title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: The complete role of EBV in the pathogenesis of endemic Burkitt lymphoma is not completely elucidated, but it has been shown to cause DNA damage, dysfunction of telomeres, and genome instability. B cell infection with EBV is latent, and the virus does not undergo replication. These latently infected B cells can then go on to produce proteins that function to promote cellular growth through modification of normal signaling pathways. EBV promotes the development of malignant B cells via proteins that limit apoptosis in cells that had the c-myc translocation. Apoptosis is limited by EBV through various means such as the EBNA-1 protein, BHF1 protein, EBER transcripts, vIL-10 gene, BZLF1, and LMP1. Malaria has been found to cause genomic instability in endemic Burkitt lymphoma. Malaria can lead to the reactivation of latent EBV and also MYC translocations via activation of the toll-like receptor 9. Malaria also promotes B-cell proliferation by altering the regular immune response. The immune system targets antigens (e.g., EBNA2 and LMP-1) and eliminates most B cells infected with EBV. Downregulation of antigens targeted by the immune system leads to the development of persistent B cells. These B cells can then undergo further mutations (e.g., c-myc translocation) that promote cancer development.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: Burkitt Lymphoma cells express HLA class I molecules normally, as well as some HLA class II complexes; however, CD4+ T cells are not properly activated. Burkitt lymphoma cells only express EBNA 1, a poorly antigenic EBV-associated antigen, that is able to escape HLA class I presentation, thus evades an immune response. EBNA 1 can be presented via HLA class II molecules, however HLA Class II pathway is unable to activate the CD4+ T cells.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: Normal B cells of a germinal center possess rearranged immunoglobulin heavy and light chain genes, and each isolated B cell possesses a unique IgH gene rearrangement. Since Burkitt lymphoma and other B-cell lymphomas are a clonal proliferative process, all tumor cells from one patient are supposed to possess identical IgH genes. When the DNA of tumor cells is analyzed using electrophoresis, a clonal band can be demonstrated, since identical IgH genes will move to the same position. On the contrary, when a normal or reactive lymph node is analyzed using the same technique, a smear rather than a distinct band will be seen. This technique is useful since sometimes benign reactive processes (e.g. infectious mononucleosis) and malignant lymphoma can be difficult to distinguish.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: The tumor consists of sheets of a monotonous (i.e., similar in size and morphology) population of medium-sized lymphoid cells with high proliferative and apoptotic activity. The "starry sky" appearance seen under low power is due to scattered tingible body-laden macrophages (macrophages containing dead apoptotic tumor cells). The old descriptive term of "small non-cleaved cell" is misleading. The tumor cells are mostly medium in size (i.e., tumor nuclei size similar to that of histiocytes or endothelial cells). "Small non-cleaved cells" are compared to "large non-cleaved cells" of normal germinal center lymphocytes. Tumor cells possess small amounts of basophilic cytoplasm with three to four small nucleoli. The cellular outline usually appears squared off.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: The tumor cells in Burkitt lymphoma generally strongly express markers of B cell differentiation (CD20, CD22, CD19), as well as CD10 and BCL6. The tumor cells are generally negative for BCL2 and TdT. The high mitotic activity of Burkitt lymphoma is confirmed by nearly 100% of the cells staining positive for Ki67.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: In general, the first line of treatment for Burkitt lymphoma is chemotherapy. A few of these regimens are: the GMALL-B-ALL/NHL2002 protocol, the modified Magrath regimen (R-CODOX-M/IVAC). COPADM, hyper-CVAD, and the Cancer and Leukemia Group B (CALGB) 8811 regimen; these can be associated with rituximab. In older patients, treatment may be dose-adjusted EPOCH with rituximab.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: The effects of the chemotherapy, as with all cancers, depend on the time of diagnosis. With faster-growing cancers, such as Burkitt, the cancer actually responds faster than with slower-growing cancers. This rapid response to chemotherapy can be hazardous to the patient, as a phenomenon called "tumor lysis syndrome" could occur. Close monitoring of the patient and adequate hydration is essential during the process. Since Burkitt lymphoma has high propensity to spread to the central nervous system (lymphomatous meningitis), intrathecal chemotherapy with methotrexate and/or ARA-C and/or prednisolone is given along with systemic chemotherapy.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: Other treatments for Burkitt lymphoma include immunotherapy, bone marrow transplants, stem cell transplant, surgery to remove the tumor, and radiotherapy.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: The prognosis for Burkitt lymphoma is superior in children and increased age is a negative prognostic indicator.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: The overall cure rate for sporadic Burkitt lymphoma in developed countries is about 90%. In adults, Burkitt lymphoma is uncommon and has poor outcomes. Unsatisfactory initial response to the treatment of Burkitt lymphoma with cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisolone indicates a negative prognosis. Furthermore, failed initial treatment and return of Burkitt lymphoma after a six-month stint of time serve as a poor prognostic indicator. The adequate utilization of therapeutic drugs during initial treatment limits additional treatment options following the return of the disease. Notably, in areas of the world where the initial treatment of Burkitt lymphoma is inadequate further treatment options may remain for cases when the disease returns. Laboratory studies such as lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), CD4 count, and other cytogenetic studies are also prognostic indicators. Unsatisfactory outcomes have been associated with an LDH that is found to be two times above the upper limit of normal. Specifically, there is a poor prognosis associated with a CD4 count that is decreased in the immunodeficiency-associated variant of Burkitt lymphoma. Genetic mutations extending beyond the previously described MYC translocation may also serve as negative prognostic indicators. Some notable genetic findings that may be associated with poor outcomes include: 13q deletion, 7q gain, ID3 and CCND3 double-hit mutations, and 18q21 CN-LOH mutations. The prognosis for Burkitt lymphoma can be better determined following staging utilizing imaging modalities such as positron emission tomography and computed tomography scans where tumor burden and invasion of the central nervous system have been found to indicate a poor prognosis.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: As a non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL), Burkitt lymphoma makes up 1-5% of cases, and it is more common in males than females with a 3–4 to 1 ratio. The endemic variant mainly impacts areas with an increased prevalence of malaria and EBV in Africa and Papua New Guinea. For children less than 18 years of age from equatorial Africa, the annual incidence of Burkitt lymphoma is 4–5/100,000. Additionally, in equatorial Africa, 50% of tumors that are diagnosed during childhood as well as 90% of lymphoma cases can be attributed to Burkitt lymphoma. The peak incidence for endemic Burkitt lymphoma is from ages 4 to 7 with an average age of 6 years. The sporadic variant with an annual incidence 2-3/million is more commonly found in North America and Europe comprising 1-2% of adult lymphomas and 30–40% of NHL cases. This variant is 3.5 times more commonly found in males compared to females and it is more frequent in younger individuals. The sporadic variant has a peak incidence at 11 years of age in children, and diagnosis typically occurs from 3–12 years of age on average. For adults, 45 years was the median age that the sporadic Burkitt lymphoma was diagnosed. The immunodeficiency-associated variant predominantly impacts the HIV-infected population. For those in the United States and with AIDS, the incidence of this variant was found to be 22/100,000 person-years. There is also an increased risk of developing this variant of Burkitt lymphoma for individuals that have received an organ transplant after 4–5 years.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: EBV infection is associated with Burkitt lymphoma. EBV is found in virtually all instances of endemic Burkitt lymphoma. The sporadic variant of Burkitt lymphoma is associated with EBV in only 10–20% of cases. Approximately 30% of immunodeficiency-associated Burkitt lymphoma cases were associated with EBV.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: Unique genetic alterations promote cell survival in Burkitt lymphoma, distinct from other types of lymphoma.


title: Burkitt lymphoma

text: These "TCF3" and "ID3" gene mutations in Burkitt correspond to a cell survival pathway that may be found to be amenable to targeted therapy.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: Ghazi is a 2017 Indian war film written and directed by Sankalp Reddy, which was simultaneously shot in Telugu and Hindi languages, with the latter titled The Ghazi Attack. The film stars Rana Daggubati, Taapsee Pannu, Kay Kay Menon, Atul Kulkarni and Satya Dev. The film grossed over on a budget of .


title: Ghazi (film)

text: "Ghazi" is inspired by true events from the mysterious sinking of during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The story is about a submarine of the Indian Navy, an executive naval officer and his team, who remained underwater for 18 days. It is about the valour of the crew aboard the Indian submarine "INS Karanj (S21)", which destroyed the Pakistani "PNS Ghazi" submarine when it ventured into Indian waters to destroy on the shores of Visakhapatnam.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: The film was released theatrically on 17 February 2017 to widespread critical acclaim and did decent business. It was declared "Average" by Box Office India. The film later won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film in Telugu. It was also nominated for Best Film and Best Director at 65th Filmfare Awards South.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: In November, 1971, India and Pakistan are on the verge of declaring war on each other, as a result of the refugee crisis precipitated by the Pakistan Army under Operation Searchlight. The Indian Navy and RAW decipher a secret code sent from Pakistan to East Pakistan (modern-day Bangladesh), relating to a possible attack on an Indian naval vessel. The Navy deduces that the target may be , India's sole aircraft carrier. The top command dispatches the submarine "S21", under the command of Captain Ranvijay Singh for recce missions. To temper Singh's belligerent tendencies, the Indian Navy Admiral assigns Lt. Cmdr Arjun Varma to "S21", with orders to ensure that Singh does not confront any Pakistani warships and trigger a war.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: The Navy's top command soon learns that the Pakistan Navy has dispatched PNS Ghazi, under Cmdr. Razak Khan, to the Bay of Bengal to confront " Vikrant". Meanwhile, to divert the attention of the enemy, "Ghazi" torpedoes an Indian merchant ship. The attack is picked by "S21", which races to the scene. Noticing survivors in the wreckage, Arjun jumps into the sea and manages to rescue a girl child and a woman, both of whom are Bengali refugees. During surveillance, "S21" acquires a sonar signal of "Ghazi".


title: Ghazi (film)

text: Singh believes that they should track down "Ghazi" and attack, while Arjun obstructs, reiterating his instructions. Singh then orders the ship's EXO, Lt. Commander Santosh Devraj to conduct a drill and target "Ghazi" while doing so, despite Arjun's protests. They fire a torpedo, which misses "Ghazi" narrowly, thus alerting them of their presence. Aware of the enemy's presence, Razak orders his crew to head towards Visakhapatnam Port at full speed and to set up mines en-route, planning to destroy "S21".


