title: Sauternes (wine)

text: By the end of the 18th century, the region's reputation for Sauternes was internationally known: Thomas Jefferson was an avid connoisseur. Jefferson recorded that after tasting a sample of Château d'Yquem while President, George Washington immediately placed an order for 30 dozen bottles.


title: Sauternes (wine)

text: Like most of the Bordeaux wine region, the Sauternes region has a maritime climate, which brings the viticultural hazards of autumn frost, hail and rains that can ruin an entire vintage. The Sauternes region is located southeast of the city of Bordeaux along the Garonne river and its tributary, the Ciron. The source of the Ciron is a spring which has cooler waters than the Garonne. In the autumn, when the climate is warm and dry, the different temperatures from the two rivers meet to produce mist that descends upon the vineyards from evening to late morning. This condition promotes the development of the "Botrytis cinerea" fungus. By midday, the warm sun will help dissipate the mist and dry the grapes to keep them from developing less favorable rot.


title: Sauternes (wine)

text: The Sauternes wine region comprises five "communes"— Barsac, Sauternes, Bommes, Fargues and Preignac. While all five communes are permitted to use the name Sauternes, the Barsac region is also permitted to label their wines under the Barsac appellation. The Barsac region is located on the west bank of the Ciron river, where the tributary meets the Garonne. The area sits on an alluvial plain with sandy and limy soils. In general, Barsac wine is distinguished from other Sauternes in being drier with a lighter body; currently more Barsac producers are choosing to promote the wines under their own name. In years when the noble rot does not develop, Sauternes producers will often make dry white wines under the generic Bordeaux AOC. To qualify for the Sauternes label, the wines must have a minimum 13% alcohol level and pass a tasting exam where the wines need to taste noticeably sweet. There is no regulation on the exact amount of residual sugar that the wines need to have.


title: Sauternes (wine)

text: Unlike the red wines of the Médoc, which received five degrees (from Premier Cru to Cinquième Cru), the Sauternes and Barsac wines were classified in two: Premiers Crus and Deuxièmes Crus. In order to recognize the special prestige and extremely high price of the wines from the Château d'Yquem winery, its wines were classified as Premier Cru Supérieur. No other winery in the Bordeaux wine area, whether red or sweet, has received the classification of Supérieur. Currently, there are eleven Premiers Crus and fifteen Deuxièmes Crus wineries. The commune of Barsac has the most cataloged wineries with ten, followed by Bommes and Sauternes with six each, Fargues with three and Preignac with two.


title: Sauternes (wine)

text: Among the outstanding wineries in the Sauternes region, it is worth mentioning the Château d'Yquem, the Guiraud, the Filhot, the Rayne-Vigneau, the Climens, the Coutet, and La Tour Blanche. In addition to the classified wines, there are numerous unclassified Sauternes-Barsac designation of origin wineries, such as Château de Villefranche or Château Cantegril. Many wineries also carry second brands of inferior wines, usually with names based on the château, such as La Chartreuse de Coutet (from Coutet), or Petit Vedrines (from Doisy-Védrines).


title: Sauternes (wine)

text: Wine areas close to Sauternes, such as Cérons, Loupiac and Cadillac (and the further Monbazillac area) also tend to produce sweet botrified-style wines under their own appellation of origin, although these wines are considered to be of much lower quality than those from Sauternes.


title: Sauternes (wine)

text: Sauternes are characterized by the balance of sweetness with the zest of acidity. Some common flavor notes include apricots, honey, peaches but with a nutty note, which is a typical characteristic of noble Sémillon itself (cf. Australian noble (late-harvest) Sémillon). The finish can resonate on the palate for several minutes. Sauternes are some of the longest-lived wines, with premium examples from exceptional vintages properly kept having the potential to age well even beyond 100 years. A Sauternes typically starts out with a golden, yellow color that becomes progressively darker as it ages. Some wine experts believe that only once the wine reaches the color of an old copper coin has it started to develop its more complex and mature flavors.


title: Sauternes (wine)

text: Several Sauternes are sold in half bottles of 375 ml though larger bottles are also produced. The wines are typically served chilled at , but wines older than 15 years are often served a few degrees warmer. Sauternes can be paired with a variety of foods. Foie gras is a classic match.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Neanderthals became extinct around 40,000 years ago. This timing, based on research published in "Nature" in 2014, is much earlier than previous estimates, and derives from improved radiocarbon dating methods analyzing 40 sites from Spain to Russia. Evidence for continued Neanderthal presence in the Iberian Peninsula 37,000 years ago was published in 2017.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: It seems unlikely that any single one of these hypotheses is sufficient on its own; rather, multiple factors probably contributed to the demise of an already low population.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: In research published in "Nature" in 2014, an analysis of radiocarbon dates from forty Neanderthal sites from Spain to Russia found that the Neanderthals disappeared in Europe between 41,000 and 39,000 years ago with 95% probability. The study also found with the same probability that modern humans and Neanderthals overlapped in Europe for between 2,600 and 5,400 years. Modern humans reached Europe between 45,000 and 43,000 years ago. Improved radiocarbon dating published in 2015 indicates that Neanderthals disappeared around 40,000 years ago, which overturns older carbon dating which indicated that Neanderthals may have lived as recently as 24,000 years ago, including in refugia on the south coast of the Iberian peninsula such as Gorham's Cave.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Inter-stratification of Neanderthal and modern human remains has been suggested, but is disputed. Stone tools that have been proposed to be linked to Neanderthals have been found at Byzovya () in the polar Urals, and dated to 31,000 to 34,000 years ago.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Kwang Hyun Ho discusses the possibility that Neanderthal extinction was either precipitated or hastened by violent conflict with "Homo sapiens". Violence in early hunter-gatherer societies usually occurred as a result of resource competition following natural disasters. It is therefore plausible to suggest that violence, including primitive warfare, would have transpired between the two human species. The hypothesis that early humans violently replaced Neanderthals was first proposed by French paleontologist Marcellin Boule (the first person to publish an analysis of a Neanderthal) in 1912.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Pathogens or parasites transmitted by humans may have passed to Neanderthals. Neanderthals had poor protection to illnesses they hadn't been exposed to, therefore Homo sapiens' resistant diseases may have been devastating to them. If viruses could easily jump between these two similar species, maybe because they lived near together, Homo sapiens might have infected Neanderthals and prevented the epidemic from burning out as Neanderthal numbers declined. The same process may also explain Homo sapiens' resilience to Neanderthal diseases and parasites. Novel human diseases likely moved from Africa into Eurasia. This purported "African advantage" remained until the agricultural revolution 10,000 years ago in Eurasia, after which domesticated animals surpassed other primates as the most prevalent source of new human infections, replacing the "African advantage" with a "Eurasian advantage". The catastrophic impact of Eurasian viruses on Native American populations in the historical past offers us a sense of how modern humans may have affected hominin predecessor groups in Eurasia 40,000 years ago. Human and Neanderthal genomes and disease or parasite adaptations may give insight on this.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Infectious illness interactions may express the prolonged period of stagnation before the modification, as per disease ecology. Mathematical models have been used to make forecasts for future investigations, giving information about inter-species interactions during the shift between the Middle and Upper Paleolithic eras. This can be useful given the sparse material record from this time and the potential of DNA sequencing and dating technology. Such modeling, together with modern technology and prehistoric archaeological methodologies, may provide a fresh understanding of this time in human origins.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Slight competitive advantage on the part of modern humans may have accounted for Neanderthals' decline on a timescale of thousands of years.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Generally small and widely dispersed fossil sites suggest that Neanderthals lived in less numerous and socially more isolated groups than contemporary "Homo sapiens". Tools such as Mousterian flint stone flakes and Levallois points are remarkably sophisticated from the outset, yet they have a slow rate of variability and general technological inertia is noticeable during the entire fossil period. Artifacts are of utilitarian nature, and symbolic behavioral traits are undocumented before the arrival of modern humans in Europe around 40,000 to 35,000 years ago.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: The noticeable morphological differences in skull shape between the two human species also have cognitive implications. These include the Neanderthals' smaller parietal lobes and cerebellum, areas implicated in tool use, visuospatial integration, numeracy, creativity, and higher-order conceptualization. The differences, while slight, would have possibly been enough to affect natural selection and may underlie and explain the differences in social behaviors, technological innovation, and artistic output.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Jared Diamond, a supporter of competitive replacement, points out in his book "The Third Chimpanzee" that the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans is comparable to patterns of behavior that occur whenever people with advanced technology clash with people with less developed technology.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: In 2006, two anthropologists of the University of Arizona proposed an efficiency explanation for the demise of the Neanderthals. In an article titled "What's a Mother to Do? The Division of Labor among Neanderthals and Modern Humans in Eurasia", it was posited that Neanderthal division of labor between the sexes was less developed than Middle paleolithic "Homo sapiens". Both male and female Neanderthals participated in the single occupation of hunting big game, such as bison, deer, gazelles, and wild horses. This hypothesis proposes that the Neanderthal's relative lack of labor division resulted in less efficient extraction of resources from the environment as compared to "Homo sapiens".


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Researchers such as Karen L. Steudel of the University of Wisconsin have highlighted the relationship of Neanderthal anatomy (shorter and stockier than that of modern humans) and the ability to run and the requirement of energy (30% more).


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Nevertheless, in the recent study, researchers Martin Hora and Vladimir Sladek of Charles University in Prague show that Neanderthal lower limb configuration, particularly the combination of robust knees, long heels, and short lower limbs, increased the effective mechanical advantage of the Neanderthal knee and ankle extensors, thus reducing the force needed and the energy spent for locomotion significantly. The walking cost of the Neanderthal male is now estimated to be 8–12% higher than that of anatomically modern males, whereas the walking cost of the Neanderthal female is considered to be virtually equal to that of anatomically modern females.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Other researchers, like Yoel Rak, from Tel-Aviv University in Israel, have noted that the fossil records show that Neanderthal pelvises in comparison to modern human pelvises would have made it much harder for Neanderthals to absorb shocks and to bounce off from one step to the next, giving modern humans another advantage over Neanderthals in running and walking ability. However, Rak also notes that all archaic humans had wide pelvises, indicating that this is the ancestral morphology and that modern humans underwent a shift towards narrower pelvises in the late Pleistocene.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Pat Shipman argues that the domestication of the dog gave modern humans an advantage when hunting. Evidence shows the oldest remains of domesticated dogs were found in Belgium (31,700 BP) and in Siberia (33,000 BP). A survey of early sites of modern humans and Neanderthals with faunal remains across Spain, Portugal and France provided an overview of what modern humans and Neanderthals ate. Rabbit became more frequent, while large mammals – mainly eaten by the Neanderthals – became increasingly rare. In 2013, DNA testing on the "Altai dog", a paleolithic dog's remains from the Razboinichya Cave (Altai Mountains), has linked this 33,000-year-old dog with the present lineage of "Canis familiaris".


