implicit function theorem

text: From this we know that formula_74 is continuous and bounded on both ends. From here we know that formula_75 is Lipschitz continuous in both "x" and "y". Therefore, by Cauchy-Lipschitz theorem, there exists unique "y"("x") that is the solution to the given ODE with the initial conditions. Q.E.D.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Let us go back to the example of the unit circle. In this case "n" = "m" = 1 and formula_76. The matrix of partial derivatives is just a 1 × 2 matrix, given by


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Thus, here, the in the statement of the theorem is just the number ; the linear map defined by it is invertible if and only if . By the implicit function theorem we see that we can locally write the circle in the form for all points where . For we run into trouble, as noted before. The implicit function theorem may still be applied to these two points, by writing as a function of , that is, formula_78; now the graph of the function will be formula_79, since where we have , and the conditions to locally express the function in this form are satisfied.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: The implicit derivative of "y" with respect to "x", and that of "x" with respect to "y", can be found by totally differentiating the implicit function formula_80 and equating to 0:


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Suppose we have an -dimensional space, parametrised by a set of coordinates formula_84. We can introduce a new coordinate system formula_85 by supplying m functions formula_86 each being continuously differentiable. These functions allow us to calculate the new coordinates formula_85 of a point, given the point's old coordinates formula_84 using formula_89. One might want to verify if the opposite is possible: given coordinates formula_85, can we 'go back' and calculate the same point's original coordinates formula_84? The implicit function theorem will provide an answer to this question. The (new and old) coordinates formula_92 are related by "f" = 0, with


title: Implicit function theorem

text: where I denotes the "m" × "m" identity matrix, and is the matrix of partial derivatives, evaluated at ("a", "b"). (In the above, these blocks were denoted by X and Y. As it happens, in this particular application of the theorem, neither matrix depends on "a".) The implicit function theorem now states that we can locally express formula_84 as a function of formula_85 if "J" is invertible. Demanding "J" is invertible is equivalent to det "J" ≠ 0, thus we see that we can go back from the primed to the unprimed coordinates if the determinant of the Jacobian "J" is non-zero. This statement is also known as the inverse function theorem.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: As a simple application of the above, consider the plane, parametrised by polar coordinates . We can go to a new coordinate system (cartesian coordinates) by defining functions and . This makes it possible given any point to find corresponding Cartesian coordinates . When can we go back and convert Cartesian into polar coordinates? By the previous example, it is sufficient to have , with


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Since , conversion back to polar coordinates is possible if . So it remains to check the case . It is easy to see that in case , our coordinate transformation is not invertible: at the origin, the value of θ is not well-defined.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Based on the inverse function theorem in Banach spaces, it is possible to extend the implicit function theorem to Banach space valued mappings.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Let "X", "Y", "Z" be Banach spaces. Let the mapping be continuously Fréchet differentiable. If formula_99, formula_100, and formula_101 is a Banach space isomorphism from "Y" onto "Z", then there exist neighbourhoods "U" of "x" and "V" of "y" and a Fréchet differentiable function "g" : "U" → "V" such that "f"("x", "g"("x")) = 0 and "f"("x", "y") = 0 if and only if "y" = "g"("x"), for all formula_102.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Various forms of the implicit function theorem exist for the case when the function "f" is not differentiable. It is standard that local strict monotonicity suffices in one dimension. The following more general form was proven by Kumagai based on an observation by Jittorntrum.


title: Implicit function theorem

text: Consider a continuous function formula_103 such that formula_104. If there exist open neighbourhoods formula_105 and formula_106 of "x" and "y", respectively, such that, for all "y" in "B", formula_107 is locally one-to-one then there exist open neighbourhoods formula_108 and formula_109 of "x" and "y", such that, for all formula_110, the equation


title: Dan Cathy

text: Daniel Truett Cathy (born March 1, 1953) is an American businessman. He is the Chairman of the Board and VP of fast-food chain Chick-fil-A, which was founded and expanded by his father, S. Truett Cathy. He has a net worth of $7.1 billion as of November 2020.


title: Dan Cathy

text: Cathy was born in Jonesboro, Georgia, in 1953 as the first child of Jeanette ( McNeil) and S. Truett Cathy. His father had recently started a restaurant known as the Dwarf House. Cathy has a younger brother, Bubba Cathy and sister Trudy. In addition their family fostered numerous children over the years.


title: Dan Cathy

text: He began doing radio commercials for his father's original Dwarf House restaurant in Hapeville, Georgia, in the late 1960s while he was attending local schools. By that time, his father was establishing additional restaurants around Atlanta and Georgia as he created the franchise chain known as Chick-fil-A.