title: Ghazi (film)

text: "S21" pursues "Ghazi's" path and realizes at the last moment that it is headed into mines. Singh and Arjun frantically attempt to change its course but a mine explodes in the stern and damages most of the sub's batteries, propellers and circuits. The sub blows open many leaks, with the forward torpedo compartment flooded, crippling the sub and barring it from firing its forward torpedoes. Singh dies while trying to save Arjun, as "S21" sinks to the sea-bed.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: Arjun, now in command of the sub, regroups and work towards reviving "S21". They manage to clog the sub's leaks and pumps the excess water out, before holding a final farewell for Singh. The crew noticed that the vessel is incapable of moving in any direction, except upwards or downwards. Since they are unable to chase "Ghazi", the crew artificially trigger one of the naval mines in its vicinity to lure "Ghazi" to their position. Razak, believing "S21" is still operational, orders his crew to turn around to sink "S21".


title: Ghazi (film)

text: Arjun and Devraj plan to lure Ghazi within its range of firing, but a suspicious Razak orders "Ghazi's" course to be changed at the last minute.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: Ghazi, now having the ability to attack "S21", fires six torpedoes, all of which are avoided by "S21" through depth changing maneuvers, much to Razak's frustration. S21 dives to 350 m, in order to slip from Ghazi's sonar range despite being designed for a maximum of 250 m depth. With very limited battery support, Arjun instigates Ghazi into attacking by transmitting his crew singing 'Saare Jahaan se Achchha' and the Indian National Anthem. Riled up by "S21's" defiance, Razak orders another torpedo attack on "S21", for which Ghazi will have to turn by port 180 degrees. Arjun dives into the flooded forward compartment to manually trigger the torpedoes, successfully managing to do so. "Ghazi" also launches its torpedo at the same time. The torpedo launched by "Ghazi" misses "S21" narrowly, but it is hit by "S21's" torpedo and disintegrates in the water, killing the entire crew. "S21" surfaces and the crew manages to save Arjun from the flooded compartment in the nick of time. "S21" is later saved by a patrolling Indian Navy vessel.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: The ending titles narrate the mysterious circumstances about "Ghazi's" fate, with its sinking credited to the actions of "INS Rajput". It also mentions that in the aftermath of "Ghazi's" sinking, India and Pakistan had declared war on each other, which would ultimately result in India's victory, Pakistan's surrender and the creation of Bangladesh.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: PVP Cinema has produced the film. Karan Johar distributed the Hindi version. The music is composed by K. Visual Effects handled by Eva Motion Studios.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: The film stars Rana Daggubati and Taapsee Pannu in the lead along with Kay Kay Menon, Satyadev Kancharana, Atul Kulkarni, Ramanuj Dubey, Kunal Kaushik, Priyadarshi Pulikonda, Rahul Singh, Akshay Mittal, Malyaban Lahiri and Naren Yadav. Cinematography is done by Madhi, music composed by K, Visual Effects Supervisor Vasudeva R Enugala and editing by Sreeker Prasad.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: Indian Navy claims to have sunk the PNS "Ghazi" on 3 December 1971 at the Vishakhapatnam harbour when then Captain Inder Singh of INS "Rajput" ordered the attack upon it. However the Pakistan Navy dispute the claim; as Pakistan naval inquiries believes the "Ghazi" might have sunk due to it mistakenly entering its own minefield and collided with one of the mines, which resulted in the violent underwater explosion.


title: Ghazi (film)

text: Renuka Vyavahare of The Times of India gave the film a rating of 3 out of 5 and said that, "While the visuals and special effects lack finesse, the film compensates for it with its riveting story. Despite the hitches, this underwater thriller is worth a watch." Shalini Langer of The Indian Express gave the film a rating of 1.5 out of 5 saying that the film "could have been an engrossing crisis-at-sea drama but the film is so busy slaying Pakistanis that it loses sight of its core strengths." Prasanna D Zore of Rediff said that, "The Ghazi Attack is a riveting telling of a war story" and gave the film a rating of 4 out of 5. Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave the film a rating of 2.5 out of 5 saying that, "The Ghazi Attack delivers many a riveting moment and is bolstered by the talent of a few capable actors. Its plot, however, is devoid of any mystery." Bollywood Hungama gave the film a rating of 3.5 out of 5 saying that the movie "is a gripping war drama that leaves a stunning impact." Divya Pal of News18 criticized the screenplay and direction of the film and gave the film a rating of 1.5 out of 5 saying that, "All in all, "The Ghazi Attack" is utterly disappointing." Authors at "The Reading Hook" featured this film in their list of best Bollywood War Movies ever made and was positively accepted by their readers."


title: Kaishakunin

text: A kaishakunin () is a person appointed to behead an individual who has performed seppuku, Japanese ritual suicide, at the moment of agony. The role played by the "kaishakunin" is called kaishaku.


title: Kaishakunin

text: Aside from being spared prolonged anguish until death, both the condemned and those on hand to observe are spared the spectacle of the writhing death throes that would ensue.


title: Kaishakunin

text: The most recent "kaishakunin" of the 20th century was Hiroyasu Koga, who beheaded the novelist Yukio Mishima and political activist Masakatsu Morita during their seppuku.


title: Kaishakunin

text: Still preserved in modern-day movements ("kata") of the martial art Iaidō, the ritual of performing "kaishaku" varies very little between Japanese fencing schools, but all of them are bound to the following steps to be performed by the "kaishakunin":


title: Kaishakunin

text: After the dead samurai falls, the "kaishakunin", with the same slow, silent style used when unsheathing the "katana", shakes the blood off the blade (a movement called "chiburi") and returns the "katana" to the scabbard (a movement called "noto"), while kneeling towards the fellow samurai's dead body. When this is completed, the "kaishakunin" remains kneeling for a while, as a sign of deep respect to the fallen samurai who performed the ritual suicide, always in a state of "total awareness" ("zanshin") before standing up and bowing ("rei") to his body.


title: Kaishakunin

text: In some "seppuku" rituals, no disembowelment occurs. The condemned person merely moves the tantō, or, sometimes, a wooden stick or fan, across his stomach, followed by a beheading by the "kaishakunin". In this variation, the "kaishakunin" becomes in effect the executioner, and "seppuku" becomes effectively a beheading.


title: Kaishakunin

text: In other seppuku rituals, the cut to the neck may be done as the condemned person simply reaches for the tanto. The reaching gave honor to the condemned, as he was exhibiting intent by doing so, and the "early" stroke of the sword could be dismissed as a small mistake in timing by an overzealous kaishakunin. In reality, this was planned ahead of time to spare the condemned the pain of actually trying to disembowel himself.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne (; ; ; ) is a city in Southwestern France near the Spanish border. It is a commune and one of two subprefectures in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques department, in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is located at the confluence of the Nive and Adour rivers in the northern part of the cultural region of the Basque Country. It is the seat of the Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque which roughly encompasses the western half of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, including the coastal city of Biarritz. This area also constitutes the southern part of Gascony, where the Aquitaine Basin joins the beginning of the Pre-Pyrenees.


title: Bayonne

text: Together with nearby Anglet, Biarritz, Saint-Jean-de-Luz, as well as several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an urban area with 273,137 inhabitants at the 2018 census; 51,411 residents lived in the commune of Bayonne proper. It is also a part of Basque Eurocity Bayonne-San Sebastián.


title: Bayonne

text: The site on the left bank of the Nive and the Adour was probably occupied before ancient times; a fortified enclosure was attested in the 1st century at the time when the Tarbelli occupied the territory. Archaeological studies have confirmed the presence of a Roman castrum, a stronghold in Novempopulania at the end of the 4th century, before the city was populated by the Vascones.


title: Bayonne

text: In 1023, Bayonne was the capital of Labourd. In the 12th century, it extended to the confluence and beyond of the Nive River. At that time the first bridge was built over the Adour. The city came under the domination of the English in 1152 through the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine: it became militarily and, above all, commercially important thanks to maritime trade. In 1177, Richard the Lion Heart of England took control of it, separating it from the Viscount of Labourd.


title: Bayonne

text: In 1451, the city was taken by the Crown of France after the Hundred Years' War. The loss of trade with the English was followed by the river gradually filling with silt and becoming impassable to ships. As the city developed to the north, its position was weakened compared to earlier times. The district of Saint-Esprit developed initially from settlement by Sephardic Jewish refugees fleeing the Spanish expulsions dictated by the Alhambra Decree. This community brought skill in chocolate making, and Bayonne gained a reputation for chocolate.


title: Bayonne

text: The course of the Adour was changed in 1578 by dredging under the direction of Louis de Foix, and the river returned to its former mouth. Bayonne flourished after regaining the maritime trade that it had lost for more than a hundred years. In the 17th century the city was fortified by Vauban, whose works were followed as models of defense for 100 years. In 1814, Bayonne and its surroundings were the scene of fighting between the Napoleonic troops and the Spanish-Anglo-Portuguese coalition led by the Duke of Wellington. It was the last time the city was under siege.


title: Bayonne

text: In 1951, the Lacq gas field was discovered in the region; its extracted sulphur and associated oil are shipped from the port of Bayonne. During the second half of the 20th century, many housing estates were built, forming new districts on the periphery. The city developed to form a conurbation with Anglet and Biarritz: this agglomeration became the heart of a vast Basque-Landes urban area.


title: Bayonne

text: In 2014, Bayonne was a commune with more than 45,000 inhabitants, the heart of the urban area of Bayonne and of the "Agglomeration Côte Basque-Adour". This includes Anglet and Biarritz. It is an important part of the Basque "Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity" and it plays the role of economic capital of the Adour basin. Modern industry—metallurgy and chemicals—have been established to take advantage of procurement opportunities and sea shipments through the harbour. Business services today represent the largest source of employment. Bayonne is also a cultural capital, a city with strong Basque and Gascon influences, and a rich historical past. Its heritage is expressed in its architecture, the diversity of collections in museums, its gastronomic specialties, and traditional events such as the noted Fêtes de Bayonne.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is located in the south-west of France on the western border between Basque Country and Gascony. It developed at the confluence of the Adour and tributary on the left bank, the Nive, 6 km from the Atlantic coast. The commune was part of the Basque province of Labourd.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne occupies a territory characterized by a flat relief to the west and to the north towards the Landes forest, tending to slightly raise towards the south and east. The city has developed at the confluence of the Adour and Nive from the ocean. The meeting point of the two rivers coincides with a narrowing of the Adour valley. Above this the alluvial plain extends for nearly towards both Tercis-les-Bains and Peyrehorade, and is characterized by swampy meadows called "barthes". These were are influenced by floods and high tides. Downstream from this point, the river has shaped a large, wide bed in the sand dunes, creating a significant bottleneck at the confluence.


