title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Real estate speculation commenced at the beginning of the 20th century. A building boom in South Brooklyn started in about 1902 and 1903, and thousands of people started coming to the area from Manhattan and from other places. The first definite plans for a Fourth Avenue subway (today's ) were proposed by Rapid Transit Commission engineer William Barclay Parsons in 1903, and two years later, a citizens' committee was created to aid the creation of the subway line. The announcement of the subway line resulted in the immediate development of row houses in Bay Ridge. In 1905 and 1906 realty values increased by about 100 percent, and land values increased due to the promise of improved transportation access. Such was the rate of development, houses were being sold before they were even completed, and land prices could rise significantly just within several hours.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The subway itself faced delays. In 1905, the Rapid Transit Commission adopted the Fourth Avenue route to Fort Hamilton; following approval by the Board of Estimate and mayor of New York City, the route was approved by the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court. Bids for construction and operation were let, but in 1907, the Rapid Transit Commission was succeeded by the Public Service Commission (PSC). For much of 1908, there were legal disagreements about whether the project could be funded while remaining within the city's debt limit. The PSC voted unanimously for the Fourth Avenue subway line in March 1908, but the Board of Estimate did not approve contracts for the line until October 1909. By then, a non-partisan political body, with the backing of 25,000 South Brooklyn residents, was created that would only support candidates in the municipal election that pledged support for the Fourth Avenue subway. Groundbreaking for the first section of the subway, between DeKalb Avenue and 43rd Street took place in 1909. Not long after the contracts were awarded, the PSC started negotiating with the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company in the execution of the Dual Contracts, which were signed in 1913. During the Dual System negotiations, the construction of an extension of the Fourth Avenue subway was recommended as part of the Dual System, which was approved in 1912. Construction began on the sections between 61st–89th Streets and between 43rd–61st Streets in 1913, and was completed two years later.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The line opened to 59th Street on June 21, 1915, and was extended to 86th Street on January 15, 1916, at which time development started to accelerate. At the time, Bay Ridge extended northward to what is now present-day Sunset Park. Industrial developments were constructed along the waterfront north of present-day 65th Street, such as Bush Terminal (now Industry City), and those were considered to be within Bay Ridge. By the 1920s, the number of apartment buildings had increased fivefold, replacing old farms, homesteads and houses. Schools, churches, stores, movie theaters, and other structures were also created to serve the growing population. The Fourth Avenue subway was extended further to Bay Ridge–95th Street in 1925, by which point Bay Ridge's population had more than doubled since 1900. By World War II, almost all of these large houses had been replaced with apartment buildings.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many Norwegian and Danish sailors emigrated to Brooklyn, including Bay Ridge and neighboring Sunset Park; Lapskaus Boulevard, referring to the salted Norwegian beef stew, was the nickname of Eighth Avenue in this area.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: There had been plans to build the Staten Island Tunnel, a railroad or subway tunnel, from Bay Ridge to Staten Island as early as 1890. By the 1910s, there were two proposals to build a tunnel splitting from the Fourth Avenue subway in Bay Ridge, either at Fort Hamilton or at between 65th and 67th Streets. The plan for the tunnel from 65th-67th Streets was ultimately selected and work started in 1923, though the project was halted two years later. In 1927, two years after the cancellation of the Staten Island Tunnel, engineer David B. Steinman brought up the possibility of constructing a vehicular bridge, the "Liberty Bridge", across the Narrows. The tunnel proposal was also revived with the announcement of the Liberty Bridge, and proposals for vehicular and rail tunnels were both considered. The bridge was disapproved by the United States Department of War in 1934, and plans for a bridge were revived in 1936. By the time the bridge was approved by the city's Board of Estimate in 1943, residents of Bay Ridge had turned against it, citing a detrimental impact to the neighborhood's character.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Robert Moses, the chairman of the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority (TBTA), announced the revival of plans for what would become the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge in 1947. U.S. Representative Donald Lawrence O'Toole, whose constituency included Bay Ridge, opposed the proposal for the bridge in part because he believed it would damage the character of Bay Ridge. The U.S. military approved the proposal anyway, and in 1957, Moses proposed expanding Brooklyn's Gowanus Expressway and extending it to the Narrows Bridge by way of Seventh Avenue, which would require cutting through the middle of Bay Ridge. This proposal drew opposition from the community, who wanted the approach to follow the Belt Parkway along the Brooklyn shore. After holding a hearing for concerned Bay Ridge residents, the Board of Estimate affirmed the Narrows Bridge plan in October 1958, though this angered Bay Ridge residents since the construction of the approach would displace 7,500 people. Also destroyed was Fort Lafayette, part of New York City's defense system along with Fort Hamilton and Fort Wadsworth in Staten Island; it was replaced by the base of the bridge's east tower. The Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge opened in 1964.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The 2007 Brooklyn tornado hit this area, specifically 68th Street and Bay Ridge Avenue between Third and Fourth Avenues. Eleven houses had to be vacated after they suffered significant damage, and many of the trees on the two blocks toppled, landing on cars and stoops. The 4th Avenue Presbyterian Church had its very large stained glass window blown out. As the tornado lifted, it peeled the roof of a nearby Nissan dealership and deforested 40% of Leif Ericson Park. The tornado has been rated EF2 on the Enhanced Fujita scale, with winds between 111 and 135 MPH.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Bay Ridge was 79,371, a decrease of 1,168 (1.5%) from the 80,539 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of .