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Interbreeding can account for only a certain degree of Neanderthal population decrease. A homogeneous absorption of an entire species is a rather unrealistic idea. This would also be counter to strict versions of the Recent African Origin, since it would imply that at least part of the genome of Europeans would descend from Neanderthals, whose ancestors left Africa at least 350,000 years ago.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: The most vocal proponent of the hybridization hypothesis is Erik Trinkaus of Washington University. Trinkaus claims various fossils as hybrid individuals, including the "child of Lagar Velho", a skeleton found at Lagar Velho in Portugal. In a 2006 publication co-authored by Trinkaus, the fossils found in 1952 in the cave of Peștera Muierilor, Romania, are likewise claimed as hybrids.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Genetic studies indicate some form of hybridization between archaic humans and modern humans had taken place after modern humans emerged from Africa. An estimated 1–4% of the DNA in Europeans and Asians (e.g. French, Chinese and Papua probands) is non-modern, and shared with ancient Neanderthal DNA rather than with sub-Saharan Africans (e.g. Yoruba and San probands).


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Modern-human findings in Abrigo do Lagar Velho, Portugal allegedly featuring Neanderthal admixtures have been published. However, the interpretation of the Portuguese specimen is disputed.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Jordan, in his work "Neanderthal", points out that without some interbreeding, certain features on some "modern" skulls of Eastern European Cro-Magnon heritage are hard to explain. In another study, researchers have recently found in Peştera Muierilor, Romania, remains of European humans from ~37,000–42,000 years ago who possessed mostly diagnostic "modern" anatomical features, but "also" had distinct Neanderthal features not present in ancestral modern humans in Africa, including a large bulge at the back of the skull, a more prominent projection around the elbow joint, and a narrow socket at the shoulder joint.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: The Neanderthal genome project published papers in 2010 and 2014 stating that Neanderthals contributed to the DNA of modern humans, including most humans outside sub-Saharan Africa, as well as a few populations in sub-Saharan Africa, through interbreeding, likely between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. Recent studies also show that a few Neanderthals began mating with ancestors of modern humans long before the large "out of Africa migration" of the present day non-Africans, as early as 100,000 years ago. In 2016, research indicated that there were three distinct episodes of interbreeding between modern humans and Neanderthals: the first encounter involved the ancestors of non-African modern humans, probably soon after leaving Africa; the second, after the ancestral Melanesian group had branched off (and subsequently had a unique episode of interbreeding with Denisovans); and the third, involving the ancestors of East Asians only.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: While interbreeding is viewed as the most parsimonious interpretation of the genetic discoveries, the authors point out they cannot conclusively rule out an alternative scenario, in which the source population of non-African modern humans was already more closely related to Neanderthals than other Africans were, due to ancient genetic divisions within Africa. Among the genes shown to differ between present-day humans and Neanderthals were "RPTN", "SPAG17", "CAN15", "TTF1" and "PCD16".


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: New evidence discovered at Grotte Mandrin in Malataverne, France, dating back by 10,000 years. Six of the individuals were recognized as Neanderthal, but a modern human upper molar was recovered in between Neanderthal sections. At Grotte Mandrin, the existence of modern human molar inside the Neronian layer prompted researchers to connect this stone tool manufacturing to Homo sapiens. The existence of the homo sapiens molar beside the Neronian solidifies the narrative: Neanderthals and modern humans replaced each other multiple times in same area. Finds at Grotte Mandrin imply the Mediterranean region had a crucial importance in shaping humans' spread into Western Eurasia.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Recent research in northern Spain suggests that Neanderthals vanished earlier in Vasco-Cantabrian eastern and southern Iberia. The projected outcome will assist assess the consequences for region systems of resource extraction, subsistence techniques, and environmental–human connections in the Neanderthals' death and modern humans' evolutionary progress.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Recent genetic evidence has revealed kinship patterns among recovered Neanderthal remains that suggests inbreeding practices such as pairings between half-siblings and/or uncle/aunt and niece/nephew. Researchers hypothesize that Neanderthals may have become isolated into small groups during harsh climatic conditions which contributed to inbreeding behaviours. Due to the lack of genetic diversity, Neanderthal populations would have become more vulnerable to climatic changes, diseases and other stressors which may have contributed to their extinction. A similar model to the inbreeding hypothesis can be seen among endangered lowland gorillas. Their populations are so small that it has caused inbreeding, making them even more vulnerable to extinction.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: Neanderthals went through a demographic crisis in Western Europe that seems to coincide with climate change that resulted in a period of extreme cold in Western Europe. "The fact that Neanderthals in Western Europe were nearly extinct, but then recovered long before they came into contact with modern humans came as a complete surprise to us," said Love Dalén, associate professor at the Swedish Museum of Natural History in Stockholm. If so, this would indicate that Neanderthals may have been very sensitive to climate change.


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: The data reveal that sudden climatic change, although crucial locally, had a limited effect on the worldwide Neanderthal population. Interbreeding and assimilation, which were hypothesized as causes in the death of European Neanderthal populations are successful only for low levels of food competition. More specific genes calculations of the total amount of interbreeding individuals during the last glacial epoch are needed to restrict the influence of interbreeding in my model. These figures are questionable. To simulate numerous interbreeding occurrences, start the model early (125 ka). Future research will examine. models of interbreeding and hybridization may be evaluated using genomic records from last ice age (Fu et al., 2016).


title: Neanderthal extinction

text: A number of researchers have argued that the Campanian Ignimbrite Eruption, a volcanic eruption near Naples, Italy, about 39,280 ± 110 years ago (older estimate ~37,000 years), erupting about of magma ( bulk volume) contributed to the extinction of Neanderthals. The argument has been developed by Golovanova et al. The hypothesis posits that although Neanderthals had encountered several Interglacials during 250,000 years in Europe, inability to adapt their hunting methods caused their extinction facing "H. sapiens" competition when Europe changed into a sparsely vegetated steppe and semi-desert during the last Ice Age. Studies of sediment layers at Mezmaiskaya Cave suggest a severe reduction of plant pollen. The damage to plant life would have led to a corresponding decline in plant-eating mammals hunted by the Neanderthals.


title: Eataly

text: Eataly is a chain of large format/footprint Italian marketplaces (food halls) comprising a variety of restaurants, food and beverage counters, bakery, retail items, and a cooking school. Eataly was founded by Oscar Farinetti, an entrepreneur formerly involved in the consumer electronics business, and collaborates with Slow Food. Since 1 October 2016, Eataly has been led by Andrea Guerra, the executive chairman.


title: Eataly

text: In January 2007, Italian businessman Oscar Farinetti opened the first location of Eataly, converting a closed vermouth factory in the Lingotto district of Turin. Easily accessible via the Lingotto metro station, the establishment has been described by "The New York Times" as a "megastore" that "combines elements of a bustling European open market, a Whole-Foods-style supermarket, a high-end food court and a New Age learning center." Farinetti planned early on that additional stores would open elsewhere in Italy and in New York.


title: Eataly

text: The first Eataly location in New York City is located in the Toy Center Building near Madison Square Park. It is over in size, and opened with a large amount of press coverage on August 31, 2010. Mayor Michael Bloomberg attended the opening, praising Eataly for creating 300 new jobs. Two weeks after opening, there were still lines extending down Fifth Avenue to get into the store. The New York Eataly was originally planned for a smaller space near Rockefeller Center.


title: Eataly

text: The chain has additional locations in Italy and a few in Tokyo. In 2012 Eataly opened in Rome its largest megastore, in the abandoned Air Terminal building near Ostiense Station. There is an Eataly in the Porto Antico area in Genoa.


title: Eataly

text: In January 2013, Eataly announced a partnership with MSC Cruises to open two restaurants on MSC Preziosa. Eataly was also added to MSC Divina.


title: Eataly

text: On December 2, 2013, Eataly opened a new location at 43 E. Ohio St. in Chicago, on a 63,000-square-foot retail space, making it the largest Eataly in the US. The cost of the Chicago venture is estimated at $20 million. On March 18, 2014, Eataly opened its big 5,000 sqm store in Piazza XXV Aprile in Milan.


title: Eataly

text: The founder Oscar Farinetti received the "America Award" of the Italy-USA Foundation in 2013. On December 16, 2014, Eataly opened the first store at Zorlu Center in Istanbul. On May 19, 2015, Eataly opened its first store in the southern hemisphere in São Paulo. On November 26, 2015, Eataly opened in Munich, making it the first location in Germany.


title: Eataly

text: In June 2016, it was announced that an Eataly location would open in 2018 at the Park MGM casino in Las Vegas (formerly the Monte Carlo). Eataly will fill approximately 40,000 square feet on the southern edge of the resort and The Park-facing side will become the main pedestrian entrance into the Park MGM casino.


title: Eataly

text: In November 2016, a 45,000-square-foot Eataly location opened in the Boston Prudential Center, replacing an existing food court after extensive renovations.


title: Eataly

text: In October 2017 Eataly Century City location opened at the newly remodeled $1-billion Westfield Century City Mall in Los Angeles County. Covering 67,000 square feet, Eataly L.A. surpassed Eataly Chicago to become the largest Eataly in the United States.


title: Eataly

text: On February 17, 2018, Eataly opened its 40th location in Stockholm, Sweden. The operation occupies 32,300 square feet in a former movie theater in the heart of Stockholm's shopping district.