title: Bayonne

text: The occupation of the hill that dominates this narrowing of the valley developed through a gradual spread across the lowlands. Occupants built embankments and the aggradation from flood soil.


title: Bayonne

text: The Nive has played a leading role in the development of the Bayonne river system in recent geological time by the formation of alluvial terraces; these form the sub-soil of Bayonne beneath the surface accumulations of silt and aeolian sands. The drainage network of the western Pre-Pyrenees evolved mostly from the Quaternary, from south-east to northwest, oriented east–west. The Adour was captured by the gaves and this system, together with the Nive, led to the emergence of a new alignment of the lower Adour and the Adour-Nive confluence. This capture has been dated to the early Quaternary (80,000 years ago).


title: Bayonne

text: Before this capture, the Nive had deposited pebbles from the Mindel glaciation of medium to large sizes; this slowed erosion of the hills causing the bottleneck at Bayonne. After the deposit of the lowest alluvial terrace ( high at Grand Bayonne), the course of the Adour became fixed in its lower reaches.


title: Bayonne

text: Subsequent to these deposits, there was a rise in sea level in the Holocene period (from 15,000 to 5000 years ago). This explains the invasion of the lower valleys with fine sand, peat, and mud with a thickness of more than below the current bed of the Adour and the Nive in Bayonne. These same deposits are spread across the barthes.


title: Bayonne

text: In the late Quaternary, the current topographic physiognomy was formed—i.e. a set of hills overlooking a swampy lowland. The promontory of Bassussarry–Marracq ultimately extended to the Labourdin foothills. The Grand Bayonne hill is an example. Similarly, on the right bank of the Nive, the heights of Château-Neuf (Mocoron Hill) met the latest advance of the plateau of Saint-Pierre-d'Irube (height ). On the right bank of the Adour, the heights of Castelnau (today the citadel), with an altitude of , and Fort (today Saint-Esprit), with an altitude of , rise above the Barthes of the Adour, the Nive, Bourgneuf, Saint-Frédéric, Sainte-Croix, Aritxague, and Pontots.


title: Bayonne

text: The city developed along the river Adour. The river is part of the Natura 2000 network from its source at Bagnères-de-Bigorre to its exit to the Atlantic Ocean after Bayonne, between Tarnos (Landes) for the right bank and Anglet (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) for the left bank.


title: Bayonne

text: Apart from the Nive, which joins the left bank of the Adour after of a sometimes tumultuous course, two tributaries join the Adour in Bayonne commune: the "Ruisseau de Portou" and the "Ruisseau du Moulin Esbouc". Tributaries of the Nive are the "Ruisseau de Hillans" and the "Ruisseau d'Urdaintz" which both rise in the commune.


title: Bayonne

text: The climate of Bayonne is relatively similar to that of its neighbour Biarritz, described below, with fairly heavy rainfall; the oceanic climate is due to the proximity of the Atlantic Ocean. The average winter temperature is around 8 °C and is around 20 °C in summer. The lowest temperature recorded was −12.7 °C on 16 January 1985 and the highest 40.6 °C on 4 August 2003 in the 2003 European heat wave. Rains on the Basque coast are rarely persistent except during winter storms. They often take the form of intense thunderstorms of short duration.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is located at the intersection of the A63 autoroute (Bordeaux-Spain) and the D1 extension of the A64 autoroute (towards Toulouse). The city is served by three interchanges—two of them on the A63: exit (Bayonne Nord) serves the northern districts of Bayonne but also allows quick access to the centre while exit (Bayonne Sud) provides access to the south and also serves Anglet. The third exit is the D1 / A64 via the Mousserolles interchange (exit Bayonne Mousserolles) which links the district of the same name and also serves the neighbouring communes of Mouguerre and Saint-Pierre-d'Irube.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne was traversed by Route nationale 10 connecting Paris to Hendaye but this is now downgraded to a departmental road D810. Route nationale 117, linking Bayonne to Toulouse has been downgraded to departmental road D817.


title: Bayonne

text: Coming from upstream on the Adour there is the A63 bridge, then the Saint-Frédéric bridge which carries the D 810, then the railway bridge that replaced the old Eiffel iron bridge, the Saint-Esprit bridge, and finally the Grenet bridge. The Saint-Esprit bridge connects the Saint-Esprit district to the Amiral-Bergeret dock just upstream of the confluence with the river Nive. In 1845, the old bridge, originally made of wood, was rebuilt in masonry with seven arches supporting a deck wide. It was then called the Nemours Bridge in honour of Louis of Orleans, sixth Duke of Nemours, who laid the first stone. The bridge was finally called Saint-Esprit. Until 1868 the bridge had a moving span near the left bank. It was expanded in 1912 to facilitate the movement of horse-drawn carriages and motor vehicles.


title: Bayonne

text: On the Nive coming from upstream to downstream there is the A63 bridge then the "Pont Blanc" (White bridge) railway bridge, and then D810 bridge, the Génie bridge (or "Pont Millitaire"), the Pannecau bridge, the Marengo bridge leading to the covered markets, and the Mayou Bridge. The Pannecau bridge was long named "Bertaco bridge" and was rebuilt in masonry under Napoleon III. According to François Lafitte Houssat, "[...] a municipal ordinance of 1327 provided for the imprisonment of any quarrellsome woman of bad character in an iron cage dropped into the waters of the Nive River from the bridge. The practice lasted until 1780 [...]" This punishment bore the evocative name of "cubainhade".


title: Bayonne

text: The commune is traversed by the "Vélodyssée". Bicycle paths are located along the left bank of the Adour, a large part of the left bank of the Nive, and along various axes of the city where there are some bicycle lanes. The city offers free bicycles on loan.


title: Bayonne

text: Most of the lines of the "Chronoplus" bus network operated by the "Transdev agglomeration of Bayonne" link Bayonne to other communes in the urban transport perimeter: Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart, Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube and Tarnos The Bayonne free shuttle Bayonne serves the city centre (Grand and Petit Bayonne) by connecting several parking stations; other free shuttles perform other short trips within the commune.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is connected to many cities in the western half of the department such as Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Saint-Palais by the Pyrenees-Atlantiques long-distance coach network of "Transport 64" managed by the General Council. Since the network restructuring in the summer of 2013, the lines converge on Bayonne. Bayonne is also served by services from the Landes departmental network, "XL'R".


title: Bayonne

text: The Gare de Bayonne is located in the Saint-Esprit district and is an important station on the Bordeaux-Irun railway. It is also the terminus of lines leading from Toulouse to Bayonne and from Bayonne to Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port. It is served by TGV, Intercités, Intercités de nuit, and TER Nouvelle-Aquitaine trains (to Hendaye, Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port, Dax, Bordeaux, Pau, and Tarbes).


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is served by the Biarritz – Anglet – Bayonne Airport (IATA code: BIQ • ICAO code: LFBZ), located on the communal territories of Anglet and Biarritz. The airport was returned to service in 1954 after repair of damage from bombing during the Second World War.


title: Bayonne

text: While the modern Basque spelling is "Baiona" and the same in Gascon Occitan, "the name "Bayonne" poses a number of problems both historical and linguistic which have still not been clarified". There are different interpretations of its meaning.


title: Bayonne

text: The termination "-onne" in "Bayonne" can come from many in hydronyms "-onne" or toponyms derived from that. In certain cases the element "-onne" follows an Indo-European theme: "*ud-r/n" (Greek "húdōr" giving hydro, Gothic "watt" meaning "water") hence "*udnā" meaning "water" giving "unna" then "onno" in the glossary of Vienne. "Unna" therefore would refer to the Adour. This toponymic type evoking a river traversing a locality is common. The appellative "unna" seems to be found in the name of the Garonne ("Garunna" 1st century; "Garonna" 4th century). However it is possible to see a pre-Celtic suffix "-ona" in the name of the Charente ("Karantona" in 875) or the Charentonne ("Carentona" in 1050).


title: Bayonne

text: It could also be an augmentative Gascon from the original Latin radical "Baia-" with the suffix "-ona" in the sense of "vast expanse of water" or a name derived from the Basque "bai" meaning "river" and "ona" meaning "good", hence "good river".


title: Bayonne

text: The proposal by Eugene Goyheneche repeated by Manex Goyhenetche and supported by Jean-Baptiste Orpustan is "bai una", "the place of the river" or "bai ona" "hill by the river"—"Ibai" means "river" in Basque and "muinoa" means "hill".


title: Bayonne

text: "It has perhaps been lost from sight that many urban place names in France, from north to south, came from the element "Bay-" or "Bayon-" such as: Bayons, Bayonville, Bayonvillers and pose the unusual problem of whether they are Basque or Gascon" adds Pierre Hourmat. However, the most ancient form of Bayonne: "Baiona", clearly indicates a feminine or a theme of "-a" whereas this is not the case for Béon or Bayon. In addition, the "Bayon-" in Bayonville or Bayonvillers in northern France is clearly the personal Germanic name "Baio".


title: Bayonne

text: The names of the Basque province of Labourd and the locality of Bayonne have been attested from an early period with the place name "Bayonne" appearing in the Latin form "Lapurdum" after a period during which the two names could in turn designate a Viscounty or Bishopric.


title: Bayonne

text: "Labourd" and "Bayonne" were synonymous and used interchangeably until the 12th century before being differentiated: Labord for the province and Bayonne for the city. The attribution of Bayonne as "Civitas Boatium", a place mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary and by Paul Raymond in his 1863 dictionary, has been abandoned. The city of the "Boïates" may possibly be La Teste-de-Buch but is certainly not Bayonne.


title: Bayonne

text: In the absence of accurate objective data there is some credence to the probable existence of a fishing village on the site in a period prior to ancient times. Numerous traces of human occupation have been found in the Bayonne region from the Middle Paleolithic especially in the discoveries at Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, a neighbouring locality. On the other hand, the presence of a mound about high has been detected in the current Cathedral Quarter overlooking the Nive which formed a natural protection and a usable port on the left bank of the Nive. At the time the mound was surrounded north and west by the Adour swamps. At its foot lies the famous "Bayonne Sea"—the junction of the two rivers—which may have been about wide between Saint-Esprit and the Grand Bayonne and totally covered the current location of Bourg-Neuf (in the district of Petit Bayonne). To the south the last bend of the Nive widens near the Saint-Léon hills. Despite this, the narrowing of the Adour valley allows easier crossing than anywhere else along the entire length of the estuary.