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 66.4% (52,740) White, 1.8% (1,457) Black, 0.1% (83) Native American, 13.3% (10,530) Asian, 0.0% (19) Pacific Islander, 0.3% (265) from other races, and 2.1% (1,682) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 15.9% (12,595) of the population.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The entirety of Community Board 10 had 142,075 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 83.1 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are middle-aged adults and youth: 20% are between the ages of 0–17, 34% between 25 and 44, and 25% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 7% and 15% respectively.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: As of 2016, the median household income in Community District 10 was $68,679. In 2018, an estimated 19% of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights residents lived in poverty, compared to 21% in all of Brooklyn and 20% in all of New York City. One in twelve residents (8%) were unemployed, compared to 9% in the rest of both Brooklyn and New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 49% in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, slightly lower than the citywide and boroughwide rates of 52% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, , Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights is considered to be high-income relative to the rest of the city.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: According to the 2020 census data from New York City Department of City Planning, Bay Ridge had 40,000 or more White residents and each the Asian and Hispanic populations had between 10,000 and 19,999 residents.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Until the early 1970s, Bay Ridge was dominated by its Norwegian community. By 1971, the 30,000-strong Norwegian community of Bay Ridge boasted that it was the fourth-largest Norwegian "city" in the world. Residents also compared Eighth Avenue's string of Norwegian businesses to Oslo's Karl Johans gate. Its Nordic heritage is still apparent in the annual Norwegian Constitution Day Parade, also known as the Syttende Mai Parade, featuring hundreds of people in folk dress who parade down Third Avenue. The celebration ends in Leif Ericson Park, named for the Viking explorer, where "Miss Norway" is crowned near the statue of Leif Ericson. The statue was donated by Crown Prince Olav, Prince of Norway, on behalf of the nation of Norway in 1939. Nordic Delicacies, a Norwegian gifts-and-groceries store, remained open until 2015.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: , Bay Ridge's population is around 80,000 and maintains a sizable Irish, Italian, and Greek population. Like other areas in southern and southwestern Brooklyn, an influx of Russian, Polish, and Lebanese arrived later in the 20th century, as well as lesser numbers of Chinese. In recent decades many Middle Eastern and Arab Americans have moved to Bay Ridge, with some even referring to it as "the heart of Brooklyn's Arab community." The neighborhood is also a key hub for New York City's large Muslim population.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Bay Ridge has many ethnic restaurants, especially along Third and Fifth Avenues, its main commercial strips. The neighborhood is said to have had more bars than anywhere in the world, according to neighborhood lore. Sentiments against residents and workers of Asian descent rose in 2020, with reports of anti-Asian flyers being posted in the area in June.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Bay Ridge has a large elderly population. It has been called a naturally occurring retirement community (NORC) as many of its families have grown up in the neighborhood while their children moved away. In 2006, it was reported that 20% of the population of Bay Ridge is 60 years of age or more.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Local newspapers include "The Home Reporter, Sunset News," "The Bay Ridge Courier," and "Bay Ridge News". The neighborhood is also often covered by "The Brooklyn Daily Eagle". These newspapers publish other local offshoots: "The Home Reporter" also publishes "The Spectator"; the "Courier"s parent company also publishes "The Brooklyn Paper"; and the "Eagle" publishes a weekly digest called "Bay Ridge Life".


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Development has been a passionate issue for Bay Ridge residents. In the 1990s and 2000s, many decades-old two-family houses were demolished and replaced by condominiums known colloquially as "Fedder Homes," after the branded air conditioners poking out from the buildings' facades. In 2005, local community leaders and community activists from across the political spectrum united to issue rezoning laws. The six-story apartment complexes lining Shore Road are among the tallest buildings in the neighborhood.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Bay Ridge was chosen as an "Editor's Pick" in "This Old House" magazine April 2011 as a good neighborhood to buy an old house.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Historic Fort Hamilton Army Base is located in the southwestern corner of the New York City borough of Brooklyn, with gates in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, and is one of several posts that are part of the region which is headquartered by the Military District of Washington. Its mission is to provide the New York metropolitan area with military installation support for the Army National Guard and the United States Army Reserve. The base is considered to be part of Bay Ridge. The children stationed at the base are zoned into Bay Ridge schools.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Doctors' Row is a series of rowhouses located on Bay Ridge Parkway between 4th and 5th Avenues, built in the 1900s and 1910s prior to the opening of the Fourth Avenue subway line. The 54 houses that comprise Doctors' Row, include elements of the Renaissance Revival architectural style, with some elements in the Colonial Revival style. In 2019 the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission made Doctors' Row an official city-designated historic district, making it the first such district in the neighborhood.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The NYPD's 68th Precinct is located at 333 65th Street. The 68th Precinct ranked 7th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 23 per 100,000 people, Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights' rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 168 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The 68th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 88.6% between 1990 and 2018. The precinct reported 2 murders, 16 rapes, 59 robberies, 129 felony assaults, 96 burglaries, 387 grand larcenies, and 86 grand larcenies auto in 2018.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The New York City Fire Department (FDNY) contains two fire stations in Bay Ridge. Engine Co. 241/Ladder Co. 109 is located at 6630 3rd Avenue. Engine Co. 242, serving primarily Fort Hamilton, is located at 9219 5th Avenue.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: , preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights than in other places citywide. In Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, there were 71 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 11.4 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights has a high population of residents who are uninsured, or who receive healthcare through Medicaid. In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 15%, which is higher than the citywide rate of 12%.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The concentration of fine particulate matter, the deadliest type of air pollutant, in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights is , lower than the citywide and boroughwide averages. Twelve percent of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights residents are smokers, which is lower the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, 28% of residents are obese, 15% are diabetic, and 31% have high blood pressure—compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 16% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Ninety-two percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which is slightly higher than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 74% of residents described their health as "good," "very good," or "excellent," lower than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, there are 20 bodegas.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The Bay Ridge/Dyker Heights/Bensonhurst area does not have any hospitals after the Victory Memorial Hospital was closed and converted to a nursing home by Joel Landau in 2010 (now known as the Hamilton Park Nursing and Rehabilitation Center). However, the Coney Island Hospital, NYU Langone Hospital – Brooklyn, and Maimonides Medical Center are located in nearby neighborhoods. Additionally, the BRAVO Volunteer Ambulance is run by the Bay Ridge Ambulance Volunteer Organization.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Bay Ridge is covered mostly by ZIP Code 11209, though the small portion north of 65th Street is covered by ZIP Code 11220. The United States Post Office operates the Ovington Station at 6803 4th Avenue and the Fort Hamilton Station at 8801 5th Avenue.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: For many years, Bay Ridge has been a relatively conservative enclave of Brooklyn. Mike Long, who served as chairman of the Conservative Party of New York from 1988 to 2019, owned a liquor store and resided in the district. The community is also considered a Republican stronghold. An exception was Democrat Sal Albanese, who was elected to the neighborhood's City Council seat in 1983, defeating the 21-year incumbent Republican-Conservative Minority Leader Angelo G. Arculeo, and went on to represent the district for 15 years. After the 1990 census, the area was split into two Assembly districts to eliminate a Republican Assembly Seat. The political landscape began to change with population shifts over the 1990s and early 2000s, when the multigenerational white ethnic population began to die or move from the area.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The community supported the Democratic Party during many presidential elections. In the 2010s, the neighborhood increasingly supported Democrats, such as City Councilmember Justin Brannan (elected in 2017). and state senator Andrew Gounardes (elected in 2018, defeating longtime Republican Marty Golden).