title: Eataly

text: In April 2019, Eataly opened its first location in Paris, France. It is located in the center of the French capital in the Marais neighborough, between the Place des Émeutes-de-Stonewall (Stonewall Riots square) and the rue Sainte-Croix-de-la-Bretonnerie, in Le Marais (4th arrondissement).


title: Eataly

text: On November 13, 2019, Eataly opened a 50,000-square-foot store in Toronto, Canada in the Manulife Centre on Bloor Street.


title: Eataly

text: In September 2022, the UK investment firm Investindustrial VII LP became Eataly's main shareholder by acquiring 52% of its shares for 200 million euros.


title: Eataly

text: The name Eataly was coined by Celestino Ciocca, a brand strategy consultant who has worked for Texas Instruments as well as Ernst & Young. He first registered Eataly as a domain name on February 23, 2000, and as a trademark in June 2000. Ciocca sold (by his family company) all his rights to the name to Natale Farinetti on February 3, 2004, by public deed "repertorio n° 96538 – raccolta n° 11510". Other than the obvious portmanteau of 'Eat' and 'Italy', the 'aly' part of the name is suggestive of an alley, with many food stalls.


title: Eataly

text: Mario Batali, previously involved with Eataly, is no longer attached to the company following his sexual misconduct allegations. Eataly pulled all products bearing his likeness two days after the allegations surfaced in 2017.


title: Eataly

text: Other planned stores include locations in Abu Dhabi, Brussels, Hong Kong, Johannesburg, Lausanne, London, Mexico City, Philadelphia, Rio de Janeiro, Singapore, Sydney, and Washington, DC.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Jekyll Island is located off the coast of the U.S. state of Georgia, in Glynn County. It is one of the Sea Islands and one of the Golden Isles of Georgia barrier islands. The island is owned by the State of Georgia and run by a self-sustaining, self-governing body.


title: Jekyll Island

text: It was long used seasonally by indigenous peoples of the region. The Guale and the Mocama, the indigenous peoples of the area when Europeans first reached the area, were killed or forced to leave by the English of the Province of Carolina and their native allies, and by raids by French pirates. Plantations were developed on the island during the British colonial period. A few structures still standing are made of tabby, a coastal building material of crushed oyster shells. The island was developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was evacuated during World War II by order of the US government. In 1947 the state of Georgia acquired all the property, for security and preservation.


title: Jekyll Island

text: A popular tourist destination, the island has beaches frequented by vacationers. Guided tours of the Landmark Historic District are available. Bike trails, walks along the beaches and sandbars, and Summer Waves, a water park, are among the active attractions. The historic district features numerous impressive and ambitious buildings from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The island is also full of wildlife, consisting of many different mammals, reptiles, and birds living and breeding in the island's inland salt marshes. In 2018, "Architectural Digest" named Jekyll Island one of the 50 most beautiful small towns in America.


title: Jekyll Island

text: The island was listed as a census-designated place prior to the 2020 census with a population of 866.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Jekyll Island is one of only four Georgia barrier islands that has a paved causeway to allow access from the mainland by car. It has of land, including of solid earth and a Jekyll Island Club Historic District. The rest is tidal marshlands, mostly on the island's western shore. The island measures about long by wide, has of wide, flat beaches on its east shore with sand packed hard enough for easy walking or biking, and boasts of hiking trails.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Like the other Golden Isles, Jekyll is mostly made of older Pleistocene land mass and smaller sections of younger Holocene land. The climate is humid subtropical, with rainfall concentrated in the hottest months.


title: Jekyll Island

text: The north end of the island is the main area that has been affected by human development over the past few hundred years. Early settlers and the loggers who came afterwards developed plantations in this area. They used fallen trees for the construction of ships. In the early 20th century, much of what was considered wilderness was developed into golf courses.


title: Jekyll Island

text: A short winding road leads to a parking lot and one of the three picnic areas on the island. To the west is a vast marsh hammock and a view of the Sidney Lanier Bridge, a -tall cable-stay bridge on Hwy 17. A large fishing pier extends northwest from the picnic area. To the east, a bridge crosses Clam Creek, in front of an inland marsh, to connect the picnic area to the North End Beach and Driftwood Beach. These beaches are characterized by another tidal creek emptying into St. Simons Sound and a boneyard of pine and water oak tree roots.


title: Jekyll Island

text: The two-story house built from tabby in 1742 stands along N. Riverview Rd. The frame is intact, while the roof, doors, and windows are gone. Tabby was an indigenous material developed along the coast that was formed from crushed oyster shells, lime and water to make a kind of cement. It is featured in several historic sea island structures dating from the antebellum plantation era. The house was occupied by Major William Horton during the British colonial period. He developed Georgia's first brewery (the ruins of which are a few hundred yards down the road).


title: Jekyll Island

text: The remains of the house have been meticulously preserved over the past 100 years as an example of coastal Georgia building techniques; it is one of the oldest surviving buildings in the state. Across the street from the Horton House ruin is the du Bignon cemetery, established by the next family to own the house and much of the island for generations. Its tabby wall surrounds the graves of five people who died in the 19th century.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Just across the street from the entrance to the Clam Creek picnic area is the campground, an facility in a cleared maritime forest. The campground has running water for restrooms, showers, and laundry, as well as a store and bike rentals.


title: Jekyll Island

text: The southern end of the island was virtually unused by settlers and visitors until the late 19th century, when the army installed a gun mount on the southern end during the Spanish–American War. The installation looked over St. Andrews Sound toward Little Cumberland. In the second half of the 20th century, homes and motels were built by the Jekyll Island Authority along the northern beaches of the island. The multiple parallel dunes on the southernmost tip are a result of sand from the eroding north beaches traveling southward and being deposited in a recurved spit.


title: Jekyll Island

text: This picnic area on the ocean side of the island features plenty of picnic tables, a full bathroom with showers, and a boardwalk to traverse the -high dune ridge to the beach. The dune is needed to protect the wooded area and interior of the island from erosion due to storms. This area was repaired in 1983, with bulldozers pushing new primary dunes into place to correct the damage caused by 30 years of beachgoers trampling over the enormous dunes to the beach.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Access to this beach is by way of a long boardwalk. It was built in the mid-1980s by the producers of the film "Glory," which was partially filmed here, and has been named for the film. The boardwalk, recently repaired, can be accessed from the soccer complex at the south end of the Jekyll Island. The boardwalk passes through a variety of natural habitats, ranging from ancient dunes to freshwater sloughs.


title: Jekyll Island

text: St. Andrews is a picnic area on the intercoastal side of the island, facing the marsh and mainland. It is the farthest point on the beach from Clam Creek. This beach is very popular with fishing birds. Dolphins frequently feed here and travel through the area; they are visible when surfacing for air.


title: Jekyll Island

text: In 2008, the Jekyll Island History Museum, the Jekyll Island Authority, and the Friends of Historic Jekyll Island commemorated the survivors of the slave ship "The Wanderer", the next to last ship documented to transport slaves to US territory in the prohibited Atlantic slave trade.


title: Jekyll Island

text: "Clotilda", out of Mobile, Alabama, brought in 110 slaves in July 1860, and is ranked last. Because the ship was burned and sunk, some observers thought accounts of its slave voyage was a hoax, but there is considerable documentation. In January 2018 a reporter announced finding wreckage in mud in the Mobile River, which a team of archeologists had affirmed may be the ruins of the "Clotilda".


title: Jekyll Island

text: The "Wanderer" was built in Setauket, New York as a pleasure boat, but it was acquired by Southerners who opposed the prohibition on the Atlantic slave trade. They had it converted in the Congo and Angola to carry slaves, and the captain purchased more than 500 to take to the US. After a six-week voyage in which more than 100 slaves died, on November 28, 1858, "The Wanderer" anchored near the southern portion of Jekyll Island. Its crew took 409 to 465 enslaved Africans ashore, smuggling them to the mainland. News of the slave ship set off a wave of outrage. The federal government's effort to prosecute the conspirators was unsuccessful.


title: Jekyll Island

text: A public art sculpture was commissioned for this site. It is a -tall steel sculpture of ship sails, intended to signify the harsh, hard nature of slavery.


title: Jekyll Island

text: In the midsection of the intercoastal side of the island is a designated Historic District. This includes most of the buildings erected during the Jekyll Island Club era. They have been carefully preserved. The centerpiece of the grounds is the large Jekyll Island Club Hotel, a two-winged structure that contains numerous suites for rental. The presidential suite contains the three-story turret on the front of the building. Thirty-three buildings from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries surround the hotel; many are the elaborate mansion-sized "cottages" built by the rich. Some cottages offer rooms for rent for temporary stays. Others have been adapted for use as museums, art galleries, or bookstores. The hotel is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The historic district itself has been listed as a National Historic Landmark District since 1978.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Tram tours originate from the Jekyll Island Museum located on Stable Road directly across from the historic district. They run several times daily and guides describe much of the history of this area.


title: Jekyll Island

text: In the mid-2nd millennium, the island now known as Jekyll was near the border between the Guale people and the Mocama people. Historians have debated whether the town of Guadalquini was on Jekyll Island or St. Simon's Island, and whether the people that lived there late in the 16th century were Guale or Mocama. By early in the 17th century Guadalquini was occupied by the Mocama. Both the Guale and the Mocama became part of the Spanish mission system. In the late 17th century the Guale and the Mocama were driven out of what is now Georgia by attacks from French pirates and from native allies of the English in the Province of Carolina. The survivors resettled in what is now Florida.


title: Jekyll Island

text: The men used spears to take fish from the surrounding creeks. The women were experts on the native vegetation, gathering nuts and fruit. They made a type of tea from parched holly leaves. These settlers were said to also have cultivated the three sisters: squash and pumpkins, beans, and corn (maize); as well as sunflowers and tobacco, which was used for many ritual purposes and celebrations.


title: Jekyll Island

text: In 1510 explorers from Spain were the first to land at Jekyll Island, naming it "Isla De Ballenas" (Whale Island). Later Juan Ponce de León was appointed as the civil governor of this and Spain's other claimed North American territories. In 1562 French explorer Jean Ribault claimed the island for France and renamed it as "Ille de la Somme." Ribault later surrendered to the Spanish and was executed. The two countries engaged in competition and armed confrontations along the Georgia and Florida coasts. After his army swiftly defeated the French, Philip II of Spain immediately had a colony established on Jekyll.