title: Bayonne

text: In conclusion, the strategic importance of this height was so obvious it must be presumed that it has always been inhabited.


title: Bayonne

text: The oldest documented human occupation site is located on a hill overlooking the Nive and its confluence with the Adour.


title: Bayonne

text: In the 1st century AD, during the Roman occupation, Bayonne already seems to have been of some importance since the Romans surrounded the city with a wall to keep out the Tarbelli, Aquitani, or the proto-Basque who then occupied a territory that extended south of modern-day Landes, to the modern French Basque country, the Chalosse, the valleys of the Adour, the mountain streams of Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, and to the Gave d'Oloron.


title: Bayonne

text: The archaeological discoveries of October and November 1995 provided a shred of evidence to support this projection. In the four layers of sub-soil along the foundation of the Gothic cathedral (in the "apse of the cathedral" area) a 2-metre depth was found of old objects from the end of the 1st century—in particular sigillated Gallic ceramics from Montans imitating Italian styles, thin-walled bowls, and fragments of amphorae. In the "southern sector" near the cloister door there were objects from the second half of the 1st century as well as coins from the first half of the 3rd century.


title: Bayonne

text: A very high probability of human presence, not solely military, seems to provisionally confirm the occupation of the site at least around the third century.


title: Bayonne

text: A Roman castrum dating to the end of the 4th century has been proven as a fortified place of Novempopulania. Named "Lapurdum", the name became the name of the province of "Labourd". According to Eugene Goyheneche the name "Baiona" designated the city, the port, and the cathedral while that of "Lapurdum" was only a territorial designation. This Roman settlement was strategic as it allowed the monitoring of the trans-Pyrenean roads and of local people rebellious to the Roman power. The construction covered 6 to 10 hectares according to several authors.


title: Bayonne

text: The geographical location of the locality at the crossroads of a river system oriented from east to west and the road network connecting Europe to the Iberian Peninsula from north to south predisposed the site to the double role of fortress and port. The city, after being Roman, alternated between the Vascones and the English for three centuries from the 12th to the 15th century.


title: Bayonne

text: The Romans left the city in the 4th century and the Basques, who had always been present, dominated the former Novempopulania province between the Garonne, the Ocean, and the Pyrénées. Novempopulania was renamed Vasconia and then Gascony after a Germanic deformation (resulting from the Visigoth and Frankish invasions). Basquisation of the plains region was too weak against the advance of romanization. From the mixture between the Basque and Latin language Gascon was created.


title: Bayonne

text: Documentation on Bayonne for the period from the High Middle Ages are virtually nonexistent. with the exception of two Norman intrusions: one questionable in 844 and a second attested in 892.


title: Bayonne

text: When Labourd was created in 1023 Bayonne was the capital and the Viscount resided there. The history of Bayonne proper started in 1056 when Raymond II the Younger, Bishop of Bazas, had the mission to build the Church of Bayonne


title: Bayonne

text: The construction was under the authority of Raymond III of Martres, Bishop of Bayonne from 1122 to 1125, combined with Viscount Bertrand for the Romanesque cathedral, the rear of which can still be seen today, and the first wooden bridge across the Adour extending the Mayou bridge over the Nive, which inaugurated the heyday of Bayonne. From 1120 new districts were created under population pressure. The development of areas between the old Roman city of Grand Bayonne and the Nive also developed during this period, then between the Nive and the Adour at the place that became Petit Bayonne. A Jacobin Convent was located there in 1225 then that of the Cordeliers in 1247. Construction of and modifications to the defences of the city also developed to protect the new districts.


title: Bayonne

text: In 1130, the King of Aragon Alfonso the Battler besieged the city without success. Bayonne came under English rule when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152. This alliance gave Bayonne many commercial privileges. The Bayonnaises became carriers of Bordeaux wines and other south-western products like resin, ham, and woad to England. Bayonne was then an important military base. In 1177, King Richard separated the Viscounty of Labourd whose capital then became Ustaritz. Like many cities at the time, in 1215 Bayonne obtained the award of a municipal charter and was emancipated from feudal powers.


title: Bayonne

text: The official publication in 1273 of a Coutume unique to the city, remained in force for five centuries until the separation of Bayonne from Labourd.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonnaise industry at that time was dominated by shipbuilding: wood (oak, beech, chestnut from the Pyrenees, and pine from Landes) being overabundant. There was also maritime activity in providing crews for whaling, commercial marine or, and it was often so at a time when it was easy to turn any merchant ship into a warship, the English Royal Navy.


title: Bayonne

text: Jean de Dunois – a former companion at arms of Joan of Arc—captured the city on 20 August 1451 and annexed it to the Crown "without making too many victims", but at the cost of a war indemnity of 40,000 gold Écus payable in a year,—thanks to the opportunism of the bishop who claimed to have seen "a large white cross surmounted by a crown which turns into a fleur-de-lis in the sky" to dissuade Bayonne from fighting against the royal troops.


title: Bayonne

text: The city continued to be fortified by the kings of France to protect it from danger from the Spanish border. In 1454, Charles VII created a separate judicial district: the "Seneschal of Lannes" a "single subdivision of Guyenne during the English period" which had jurisdiction over a wide area including Bayonne, Dax and Saint-Sever and which exercised civil justice, criminal jurisdiction within the competence of the district councilors. Over time, the "Seneschal of the Sword" which was at Dax lost any role other than protocol and Bayonne, along with Dax and Saint-Sever, became the de facto seat of a separate Seneschal under the authority of a "lieutenant-general of the Seneschal".


title: Bayonne

text: In May 1462 King Louis XI authorized the holding of two annual fairs by letters patent after signing the Treaty of Bayonne after which it was confirmed by the coutoumes of the inhabitants in July 1472 following the death of Charles de Valois, Duke de Berry, the king's brother.


title: Bayonne

text: At the time the Spanish Inquisition raged in the Iberian Peninsula Spanish and Portuguese Jews fled Spain and also later, Portugal, then settled in Southern France, including in Saint-Esprit (Pyrénées-Atlantiques), a northern district of Bayonne located along the northern bank of the Adour river. They brought with them chocolate and the recipe for its preparation. In 1750, the Jewish population in Saint-Esprit (Pyrénées-Atlantiques) is estimated to have reached about 3,500 people.


title: Bayonne

text: The golden age of the city ended in the 15th century with the loss of trade with England and the silting of the port of Bayonne created by the movement of the course of the Adour to the north.


title: Bayonne

text: At the beginning of the 16th century Labourd suffered the emergence of the plague. Its path can be tracked by reading the "Registers". In July 1515 the city of Bayonne was "prohibited to welcome people from plague-stricken places" and on 21 October, "we inhibit and prohibit all peasants and residents of this city [...] to go Parish Bidart [...] because of the contagion of the plague". On 11 April 1518 the plague raged in Saint-Jean-de-Luz and the city of Bayonne "inhibited and prohibited for all peasants and city inhabitants and other foreigners to maintain relationships at the location and Parish of Saint-Jean-de-Luz where people have died of the plague". On 11 November 1518 plague was present in Bayonne to the point that in 1519 the city council moved to the district of Brindos (Berindos at the time) in Anglet.


title: Bayonne

text: In 1523, Marshal Odet of Foix, Viscount of Lautrec resisted the Spaniards under Philibert of Chalon in the service of Charles V and lifted the siege of Bayonne. It was at Château-Vieux that the ransom demand for the release of Francis I, taken prisoner after his defeat at the Battle of Pavia, was gathered.


title: Bayonne

text: The meeting in 1565 between Catherine de Medici and the envoy of Philip II: the Duke of Alba, is known as the "Interview of Bayonne". At the time that Catholics and Protestants tore each other apart in parts of the kingdom of France, Bayonne seemed relatively untouched by these troubles. An iron fist from the city leaders did not appear to be unknown. In fact they never hesitated to use violence and criminal sanctions for keeping order in the name of the "public good". Two brothers, Saubat and Johannes Sorhaindo who were both lieutenants of the mayor of Bayonne in the second half of the 16th century, perfectly embody this period. They often wavered between Catholicism and Protestantism but always wanted to ensure the unity and prestige of the city.


title: Bayonne

text: In the 16th century the king's engineers, under the direction of Louis de Foix, were dispatched to rearrange the course of the Adour by creating an estuary to maintain the river bed. The river discharged in the right place to the Ocean on 28 October 1578. The port of Bayonne then attained a greater level of activity. Fishing for cod and whale ensured the wealth of fishermen and shipowners.


title: Bayonne

text: From 1611 to 1612 the college Principal of Bayonne was a man of 26 years old with a future: Cornelius Jansen known as "Jansénius", the future Bishop of Ypres. Bayonne became the birthplace of Jansenism, an austere science which strongly disrupted the monarchy of Louis XIV.


title: Bayonne

text: During the sporadic conflicts that troubled the French countryside from the mid 17th century, Bayonne peasants were short of powder and projectiles. They attached the long hunting knives in the barrels of their muskets and that way they fashioned makeshift spears later called "bayonets". In that same century, Vauban was charged by Louis XIV to fortify the city. He added a citadel built on a hill overlooking the district of "San Espirit Cap deou do Punt".


title: Bayonne

text: Activity in Bayonne peaked in the 18th century. The Chamber of Commerce was founded in 1726. Trade with Spain, the Netherlands, the Antilles, the cod fishery off the shores of Newfoundland, and construction sites maintained a high level of activity in the port.


title: Bayonne

text: In 1792, the district of Saint-Esprit (that revolutionaries renamed "Port-de-la-Montagne") located on the right bank of the Adour, was separated from the city and renamed "Jean-Jacques Rousseau". It was reunited with Bayonne on 1 June 1857. For 65 years the autonomous commune was part of the department of Landes.


title: Bayonne

text: In 1808, at the Château of Marracq the act of abdication of the Spanish king Charles IV in favour of Napoleon was signed under the "friendly pressure" of the Emperor. In the process the Bayonne Statute was initialed as the first Spanish constitution.


title: Bayonne

text: Also in 1808 the French Empire imposed on the Duchy of Warsaw the Convention of Bayonne to buy from France the debts owed to it by Prussia. The debt, amounting to more than 43 million francs in gold, was bought at a discounted rate of 21 million francs. However, although the duchy made its payments in installments to France over a four-year period, Prussia was unable to pay it (due to a very large indemnity it owed to France resulting from Treaties of Tilsit), causing the Polish economy to suffer heavily.