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The neighborhood is part of New York's 11th congressional district, represented by Republican Nicole Malliotakis . It is also part of the 22nd State Senate district, represented by Gounardes, and the 46th and 64th State Assembly districts, represented respectively by Democrat Mathylde Frontus and Republican Michael Tannousis.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights have a ratio of college-educated residents similar to the rest of the city's . Forty-six percent of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 19% have less than a high school education, and 35% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 40% of Brooklynites and 38% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights students excelling in reading and math has been increasing, with reading achievement rising from 51 percent in 2000 to 52 percent in 2011, and math achievement rising from 49 percent to 71 percent within the same time period.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights' rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City's. In Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights, 8% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, compared to the citywide average of 20% of students. Additionally, 82% of high school students in Bay Ridge and Dyker Heights graduate on time, higher than the citywide average of 75% of students.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The New York City Department of Education operates area public schools. Educational institutions in Bay Ridge include P.S. 102, P.S. 170, P.S. 127, P.S. 185 (Walter Kassenbrock Elementary School), P.S. 104 (called the Fort Hamilton School), P.S. 264 (Bay Ridge Elementary School for the Arts), Lutheran Elementary School, St. Anselm's Roman Catholic School, P.S./I.S. 30 (also known as Mary White Ovington), I.S.259 (also known as William McKinley Junior High School) Angels Catholic Academy Bay Ridge Preparatory School, Fort Hamilton High School, High School of Telecommunications (originally all-girls Bay Ridge High School), Poly Prep Country Day School, Visitation Academy, Adelphi Academy, Fontbonne Hall Academy, St. Patrick Elementary School, D., G. Kaloidis Parochial School, and Xaverian High School. Fort Hamilton High School, between 83rd and 85th streets, was erected in the 1940s on the grounds of the Crescent Athletic Club, a country club. The High School of Telecommunications was formerly Bay Ridge High School, which was once an all-girls school.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Brooklyn Public Library (BPL) operates two public libraries in the neighborhood. The Bay Ridge Library is the larger of the two, and is located at 7223 Ridge Boulevard at 73rd Street. The Bay Ridge Reading Club first organized the library in 1880. It opened on its present site in 1896 and became a BPL branch in 1901. The current two-story facility opened in 1960. In 2004 it received a $2.1 million renovation, including new furniture and shelving, new lighting equipment, a new roof, and 27 additional public access computers.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The Fort Hamilton Library, located at 9424 Fourth Avenue between 94th and 95th Streets, was built as a Carnegie library in 1906. The current branch's predecessor became a part of the BPL system in 1901 and moved to its current location in 1905. Since then it has gone through numerous renovations. The most recent renovation was completed in March 2011.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: The area is served by the on the BMT Fourth Avenue Line of the New York City Subway between Bay Ridge Avenue and 95th Street.


title: Bay Ridge, Brooklyn

text: Additionally, there are MTA express bus routes which mainly serve for the commute to Manhattan, but also run during off-peak hours on weekdays. The X27 also runs on weekends. The routes also serve the eastern part of Bay Ridge. Many Bay Ridge commuters opt for the relative comfort and convenience of the express bus, even though it costs more than the subway. Bay Ridge is readily accessible by car, encircled by the Belt Parkway and Gowanus Expressway. Local bus routes include .


title: Kool Keith

text: Keith Matthew Thornton (born October 7, 1963), better known by his stage name Kool Keith, is an American rapper and record producer from The Bronx, New York City, known for his surreal, abstract and often profane or incomprehensible lyrics. Kool Keith has recorded prolifically both as a solo artist and in group collaborations. Kool Keith is generally considered to be one of hip-hop's most eccentric and unusual personalities.


title: Kool Keith

text: Kool Keith was a cofounding member of Ultramagnetic MCs, whose debut "Critical Beatdown" was released in 1988. After two more albums with the group, "Funk Your Head Up" and "The Four Horsemen", Kool Keith released his critically acclaimed solo debut album, "Dr. Octagonecologyst" under the name Dr. Octagon in 1996. He subsequently released a series of further independently released hip hop albums, including "Sex Style", "First Come, First Served" (as Dr. Dooom), and most recently "Keith".


title: Kool Keith

text: After releasing only one album on a major label, "Black Elvis/Lost in Space", Kool Keith subsequently returned to independently releasing music, producing further efforts as a solo artist and in collaboration with groups such as Analog Brothers, Masters of Illusion, Thee Undatakerz and Project Polaroid. Kool Keith has also made guest appearances in collaboration with Peeping Tom and Yeah Yeah Yeahs. He was also featured on the short track DDT on Jurassic 5's album "Power in Numbers". The Prodigy's hit "Smack My Bitch Up" was based on a sample of Kool Keith's voice saying "Change my pitch up. Smack my bitch up."


title: Kool Keith

text: Kool Keith began his career with the group Ultramagnetic MCs. After the release of their influential 1988 album "Critical Beatdown", Thornton was reportedly institutionalized in Bellevue Hospital Center. However, he later said that the idea that he was institutionalized came from a flippant remark made during an interview, and he never expected the story to become so well known.


title: Kool Keith

text: After continuing with Ultramagnetic for two more albums (1992's "Funk Your Head Up" and 1993's "The Four Horsemen"), Thornton would embark on a solo career.


title: Kool Keith

text: Thornton released his first notable solo single, "Earth People", in 1995, under the name Dr. Octagon. This was followed by the release of "Dr. Octagonecologyst" the following year. The album's production by Dan the Automator and Kutmasta Kurt, with scratching by DJ Qbert was acclaimed by critics, and the album was released nationally by DreamWorks Records in 1997, after an initial release on the smaller Bulk Recordings label (as, simply, "Dr. Octagon") a year prior. DreamWorks also issued an instrumental version of the album, titled "Instrumentalyst (Octagon Beats)".


title: Kool Keith

text: Thornton followed the "Dr. Octagonecologyst" album with "Sex Style" in 1997, under the name Kool Keith.


title: Kool Keith

text: In 1996, Thornton collaborated with Tim Dog for the single "The Industry is Wack", performing under the name Ultra—the album "Big Time" soon followed. In 1999, he released the album "First Come, First Served" under the name "Dr. Dooom", in which the album's main character killed off Dr. Octagon on the album's opening track. The same year, on August 10, 1999, Thornton released "Black Elvis/Lost in Space". It peaked at #10 on the "Billboard" Heatseekers chart, #74 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and #180 on the "Billboard" 200, and stands as Thornton's most commercially successful project to date.


title: Kool Keith

text: On July 25, 2000, Thornton released the album "Matthew". It peaked at #47 on the "Billboard" Heatseekers chart. The same year, Thornton collaborated with Ice-T, Marc Live, Black Silver and Pimp Rex for the album "Pimp to Eat", under the group name Analog Brothers, with Keith performing as Keith Korg and Ice-T as Ice Oscillator.