title: Dan Cathy

text: Cathy earned a bachelor's degree in business administration from Georgia Southern University in 1975. After graduation, he began working full-time for his father's company, which had already been established as a franchise chain.


title: Dan Cathy

text: Cathy started as director of operations, eventually being promoted in 2013 to president and CEO. Cathy spends much of his time visiting the chain's 2,000 restaurants. Dan Cathy in late 2021 stepped down from president and CEO of Chick-fil-A, Inc. to Chairman of the Board and VP.


title: Dan Cathy

text: Cathy holds honorary doctorates from the University of West Georgia, Anderson College, Carver College, and Pepperdine University. His family runs the WinShape Foundation, a non-profit which supports a group of Southern Baptist ministries.


title: Dan Cathy

text: Cathy said in July 2012 that he opposes same-sex marriage and supports conservative Christian causes. Tax records obtained in 2011 showed that Chick-fil-A's operators, the WinShape Foundation, and the Cathy family spent millions of dollars to defeat same-sex marriage initiatives and to provide conversion therapy.


title: Dan Cathy

text: In March 2014, Cathy told the "Atlanta Journal-Constitution" that it had been a "mistake" for the WinShape Foundation to "support political or social agendas" in the period before 2012, when this was reported and a national controversy broke out at a time of debate about same-sex marriages. Despite this statement, Cathy continued to contribute to campaigns focused on his ideological political agenda. He said:


title: Dan Cathy

text: While we evaluate individual donations on an annual basis, our giving is focused on three key areas: youth and education, leadership and family enrichment and serving the local communities in which we operate. Our intent is to not support political or social agendas. This has been the case for more than 60 years. The Chick-fil-A culture and service tradition in our restaurants is to treat every person with honor, dignity and respect and to serve great food with genuine hospitality.


title: Dan Cathy

text: In June 2019, "The Daily Beast" reported that the National Christian Charitable Foundation (NCF), to which Cathy is reportedly a major donor, was helping to fund opposition to the Equality Act in "what one LGBTQ movement leader called one of 'the most sophisticated dark money operations' they’ve ever seen."


title: Language death

text: In linguistics, language death occurs when a language loses its last native speaker. By extension, language extinction is when the language is no longer known, including by second-language speakers. Other similar terms include linguicide, the death of a language from natural or political causes, and rarely glottophagy, the absorption or replacement of a minor language by a major language.


title: Language death

text: Language death is a process in which the level of a speech community's linguistic competence in their language variety decreases, eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of the variety. Language death can affect any language form, including dialects. Language death should not be confused with language attrition (also called language loss), which describes the loss of proficiency in a first language of an individual.


title: Language death

text: In the modern period (–present; following the rise of colonialism), language death has typically resulted from the process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favour of a foreign lingua franca, largely those of European countries.


title: Language death

text: As of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of the currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050.


title: Language death

text: Language death is typically the outcome of language shift and may manifest itself in one of the following ways:


title: Language death

text: The most common process leading to language death is one in which a community of speakers of one language becomes bilingual with another language, and gradually shifts allegiance to the second language until they cease to use their original, heritage language. This is a process of assimilation which may be voluntary or may be forced upon a population. Speakers of some languages, particularly regional or minority languages, may decide to abandon them because of economic or utilitarian reasons, in favor of languages regarded as having greater utility or prestige.


title: Language death

text: Languages with a small, geographically isolated population of speakers can die when their speakers are wiped out by genocide, disease, or natural disaster.


title: Language death

text: A language is often declared to be dead even before the last native speaker of the language has died. If there are only a few elderly speakers of a language remaining, and they no longer use that language for communication, then the language is effectively dead. A language that has reached such a reduced stage of use is generally considered moribund. Half of the spoken languages of the world are not being taught to new generations of children. Once a language is no longer a native language—that is, if no children are being socialized into it as their primary language—the process of transmission is ended and the language itself will not survive past the current generations.


title: Language death

text: Language death is rarely a sudden event, but a slow process of each generation learning less and less of the language until its use is relegated to the domain of traditional use, such as in poetry and song. Typically the transmission of the language from adults to children becomes more and more restricted, to the final setting that adults speaking the language will raise children who never acquire fluency. One example of this process reaching its conclusion is that of the Dalmatian language.


title: Language death

text: During language loss—sometimes referred to as "obsolescence" in the linguistic literature—the language that is being lost generally undergoes changes as speakers make their language more similar to the language to which they are shifting. This process of change has been described by Appel (1983) in two categories, though they are not mutually exclusive. Often speakers replace elements of their own language with something from the language they are shifting toward. Also, if their heritage language has an element that the new language does not, speakers may drop it.