title: Bayonne

text: Trade was the wealth of the city in the 18th century but suffered greatly in the 19th century, severely sanctioned by conflict with Spain, its historic trading partner in the region. The Siege of Bayonne marked the end of the period with the surrender of the Napoleonic troops of Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult who were defeated by the coalition led by Wellington on 5 May 1814.


title: Bayonne

text: In 1854, the railway arrived from Paris bringing many tourists eager to enjoy the beaches of Biarritz. Bayonne turned instead to the steel industry with the forges of the Adour. The Port took on an industrial look but its slow decline seemed inexorable in the 19th century. The discovery of the Lacq gas field restored a certain dynamism.


title: Bayonne

text: The Treaty of Bayonne was concluded on 2 December 1856. It overcame the disputes in fixing the Franco-Spanish border in the area extending from the mouth of the Bidassoa to the border between Navarre and Aragon.


title: Bayonne

text: The city built three light railway lines to connect to Biarritz at the beginning of the 20th century. The most direct line, that of the "Tramway Bayonne-Lycée–Biarritz" was operated from 1888 to 1948. In addition a line further north served Anglet, operated by the "Chemin de fer Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz" company from 1877 to 1953. Finally a line following the Adour to its mouth and to the Atlantic Ocean by the bar in Anglet, was operated by "VFDM réseau basque" from 1919 to 1948.


title: Bayonne

text: On the morning of 23 December 1933, sub-prefect Anthelme received Gustave Tissier, the director of the "Crédit Municipal de Bayonne". He responded well, with some astonishment, to his persistent interview. It did not surprise him to see the man unpacking what became the scam of the century.


title: Bayonne

text: "Tissier, director of the "Crédit Municipal", was arrested and imprisoned under suspicion of forgery and misappropriation of public funds. He had issued thousands of false bonds in the name of "Crédit Municipal" [...]"


title: Bayonne

text: This was the beginning of the Stavisky Affair which, together with other scandals and political crises, led to the Paris riots of 6 February 1934.


title: Bayonne

text: The 249th Infantry Regiment, created from the 49th Infantry Regiment, was engaged in operations in the First World War, including action at Chemin des Dames, especially on the plateau of Craonne. 700 Bayonnaises perished in the conflict. A centre for engagement of foreign volunteers was established in August 1914 in Bayonne. Many nationalities were represented, particularly the Spanish, the Portuguese, the Czechs, and the Poles.


title: Bayonne

text: During the Second World War, Bayonne was occupied by the 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf from 27 June 1940 to 23 August 1944.


title: Bayonne

text: On 5 April 1942 the Allies made a landing attempt in Bayonne but after a barge penetrated the Adour with great difficulty, the operation was canceled.


title: Bayonne

text: On 21 August 1944, after blowing up twenty ships in port, German troops withdrew. On the 22nd a final convoy of five vehicles passed through the city. It transported Gestapo Customs agents and some elements of the "Feldgendarmerie". One or more Germans opened fire with machine guns killing three people. On the 23rd there was an informal and immediate installation of a "special municipal delegation" by the young deputy prefect Guy Lamassoure representing the Provisional Government of the French Republic which had been established in Algiers since 27 June.


title: Bayonne

text: The Gramont family provided captains and governors in Bayonne from 1472 to 1789 as well as mayors, a post which became hereditary from 28 January 1590 by concession of Henry IV to Antoine II of Gramont. From the 15th century they resided in the Château Neuf then in the Château-Vieux from the end of the 16th century:


title: Bayonne

text: As per the Decree of 22 December 1789 Bayonne was part of two cantons: Bayonne-North-east, which includes part of Bayonne commune plus Boucau, Saint-Pierre-d'Irube, Lahonce, Mouguerre, and Urcuit; and Bayonne Northwest which consisted of the rest of Bayonne commune plus Anglet, Arcangues, and Bassussarry.


title: Bayonne

text: In a first revision of cantons in 1973 three cantons were created from the same total; geographic area: Bayonne North, Bayonne East, and Bayonne West. A further reconfiguration in 1982 focused primarily on Bayonne and, apart from Bayonne North Canton, which also includes Boucau, the cantons of Bayonne East and Bayonne West did not change.


title: Bayonne

text: Starting from the 2015 French departmental elections which took place on 22 and 29 March, a new division took effect following the decree of 25 February 2014 Once again three cantons centred on Bayonne are defined: Bayonne-1—with part of Anglet; Bayonne-2—which includes Boucau; and Bayonne-3 now define the cantonal territorial division of the area.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is the seat of many courts for the region. It falls under the jurisdiction of the "Tribunal d'instance" (District court) of Bayonne, the "Tribunal de grande instance" (High Court) of Bayonne, the "Cour d'appel" (Court of Appeal) of Pau, the "Tribunal pour enfants" (Juvenile court) of Bayonne, the "Conseil de prud'hommes" (Labour Court) of Bayonne, the "Tribunal de commerce" (Commercial Court) of Bayonne, the "Tribunal administratif" (Administrative tribunal) of Pau, and the "Cour administrative d'appel" (Administrative Court of Appeal) of Bordeaux.


title: Bayonne

text: The commune has a police station, a Departmental Gendarmerie, an Autonomous Territorial Brigade of the district gendarmerie, squadron 24/2 of Mobile Gendarmerie and a Tax collection office.


title: Bayonne

text: The city of Bayonne is part of the "Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Basque" which also includes Anglet, Biarritz, Bidart, Boucau, Hendaye and Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The statutory powers of the structure extend to economic development—including higher education and research—housing and urban planning, public transport—through Transdev—alternative and the collection and recovery waste collection and management of rain and coastal waters, the sustainable development, interregional cooperation and finally 106.


title: Bayonne

text: In addition Bayonne is part of the Basque Bayonne-San Sebastián Eurocity which is a European economic interest grouping (EEIG) established in 1993 based in San Sebastián.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne commune is attached to the Academy of Bordeaux. It has an information and guidance center (CIO).


title: Bayonne

text: As of 14 December 2015, Bayonne had 10 kindergartens, 22 elementary or primary schools (12 public and 10 private primary schools including two ikastolas). 2 public colleges (Albert Camus and Marracq colleges), 5 private colleges (La Salle Saint-Bernard, Saint Joseph, Saint-Amand, Notre-Dame and Largenté) which meet the criteria of the first cycle of second degree studies. For the second cycle Bayonne has 3 public high schools (René-Cassin school (general education), the Louis de Foix school (general, technological and vocational education), and the Paul Bert vocational school), 4 private high schools (Saint-Louis Villa Pia (general education), Largenté, Bernat Etxepare (general and technological), and Le Guichot vocational school).


title: Bayonne

text: There are also the Maurice Ravel Conservatory of Music, Dance, and Dramatic Art and the art school of the urban community of Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz.


title: Bayonne

text: For 550 years every holy Thursday, Friday and Saturday the "Foire au Jambon" (Ham festival) is held to mark the beginning of the season.


title: Bayonne

text: An annual summer festival has been held in the commune since 1932 for five days organized around parades, bulls races, fireworks, and music in the Basque and Gascon tradition. These festivals have become the most important festive events in France in terms of attendance.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne has the oldest French bullfighting tradition. A bylaw regulating the "encierro" is dated 1283: cows, oxen and bulls are released each year in the streets of Petit Bayonne during the summer festivals. The current arena, opened in 1893, is the largest in South-west France with more than 10,000 seats. A dozen bullfights are held each year, attracting the biggest names in bullfighting. Throughout summer several "novilladas" also take place. The city is a member of the "Union of French bullfighting cities".


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is the focus of much of the hospital services for the agglomeration of Bayonne and the southern Landes. In this area all inhabitants are less than 35 km from a hospital offering medical, obstetrical, surgical, or psychiatric care. The hospitals for all the Basque Coast are mainly established in Bayonne (the main site of Saint-Léon and Cam-de-Prats) and also in Saint-Jean-de-Luz which has several clinics.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is in the Diocese of Bayonne, Lescar and Oloron, with a suffragan bishop since 2002 under the Archdiocese of Bordeaux. Monseigneur Marc Aillet has been the bishop of this diocese since 15 October 2008. The diocese is located in Bayonne in the Place Monseigneur-Vansteenberghe.


title: Bayonne

text: Besides Bayonne Cathedral in Grand Bayonne, Bayonne has Saint-Esprit, Saint Andrew (Rue des Lisses), Arènes (Avenue of the Czech Legion), Saint-Étienne, and Saint-Amand (Avenue Marechal Soult) churches.


title: Bayonne

text: The "Carmel of Bayonne", located in the Marracq district, has had a community of Carmelite nuns since 1858.


title: Bayonne

text: The "Way of Baztan" (also "ruta del Baztan" or "camino Baztanés") is a way on the pilgrimage of Camino de Santiago which crosses the Pyrenees further west by the lowest pass (by the "Col de Belate", 847 m). It is the ancient road used by pilgrims descending to Bayonne then either along the coast on the "Way of Soulac" or because they landed there from England, for example, to join the French Way as soon as possible in Pamplona. The "Way of Bayonne" joins the French Way further downstream at Burgos.


title: Bayonne

text: The Protestant church is located at the corner of Rue Albert-I st and Rue du Temple. A gospel church is located in the Saint-Esprit districtit where there is also a church belonging to the Gypsy Evangelical Church of the Protestant Federation of France.


title: Bayonne

text: The synagogue was built in 1837 in the Saint-Esprit district north of the town. The Jewish community of Bayonne is old—it consists of different groups of fugitives from Navarre and Portugal who established at Saint-Esprit-lès-Bayonne after the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492 and Portugal in 1496. In 1846, the Central Consistory moved to Saint-Esprit which was integrated with Bayonne in 1857.


title: Bayonne

text: In 2011, the median household income tax was €22,605, placing Bayonne 28,406th place among the 31,886 communes with more than 49 households in metropolitan France.


title: Bayonne

text: In 2011, the population aged from 15 to 64 years was 29,007 persons of which 70.8% were employable, 60.3% in employment and 10.5% unemployed. While there were 30,012 jobs in the employment area, against 29,220 in 2006, and the number of employed workers residing in the employment area was 17,667, the indicator of job concentration is 169.9% which means that the employment area offers nearly two jobs to for every available worker.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is the economic capital of the agglomeration of Bayonne and southern Landes. The table below details the number of companies located in Bayonne according to their industry:


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne has few such industries, as indicated in the previous tables. There is "Plastitube" specializing in plastic packaging (190 employees). The Izarra liqueur company set up a distillery in 1912 at Quai Amiral-Bergeret and has long symbolized the economic wealth of Bayonne. Industrial activities are concentrated in the neighbouring communes of Boucau, Tarnos (Turbomeca), Mouguerre, and Anglet.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500 years, and Bayonne ham, a cured ham seasoned with peppers from nearby Espelette. Izarra, the liqueur made in bright green or yellow colours, is distilled locally. It is said by some that Bayonne is the birthplace of mayonnaise, supposedly a corruption of "Bayonnaise", the French adjective describing the city's people and produce. Now bayonnaise can refer to a particular mayonnaise flavoured with the Espelette chillis.


title: Bayonne

text: Bayonne is now the centre of certain craft industries that were once widespread, including the manufacture of "makilas", traditional Basque walking-sticks. The Fabrique Alza just outside the city is known for its "palas", bats used in "pelota", the traditional Basque sport.


title: Bayonne

text: The active tertiary sector includes some large retail chains such as those detailed by geographer Roger Brunet: BUT (240 staff), Carrefour (150 staff), E.Leclerc (150 staff), Leroy Merlin (130 staff), and Galeries Lafayette (120 employees). Banks, cleaning companies (Onet, 170 employees), and security (Brink's, 100 employees) are also major employers in the commune, as is urban transport which employs nearly 200 staff. Five health clinics, providing a total of more than 500 beds, each employ 120 to 170 staff.


title: Bayonne

text: The port of Bayonne is located at the mouth of the Adour, downstream of the city. It also occupies part of communes of Anglet and Boucau in Pyrenees-Atlantiques and Tarnos in Landes. It benefits greatly from the natural gas field of Lacq to which it is connected by pipeline. This is the ninth largest French port for trade with an annual traffic of about 4.2 million tonnes of which 2.8 is export. It is also the largest French port for export of maize. It is the property of the Aquitaine region who manage and control the site. Metallurgical products movement are more than one million tons per year and maize exports to Spain vary between 800,000 and 1 million tons. The port also receives refined oil products from the TotalEnergies oil refinery at Donges (800,000 tons per year). Fertilizers are a traffic of 500,000 tons per year and sulphur from Lacq, albeit in sharp decline, is 400,000 tons.


title: Bayonne

text: The port also receives Ford and General Motors vehicles from Spain and Portugal and wood both tropical and from Landes.


title: Bayonne

text: Due to its proximity to the ocean and the foothills of the Pyrenees as well as its historic heritage, Bayonne has developed important activities related to tourism.


title: Bayonne

text: On 31 December 2012 there were 15 hotels in the city offering more than 800 rooms to visitors, but there were no camp sites. The tourist infrastructure in the surrounding urban area of Bayonne complements the local supply with around 5800 rooms spread over nearly 200 hotels and 86 campsites offering over 14,000 beds.


title: Bayonne

text: The Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne with five bridges between the two, both quarters still being backed by Vauban's walls. The houses lining the Nive are examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green. The much wider Adour is to the north. The Pont Saint-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier Saint-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located. Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the cathedral and Hôtel de Ville.


title: Bayonne

text: The Cathédrale Sainte-Marie is an imposing, elegant Gothic building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets. It was constructed in the 12th and 13th centuries. The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower. The cathedral is noted for its charming cloisters. There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution.


title: Bayonne

text: Nearby is the Château Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English Black Prince.


title: Bayonne

text: The Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country. It opened in 1922 but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment. It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and "pelota", handicrafts and Basque history and way of life.


title: Bayonne

text: The Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter Léon Bonnat. The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by Edgar Degas, El Greco, Sandro Botticelli, and Francisco Goya, among others.


title: Bayonne

text: At the back of Petit Bayonne is the Château Neuf, among the ramparts. Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly arrived French in 1460 to control the city. The walls nearby have been opened to visitors. They are important for plant life now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive.


title: Bayonne

text: The area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway. The Saint-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by Louis XI to care for pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela. It is home to a wooden "Flight into Egypt" sculpture.


title: Bayonne

text: Overlooking the quarter is Vauban's 1680 Citadelle. The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by Queen Victoria and other British dignitaries when staying in Biarritz.


title: Bayonne

text: The distillery of the famous local liqueur Izarra is located on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors.


title: Vulnicura

text: Vulnicura is the eighth studio album by Icelandic musician and singer Björk. It was produced by Björk, Arca and The Haxan Cloak, and released on 20 January 2015 by One Little Indian Records. Björk said the album expresses her feelings before and after her breakup with American contemporary artist Matthew Barney and the healing process.


title: Vulnicura

text: "Vulnicura" was originally scheduled for release in March 2015, in conjunction with the "" book and an exhibition about Björk's career at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City; following an internet leak, it was released digitally two months early. No singles were released to promote the album but a series of innovative music videos were created, culminating in the 360-degree virtual reality exhibit "Björk Digital". "Vulnicura" received widespread acclaim from critics, with many considering it one of her most honest and personal albums as well as her best output in a decade.


title: Vulnicura

text: The companion album "" was released on 6 November 2015. It features strings-only interpretations of the "Vulnicura" tracks and utilises an instrument designed by Leonardo da Vinci called the viola organista. By October 2015, the album had sold 250,000 copies worldwide.


title: Vulnicura

text: After completing the tour for her previous project "Biophilia" (2011), which featured a series of apps and instruments created especially for the live show, Björk expressed interest in using the same instruments for her next project. She told "The Independent": "I happen to know some of the best app programmers in the world, and I have the instruments I can just plug straight into the iPad and play whatever I have. So it seems kind of natural to work on an album where I don't have three years of prepping. But at the same time, it is a kind of extreme project."


title: Vulnicura

text: In May 2013, Björk told the "San Francisco Bay Guardian" that she was in the early stages of a new album. In the same month, she told the "San Francisco Chronicle" she had "enough songs that I'm ready to see the next thing".


title: Vulnicura

text: Venezuelan producer Arca co-produced "Vulnicura". Björk approached Arca after her manager sent her Arca's mixtape "&&&&&" (2013); Arca then DJ'ed at Björk's Biophilia Tour afterparty and the two started working together afterwards. Björk was not aware of Arca's work with Kanye West and FKA Twigs (on "Yeezus" and "EP2", 2013) but she soon appreciated it along with Arca's knowledge of her own discography. Arca described working with Björk, whom she has called a musical inspiration, as "healing", and said: "The way she exists as a human is a big influence on the way I exist as a human."


title: Vulnicura

text: On 7 October 2014, Björk announced on her Facebook page that she would not attend the British premiere of her concert film "" at the BFI London Film Festival because she was too busy working on the album, and confirmed a 2015 release date. British musician and producer The Haxan Cloak announced on Twitter on 6 January 2015 that he had worked on the album, calling the collaboration "an honour".


title: Vulnicura

text: On 14 January 2015, Björk posted a handwritten note on her Facebook page announcing the album's title, "Vulnicura", its track list and a March 2015 release date. "Vulnicura" means "Cure for Wounds" (Vulnus + Cura) in Latin, and Björk described it as "a more traditional album than "Biophilia" for what concerns songwriting. It's about what may come to a person at the end of a relationship. It talks about the dialogues we may have in our heads and in our hearts, the healing processes."


title: Vulnicura

text: The music on "Vulnicura" has been described by critics as incorporating electronic, avant-garde, and ambient music.


title: Vulnicura

text: The album is primarily composed of string arrangements and electronic beats, as a return to the sound Björk pursued on her 1997 album "Homogenic". In an interview with Pitchfork, Björk exposed how working on string arrangements served as a way to keep her mind busy after her breakup: "The only way I could deal with that was to start writing for strings; I decided to become a violin nerd and arrange everything for 15 strings and take a step further."


title: Vulnicura

text: The involvement of Arca came in late stages of the writing process, which Björk described as "such a contrast, the most fun music-making I've ever had, with the most tragic subject matter [...] I just sat next to [Arca] for weeks, and we did the whole album. It's the quickest I've ever worked [...] It's one of those crazy things in life where people from opposite ends meet, and you've got so much to teach each other."


title: Vulnicura

text: On 18 January 2015, just days after being publicly announced, and two months ahead of its scheduled release, a supposed full version of the album leaked online. At the time, no official release date or cover art was confirmed, nor was Anohni's featured participation in "Atom Dance". The illegal leak was compared to the one that happened to Madonna and her album "Rebel Heart", whose several songs in their demo form were leaked online during late 2014.


title: Vulnicura

text: The artwork was designed by longtime collaborators M/M (Paris). The digital cover was photographed by also longtime collaborators Inez and Vinoodh: "She said she wanted to have a wound on her body, on her heart area, in an abstract way [...] Imagine you're Mata Hari, a seductress, but you're wounded, and there is an incredibly alluring softness around you." On the cover, Björk wears a black latex suit, a wound on her chest and a headpiece made of quills, which she already wore during the last stages of her Biophilia Tour. Björk clarified that, during the time in between the two albums, the "Vulnicura" cover character started surfacing. The main color of the artwork is yellow, since Björk links this color to the "healing" process. The photo shoot was filmed and transformed into a music video to accompany the album track "Lionsong".


title: Vulnicura

text: For the physical release, a second cover art was made by Andrew Thomas Huang. In the deluxe edition, the artwork comes in the shape of an acetate slipcase. This artwork was also transformed into a short music video for the track "Family".


title: Vulnicura

text: To coincide with all of Björk's previous albums being reissued on limited edition colored vinyl for the MoMA retrospective, "Vulnicura" was later issued in a limited run of double neon yellow LPs.


title: Vulnicura

text: Being the follow-up to "Biophilia" after more than three years, "Vulnicura"'s release was highly anticipated. Online music publications like Music Times, "Time Out", FasterLouder, Gigwise, "Fact", Dazed Digital, Pitchfork and "Billboard" included it in their list of the most anticipated albums of 2015, with Stereogum and Diffuser.fm ranking it as the tenth and seventh most anticipated album of 2015, respectively. DIY listed the upcoming release as one of the eleven reasons to get excited about 2015, while "NME" included Björk in their list of 40 most anticipated comebacks for 2015.