title: Kool Keith

text: On June 5, 2001, Thornton released the album "Spankmaster" on Gothom Records. It peaked at #16 on the "Billboard" Heatseekers chart, #11 on the Top Independent Albums chart and #48 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart.


title: Kool Keith

text: In 2002, Thornton began recording "The Resurrection of Dr. Octagon" with producer Fanatik J, signing a contract with CMH Records to release the album, which was eventually completed without much input from Thornton, due to a falling out over contractual terms.


title: Kool Keith

text: On October 12, 2004, Real Talk Entertainment issued the album "Dr. Octagon Part 2". The album was discontinued by court order. On June 27, "The Return of Dr. Octagon" was released by OCD International, an imprint of CMH, advertised as the official follow-up to "Dr. Octagonecologyst". Some critics felt that it was not as good as its predecessor. Thornton stated that he liked the album, but felt that it hurt his reputation as a musician. In August, Thornton performed under the Dr. Octagon billing, but did not acknowledge the release of the OCD album.


title: Kool Keith

text: Thornton, Marc Live and H-Bomb formed the group KHM, releasing the album "Game" on November 19, 2002, changing their name to "Clayborne Family" by the release of their second album.


title: Kool Keith

text: In 2007, Ultramagnetic MCs released the reunion album "The Best Kept Secret". In 2009, Kool Keith released the concept album "Tashan Dorrsett"; a follow-up, "The Legend of Tashan Dorrsett", followed two years later. In 2012, Kool Keith performed at the Gathering of the Juggalos. He has stated that he is considering retiring from music. In 2013, Keith appeared as Dr. Octagon on the Yeah Yeah Yeahs song "Buried Alive", from their album "Mosquito". In 2015, Keith released "Time? Astonishing!" with producer L'Orange and began the start of his relationship with Mello Music Group. Since then, Keith also re-issued his group album with the Analog Brothers (Ice-T, Pimp Rex, Marc Live, Silver Synth) "Pimp To Eat" with Mello Music. Kool Keith's recent solo album "Feature Magnetic" was dropped on September 16, 2016 and it features MF DOOM, Slug from Atmosphere, Dirt Nasty and many others. Artwork for the "Feature Magnetic" album was produced by Marc Santo.


title: Kool Keith

text: In 2018, Keith collaborated once again with Dan the Automator and DJ Qbert for another Dr. Octagon album. "" was released on streaming services on April 6, 2018, with the physical release scheduled for Record Store Day, April 21, 2018. The Record Store Day release includes both vinyl and CD copies. Using his Deltron persona, Del the Funky Homosapien guests on "3030 Meets the Doc, Pt. 1". NPR offered a first look at the album on March 29, 2018. Kool Keith appears on "Western" by the bluegrass-rap group Gangstagrass, performing as himself.


title: Kool Keith

text: Thornton's fan site refers to his discography of roughly fifty album releases, most of which have been commercially released. Singles such as "Spectrum" continue to appear online under the artist's name, on sites such as SoundCloud and Spotify.


title: Kool Keith

text: Thornton's lyrics are often abstract, surreal, and filled with non-sequiturs and profane humor. Thornton is also known for an explicit style focusing on sexual themes, which Thornton has referred to as "pornocore". In a 2007 interview, Thornton claims to have "invented horrorcore".


title: Kool Keith

text: In reference to his relationship between himself and his various stage personalities, Keith has said, "I don't even feel like I'm a human being anymore".


title: Kool Keith

text: Kool Keith is known for his many alter egos. As of 2012, Kool Keith had at least 58 such alter egos: these include well-known aliases such as Dr. Octagon, Dr. Dooom, and Black Elvis, which appeared on albums bearing their names; and the more obscure, such as "Exotron Geiger Counter One Plus Megotron." Some of Kool Keith's monikers have only existed on album artwork, such as "Mr. Green" and "Elvin Presley."


title: Jewish wedding

text: A Jewish wedding is a wedding ceremony that follows Jewish laws and traditions. While wedding ceremonies vary, common features of a Jewish wedding include a "ketubah" (marriage contract) which is signed by two witnesses, a "chuppah" or "huppah" (wedding canopy), a ring owned by the groom that is given to the bride under the canopy, and the breaking of a glass.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Technically, the Jewish wedding process has two distinct stages. The first, "kiddushin" (Hebrew for "betrothal"; sanctification or dedication, also called "erusin") and "nissuin" (marriage), is when the couple start their life together. It is at the first stage (kiddushin) when the women becomes prohibited to all other men, requiring a "get" (religious divorce) to dissolve it, while the second stage permits the couple to each other. The ceremony that accomplishes "nissuin" is also known as "chuppah".


title: Jewish wedding

text: Today, "erusin/kiddushin" occurs when the groom gives the bride a ring or other object of value with the intent of creating a marriage. There are differing opinions as to which part of the ceremony constitutes "nissuin/chuppah", such as standing under the canopy and being alone together in a room ("yichud"). "Erusin/kiddushin" has evolved from a period in which the man was to prepare financially to marry his wife into becoming the first half of the wedding ceremony. While historically these two events could take place as much as a year apart, they are now commonly combined into one ceremony.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Before the wedding ceremony, the groom agrees to be bound by the terms of the "ketubah" (marriage contract) in the presence of two witnesses, whereupon the witnesses sign the ketubah. Usually these two witnesses are not closely related to the couple, but family and friends will be present for the signing. The "ketubah" details the obligations of the groom to the bride, among which are food, clothing, and marital relations. This document has the standing of a legally binding agreement, though it may be hard to collect these amounts in a secular court. It is often written as an illuminated manuscript that is framed and displayed in their home. Under the "chuppah", it is traditional to read the signed "ketubah" aloud, usually in the Aramaic original, but sometimes in translation. Traditionally, this is done to separate the two basic parts of the wedding. Non-Orthodox Jewish couples may opt for a bilingual ketubah, or for a shortened version to be read out.


title: Jewish wedding

text: A traditional Jewish wedding ceremony takes place under a "chuppah" (wedding canopy), symbolizing the new home being built by the couple when they become husband and wife.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Prior to the ceremony, Ashkenazi Jews have a custom for the groom to cover the face of the bride (usually with a veil), and a prayer is often said for her based on the words spoken to Rebecca in . The veiling ritual is known in Yiddish as "badeken". Various reasons are given for the veil and the ceremony, a commonly accepted reason is that it reminds the Jewish people of how Jacob was tricked by Laban into marrying Leah before Rachel, as her face was covered by her veil (see Vayetze). Another reasoning is that Rebecca is said to have veiled herself when approached by Isaac, who would become her husband. Sephardi Jews do not perform this ceremony. Additionally, the veil emphasizes that the groom is not solely interested in the bride's external beauty, which fades with time; but rather in her inner beauty which she will never lose. If the couple has chosen to spend time apart leading up to the wedding day, this is the first time that they have seen each other since then.