title: Jekyll Island

text: More brief conflicts between these two countries along the coastline followed. Spanish priests established missions intending to convert Native Americans to Christianity. No mission is known to have been established on Jekyll; however, the Spanish influenced the island from their mission on St. Simons Island. After the Westo invasion on the mainland, they began destroying the missions and slaying the Spanish priests, traveling south along the coast. They spared Father Xander Davilla on Jekyll, keeping him as a slave. (He was later released to the Spanish in a prisoner exchange).


title: Jekyll Island

text: In 1663–65, England established grants to land stretching southward from their Jamestown colony to an area below St. Augustine, Florida. The English allied with the Cherokee people, Creek people, and Yuchi tribes. They armed the warriors, ordering them to raid the Spanish and Muskogean settlements on Jekyll in 1681–83. By 1702, the English had driven the Spanish from the entire area.


title: Jekyll Island

text: General James Oglethorpe established Georgia as a colony in 1733. He renamed the island in honor of his friend, Joseph Jekyll who had contributed £600 towards the founding of the colony. For many years, including the "Club Era", the island was spelled as "Jekyl". The Georgia legislature in 1929 passed legislation to correct the spelling to "Jekyll", as used by the former sponsor of the colony.


title: Jekyll Island

text: In the late 1730s, General Oglethorpe appointed William Horton to set up a military post in the area to protect Fort Frederica on St Simon's Island. By 1738 Horton had set up permanent residence on Jekyll Island, near what is now called DuBignon Creek. At his residence, Horton established a plantation that was able to supply the population at Frederica with beef and corn; he depended on the labor of enslaved African Americans.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Horton continued to develop his property on Jekyll. In 1742 his house was destroyed during Spanish attacks, but he had it rebuilt. He developed the cultivation of new experimental crops on his plantation, including barley and indigo. Horton had his house and outbuildings reconstructed after the attacks using the indigenous material, tabby. A mixture of lime, crushed oyster shells, and water, this strong building material has withstood the test of time throughout the Sea Islands. The external structure of William Horton’s two-story house, built from tabby, is one of two remaining two-story colonial-era structures in the state of Georgia. William Horton died in 1748–1749. His property on Jekyll passed through many hands until, just before the year 1800, Christophe du Bignon acquired all of the property of the island.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Christophe du Bignon and his family arrived here from France in 1792 as refugees from the violence of the French Revolution against the elite. Du Bignon developed a prosperous plantation, based on African slavery, which he introduced to the island. After he died in 1825, his son Henri Charles Du Bignon inherited the property. Under the new ownership of Henri Charles the plantation continued to prosper, as evidenced by the 1850 census.


title: Jekyll Island

text: On November 28, 1858, fifty years after the importation of slaves to the United States was prohibited, the ship "The Wanderer" landed on Jekyll Island with 465 slaves. This was the next-to-last successful shipment of slaves to American soil from Africa.


title: Jekyll Island

text: By 1860, the plantations on Jekyll had declined in productivity, as the markets had changed and the soil became exhausted. By 1862 when Union Army troops arrived, the Du Bignon plantation was completely deserted. After the American Civil War ended, the Du Bignon family returned to the island. Henri Charles divided the island among his four children.


title: Jekyll Island

text: In 1875 John Eugene Du Bignon, a nephew, became owner of property on the island. He inherited the southern third of the island from his father and intended to build a house.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Du Bignon purchased the rest of the island from his siblings, with the help of his brother-in-law Newton Finney and an investor. Their plan to market the island as a winter retreat for the wealthy came to fruition on February 17, 1886. They decided to construct a clubhouse which was completed in January 1888. Fifty-three members purchased shares for $600 each; a limit of 100 members was imposed to preserve the club's exclusivity.


title: Jekyll Island

text: From 1888 to 1942 the club opened every January for the winter season, except a few years when there were yellow fever outbreaks. It accommodated some of the world's wealthiest people. Members and their families enjoyed activities such as biking, hunting, horseback riding, and tennis, and frequented the north beaches. Some of the wealthiest members built their own "cottages", mansion-sized residences that are mostly still standing in the 21st century. Even the wealthy endured financial losses during the Great Depression, and the club had financial difficulties. When the United States entered World War II, it ordered the island evacuated for security purposes, ending the era of the Jekyll Island Club. After the war in 1947, the State of Georgia bought the island.


title: Jekyll Island

text: At the end of November 1910, Senator Nelson W. Aldrich and Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Treasury Department A. Piatt Andrew, and five of the country's leading financiers (Frank Vanderlip, Henry P. Davison, Benjamin Strong, and Paul Warburg) arrived at the Jekyll Island Club to conduct a secret meeting to plan the country's monetary policy and banking system, formulating during the meeting the Federal Reserve as America's next central bank. According to the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, the 1910 Jekyll Island meeting resulted in draft legislation for the creation of a U.S. central bank. Parts of this draft (the Aldrich plan) were incorporated into the 1913 Federal Reserve Act.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Under the administration of Governor Melvin E. Thompson, the state of Georgia gained control of Jekyll Island on October 6, 1947, for $675,000. The island was initially managed as part of the State Park system. However, by 1950, as costs associated with getting the island ready for tourists began to mount, the island was taken out of the state park system. It was organized as a separate authority with the goal of its becoming self-sustaining, considered achievable because of its resources and attractions.


title: Jekyll Island

text: The Jekyll Island Authority was created in February 1950 under the direction of Governor Herman Talmadge. It was designed to be a governing board. This board consisted of nine gubernatorial appointed members and was charged with the operation and care of the island. Black residents of Brunswick petitioned the state for access‚ and in 1950‚ a portion of southern Jekyll‚ renamed St. Andrews Beach‚ was designated for blacks‚ becoming the first public beach in Georgia accessible to African Americans. Five years later‚ the state erected the “Colored Beach House,” which now stands as a historic landmark at Camp Jekyll.


title: Jekyll Island

text: The authority placed a convict camp on the island in 1951. In an extension of the lease-convict system, compared to slavery in its abuses, the mostly African-American prisoners performed the manual labor needed to prepare the island for public use. They planted landscaping for drainage, dug and built the foundations of motels and neighborhoods, and built the perimeter road. From September 1951 to December 1954, the island was primarily closed to the public. Upon completion of the six-year causeway project and erection of the drawbridge on December 11, 1954, Jekyll Island officially re-opened for public use.


title: Jekyll Island

text: The Authority was criticized and received negative publicity in the mid-1950s. The Georgia Legislature restructured the Authority in 1957, requiring board members to be elected officials. The state attorney general, state auditor, public service commissioner, state parks department director, and secretary of state were all made board members.


title: Jekyll Island

text: In the next decade, the Authority directed development of motels, houses, the convention center, and a shopping center, as well as the towers at the entrance to the causeway. In the 1970s the Authority began renovating the historic cottages and club hotel in the historic district. During the 1980s, it supervised the construction of bike paths and the re-opening of the clubhouse in December 1987. The legislature reorganized the board membership in the 1970s and 1980s. Now it consists of the Commissioner of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources and eight citizens of the state.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Some of the later construction projects have included the Soccer Complex, the Jekyll Island Tennis Center, gaining Historic District status and designation as a National Historic Landmark in 1978, and opening the Jekyll Island 4-H Center in 1983. Most recently, the Authority completed the Georgia Sea Turtle Center. The Georgia Sea Turtle Center aims to rehabilitate and return to nature cold stunned and other wounded turtles, the primary species impacted by cold stunning is the critically endangered Kemp's ridley sea turtle.


title: Jekyll Island

text: Due to an increasing number of competitive sites, the island had suffered declining numbers of visitors since the late 20th century. In 2006, the Authority planned to revitalize the island. In 2007 it selected Linger Longer Communities LLC (through a competitive process) as its private partner to redevelop a portion of the Island. After a year of planning and hosting public forums throughout the state of Georgia, the Authority and Linger Longer developed a revitalization plan. It includes a renovated Convention Center, with construction of a mixed-use public Beach Village to increase the number and variety of attractions nearby. These will be oriented to pedestrian uses: an area for new retail shops and a public beach-side promenade. By legislative mandate, sixty-five percent of the island is and will remain in a mostly natural state (including parks and picnic areas).


title: Jekyll Island

text: A once-per-day toll has been charged for several decades to enter Jekyll Island. In 1985 the daily rate was $1, it was $5, and later raised to $8, with an annual pass at $55. Also an annual pass may be purchased at the Guest Information Center before entering the island.


title: Jekyll Island

text: "Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos can be of any race."


title: Jekyll Island

text: Scenes from the films "", "Glory", "The Legend Of Bagger Vance", "Jekyll Island", and "The View from Pompey's Head" have been filmed on Jekyll Island. On October 27, 2014, Red Zone Pictures filmed here for "Magic Mike XXL" (2015), starring Channing Tatum.


title: Jekyll Island

text: In 2016, an episode for "The Walking Dead" Season 7 was filmed on the island, as well as part of an episode in season 10 in 2019. The musical version of "The Color Purple" (2023) shot several scenes on Driftwood Beach in March 2022.


title: Young the Giant

text: Young the Giant is an American rock band that formed in Irvine, California, in 2004. The band's line-up consists of Sameer Gadhia (lead vocals), Jacob Tilley (guitar), Eric Cannata (guitar), Payam Doostzadeh (bass guitar), and Francois Comtois (drums). Formerly known as The Jakes, Young the Giant was signed by Roadrunner Records in 2009, and they released their eponymous debut album in 2010. The band's first three singles, "My Body", "Cough Syrup", and "Apartment", all charted on the US Alternative Songs chart.