title: Language death

text: When a language dies, a complex loss occurs beyond speech, including connection to identity and well-being particularly in Indigenous communities, as many Indigenous peoples' identity, autonomy, and spiritual sovereignty are highly interwoven with their connection to their traditional language. Given that cultural identity, language, and social traditions are deeply interwoven, language loss can be a fundamental factor of ill health in Indigenous communities.


title: Language death

text: The National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organization (NACCHO) defines health as not merely the physical well-being of an individual but also as social, emotional, and cultural well-being of the whole community. For Aboriginal communities in Australia, language loss, as part of broad colonial attempts at culturicide, is part of a cultural loss that plays a key role in ongoing intergenerational trauma reinforcing health inequity. Linguicide plays an active role in ongoing intergenerational trauma of the Stolen Generations, which is known to negatively impact mental health, and is implicated in high suicide rates.


title: Language death

text: Similar forced assimilation practices instrumental in colonial linguicide such as removal of children to residential schools have created language loss in Indigenous communities around the world. As a consequence Indigenous peoples experience heightened negative mental health effects, such as substance abuse, trauma, and depression. A study conducted on Aboriginal youth suicide rates in Canada found that Indigenous communities in which a majority of members speak the traditional language exhibit low suicide rates. Contrary, suicide rates were six times higher in groups where less than half of its members communicate in their ancestral language.


title: Language death

text: Many Indigenous communities take on a holistic view of health, in which a connection to culture and language is essential to well-being. Together, culture and language build the foundation of a collective identity. Thus, language death can have severe effects on health.


title: Language death

text: Language revitalization is an attempt to slow or reverse language death. Revitalization programs are ongoing in many languages, and have had varying degrees of success.


title: Language death

text: The revival of the Hebrew language in Israel is the only example of a language's acquiring new first language speakers after it became extinct in everyday use for an extended period, being used only as a liturgical language. Even in the case of Hebrew, there is a theory that argues that "the Hebrew revivalists who wished to speak pure Hebrew failed. The result is a fascinating and multifaceted Israeli language, which is not only multi-layered but also multi-sourced. The revival of a clinically dead language is unlikely without cross-fertilization from the revivalists' mother tongue(s)."


title: Language death

text: Other cases of language revitalization which have seen some degree of success are Irish, Welsh, Basque, Hawaiian, Cherokee and Navajo.


title: Language death

text: Reasons for language revitalization vary: they can include physical danger affecting those whose language is dying, economic danger such as the exploitation of natural resources, political danger such as genocide, or cultural danger such as assimilation. During the past century, it is estimated that more than 2,000 languages have already become extinct. The United Nations (UN) estimates that more than half of the languages spoken today have fewer than 10,000 speakers and that a quarter have fewer than 1,000 speakers; and that, unless there are some efforts to maintain them, over the next hundred years most of these will become extinct. These figures are often cited as reasons why language revitalization is necessary to preserve linguistic diversity. Culture and identity are also frequently cited reasons for language revitalization, when a language is perceived as a unique "cultural treasure". A community often sees language as a unique part of their culture, connecting them with their ancestors or with the land, making up an essential part of their history and self-image.


title: Language death

text: According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann, "language reclamation will become increasingly relevant as people seek to recover their cultural autonomy, empower their spiritual and intellectual sovereignty, and improve wellbeing. There are various ethical, aesthetic, and utilitarian benefits of language revival—for example, historical justice, diversity, and employability, respectively."


title: Language death

text: Google launched the Endangered Languages Project aimed at helping preserve languages that are at risk of extinction. Its goal is to compile up-to-date information about endangered languages and share the latest research about them.


title: Language death

text: Anthropologist Akira Yamamoto has identified nine factors that he believes will help prevent language death:


title: Language death

text: Linguists distinguish between language "death" and the process where a language becomes a "dead language" through normal language change, a linguistic phenomenon analogous to pseudoextinction. This happens when a language in the course of its normal development gradually morphs into something that is then recognized as a separate, different language, leaving the old form with no native speakers. Thus, for example, Old English may be regarded as a "dead language" although it changed and developed into Middle English, Early Modern English and Modern English. Dialects of a language can also die, contributing to the overall language death. For example, the Ainu language is slowly dying: "The UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger lists Hokkaido Ainu as critically endangered with 15 speakers ... and both Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu as extinct."


title: Language death

text: The process of language change may also involve the splitting up of a language into a family of several daughter languages, leaving the common parent language "dead". This has happened to Latin, which (through Vulgar Latin) eventually developed into the Romance languages, and to Sanskrit, which (through Prakrit) developed into the New Indo-Aryan languages. Such a process is normally not described as "language death", because it involves an unbroken chain of normal transmission of the language from one generation to the next, with only minute changes at every single point in the chain. Thus with regard to Latin, for example, there is no point at which Latin "died"; it evolved in different ways in different geographic areas, and its modern forms are now identified by a plethora of different names such as French, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, etc.