title: Jewish wedding

text: In many Orthodox Jewish communities, the bride is escorted to the "chuppah" by both mothers, and the groom is escorted by both fathers, known by Ashkenazi Jews as "unterfirers" (Yiddish: "Ones who lead under"). In another custom, bride and groom are each escorted by their respective parents. However, the escorts may be any happily married couple, if parents are unavailable or undesired for some reason. There is a custom in some Ashkenazi communities for the escorts to hold candles as they process to the chuppah.


title: Jewish wedding

text: In Ashkenazi tradition, the bride traditionally walks around the groom three or seven times when she arrives at the "chuppah". This may derive from Jeremiah 31:22, "A woman shall surround a man". The three circuits may represent the three virtues of marriage: righteousness, justice and loving kindness (see ). Seven circuits derives from the Biblical concept that seven denotes perfection or completeness. This has also been linked to when Joshua circled the walls of Jericho seven times and they were destroyed. Sephardic Jews do not perform this ceremony.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Increasingly, it is common in liberal or progressive Jewish communities (especially Reform, Reconstructionist, or Humanistic) to modify this custom for the sake of egalitarianism, or for a same-gender couple. One adaptation of this tradition is for the bride to circle the groom three times, then for the groom to circle his bride three times, and then for each to circle each other (as in a do-si-do). The symbolism of the circling has been reinterpreted to signify the centrality of one spouse to the other, or to represent the four "imahot" (matriarchs) and three "avot" (patriarchs).


title: Jewish wedding

text: In traditional weddings, two blessings are recited before the betrothal; a blessing over wine, and the "betrothal blessing", which is specified in the Talmud. The wine is then tasted by the couple.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Rings are not actually required; they are simply the most common way (since the Middle Ages) of fulfilling the bride price requirement. The bride price (or ring) must have a monetary value no less than a single prutah (the smallest denomination of currency used during the Talmudic era). The low value is to ensure that there are no financial barriers to access marriage.


title: Jewish wedding

text: According to Jewish law, the ring must be composed of solid metal (gold or silver are preferred; alloys are discouraged), with no jewel inlays or gem settings, so that it's easy to ascertain the ring's value. Others ascribe a more symbolic meaning, saying that the ring represents the ideal of purity and honesty in a relationship. However, it's quite common for Jewish couples (especially those who are not Orthodox) to use weddings rings with engraving, metallic embellishments, or to go a step further and use gemstone settings. Some Orthodox couples will use a simple gold or silver band during the ceremony to fulfill the halachic obligations, and after the wedding, the bride may wear a ring with any decoration she likes.


title: Jewish wedding

text: The groom gives the bride a ring, traditionally a plain wedding band, and recites the declaration: "Behold, you are consecrated to me with this ring according to the law of Moses and Israel". The groom places the ring on the bride's right index finger. According to traditional Jewish law, two valid witnesses must see him place the ring.


title: Jewish wedding

text: During some egalitarian weddings, the bride will also present a ring to the groom, often with a quote from the Song of Songs: "Ani l'dodi, ve dodi li" (I am my beloved's and my beloved is mine), which may also be inscribed on the ring itself. This ring is sometimes presented outside the "chuppah" to avoid conflicts with Jewish law.


title: Jewish wedding

text: The wedding formally begins when The Sheva Brachot are read. The Sheva Brachot or seven blessings are recited by the hazzan or rabbi, or by select guests who are called up individually. Being called upon to recite one of the seven blessings is considered an honour. The groom is given the cup of wine to drink from after the seven blessings. The bride also drinks the wine. In some traditions, the cup will be held to the lips of the groom by his new father-in-law and to the lips of the bride by her new mother-in-law. Traditions vary as to whether additional songs are sung before the seven blessings.


title: Jewish wedding

text: After the bride has been given the ring, or at the end of the ceremony (depending on local custom), the groom breaks a glass, crushing it with his right foot. A lightbulb may be substituted at some contemporary weddings because it is thinner, more easily broken, and makes a louder popping sound.


title: Jewish wedding

text: There are different reasonings that exist for this custom. Some believe that breaking the glass is a somber occurrence to reflect on the destruction of the two Jewish temples. Former Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel Ovadia Yosef has strongly criticized the way this custom is sometimes carried out in Israel, arguing that "Many unknowledgeable people fill their mouths with laughter during the breaking of the glass, shouting 'mazel tov' and turning a beautiful custom meant to express our sorrow" over Jerusalem's destruction "into an opportunity for lightheadedness."


title: Jewish wedding

text: The origin of this custom is unknown, although many reasons have been given. The primary reason is that joy must always be tempered. This is based on two accounts in the Talmud of rabbis who, upon seeing that their son's wedding celebration was getting out of hand, broke a vessel – in the second case a glass – to calm things down. Another explanation is that it is a reminder that despite the joy, Jews still mourn the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. Because of this, some recite the verses "If I forget thee / O Jerusalem..." (Ps. 137:5) at this point. Many other reasons have been given by traditional authorities.


title: Jewish wedding

text: "Yichud" (togetherness or seclusion) refers to the Ashkenazi practice of leaving the bride and groom alone for 8–20 minutes after the wedding ceremony, in which the couple retreat to a private room. "Yichud" can take place anywhere, from a rabbi's study to a synagogue classroom. The reason for "yichud" is that according to several authorities, standing under the canopy alone does not constitute "chuppah", and seclusion is necessary to complete the wedding ceremony. However, Sephardic Jews do not have this custom, as they consider it a "davar mechoar" (repugnant thing), compromising the couple's modesty.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Today, the "Yichud" is not used to physically consummate the marriage. Instead, couples will often eat and relax together for this short period of time before the dancing and celebrations of nissuin begin. Since the wedding day is considered the bride and groom's personal Yom Kippur, they may choose to fast leading up to the wedding. The "Yichud" can be spent as a time for the couple to break their fast and have their first meal together. Even if they did not choose to fast, it is still a secluded opportunity for the couple to spend quality time with one another before continuing on with the busyness of their wedding day.


title: Jewish wedding

text: In Yemen, the Jewish practice was not for the groom and his bride to be secluded in a canopy ("chuppah"), as is widely practiced today in Jewish weddings, but rather in a bridal chamber that was, in effect, a highly decorated room in the house of the groom. This room was traditionally decorated with large hanging sheets of colored, patterned cloth, replete with wall cushions and short-length mattresses for reclining. Their marriage is consummated when they have been left together alone in this room. The "chuppah" is described the same way in "Sefer HaIttur" (12th century), and similarly in the Jerusalem Talmud.