title: Young the Giant

text: The Jakes formed in 2004 in Irvine, California. Consisting of Jacob Tilley, Addam Farmer, Kevin Massoudi, Ehson Hashemian, and Sameer Gadhia, the band's name was an acronym of the members' first names. After several personnel changes, the group's lineup by 2008 included Gadhia (born July 10, 1989), Tilley, Hashemian, Eric Cannata, Francois Comtois (born May 20, 1988), and Jason Burger. Initial coordination of musical contributions was difficult because the members all attended different schools. With two members still in high school and the others each attending different colleges, the Jakes recorded an EP, "Shake My Hand", with producer Ian Kirkpatrick. Band members then individually decided whether or not to put their schooling on hold to focus on music. Burger left the band to pursue an education at Manhattan School of Music in New York City, and Comtois took over as the drummer. Shortly thereafter, longtime friend and collaborator Payam Doostzadeh () joined as bassist. In 2009, the band played four shows at the South by Southwest music festival in Austin, Texas. The band's song "Texas Tea" was played during an episode of MTV's "", and "Paid the Piper" was featured on A&E's "The Beast". Another song, "Cough Syrup", received airplay on the Los Angeles radio station KROQ. Shortly before signing to Roadrunner Records in August, keyboardist Ehson Hashemian left the band. In December 2009, the band announced they had changed their name to Young the Giant.


title: Young the Giant

text: The Jakes officially changed their name to Young the Giant in January 2010 during the production of their eponymous album. Young the Giant spent 2010 opening for Minus the Bear and Steel Train while working on their debut album with Joe Chiccarelli at Sunset Sound Studios in Los Angeles. They took an old-school approach to recording the album. All the tracks were performed live which resulted in a lot of “chopping” during production. The band was very vigilant of their tracks but trusted the decisions of Joe Chiccarelli who had previously produced albums for The Shins, The Strokes, and Saints of Valory. The band believed in transparency; they only wanted to record what they could reproduce in front of an audience at a live show.


title: Young the Giant

text: After the band finished recording in early June, they played additional shows with Marina and the Diamonds, The Futureheads, Neon Trees and New Politics. Several songs—including "My Body", "I Got", and "Strings"—were leaked online in advance of the album's release. On October 26, Roadrunner Records digitally released the eponymous "Young the Giant" album, which Amazon.com hailed the third best rock album of 2010. The album was released physically in the U.S. on January 25, 2011 and in the UK on May 2.


title: Young the Giant

text: The band's first single "My Body" was released to U.S. radio in January and went on to peak at number five on the "Billboard" Alternative Songs chart. iTunes offered the song as a weekly free download beginning January 9, and was featured on an episode of "American Idol". The band performed the song that month on ABC's "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" and Fuel TV's "The Daily Habit". The official video for the single, which features actor Bryan James, was directed by Justin Francis.


title: Young the Giant

text: In March, Young the Giant headlined the Billboard Showcase at South by Southwest in Austin, Texas. In May, the band played the Sasquatch! Music Festival, the BBC's "Later... with Jools Holland" and The Great Escape Festival in Brighton. English singer Morrissey, on the fansite True to You, declared Young The Giant as one of his favorite new bands. The music video for the group's second single, "Cough Syrup", premiered in June. The band was named MTV's PUSH Artist of the Week on July 4.


title: Young the Giant

text: An extended play (EP) featuring remixes by such artists as Two Door Cinema Club, Tokyo Police Club and Ra Ra Riot was made available in September for free through Young the Giant's Facebook page. Fans were invited to create their own remixes with the opportunity for their entry to be featured on the EP. In August, the band played on the main stage at Lollapalooza.


title: Young the Giant

text: Young the Giant performed during the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards on August 28. The band began a tour with Incubus two days later.


title: Young the Giant

text: The exposure from the VMA performance propelled "Young the Giant" onto the "Billboard" 200 albums chart, where it eventually peaked at number 42.


title: Young the Giant

text: Sales for "My Body" climbed 220 percent on iTunes, helping the single reach number 65 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. Young the Giant played at the Austin City Limits Music Festival in September, and a month later they performed songs from their debut album for an episode of "MTV Unplugged" which debuted online in November.


title: Young the Giant

text: "Apartment", the band's third single, was released in February 2011 and peaked at number 26 on the US Alternative Songs chart.


title: Young the Giant

text: The group performed "Apartment" and "Cough Syrup" on a May episode of NBC's "Today", and "CNN Newsroom" profiled the band a month later.


title: Young the Giant

text: The band released a music video for non-album track "West Virginia" in January 2012, and started their first major headlining tour in February.


title: Young the Giant

text: Darren Criss' character Blaine Anderson covered "Cough Syrup" on the season three episode of "Glee" titled "On My Way". The song featured during the attempted suicide scene with Max Adler's character Dave Karofsky.


title: Young the Giant

text: In October 2020, the band announced the celebration of their ten year anniversary of their self-titled album with a virtual concert, a special digital release, and a new vinyl release.


title: Young the Giant

text: On October 28, 2013, Young the Giant released "It's About Time", the lead single from the band's second album, "Mind over Matter". On December 9, 2013, Young the Giant also released "Crystallized", another single from the band's second album. The album was released on January 21, 2014 via Fueled by Ramen. The band enlisted Grammy-nominated producer Justin Meldal-Johnsen to produce the album for the Southern California group.


title: Young the Giant

text: "The New York Times" called the album "a sharp, electric album that has the cool reserve of the Cure matched with the arena mind-set of, say, Muse (though without that group’s mechanical air)."


title: Young the Giant

text: The next fall the band embarked on North American Tour starting in South Burlington, Vermont, and ending in Boulder, Colorado the band was opened by the band Wildling who Gadhia helped in their search for a drummer.


title: Young the Giant

text: Following the release of their second album, the group released another set of videos for their In the Open series on YouTube.


title: Young the Giant

text: In 2015, the band released two songs named "Mirrorball" and "Mind Over Matter (Reprise)" exclusively on vinyl for Record Store Day of that year. The songs were later released online July 28, 2017.


title: Young the Giant

text: On April 15, 2016, the band released a new track, "Amerika", taken from their third studio album, "Home of the Strange", released on August 12, 2016. The first official single on the record is "Something to Believe In", which was sent to alternative radio on May 10, 2016. Another track from the album, "Titus Was Born", was released with an accompanying music video on June 17, 2016.


title: Young the Giant

text: Young the Giant's tour for the album began August 13, 2016, starting from the west coast of the United States. Two additional tracks from the album, "Jungle Youth" and "Silvertongue", were released in the weeks before the release of the album.


title: Young the Giant

text: The band released the first single, "Simplify", from their upcoming album on June 14, 2018. The album's second single, "Superposition", was released on August 23, 2018, along with an announcement that "Mirror Master" would be released on October 12, 2018, by Elektra Records. The band released the third single, "Heat of the Summer", on September 21, 2018. "Call Me Back", the fourth single and last before the album's release, was released on October 5, 2018.


title: Young the Giant

text: The band released the single, “Wake Up”, on June 15, 2022. Other songs from the first act of their "American Bollywood" album, named "Act I: Origins", were released on July 15, 2022. The band also premiered a video for the album's title song, "American Bollywood", on YouTube on July 15, 2022. The three other acts were named, "Act II: Exile", "Act III: Battle", and "Act IV: Denouement". A total of sixteen songs were released on the "American Bollywood" album in the form of the four separate acts with four songs each, and the songs were released as a full album on November 16, 2022. The American Bollywood tour began on October 12, 2022 at the Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison, Colorado.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: There are several passages in the Talmud which are believed by some scholars to be references to Jesus. The name used in the Talmud is "Yeshu", the Aramaic vocalization (although not spelling) of the Hebrew name "Yeshua".


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: The identification of Jesus with any number of individuals named "Yeshu" has numerous problems, as most of the individuals are said to have lived in time periods far detached from that of Jesus; Yeshu the sorcerer is noted for being executed by the Hasmonean government which lost legal authority in 63 BC, Yeshu the student is described being among the Pharisees who returned to Israel from Egypt in 74 BC, and Yeshu ben Pandera/ben Stada's stepfather is noted as speaking with Rabbi Akiva shortly before the rabbi's execution, an event which occurred in c. 134 AD. These events would place the lifetime of any Yeshu decades before or after the birth and death of Jesus.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: The first Christian censorship of the Talmud happened in the year 521. However, far better documented censorship began during the disputations of the Middle Ages. Catholic authorities under Pope Gregory IX accused the Talmud of containing blasphemous references to Jesus and his mother, Mary. Jews responded to the disputations by saying there were no references to Jesus in the Talmud. They asserted that Joshua was a common Jewish name, along with its derivations, and that the citations referred to individuals other than Jesus. The disputations led to many of the references being removed (censored) from subsequent editions of the Talmud.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: In the modern era, there has been a variance of views among scholars of the possible references to Jesus in the Talmud, depending partly on presuppositions as to the extent to which the ancient rabbis were preoccupied with Jesus and Christianity. This range of views among modern scholars on the subject has been described as a range from "minimalists" who see few passages with reference to Jesus, to "maximalists" who see many passages having reference to Jesus. These terms "minimalist" and "maximalist" are not unique to discussion of the Talmud text; they are also used in discussion of academic debate on other aspects of Jewish vs. Christian and Christian vs. Jewish contact and polemic in the early centuries of Christianity, such as the "Adversus Iudaeos" genre. "Minimalists" include Jacob Z. Lauterbach (1951) ("who recognize[d] only relatively few passages that actually have Jesus in mind"), while "maximalists" include Herford (1903) (who concluded that most of the references related to Jesus, but were non-historical oral traditions which circulated among Jews), and Schäfer (2007) (who concluded that the passages were parodies of parallel stories about Jesus in the New Testament incorporated into the Talmud in the 3rd and 4th centuries that illustrate the inter-sect rivalry between Judaism and nascent Christianity).