title: Vulnicura

text: Although not initially intended, the album was included in the Björk retrospective exhibition at the MoMA. Music videos for the tracks "Lionsong" and "Black Lake" were premiered there. The video for "Stonemilker" premiered at MoMA PS1 on 22 March.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 17 December 2015, Björk appeared on the podcast Song Exploder (Episode 60) where she detailed the creation of "Vulnicura's" opening track, "Stonemilker". "It's about someone who's trying to get emotions out of another person," she said. "I think it's equally hard for all of us and we're just all doing our best but I think there's also a choice. Do you want to try and then maybe fail half of the time and then succeed half of the time or whatever your odds are? Or is it your choice to not even try?" On the creation of the song: "I was walking on a beach, and I was kind of walking back and forth and the lyrics kind of came along kind of without me really editing them... (They're) probably the most obvious lyrics I've ever written. I actually wrote a whole other lyric to this song, which was really maybe a bit too clever for its own good but something in me said, 'No, don't touch it. It has to be, like, almost clumsy or naive.' That's sort of the strength and weakness of the song at the same time." When talking about the string arrangements for "Stonemilker", Björk said, "For me it was very important... that the strings were kind of cyclical; this chord cycle that kind of gives you this feeling it can go on and on in circles and gives you this feeling of equilibrium. Like the person who's singing this song is showing some sort of harmony to someone as an example... I had 30 players, and then I would do 2 sets of arrangements so basically there are, in theory, 60 because it needed that sort of panoramic feeling to have that sort of smooth, cream-like perfection." On her collaboration with beat maker and co-producer Arca, "... it was very obvious that song was very simple so we didn't really need a crazy beat thing going on. It just had to be really supportive of the song, and almost acoustic like it's a symphony orchestra playing and the beat would come from the kettledrum or something. You know? Like a very soft support which Alejandra (Arca) provided."


title: Vulnicura

text: The first video produced for "Vulnicura" was "Black Lake", directed by Andrew Thomas Huang who previously collaborated with Björk on "Biophilia's" "Mutual Core" video in 2012. It was announced that the video would debut at MoMA's Björk retrospective in March 2015 in an elaborate video installation. A trailer for the retrospective premiered on the MoMA's YouTube channel on 13 February 2015. The trailer is a single shot of a nude Björk lying on a black dirt field with her body literally split in half, while the official video has her walking through a black Icelandic cave in an original Iris Van Herpen dress. In explaining the evolution of the "Black Lake" video project, Björk said, "I think me and Andrew kept wanting the song to be rawer and rawer and more and more without special effects: to go totally "Ingmar Bergman" on it. So the "book cover" ended up being a book cover..." While the MoMA "Black Lake" installation consisted of 2 screens showcasing complementary edits of the 10-minute video, the final music video version, which debuted on Dazed Digital on 10 June 2015, is a composite of both videos. The installation also comprises the special room where the video is projected, which has speakers all over its walls, reproducing a surrounding version of the song mixed by The Haxan Cloak, who co-produced the "Vulnicura" track "Family".


title: Vulnicura

text: To celebrate the opening of the MoMA show and the upcoming physical release of the album, Björk announced on Facebook the "Stonemilker" 360-degree virtual reality music video. It utilized the Oculus Rift, a VR head-mounted display, and featured her on the same Icelandic beach where she originally wrote the song. The video premiered at MoMA's sister location, the MoMA PS1 on 22 March and was briefly made available to customers of the record shop Rough Trade in London and Brooklyn, NY who purchased the physical album. The VR head-set version of the video featured a strings only mix of the song. Björk explained, "I had recorded the strings with a clip-on mike on each instrument. We have made a different mix where we have fanned this in an intimate circle around the listener." It was later released as a 360-degree YouTube video on 6 June 2015 featuring the original album mix.


title: Vulnicura

text: Also, at the Cinema room of the MoMA retrospective, as part of Björk's videography, the "Lionsong" video was premiered by surprise. The video, directed by the Dutch creative duo Inez & Vinoodh, directors of Björk's "Hidden Place" and "Moon" videos, was later made available to the general public through Noisey. "Lionsong" was conceived of spontaneously during the "Vulnicura" album cover photo shoot.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 16 March 2015, the day of "Vulnicura's" physical release, a "moving album cover" video premiered online featuring the CGI character of the deluxe edition artwork created by Huang. Björk conceived of the video, which is set to a condensed edit of the track "Family", as the completion of the "Black Lake" video. Huang explained, "She came back to me because she (felt) that (what was shown in Black Lake) was only 50% of that character, and that there's another 50% of this persona that she's been in for this past year-and-a-half to two years, that is much more positive and resolved in itself."


title: Vulnicura

text: In December 2015, the music video for "Mouth Mantra" - directed by Arca's longtime collaborator Jesse Kanda - was revealed. Much of the video takes place inside Björk's mouth with the help of hi-tech mouth models and a special camera. And, like "Stonemilker", the video will soon be made available for 360-degree viewing.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 4 June 2016, the virtual reality video for the song "Notget" debuted at the Carriageworks Festival in Sydney, Australia for the premiere of the VR exhibition "Björk Digital". As Björk Digital traveled the world, new videos would debut, such as "Quicksand" in October 2016 at Montreal and a full VR version of "Family" in November 2016 in Reykjavik.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 3 April 2017, the 2D version of the VR video for "Notget" debuted on YouTube. "Quicksand" and the full version of "Family" have not premiered in 2d or VR online and are only available to view at Björk Digital though in an interview with Starpro in Mexico, Björk revealed there are still plans to offer the full "Vulnicura VR" experience for download on mobile devices. She also revealed no further VR videos are being planned, meaning the songs "History of Touches" and "Atom Dance" will not receive accompanying music videos.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 20 May 2017, Björk upload a 10-second preview clip to Facebook of surprise brand new 2d music video for "Notget" , directed by long-time collaborators Warren du Preez and Nick Thornton, which debuted in full in the cinema room of Björk Digital in Los Angeles. The full video was made available 2 days after the VR exhibit closed in LA, debuting online at Creators, VICE's arts and culture platform, on 6 June 2017. Speaking to the website, co-director Thornton said, "Björk definitely wanted more of a claustrophobic, confined environment, and to then be able to switch that up. The switch to elation was very much driven by how she wants to see things." Added du Preez, "We made the decision to submerge it into almost what we almost call an inner earth or into a place that could house that decay and bruising."


title: Vulnicura

text: On 9 July 2015, Dazed Digital unveiled the first of a 3 part series of "Vulnicura" remixes. Series 1 features the first of two Lotic remixes of the track "Notget" (the Keptsafe version), a "Family" remix by Katie Gately, a remix of "History of Touches" by Krampfhaft, and a remix of "Lionsong" by Mica Levi. Levi explained her karaoke-inspired version: "I did a karaoke version more than a remix, because I love her string arrangements and thought it would be an opportunity to draw attention to them."


title: Vulnicura

text: The second series debuted on 22 July and features a Choral mix of "Lionsong" created by Björk herself. She sampled an early track by UNTOLD and utilized the Icelandic female choir Graduale Nobili, which had previously performed on Björk's "Biophilia". The 2nd wave also includes "History of Touches", the Rabit Naked Mix, and The Haxan Cloak's remix of "Mouth Mantra". The Haxan Cloak co-produced and mixed "Vulnicura", and stated, "When it came time to start thinking about prepping for the live shows, Björk asked me if there were any songs I'd like to remix for playing live – instantly I thought of (Mouth Mantra). I wanted to keep the core of the song but just really amp up the drama and intensity to 11... I then decided to refine the live remix for a more studio/headphone listening environment, so that's what you hear now." A fourth remix, Lotic's Fromdeath version of "Notget" was later released as a vinyl exclusive mix.


title: Vulnicura

text: The final "Vulnicura" remix series debuted on 2 October and features 4 new remixes: "Black Lake" and "Family" remixes by Bloom, "Lionsong", the Juliana Huxtable Remix, and "Stonemilker", the Patten Rework. Björk capped off the "Vulnicura" remix series by stating, "I would like to thank especially Robin Carolan for co-curating this with me. Its been such a pleasure!!!" in a note published on Dazed with the 3rd wave's digital release.


title: Vulnicura

text: Eventually all 12 remixes were released on vinyl through One Little Indian in 12 limited edition single-sided etched translucent 12" records in die-cut sleeves. The 3rd vinyl remix series was released on 20 November 2015. Each vinyl single managed to chart on the Official Charts Company Physical Singles and Vinyl Singles Sales in the UK. On the physical single chart "History of Touches" peaked at #20, "Mouth Mantra" peaked at #30, "Black Lake" peaked at #31, "Stonemilker" at #35, "Family" at #18 and the highest peaking "Lionsong" at #12. On the vinyl singles chart "History of Touches" peaked at #12, "Mouth Mantra" at #16, "Black Lake" at #17, "Stonemilker" at #21, "Lionsong" at #10, and "Family" at #13.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 6 November 2015, ", "or simply "Vulnicura Strings", was released, featuring eight of Vulnicura nine tracks in strings only renditions in what has been described as a more uncompromising and intimate take on "Vulnicura". It features the same vocals as the studio album but without the beats of co-producers Arca and The Haxan Cloak. The album includes additional string arrangements by Una Sveinbjarnardóttir, who was a part of the Icelandic String Octet that joined Björk on stage for her 1998 Homogenic Tour, as well as alternate takes of string arrangements recorded during Vulnicura original recording sessions that Björk felt were more appropriate for the far more delicate atmosphere of "Vulnicura Strings". Additionally, several songs utilize the Viola Organista, a unique instrument designed by Leonardo da Vinci but built for the first time centuries later by the Polish musician Sławomir Zubrzycki.


title: Vulnicura

text: Björk stated on her Facebook page, "While I was working on Vulnicura, it became one of the most magical thing(s) both musically and spiritually to unite the electronics and the acoustic instruments in an almost romantic way: to prove they can coexist!!... But while working on it I felt somehow for the first time, this was an album that could take another version: a reveal, to simply have the acoustics stand on their own for the folks who wanna indulge even further into the wooden timeless side of this music. With no techno." This project is Björk's first completely acoustic studio album.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 7 January 2015, Björk was announced as one of the performers of the 2015 Governors Ball. It was her first confirmed appearance since the conclusion of the Biophilia Tour and her first concert in New York City since 2012. On 16 January 2015, she confirmed the upcoming Vulnicura Tour by announcing six dates through March and April in New York, where she performed at the Stern Auditorium at Carnegie Hall and the New York City Center. She later added two shows at Brooklyn's Kings Theatre sandwiched in between the Carnegie Hall and City Center shows.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 8 August 2015, Björk officially announced the abrupt end of the Vulnicura Tour, stating, "These have truly been some of my most sublime moments!! Singing this album has been intense and the internal clock of it different to the other ones. It has sort of had to behave in its own little way. Both the urgency of the leak and now this sudden closure for reasons beyond my control is characteristic of that. I hope through the years I have earned enough tourkarma points to get your support for this." She added, "I have started writing new songs and feel the best most natural pathway to go is to let this beast flow its natural course and start anew." Four upcoming shows were cancelled, making the Vulnicura Tour her first concert not to travel to her native Iceland.