title: Jewish wedding

text: After the wedding ceremony and the "Yichud", the bride and groom will make a grand entrance into a room filled with friends and family to begin the celebrations. The wedding ceremony is considered a serious religious event, while the wedding feast is considered a fun, lively celebration for the couple. It is expected and required for the guests to bring joy and festivities to the couple on their wedding day.


title: Jewish wedding

text: At the Wedding Feast, there is dancing, singing, eating, and drinking. This is broken up into two celebrations. Towards the beginning of the wedding feast, there is dancing and celebrations, but men and women are separated. After a couple of hours, a more lively celebration begins, usually after the older guests go home, and there is mixing of men and women (not at orthodox weddings), energetic dancing, and lots of fun.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Dancing is a major feature of Jewish weddings. It is customary for the guests to dance in front of the seated couple and entertain them. Traditional Ashkenazi dances include:


title: Jewish wedding

text: After the meal, Birkat Hamazon (Grace after meals) is recited, followed by sheva brachot. At a wedding banquet, an enhanced version of the call to Birkat Hamazon is used, including (in Ashkenazic communities) the first stanza of Devai Haser. Prayer booklets called "bentshers" may be handed out to guests. After the prayers, the blessing over the wine is recited, with two glasses of wine poured together into a third, symbolising the creation of a new life together.


title: Jewish wedding

text: In present times, Jewish rabbinical bodies have developed Jewish prenuptial agreements designed to prevent the husband from withholding a "get" from his wife, should she want a divorce. Such documents have been developed and widely used in the United States, Israel, the United Kingdom and other places. However, this approach has not been universally accepted, particularly by the Orthodox.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Conservative Judaism developed the Lieberman clause in order to prevent husbands from refusing to give their wives a "get". To do this, the "ketubah" has built in provisions; so, if predetermined circumstances occur, the divorce goes into effect immediately.


title: Jewish wedding

text: Weddings should not be performed on Shabbat or on Jewish holidays, including Chol HaMoed. Weddings cannot be had on Shabbat because the purpose of a wedding is for the bride to acquire her groom, and vice versa. Shabbat regulations prohibit any transactions or acquisitions, so weddings are not allowed. Additionally, for guests to arrive at the wedding via transportation or for the wedding to be a success, there would have to be labor performed that day, which is not permitted. The period of the counting of the omer and the three weeks are also prohibited, although customs vary regarding part of these periods. Some months and days are considered more or less auspicious.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: In biology, any group of fish that stay together for social reasons are shoaling, and if the group is swimming in the same direction in a coordinated manner, they are schooling. In common usage, the terms are sometimes used rather loosely. About one quarter of fish species shoal all their lives, and about one half shoal for part of their lives.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish derive many benefits from shoaling behaviour including defence against predators (through better predator detection and by diluting the chance of individual capture), enhanced foraging success, and higher success in finding a mate. It is also likely that fish benefit from shoal membership through increased hydrodynamic efficiency.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish use many traits to choose shoalmates. Generally they prefer larger shoals, shoalmates of their own species, shoalmates similar in size and appearance to themselves, healthy fish, and kin (when recognized).


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The oddity effect posits that any shoal member that stands out in appearance will be preferentially targeted by predators. This may explain why fish prefer to shoal with individuals that resemble themselves. The oddity effect thus tends to homogenize shoals.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: An aggregation of fish is the general term for any collection of fish that have gathered together in some locality. Fish aggregations can be structured or unstructured. An unstructured aggregation might be a group of mixed species and sizes that have gathered randomly near some local resource, such as food or nesting sites.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: If, in addition, the aggregation comes together in an interactive, social way, they may be said to be shoaling. Although shoaling fish can relate to each other in a loose way, with each fish swimming and foraging somewhat independently, they are nonetheless aware of the other members of the group as shown by the way they adjust behaviour such as swimming, so as to remain close to the other fish in the group. Shoaling groups can include fish of disparate sizes and can include mixed-species subgroups.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: If the shoal becomes more tightly organised, with the fish synchronising their swimming so they all move at the same speed and in the same direction, then the fish may be said to be schooling. Schooling fish are usually of the same species and the same age/size. Fish schools move with the individual members precisely spaced from each other. The schools undertake complicated manoeuvres, as though the schools have minds of their own.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The intricacies of schooling are far from fully understood, especially the swimming and feeding energetics. Many hypotheses to explain the function of schooling have been suggested, such as better orientation, synchronized hunting, predator confusion and reduced risk of being found. Schooling also has disadvantages, such as excretion buildup in the breathing media and oxygen and food depletion. The way the fish array in the school probably gives energy saving advantages, though this is controversial.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish can be obligate or facultative shoalers. Obligate shoalers, such as tunas, herrings and anchovy, spend all of their time shoaling or schooling, and become agitated if separated from the group. Facultative shoalers, such as Atlantic cod, saiths and some carangids, shoal only some of the time, perhaps for reproductive purposes.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Shoaling fish can shift into a disciplined and coordinated school, then shift back to an amorphous shoal within seconds. Such shifts are triggered by changes of activity from feeding, resting, travelling or avoiding predators.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: When schooling fish stop to feed, they break ranks and become shoals. Shoals are more vulnerable to predator attack. The shape a shoal or school takes depends on the type of fish and what the fish are doing. Schools that are travelling can form long thin lines, or squares or ovals or amoeboid shapes. Fast moving schools usually form a wedge shape, while shoals that are feeding tend to become circular.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Forage fish are small fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other larger fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish are small, filter-feeding fish such as herring, anchovies and menhaden. Forage fish compensate for their small size by forming schools. Some swim in synchronised grids with their mouths open so they can efficiently filter feed on plankton. These schools can become huge, moving along coastlines and migrating across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated food resources for the great marine predators.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: These sometimes immense gatherings fuel the ocean food web. Most forage fish are pelagic fish, which means they form their schools in open water, and not on or near the bottom (demersal fish). Forage fish are short-lived, and go mostly unnoticed by humans. The predators are keenly focused on the shoals, acutely aware of their numbers and whereabouts, and make migrations themselves, often in schools of their own, that can span thousands of miles to connect with, or stay connected with them.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Herring are among the more spectacular schooling fish. They aggregate together in huge numbers. The largest schools are often formed during migrations by merging with smaller schools. "Chains" of schools one hundred kilometres (60 miles) long have been observed of mullet migrating in the Caspian Sea. Radakov estimated herring schools in the North Atlantic can occupy up to 4.8 cubic kilometres (1 cubic miles) with fish densities between 0.5 and 1.0 fish/cubic metre ( to fish per cubic yard), totalling about three billion fish in a single school. These schools move along coastlines and traverse the open oceans. Herring schools in general have very precise arrangements which allow the school to maintain relatively constant cruising speeds. Herrings have excellent hearing, and their schools react very rapidly to a predator. The herrings keep a certain distance from a moving scuba diver or a cruising predator like a killer whale, forming a vacuole which looks like a doughnut from a spotter plane.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Many species of large predatory fish also school, including many highly migratory fish, such as tuna and some oceangoing sharks. Cetaceans such as dolphins, porpoises and whales, operate in organised social groups called "pods".