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Some editions of the Talmud are missing some of the references, which were removed either by Christian censors starting in the 13th century, or by Jews themselves due to fear of reprisals, or some were possibly lost by negligence or accident. However, most modern editions published since the early 20th century have restored most of the references.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: During the Middle Ages a series of debates on Judaism were staged by the Catholic Church – including the Disputation of Paris, the Disputation of Barcelona, and Disputation of Tortosa – and during those disputations, Jewish converts to Christianity, such as Pablo Christiani and Nicholas Donin claimed the Talmud contained insulting references to Jesus. An early work describing Jesus in the Talmud was "Pugio Fidei" ("Dagger of Faith") (c. 1280) by the Catalan Dominican Ramón Martí, a Jewish convert to Christianity. In 1681 Johann Christoph Wagenseil translated and published a collection of anti-Christian polemics from Jewish sources, with the title "Tela Ignea Satanæ, sive Arcani et Horribiles Judæorum Adversus Christum, Deum, et Christianam Religionem Libri" ("Flaming Arrows of Satan, that is, the secret and horrible books of the Jews against Christ, God, and the Christian religion") which discussed Jesus in the Talmud. The first book devoted solely to the topic of Jesus in the Talmud was the Latin work "Jesus in Talmude" published in 1699 by Rudolf Martin Meelführer, a student of Wagenseil at Altdorf. In 1700, Johann Andreas Eisenmenger published "Entdecktes Judenthum" ("Judaism Unmasked"), which included descriptions of Jesus in the Talmud, and which would become the basis of much anti-Semitic literature in later centuries such as "The Talmud Unmasked" written in 1892 by Justinas Bonaventure Pranaitis.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Starting in the 20th century the topic of Jesus in Judaic literature became subject to more unbiased, scholarly research, such as "Das Leben Jesu nach jüdischen Quellen" (The Life of Jesus From Jewish Sources) written in 1902 by Samuel Krauss, which was the first scholarly analysis of the Judaic anti-Christian polemic "Toledot Yeshu" ("The Biography of Jesus"). In 1903, Unitarian scholar R. Travers Herford wrote "Christianity in Talmud and Midrash", which became the standard work on the topic in the Christian world, and he concluded that a large number of references referred to Jesus, not as a historical individual, but instead as the messiah of Christianity. In 1910, Hermann Strack wrote "Jesus, die Häretiker und die Christen nach den ältesten jüdischen Angaben" (Jesus, the heretics and the Christians according to the oldest Jewish data), which found no evidence of a historical Jesus in the Talmud. In 1922 Joseph Klausner wrote "Yeshu ha-Notzri" ("Jesus of Nazareth") which concluded that "the evidence [for a historical Jesus] in the Talmud is scanty and does not contribute much to our knowledge of the historical Jesus; much of it is legendary and reflects the Jewish attempt to counter Christian claims and reproaches" but he did conclude some material was historically reliable. In 1950 Morris Goldstein wrote "Jesus in the Jewish Tradition", including sections on the Toledoth Yeshu. In 1951, Jacob Z. Lauterbach wrote the essay "Jesus in the Talmud". In 1978 Johann Maier wrote "Jesus von Nazareth in der talmudischen Überlieferung" (Jesus of Nazareth in the Talmudic tradition) in which he concludes that there is virtually no evidence of the historical Jesus in the Talmud, and that the references to Jesus were "legendary" and probably added late in the Talmudic era "as a reaction to Christian provocations". In 2007, Peter Schäfer wrote "Jesus in the Talmud" in which he tried to find a middle ground between "anti-Jewish Christian" and "apologetic Jewish" interpretations. He concluded that the references to Jesus (as the messiah of Christianity) were included in the early (3rd and 4th century) versions of the Talmud, and that they were parodies of New Testament narratives.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: In the first few centuries CE, there were many sects of Judaism (such as Pharisees, Essenes, and Sadducees) each claiming to be the correct faith. Some scholars treat Christianity, during that era, referred to as Early Christianity, as simply one of many sects of Judaism. Some sects wrote polemics advocating their position, and occasionally disparaging rival sects. Some scholars view the depictions of Jesus in the Talmud as a manifestation of those inter-sect rivalries – thus the depictions can be read as polemics by the rabbinic authors of the Talmud which indirectly criticized the rival sect (Christianity), which was growing and becoming more dominant.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Peter Schäfer concluded that the references were not from the early tannaitic period (1st and 2nd centuries) but rather from the 3rd and 4th centuries, during the amoraic period. He asserts that the references in the Babylonian Talmud were "polemical counter-narratives that parody the New Testament stories, most notably the story of Jesus' birth and death" and that the rabbinical authors were familiar with the Gospels (particularly the Gospel of John) in their form as the Diatessaron and the Peshitta, the New Testament of the Syrian Church. Schäfer argues that the message conveyed in the Talmud was a "bold and self-confident" assertion of correctness of Judaism, maintaining that "there is no reason to feel ashamed because we rightfully executed a blasphemer and idolater."


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: By way of comparison the New Testament itself also documents conflict with rabbinical Judaism, for example in the John 8:41 charge "We are not born of fornication." and "Are we not right in saying that you are a Samaritan and have a demon?" and in return in the description in Revelation of a "synagogue of Satan."


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: In contrast to Peter Schäfer, Daniel J. Lasker suggests that the Talmudic stories about Jesus are not deliberate, provocative polemics, but instead demonstrate "embryonic" Jewish objections to Christianity which would later "blossom into a full-scale Jewish polemical attack on Christianity [the Toledoth Yeshu]".


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Jeffrey Rubenstein has argued that the accounts in "Chullin" and "Avodah Zarah" ("Idolatry") reveal an ambivalent relationship between rabbis and Christianity. In his view the tosefta account reveals that at least some Jews believed Christians were true healers, but that the rabbis saw this belief as a major threat. Concerning the Babylonian Talmud account in "Avoda Zarah", Boyarin views Jacob of Sechania as a Christian preacher and understands Rabbi Eliezer's arrest for "minuth" ("heresy") as an arrest by the Romans for practising Christianity. When the Governor (the text uses the word for chief judge) interrogated him, the rabbi answered that he "trusted the judge." Boyarin has suggested that this was the Jewish version of the Br'er Rabbit approach to domination, which he contrasts to the strategy of many early Christians, who proclaim their beliefs in spite of the consequences (i.e. martyrdom). Although Rabbi Eliezer was referring to God, the Governor interpreted him to be referring to the Governor himself, and freed the rabbi. According to them the account also reveals that there was greater contact between Christians and Jews in the 2nd century than commonly believed. They view the account of the teaching of Yeshu as an attempt to mock Christianity. According to Rubenstein, the structure of this teaching, in which a biblical prooftext is used to answer a question about biblical law, is common to both the rabbis and early Christians. The vulgar content, however, may have been used to parody Christian values. Boyarin considers the text to be an acknowledgment that rabbis often interacted with Christians, despite their doctrinal antipathy.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Between 1239 and 1775 the Catholic Church at various times either forced the censoring of parts of the Talmud that were theologically problematic or the destruction of copies of the Talmud.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: During the Middle Ages a series of debates on Judaism were held by Catholic authorities – including the Disputation of Paris (1240), the Disputation of Barcelona (1263), and Disputation of Tortosa (1413–14) – and during those disputations, Jewish converts to Christianity, such as Nicholas Donin (in Paris) and Pablo Christiani (in Barcelona) claimed the Talmud contained insulting references to Jesus.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: During these disputations the representatives of the Jewish communities offered various defences to the charges of the Christian disputants. Notably influential on later Jewish responses was the defence of Yechiel of Paris (1240) that a passage about an individual named Yeshu in the Talmud was not a reference to the Christian Jesus, though at the same time Yechiel also conceded that another reference to Yeshu was. This has been described as the "theory of two Jesuses" though Berger (1998) notes that Yehiel in fact argues for three Jesuses. This defence featured again in later Jewish defences during the medieval period, such as that of Nachmanides at the Disputation of Barcelona, though others such as Profiat Duran at the Disputation of Tortosa did not follow this argument.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Amy-Jill Levine notes that even today some rabbinical experts do not consider that the Talmud's account of Jesus' death is a reference to the Jesus of the New Testament. Gustaf Dalman (1922), Joachim Jeremias (1960), Mark Allen Powell (1998) and Roger T. Beckwith (2005) were also favourable to the view the Yeshu references in the Talmud were not to Jesus. Richard Bauckham considers Yeshu a legitimate, if rare, form of the name in use at the time, and writes that an ossuary bearing both the names "Yeshu" and "Yeshua ben Yosef" shows that it "was not invented by the rabbis as a way of avoiding pronouncing the real name of Jesus of Nazareth"


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Numerous times between 1239 and 1775 all copies of the Talmud were destroyed. In 1280 following the Disputation of Barcelona the Talmud was censored. Following the invention of the printing press, the Talmud was banned by the Pope. All printed editions of the Talmud, including the Basel Talmud and the Vilna Edition Shas, were censored. In 1559 the Talmud was placed on the Roman Index and banned. In 1564 under the Tridentine Index an expunged version of the Talmud was allowed. In 1592 the pope ordered all copies of the Talmud and other heretical writing destroyed expunged or not. The total prohibition would stay in place until 1775. Even then the censorship system would remain in force. As a result of these disputations many manuscript editions had references to Jesus removed or changed, and subsequent manuscripts sometimes omitted the passages entirely. Few copies would survive.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: In the 20th century, new editions began restoring the censored material, such as in the 1935 English Soncino edition.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Starting in the 13th century, manuscripts of the Talmud were sometimes altered in response to the criticisms made during the disputations, and in response to orders from the Christian church. Existing manuscripts were sometimes altered (for example, by erasure) and new manuscripts often omitted the passages entirely. Peter Schäfer compared several editions and documented some alterations as illustrated in the following table:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Bart Ehrman, and separately Mark Allan Powell, state that the Talmud references are quite late (hundreds of years) and give no historically reliable information about the teachings or actions of Jesus during his life. Ehrman clarifies that the name "Son of Panthera" (Roman who allegedly was the seducer of Mary) was a tradition, as scholars have long recognized, that represented an attack on the Christian view, that he was the son of a virgin. In Greek, the term for virgin is "parthenos", which is similar to "panthera", implying that "son of panthera" is a pun on "son of a virgin". The name "ben Stada", used for the same figure, is explained by Peter Schäfer as a reference to his mother's supposed adultery:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Peter Schäfer states that there can be no doubt that the narrative of the execution of Jesus in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth, but states that the rabbinic literature in question are from a later Amoraic period and may have drawn on the Christian gospels, and may have been written as responses to them.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Scholars debate whether the Talmud provides any evidence of Jesus as a historical individual. Van Voorst (2000) describes this as a spectrum of opinion:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: There are several Talmudic passages that are said to be referring to Jesus. The following are among those considered the most controversial, contested, and possibly the most notable.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: There are still noticeable challenges to the identification of Yeshu as Jesus, as elsewhere in the Talmud his stepfather, Pappos ben Yehuda, is mentioned as being martyred with Rabbi Akiva and is himself mentioned as being among the Pharisees returning to Israel following their persecution by John Hyrcanus, which would place Yeshu's lifetime anywhere between 130 after and 70 years before the birth of Jesus.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Sanhedrin 43a relates the trial and execution of a sorcerer named Jesus ("Yeshu" in Hebrew) and his five disciples. The sorcerer is stoned and hanged on the Eve of Passover.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Sanhedrin 107 tells of a Jesus ("Yeshu") who "offended his teacher by paying too much attention to the inn-keeper's wife. Jesus wished to be forgiven, but [his rabbi] was too slow to forgive him, and Jesus in despair went away and put up a brick [idol] and worshipped it."