title: Language death

text: Except in case of linguicide, languages do not suddenly become extinct; they become moribund as the community of speakers gradually shifts to using other languages. As speakers shift, there are discernible, if subtle, changes in language behavior. These changes in behavior lead to a change of linguistic vitality in the community. There are a variety of systems that have been proposed for measuring the vitality of a language in a community. One of the earliest is the GIDS (Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale) proposed by Joshua Fishman in 1991. A noteworthy publishing milestone in measuring language vitality is an entire issue of "Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development" devoted to the study of ethnolinguistic vitality, Vol. 32.2, 2011, with several authors presenting their own tools for measuring language vitality. A number of other published works on measuring language vitality have been published, prepared by authors with varying situations and applications in mind. These include works by Arienne Dwyer, Martin Ehala, M. Lynne Landwehr, Mark Karan, András Kornai, and Paul Lewis and Gary Simons.


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: TransAsia Airways Flight 235 was a TransAsia Airways domestic flight from Taipei to Kinmen (Quemoy), Taiwan. On , the aircraft serving the flight, a 10-month-old ATR 72-600, crashed into the Keelung River shortly after takeoff from Taipei Songshan Airport, to the east of Songshan in Taiwan. The aircraft had 53 passengers and five crew on board; 15 of them survived.


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: Two minutes after takeoff, the pilots reported an engine flameout. Flight 235 climbed to a maximum height of , then descended. The other engine, still working, was shut down mistakenly. Immediately before crashing into the river, it banked sharply left and clipped a taxi travelling west on the Huandong Viaduct (causing two more injuries), then the viaduct itself, with its left wing.


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: Flight 235 was the second fatal accident involving a TransAsia Airways ATR aircraft within seven months; Flight 222 had crashed on 2014, killing 48 of the 58 onboard.


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: Flight 235 departed Taipei Songshan Airport at Taiwan time , for its destination of Kinmen Airport, with 53 passengers and five crew members on board. Shortly after take-off, a fault in the autofeather unit of the number-2 engine caused the automatic take-off power control system to autofeather that engine. The flight crew misdiagnosed the problem, and shut down the still-functioning number-1 engine. The aircraft reached an altitude of and then began descending until it crashed. The last pilot communication to air traffic control was: "Mayday, mayday, engine flameout." At 10:55, the aircraft crashed into the Keelung River, on the border of Nangang District of Taipei and Xizhi District of New Taipei.


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: The crash was recorded by dashcams in several cars travelling west along the elevated Huandong Viaduct next to the river. The aircraft, flying level, first cleared an apartment building. Then it rolled sharply, at nearly a 90° bank angle, left wing down. As the aircraft flew low over the elevated viaduct, its left wingtip struck the front of a 2015 Volkswagen Caddy taxi travelling west on the viaduct, and the outboard section of the wing was torn off when it struck the concrete guardrail at the edge of the viaduct. The aircraft continued its roll and struck the water upside down, breaking into two main pieces. The collision with the taxi and the viaduct was captured in footage from a dashcam in a car travelling a short distance behind the taxi, and debris from the plane's wing and pieces of the viaduct's guardrail were thrown across the road surface. Two people in the taxi suffered minor injuries.


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: At the time of the accident, no adverse weather phenomena were observed. At , the cloud base at Songshan was about , the visibility was unlimited, and a light breeze was blowing from the east at . The temperature was .


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: The aircraft involved in the accident was an ATR 72-600 twin-turboprop, registration B-22816, MSN 1141. It first flew on 2014, and was delivered to TransAsia Airways on 2014. The left Pratt & Whitney Canada PW127M engine was replaced in August 2014.


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: The passenger manifest was composed of 49 adults and four children. Thirty-one passengers were Chinese; many were visitors from Xiamen on a six-day tour of Taiwan. The remaining 22 passengers were Taiwanese.


title: TransAsia Airways Flight 235

text: The flight crew consisted of two pilots, both ranked as captains; the captain was Liao Chien-tsung, 42, with a total of 4,914 flight hours (including 250 hours on the ATR 72) and the co-pilot was Liu Tze-chung, 33, with a total of 6,922 flight hours, including 5,314 hours on the ATR 72. Also, an observer, Hung Ping-chung, 63, was seated in the cockpit jump seat, who had a total of 16,121 flight hours, 6,482 of them on the ATR 72. Two flight attendants were working as cabin crew. All crew members were Taiwanese citizens; the co-pilot was a dual New Zealand–Taiwanese citizen.