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: "Shoaling behaviour is generally described as a trade-off between the anti-predator benefits of living in groups and the costs of increased foraging competition." Landa (1998) argues that the cumulative advantages of shoaling, as elaborated below, are strong selective inducements for fish to join shoals. Parrish "et al." (2002) argue similarly that schooling is a classic example of emergence, where there are properties that are possessed by the school but not by the individual fish. Emergent properties give an evolutionary advantage to members of the school which non members do not receive.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Support for the social and genetic function of aggregations, especially those formed by fish, can be seen in several aspects of their behaviour. For instance, experiments have shown that individual fish removed from a school will have a higher respiratory rate than those found in the school. This effect has been attributed to stress, and the effect of being with conspecifics therefore appears to be a calming one and a powerful social motivation for remaining in an aggregation. Herring, for instance, will become very agitated if they are isolated from conspecifics. Because of their adaptation to schooling behaviour they are rarely displayed in aquaria. Even with the best facilities aquaria can offer they become fragile and sluggish compared to their quivering energy in wild schools.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: It has also been proposed that swimming in groups enhances foraging success. This ability was demonstrated by Pitcher and others in their study of foraging behaviour in shoaling cyprinids. In this study, the time it took for groups of minnows and goldfish to find a patch of food was quantified. The number of fishes in the groups was varied, and a statistically significant decrease in the amount of time necessary for larger groups to find food was established. Further support for an enhanced foraging capability of schools is seen in the structure of schools of predatory fish. Partridge and others analysed the school structure of Atlantic bluefin tuna from aerial photographs and found that the school assumed a parabolic shape, a fact that was suggestive of cooperative hunting in this species.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: "The reason for this is the presence of many eyes searching for the food. Fish in shoals "share" information by monitoring each other's behaviour closely. Feeding behaviour in one fish quickly stimulates food-searching behaviour in others.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fertile feeding grounds for forage fish are provided by ocean upwellings. Oceanic gyres are large-scale ocean currents caused by the Coriolis effect. Wind-driven surface currents interact with these gyres and the underwater topography, such as seamounts, fishing banks, and the edge of continental shelves, to produce downwellings and upwellings. These can transport nutrients which plankton thrive on. The result can be rich feeding grounds attractive to the plankton feeding forage fish. In turn, the forage fish themselves become a feeding ground for larger predator fish. Most upwellings are coastal, and many of them support some of the most productive fisheries in the world. Regions of notable upwelling include coastal Peru, Chile, Arabian Sea, western South Africa, eastern New Zealand and the California coast.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Copepods, the primary zooplankton, are a major item on the forage fish menu. They are a group of small crustaceans found in ocean and freshwater habitats. Copepods are typically one millimetre (0.04 in) to two millimetres (0.08 in) long, with a teardrop shaped body. Some scientists say they form the largest animal biomass on the planet. Copepods are very alert and evasive. They have large antennae (see photo below left). When they spread their antennae they can sense the pressure wave from an approaching fish and jump with great speed over a few centimeters. If copepod concentrations reach high levels, schooling herrings adopt a method called ram feeding. In the photo below, herring ram feed on a school of copepods. They swim with their mouth wide open and their opercula fully expanded.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The fish swim in a grid where the distance between them is the same as the jump length of their prey, as indicated in the animation above right. In the animation, juvenile herring hunt the copepods in this synchronised way. The copepods sense with their antennae the pressure-wave of an approaching herring and react with a fast escape jump. The length of the jump is fairly constant. The fish align themselves in a grid with this characteristic jump length. A copepod can dart about 80 times before it tires. After a jump, it takes it 60 milliseconds to spread its antennae again, and this time delay becomes its undoing, as the almost endless stream of herrings allows a herring to eventually snap the copepod. A single juvenile herring could never catch a large copepod.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: A third proposed benefit of fish groups is that they serve a reproductive function. They provide increased access to potential mates, since finding a mate in a shoal does not take much energy. And for migrating fish that navigate long distances to spawn, it is likely that the navigation of the shoal, with an input from all the shoal members, will be better than that taken by an individual fish.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Forage fish often make great migrations between their spawning, feeding and nursery grounds. Schools of a particular stock usually travel in a triangle between these grounds. For example, one stock of herrings have their spawning ground in southern Norway, their feeding ground in Iceland, and their nursery ground in northern Norway. Wide triangular journeys such as these may be important because forage fish, when feeding, cannot distinguish their own offspring.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Capelin are a forage fish of the smelt family found in the Atlantic and Arctic oceans. In summer, they graze on dense swarms of plankton at the edge of the ice shelf. Larger capelin also eat krill and other crustaceans. The capelin move inshore in large schools to spawn and migrate in spring and summer to feed in plankton rich areas between Iceland, Greenland, and Jan Mayen. The migration is affected by ocean currents. Around Iceland maturing capelin make large northward feeding migrations in spring and summer. The return migration takes place in September to November. The spawning migration starts north of Iceland in December or January.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The diagram on the right shows the main spawning grounds and larval drift routes. Capelin on the way to feeding grounds is coloured green, capelin on the way back is blue, and the breeding grounds are red.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: This theory states that groups of fish may save energy when swimming together, much in the way that bicyclists may draft one another in a peloton. Geese flying in a Vee formation are also thought to save energy by flying in the updraft of the wingtip vortex generated by the previous animal in the formation. Increased efficiencies in swimming in groups have been proposed for schools of fish and Antarctic krill.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: It would seem reasonable to think that the regular spacing and size uniformity of fish in schools would result in hydrodynamic efficiencies. While early laboratory-based experiments failed to detect hydrodynamic benefits created by the neighbours of a fish in a school, it is thought that efficiency gains do occur in the wild. More recent experiments with groups of fish swimming in flumes support this, with fish reducing their swimming costs by as much as 20% as compared to when the same fish are swimming in isolation. Landa (1998) argued that the leader of a school constantly changes, because while being in the body of a school gives a hydrodynamic advantage, the leader will be the first to the food. More recent work suggests that, after individuals at the front of the school encounter and ingest more food, they then relocate further back within the school due to the locomotor constraints generated during meal digestion.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: It is commonly observed that schooling fish are particularly in danger of being eaten if they are separated from the school. Several anti-predator functions of fish schools have been proposed.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: One potential method by which fish schools might thwart predators is the "predator confusion effect" proposed and demonstrated by Milinski and Heller (1978). This theory is based on the idea that it becomes difficult for predators to choose individual prey from groups because the many moving targets create a sensory overload of the predator's visual channel. Milinski and Heller's findings have been corroborated both in experiment and computer simulations. "Shoaling fish are the same size and silvery, so it is difficult for a visually oriented predator to pick an individual out of a mass of twisting, flashing fish and then have enough time to grab its prey before it disappears into the shoal."