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: In Gittin 56b and 57a, a story is told in which Onkelos summons up the spirit of a Yeshu who sought to harm Israel. He describes his punishment in the afterlife as boiling in excrement.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Some scholars claim that the Hebrew name Yeshu is not a short form of the name Yeshua, but rather an acrostic for the Hebrew phrase "may his name and memory be blotted out" created by taking the first letter of the Hebrew words.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: In addition, at the 1240 Disputation of Paris, Donin presented the allegation that the Talmud was blasphemous towards Mary, the mother of Jesus ("Miriam" in Hebrew), and this criticism has been repeated by many Christian sources. The texts cited by critics include Sanhedrin 67a, Sanhedrin 106a, and Shabbath 104b. However, the references to Mary are not specific, and some assert that they do not refer to Jesus' mother, or perhaps refer to Mary Magdalen.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: "Sanhedrin 43a" relates the trial and execution of Jesus and his five disciples. Here, Jesus is a sorcerer who has enticed other Jews to apostasy. A herald is sent to call for witnesses in his favour for forty days before his execution. No one comes forth and in the end he is stoned and hanged on the Eve of Passover. His five disciples, named Matai, Nekai, Netzer, Buni, and Todah are then tried. Word play is made on each of their names, and they are executed. It is mentioned that leniency could not be applied because of Jesus' influence with the royal government ("malkhut").


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Scholars have identified passages in the Talmud and associated Talmudic texts that involve invoking Jesus' name, as the messiah of Christianity, in order to perform magical healing:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Scholars have identified passages that mention Jesus, as the messiah of Christianity, in the context of a Torah teacher:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: "Sanhedrin 103a" and "Berachot 17b" talk about a Yeshu ha-Nosri (Jesus of Nazareth) who "burns his food in public", possibly a reference to pagan sacrifices or a metaphor for apostasy. The account is discussing Manasseh the king of Judah infamous for having turned to idolatry and having persecuted the Jews (2 "Kings" 21). It is part of a larger discussion about three kings and four commoners excluded from paradise. These are also discussed in the Shulkhan Arukh where the son who burns his food is explicitly stated to be Manasseh. The passages identified by scholars in this context are:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Passages in "Sanhedrin 107b" and "Sotah 47a" refer to an individual (Yeshu) that some scholars conclude is a reference to Jesus, regarded as the messiah of Christianity. In these passages, Jesus is described as a student of Joshua ben Perachiah (second half of the 2nd century BCE), and he (Jesus) was sent away for misinterpreting a word that in context should have been understood as referring to the Inn; he instead understood it to mean the innkeeper's wife (the same word can mean "inn" and "hostess"). His teacher said "Here is a nice inn", to which he replied "Her eyes are crooked", to which his teacher responded "Evil one! Is this what you are occupied in?" (Gazing at women was considered sinful.) After several returns for forgiveness he mistook Perachiah's signal to wait a moment as a signal of final rejection, and so he turned to idolatry. Some passages that have been identified by scholars as mentioning Jesus, as the messiah of Christianity, in this context include:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: The story ends by invoking a Mishnaic era teaching that Yeshu practised black magic, deceived and led Israel astray. This quote is seen by some as an explanation in general for the designation "Yeshu".


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: According to Dr. Rubenstein, the account in "Sanhedrin" 107b recognizes the kinship between Christians and Jews, since Jesus is presented as a disciple of a prominent Rabbi. But it also reflects and speaks to an anxiety fundamental to Rabbinic Judaism. Prior to the destruction of the Temple in 70, Jews were divided into different sects, each promoting different interpretations of the law. Rabbinic Judaism domesticated and internalized conflicts over the law, while vigorously condemning any sectarianism. In other words, rabbis are encouraged to disagree and argue with one another, but these activities must be carefully contained, or else they could lead to a schism. Although this story may not present a historically accurate account of Jesus' life, it does use a fiction about Jesus to communicate an important truth about the Rabbis. Moreover, Rubenstein sees this story as a rebuke to overly harsh Rabbis. Boyarin suggests that the Rabbis were well aware of Christian views of the Pharisees and that this story acknowledges the Christian belief that Jesus was forgiving and the Pharisees were not (see Mark 2:1–2), while emphasizing forgiveness as a necessary Rabbinic value.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: In "Gittin 56b–57a" a story is recorded in which Onkelos, a nephew of the Roman emperor Titus who destroyed the Second Temple, intent on converting to Judaism, summons up the spirits of Yeshu and others to help make up his mind. Each describes his punishment in the afterlife.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: In the Florence manuscript of the Talmud (1177 CE) an addition is made to "Sanhedrin 43a" saying that Yeshu was hanged on the eve of the Sabbath.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Some Talmudic sources include passages which identify a "son of Pandera" ("ben Pandera" in Hebrew), and some scholars conclude that these are references to the messiah of Christianity. Medieval Hebrew midrashic literature contain the "Episode of Jesus" (known also as "Maaseh Yeshu"), in which Jesus is described as being the son of Joseph, the son of Pandera (see: ). The account portrays Jesus as an impostor.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: The Talmud, and other talmudic texts, contain several references to the "son of Pandera". A few of the references explicitly name Jesus ("Yeshu") as the "son of Pandera": these explicit connections are found in the Tosefta, the Qohelet Rabbah, and the Jerusalem Talmud, but not in the Babylonian Talmud. The explicit connections found in the Jerusalem Talmud are debated because the name "Jesus" ("Yeshu") is found only in a marginal gloss in some manuscripts, but other scholars conclude that it was in the original versions of the Jerusalem Talmud.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: The texts include several spellings for the father's name (Pandera, Panthera, Pandira, Pantiri, or Pantera) and some scholars conclude that these are all references to the same individual, but other scholars suggest that they may be unrelated references. In some of the texts, the father produced a son with a woman named Mary. Several of the texts indicate that the mother was not married to Pandera, and was committing adultery and – by implication – Jesus was a bastard child. Some of the texts indicate that Mary's husband's name was Stada.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Some Talmudic sources include passages which identify a "son of Stada" or "son of Stara" ("ben Stada" or "ben Stara" in Hebrew), and some scholars conclude that these are references to the messiah of Christianity.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Both of the above passages describe situations where Jesus' name is invoked to perform magical healing. In addition, some editions of the Jerusalem Talmud explicitly identify Jesus as the son of Pandera:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: However, some editions of the Jerusalem Talmud do not contain the name Jesus in these passages, so the association in this case is disputed. The parallel passages in the Babylonian Talmud do not contain the name Jesus.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: However, the parallel accounts in the Babylonian Talmud mention Jesus but do not mention the father's name:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: The Babylonian talmud contains narratives that discuss an anonymous person who brought witchcraft out of Egypt, and the person is identified as "son of Pandera" or "son of Stada". The Talmud discusses whether the individual (the name Jesus is not present in these passages) is the son of Stada, or Pandera, and a suggestion is made that the mother Mary committed adultery.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: There is no Talmudic text that directly associates Jesus with Mary (Miriam), instead the association is indirect: Jesus is associated with a father ("son of Pandera"), and in other passages, Pandera is associated with Mary (as her lover).


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: Typically both Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds use the generic "minim" for heretics. Aside from mentions of the five disciples of "Yeshu ha Notzri," the plural "Notzrim," "Christians," are only clearly mentioned once in the Babylonian Talmud, (where it is amended to "Netzarim", people of the watch) in B.Ta'anit 27b with a late parallel in Masekhet Soferim 17:4. And then "The day of the Notzri according to Rabbi Ishmael is forbidden for ever" in some texts of B.Avodah Zarah 6a.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: The" Toledot Yeshu" ("History of Jesus") is a Jewish anti-Christian polemic that purports to be a biography of Jesus. The work is an early account of Jesus, based on contemporary Jewish views, in which Jesus is described as being the son of Joseph, the son of Pandera (see a translation of the Yemenite text: , or what is also known as "Toledot Yeshu"). Some scholars conclude that the work is merely an expansion and elaboration on anti-Christian themes in the Talmud. Stephen Gero suggests that an early version of the Toledot Yeshu narrative preceded the Talmud, and that the Talmud drew upon the Toledot Yeshu, but Rubenstein and Schäfer discount that possibility, because they date the origin of the "Toledot Yeshu" in the early Middle Ages or Late Antiquity.