title: Vulnicura

text: Björk did not do any televised or radio performances to promote "Vulnicura" and none of the 16 Vulnicura Tour shows are known to have been taped, marking it the only tour of her career not be documented visually.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 21 September 2016, Björk gave her first of 6 acoustic-only live concerts, beginning at the Royal Albert Hall in London and ending at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles. These shows follow the format of the original Vulnicura Tour with the first six songs from the album performed uninterrupted with the second half of the show featuring mostly songs from her back catalogue. Other stops on the brief acoustic tour included Iceland and Mexico City. She performed electronic sets at festivals at the same time, including FYF Fest in Downtown LA and Ceremonia in Toulca, Mexico.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 31 May 2016, Björk announced on her official Facebook page "Björk Digital", an 18-month world traveling VR experience that debuted at Carriageworks in Sydney, Australia, on 3 June 2016. The VR music video for "Vulnicura's" final narrative track, "Notget" debuted at the festival, which also showcased the VR videos for "Stonemilker" and "Mouth Mantra", the latter of which also debuting in VR after premiering months earlier in 2D on YouTube in December 2015. On 27 June 2016, Björk made history by appearing in the first ever virtual reality live stream. Broadcast on YouTube, she performed "Vulnicura's" final song, "Quicksand", before a small audience and the footage was incorporated into the "Quicksand" VR music video later on during "Björk Digital's".


title: Vulnicura

text: In addition to the VR experience, attendees of "Björk Digital" experienced a recreation of the "Black Lake" installation, which debuted at MoMA's "Björk" retrospective in March 2015. Other carryovers from MoMA included the Cinema Room showcasing the majority of her music videos in HD and the "Biophilia" app, although the innovative instruments from that 2011 album were not on display at "Björk Digital".


title: Vulnicura

text: The opening nights of "Björk Digital" in Sydney saw Björk DJ for 5 hours. This opening night party continued at the Miraikan in Tokyo, Japan, for the second leg of the "Björk Digital" VR experience and at several other opening night dates. For select dates in London, Reykjavik, Mexico City and Los Angeles, Björk performed special orchestral concerts rather than DJing to promote the VR exhibit.


title: Vulnicura

text: In June 2017, "Notget VR" won Cannes Lions Grand Prix Award for its "Real Time Virtual Reality Experience". It was also nominated for a UK Music Video Award for Best Interactive Video in 2017.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 24 September 2018, "Music Week" published an interview with Andrew Melchior, technical adviser on "Björk Digital", where he said that the full "Vulnicura VR" album will be out before Christmas 2018 via One Little Indian and will be available across all VR platforms. On 6 September 2019, "Vulnicura VR" album was released on Steam but besides the Steam platform, no announcements for other platforms were made. The VR album features all tracks with exception of 'History of Touches' and 'Atom Dance.'


title: Vulnicura

text: On 22 October 2015, record shop Rough Trade announced an exclusive release entitled "Vulnicura Live", a collection of 14 songs selected and mixed by Björk that were recorded throughout her 2015 Vulnicura Tour. The 2xCD and 2xLP sets are limited to 1000 copies per format and available exclusively through Rough Trade. The CD edition was released on 13 November 2015 and comes with 4 photo prints in a clear plastic sleeve. The LP set consisted of 2 picture discs and was released on 20 November 2015, 2 weeks ahead of its originally announced date of 4 December.


title: Vulnicura

text: Both sets sold out online in less than a week but limited quantities of both formats were available at Rough Trade shops throughout London and Brooklyn, NY on release date. The first 100 people to preorder the vinyl received a wristband that got them into a special DJ set with Björk and Arca at the Rough Trade East store in London. The event took place on Halloween night, 2015.


title: Vulnicura

text: On 15 July 2016, a standard "commercial" release of "Vulnicura Live" was released by One Little Indian featuring 13 of the same tracks as the Rough Trade exclusive (excluding "All Neon Like") on both CD and 2xLP sets, as well as a Luxury Edition Boxset featuring both formats and extras in September 2016.


title: Vulnicura

text: "Vulnicura" was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 87, based on 40 reviews. Many critics have referred to it as her best work in the last decade and the boldest move after 2011's "Biophilia". It has also been compared stylistically to her critically acclaimed albums "Homogenic" and "Vespertine".


title: Vulnicura

text: Praise has centered around the "emotional honesty and musical daring" used to portray the album's deeply personal themes. The lyrics have been described as some of her "strongest and most moving" and Björk's voice "miraculously expressive". On the less positive side, longtime music critic Robert Christgau claimed, "I always thought she was too lifelike for him anyway." He cited "Stonemilker" and "Atom Dance" as standout tracks.


title: Vulnicura

text: "Rough Trade" named it their album of the year for 2015, calling it "a truly extraordinary work of art" and describing Björk herself as "an inspirational game-changer, someone we hugely respect and admire."


title: Vulnicura

text: "Rolling Stone" also included it in their list of favourite albums of the year, describing it as "the most heart-rending music she's ever made."


title: Vulnicura

text: "Consequence of Sound" named it in their list, "Highest Rated Albums of 2015", at number twenty-one, whilst "Vice" named "Vulnicura" the 38th best album of 2015, calling it an "interactive art piece".


title: Vulnicura

text: It placed fifth in a countdown of the year's best albums in "The Guardian", who praised Björk's "harrowingly expressive compositions".


title: Vulnicura

text: The album was described as "brave, beautiful and affecting" by "NME" and was positioned at number twenty-five on their "Albums of the Year 2015" list.


title: Vulnicura

text: "Cosmopolitan" ranked it at number eight on their "The 15 Best Albums of 2015" year-end survey, commenting that the album is "downright uplifting".


title: Vulnicura

text: "Newsday" called the album "a singular artistic work to stand against other 'breakup albums' for years to come" and it made it to number thirteen on their "Best Albums of 2015" list.


title: Vulnicura

text: Björk won the International Female Solo Artist at the Brit Awards; this was her 5th prize at the annual ceremony.


title: Vulnicura

text: "Vulnicura" was nominated for the Best Alternative Music Award at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards; this is Björk's seventh nomination in the category.


title: Vulnicura

text: Björk was nominated for the International Producer of the Year award for "Vulnicura" by The Music Producers Guild.


title: Vulnicura

text: At the Icelandic Music Awards, "Vulnicura" won Best Album while Björk was named Best Female Artist, Best Songwriter and Best Producer.


title: Alfred Marshall

text: Alfred Marshall (26 July 1842 – 13 July 1924) was an English economist, and was one of the most influential economists of his time. His book "Principles of Economics" (1890) was the dominant economic textbook in England for many years. It brought the ideas of supply and demand, marginal utility, and costs of production into a coherent whole. He is known as one of the founders of neoclassical economics.


title: Alfred Marshall

text: Marshall was born at Bermondsey in London, second son of William Marshall (1812–1901), clerk and cashier at the Bank of England, and Rebecca (1817–1878), daughter of butcher Thomas Oliver, from whom, on her mother's death, she inherited property. William Marshall was a devout strict Evangelical, "author of an Evangelical epic in a sort of Anglo-Saxon language of his own invention which found some favour in its appropriate circles" and of a tract titled "Men's Rights and Women's Duties". Marshall had two brothers and two sisters; a cousin was the economist Ralph Hawtrey. The Marshalls were a West Country clerical family; Marshall's great-great-grandfather was "the Reverend William Marshall, half-legendary Herculean parson of Devonshire", famous for "twisting horseshoes with his hands" to scare "local blacksmiths into fearing that they blew their bellows for the devil". Marshall grew up in Clapham and was educated at the Merchant Taylors' School and St John's College, Cambridge, where he demonstrated an aptitude in mathematics, achieving the rank of Second Wrangler in the 1865 Cambridge Mathematical Tripos. Marshall experienced a mental crisis that led him to abandon physics and switch to philosophy. He began with metaphysics, specifically "the philosophical foundation of knowledge, especially in relation to theology". Metaphysics led Marshall to ethics, specifically a Sidgwickian version of utilitarianism; ethics, in turn, led him to economics, because economics played an essential role in providing the preconditions for the improvement of the working class.


title: Alfred Marshall

text: He saw that the duty of economics was to improve material conditions, but such improvement would occur, Marshall believed, only in connection with social and political forces. His interest in Georgism, liberalism, socialism, trade unions, women's education, poverty and progress reflect the influence of his early social philosophy on his later activities and writings.


title: Alfred Marshall

text: Marshall was elected in 1865 to a fellowship at St John's College at Cambridge, and became lecturer in the moral sciences in 1868. He was Mary Paley's professor of political economy at Cambridge and the two were married in 1877, forcing Marshall to leave his position as a Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, to comply with celibacy rules at the university. He became the first principal at University College, Bristol, which was the institution that later became the University of Bristol, again lecturing on political economy and economics.


title: Alfred Marshall

text: In 1885 he became professor of political economy at Cambridge, where he remained until his retirement in 1908. Over the years he interacted with many British thinkers including Henry Sidgwick, W.K. Clifford, Benjamin Jowett, William Stanley Jevons, Francis Ysidro Edgeworth, John Neville Keynes and John Maynard Keynes. Marshall founded the Cambridge School which paid special attention to increasing returns, the theory of the firm, and welfare economics; after his retirement leaderships passed to Arthur Cecil Pigou and John Maynard Keynes.


title: Alfred Marshall

text: Marshall desired to improve the mathematical rigour of economics and transform it into a more scientific profession. In the 1870s he wrote a small number of tracts on international trade and the problems of protectionism. In 1879, many of these works were compiled into a work entitled "The Theory of Foreign Trade: The Pure Theory of Domestic Values". In the same year (1879) he published "The Economics of Industry" with his wife Mary Paley.


title: Alfred Marshall

text: Although Marshall took economics to a more mathematically rigorous level, he did not want mathematics to overshadow economics and thus make economics irrelevant to the layman. Accordingly, Marshall tailored the text of his books to laymen and put the mathematical content in the footnotes and appendices for the professionals. In a letter to A. L. Bowley, he laid out the following system:


title: Alfred Marshall

text: He perfected his "Economics of Industry" while at Bristol, and published it more widely in England as an economic curriculum; its simple form stood upon sophisticated theoretical foundations. Marshall achieved a measure of fame from this work, and upon the death of William Jevons in 1882, Marshall became the leading British economist of the scientific school of his time.