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: The Platonistic philosopher Celsus, writing circa 150 to 200 CE, wrote a narrative describing a Jew who discounts the story of the Virgin Birth of Jesus. Scholars have remarked on the parallels (adultery, father's name "Panthera", return from Egypt, magical powers) between Celsus' account and the Talmudic narratives. In Celsus' account, the Jew says:


title: Jesus in the Talmud

text: "... [Jesus] came from a Jewish village and from a poor country woman who earned her living by spinning. He says that she was driven out by her husband, who was a carpenter by trade, as she was convicted of adultery. Then he says that after she had been driven out by her husband and while she was wandering about in a disgraceful way she secretly gave birth to Jesus. He states that because he [Jesus] was poor he hired himself out as a workman in Egypt, and there tried his hand at certain magical powers on which the Egyptians pride themselves; he returned full of conceit, because of these powers, and on account of them gave himself the title of God ... the mother of Jesus is described as having been turned out by the carpenter who was betrothed to her, as she had been convicted of adultery and had a child by a certain soldier named Panthera."


title: Breaker Morant

text: Harry "The Breaker" Harbord Morant (born Edwin Henry Murrant, 9 December 1864 – 27 February 1902), more popularly known as Breaker Morant, was an Anglo-Australian drover, horseman, bush poet, military officer, and war criminal who was convicted and executed for murdering six prisoners-of-war (POWs) and three captured civilians in two separate incidents during the Second Anglo-Boer War.


title: Breaker Morant

text: While serving as a lieutenant with the Bushveldt Carbineers, Morant was arrested and court-martialled for committing murder on active serviceone of the first such prosecutions in British military history. According to military prosecutors, Morant retaliated for the death in combat of his commanding officer with a series of revenge killings against both Boer POWs and many civilian residents of the Northern Transvaal. Morant's defence attorney, Major James Francis Thomas, demanded the acquittal of his clients under what is now called the Nuremberg Defence, alleging that his clients could not be held legally or morally responsible because they only followed orders.


title: Breaker Morant

text: Morant was accused of the summary execution of Floris Visser, a wounded POW, and the slaying of four Afrikaners and four Dutch schoolteachers who had surrendered at the Elim Hospital, five of whom were members of the Soutpansberg Commando. Morant was found guilty and sentenced to death. Morant and Lieutenant Peter Handcock were then court-martialled for the murder of the Reverend Carl August Daniel Heese, a South African-born Minister of the Berlin Missionary Society. Heese had spiritually counselled the Dutch and Afrikaner victims at Elim Hospital and had been shot to death the same afternoon. Morant and Handcock were acquitted of the Heese murder, but their sentences for murdering Visser, the eight victims at Elim Hospital, and three others were implemented by a firing squad from the Cameron Highlanders on 27 February 1902.


title: Breaker Morant

text: Morant and Handcock have become folk heroes in modern Australia, representing a turning point for Australians' self-determination and independence from British rule. Their court-martial and death have been the subject of books, a stage play and an award-winning Australian New Wave film by director Bruce Beresford. Upon its release during 1980, Beresford's film both brought Morant's life story to a worldwide audience and "hoisted the images of the accused officers to the level of Australian icons and martyrs". Despite the seriousness of the evidence and charges against them, some modern Australians regard Morant and Handcock as scapegoats or even as victims of judicial murder. They continue to attempt, with some public support, to obtain a posthumous pardon or even a new trial.


title: Breaker Morant

text: According to South African historian Charles Leach, "In the opinion of many South Africans, particularly descendants of victims as well as other involved persons in the far Northern Transvaal, justice was only partially achieved by the trial and the resultant sentences. The feeling still prevails that not all the guilty parties were dealt with – the notorious Captain Taylor being the most obvious one of all."


title: Breaker Morant

text: Inquiries made during 1902 by the newspapers "The Northern Miner" and "The Bulletin" identified Harry Harbord Morant as 'Edwin Henry Murrant', who was born at Bridgwater, Somerset, England, in December 1864, the son of Edwin Murrant (1836–1864) and Catherine (née Riely) Murrant (1833–1899). Edwin and Catherine were master and matron of the Union Workhouse at Bridgwater. Morant's father died in August 1864, four months before the birth of his son. His mother continued her employment as matron until her retirement in 1882. She died in July 1899 while her son was in Renmark, South Australia, just six months before he embarked for military service in South Africa.


title: Breaker Morant

text: Despite his humble origins, Morant could easily pass for a member of the British upper class and created a number of romantic legends about his past, which suggest that he saw himself as a Byronic hero. He was often described as "well-educated". Morant claimed to have been born in 1865 at Bideford, Devon, England, and to be the son of Admiral Sir George Digby Morant of the Royal Navy, a claim repeated as fact by later writers, although the Admiral denied it.


title: Breaker Morant

text: According to "The Northern Miner" and "The Bulletin", Morant emigrated to Australia in 1883 and arrived aboard the SS "Waroonga" at Townsville, Queensland, in June.


title: Breaker Morant

text: At the time, there was no difference in legal status, in either country, between people born in the UK and British subjects born overseas – a category that included a vast majority of people born in Australia. (This did not change until the Australian nationality law of 1948.) Nevertheless, Morant did not regard himself as Australian. His former defence counsel, Major James Francis Thomas, later "reacted strongly" whenever his former client was described as such. In a letter to "The Sydney Morning Herald" on 16 June 1923, Major Thomas wrote, "Morant was not an Australian, he was an Englishman, who came to this country for 'colonial experience'."


title: Breaker Morant

text: Around a year after his arrival, Morant first settled in outback Queensland. After about a year, he adopted the name Harry Harbord Morant, claiming to be a member of the British nobility and the estranged son of Admiral Morant. During the next fifteen years, he drifted around Queensland, South Australia, and New South Wales. He gained a reputation as a boozer, a womaniser, a bush poet and as an expert horseman. He was one of the few who managed to ride the notorious buckjumper "Dargin's Grey" in a horse race that became legendary.


title: Breaker Morant

text: Morant worked in a variety of occupations; he reportedly traded horses in Charters Towers, then worked for a time for a newspaper at Hughenden during 1884. He then relocated around for some time until he found work as a bookkeeper and storeman in the Esmeralda cattle station. Morant then worked for several years as an itinerant drover and horse-breaker, as well as writing his popular bush ballads, becoming friendly with famed Australian bush poets Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson, and Will H. Ogilvie. The bond between Morant and Ogilvie was quite strong, and subject of a book "Breaker's mate: Will Ogilvie in Australia". Ogilvie went to write at various times:


title: Breaker Morant

text: In 1899, Morant enlisted with the Second Contingent of the South Australian Mounted Rifles at Adelaide. According to a 13 January 1900 report of his enlistment by the "Adelaide Advertiser", Morant, like all other volunteers, read and signed the following declaration:


title: Breaker Morant

text: Morant was reportedly invited to visit the summer residence of South Australia's governor, Lord Tennyson. After completing his training, he was appointed lance corporal and his regiment embarked for the Transvaal on 26 January 1900.


title: Breaker Morant

text: In many respects, the terrain and climate of South Africa are similar to that of outback Australia, so Morant was in his element. His superb horsemanship, expert bush skills and educated manner soon attracted the attention of his superiors. South Australian Colonel Joseph Gordon recommended him as a dispatch rider to Bennet Burleigh, the war correspondent of the London "Daily Telegraph"; the job reportedly provided Morant with ample opportunity to visit the nearby hospital and pursue dalliances with the nurses.


title: Breaker Morant

text: A letter written on 23 January 1901 was sent to Admiral Sir George Morant by the Mount Nelson Hotel in Cape Town alleging that Sergeant Morant had stayed there during November 1900, while claiming to be the Admiral's son. "The Breaker" had further claimed to be a war correspondent for the "Daily Telegraph" and had "left without discharging his liability" of £16/13s. The letter concluded, "We shall esteem it a favour if you will let us know the course we had better adopt. We are averse to taking the matter to court till we had heard from you."


title: Breaker Morant

text: According to his co-defendant, Lieutenant George Witton, Morant served with the South Australian Second Contingent for nine months, during which time he was promoted to the rank of sergeant.


title: Breaker Morant

text: During March 1900, Sergeant Morant carried dispatches for the Flying Column to Prieska, commanded by Colonel Lowe, 7th D.G., who was in the general advance to Bloemfontein and participated with the engagements of Karee Siding and Kroonstadt, and other engagements with Lord Roberts until the entry into Pretoria. Morant was at the Battle of Diamond Hill and was then part of General French's staff, Cavalry Brigade, as war correspondent with Bennet Burleigh of the London "Daily Telegraph". He accompanied that unit through Middelburg and Belfast to the occupation of Barberton. At this point, he took leave and returned to England for six months.


title: Breaker Morant

text: It was during this time that Morant claimed to have travelled with Captain Percy Frederick Hunt to England, claiming that he was a good friend of his, and that they had become engaged to two sisters in Devon. In 2020, it was revealed through the discovery of four different marriage certificates that Hunt had personally signed from South Africa, that Morant's statements about his friendship and endeavours with Hunt were false. Hunt had actually been in Pretoria during Morant's given timeline of these events, acting as Marriage Commissioner.</ref>


title: Breaker Morant

text: Morant, who had intended that his military service end, had not found the forgiveness he sought in England. He returned to South Africa to accept a commission with Baden-Powell's Transvaal Constabulary; but then enlisted as a commissioned officer of the Bushveldt Carbineers (BVC) on 1 April 1901.


title: Breaker Morant

text: After their defeats in open battle during 1899–1900, the Boer Commandos began a guerrilla campaign against both British and Commonwealth forces. In response, Lord Kitchener began pursuing a policy of farm-burning, field-salting, livestock confiscation and forcing the entire Afrikaner population into concentration camps. The families of known Commando members were put on half rations in the concentration camps.


title: Breaker Morant

text: According to South African historian Charles Leach, "The idea of fighting to 'the bitter end' was not a new concept to the Boer mentality. Commandant-General Piet Joubert of the South African Republic had already expressed a similar ideology after the Transvaal War of Independence seven years earlier. He said: 'I bear no hatred against England; I hate no one; everyone is welcome in our country, whether he be a Frenchman, or German, or American, or Englishman. I am always ready to hand him the hand of friendship. But let all the world come and try to trample me down and put his foot on my neck, and try to crush my country, then with twenty men about me I will fight, yes, fight the world entire, fight till I am free or dead.'"


title: Breaker Morant

text: As they were no longer able to receive food and supplies from the civilian population, the Commandos began a practice of derailing trains in order to take and use food and supplies that were intended for British and Commonwealth troops.


title: Breaker Morant

text: The Bushveldt Carbineers (or BVC) were a 320-man irregular mounted infantry regiment that had been formed and commanded during February 1901 by an Australian, Colonel Robert Lenehan. The regiment, based in Pietersburg, north of Pretoria, saw combat in the Spelonken region of the Northern Transvaal during 1901–1902.