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Schooling behaviour confuses the lateral line organ (LLO) as well as the electrosensory system (ESS) of predators. Fin movements of a single fish act as a point-shaped wave source, emitting a gradient by which predators might localize it. Since fields of many fish will overlap, schooling should obscure this gradient, perhaps mimicking pressure waves of a larger animal, and more likely confuse the lateral line perception. The LLO is essential in the final stages of a predator attack. Electro-receptive animals may localize a field source by using spatial non-uniformities. To produce separate signals, individual prey must be about five body widths apart. If objects are too close together to be distinguished, they will form a blurred image. Based on this it was suggested that schooling may confuse the ESS of predators


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: A third potential anti-predator effect of animal aggregations is the "many eyes" hypothesis. This theory states that as the size of the group increases, the task of scanning the environment for predators can be spread out over many individuals. Not only does this mass collaboration presumably provide a higher level of vigilance, it could also allow more time for individual feeding.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: A fourth hypothesis for an anti-predatory effect of fish schools is the "encounter dilution" effect. The dilution effect is an elaboration of safety in numbers, and interacts with the confusion effect. A given predator attack will eat a smaller proportion of a large shoal than a small shoal. Hamilton proposed that animals aggregate because of a "selfish" avoidance of a predator and was thus a form of cover-seeking. Another formulation of the theory was given by Turner and Pitcher and was viewed as a combination of detection and attack probabilities. In the detection component of the theory, it was suggested that potential prey might benefit by living together since a predator is less likely to chance upon a single group than a scattered distribution. In the attack component, it was thought that an attacking predator is less likely to eat a particular fish when a greater number of fish are present. In sum, a fish has an advantage if it is in the larger of two groups, assuming that the probability of detection and attack does not increase disproportionately with the size of the group.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Schooling forage fish are subject to constant attacks by predators. An example is the attacks that take place during the African sardine run. The African sardine run is a spectacular migration by millions of silvery sardines along the southern coastline of Africa. In terms of biomass, the sardine run could rival East Africa's great wildebeest migration.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Sardines have a short life-cycle, living only two or three years. Adult sardines, about two years old, mass on the Agulhas Bank where they spawn during spring and summer, releasing tens of thousands of eggs into the water. The adult sardines then make their way in hundreds of shoals towards the sub-tropical waters of the Indian Ocean. A larger shoal might be long, wide and deep. Huge numbers of sharks, dolphins, tuna, sailfish, Cape fur seals and even killer whales congregate and follow the shoals, creating a feeding frenzy along the coastline.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: When threatened, sardines (and other forage fish) instinctively group together and create massive bait balls. Bait balls can be up to in diameter. They are short lived, seldom lasting longer than 20 minutes.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The fish eggs, left behind at the Agulhas Banks, drift north west with the current into waters off the west coast, where the larvae develop into juvenile fish. When they are old enough, they aggregate into dense shoals and migrate southwards, returning to the Agulhas banks to restart the cycle.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The development of schooling behavior was probably associated with an increased quality of perception, predatory lifestyle and size sorting mechanisms to avoid cannibalism. In filter-feeding ancestors, before vision and the octavolateralis system (OLS) had developed, the risk of predation would have been limited and mainly due to invertebrate predators. Hence, at that time, safety in numbers was probably not a major incentive for gathering in shoals or schools. The development of vision and the OLS would have permitted detection of potential prey. This could have led to an increased potential for cannibalism within the shoal. On the other hand, increased quality of perception would give small individuals a chance to escape or to never join a shoal with larger fish. It has been shown that small fish avoid joining a group with larger fish, although big fish do not avoid joining small conspecifics. This sorting mechanism based on increased quality of perception could have resulted in homogeneity of size of fish in shoals, which would increase the capacity for moving in synchrony.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Predators have devised various countermeasures to undermine the defensive shoaling and schooling manoeuvres of forage fish. The sailfish raises its sail to make it appear much larger so it can herd a school of fish or squid. Swordfish charge at high speed through forage fish schools, slashing with their swords to kill or stun prey. They then turn and return to consume their "catch". Thresher sharks use their long tails to stun shoaling fishes. Before striking, the sharks compact schools of prey by swimming around them and splashing the water with their tails, often in pairs or small groups. Threshers swim in circles to drive schooling prey into a compact mass, before striking them sharply with the upper lobe of its tail to stun them. Spinner sharks charge vertically through the school, spinning on their axis with their mouths open and snapping all around. The shark's momentum at the end of these spiralling runs often carries it into the air.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Some predators, such as dolphins, hunt in groups of their own. One technique employed by many dolphin species is herding, where a pod will control a school of fish while individual members take turns ploughing through and feeding on the more tightly packed school (a formation commonly known as a bait ball). Corralling is a method where fish are chased to shallow water where they are more easily captured. In South Carolina, the Atlantic bottlenose dolphin takes this one step further with what has become known as strand feeding, where the fish are driven onto mud banks and retrieved from there.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Common bottlenose dolphins have been observed using another technique. One dolphin acts as a "driver" and herds a school of fish towards several other dolphins who form a barrier. The driver dolphin slaps its fluke which makes the fish leap into the air. As the fish leap, the driver dolphin moves with the barrier dolphins and catches the fish in the air. This type of cooperative role specialization seems to be more common in marine animals than in terrestrial animals, perhaps because the oceans have more variability in prey diversity, biomass, and predator mobility.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: During the sardine run, as many as 18,000 dolphins, behaving like sheepdogs, herd the sardines into bait balls, or corral them in shallow water. Once the bait balls are rounded up, the dolphins and other predators take turns ploughing through them, gorging on the fish as they sweep through. Seabirds also attack them from above, flocks of gannets, cormorants, terns and gulls. Some of these seabirds plummet from heights of 30 metres (100 feet), plunging through the water leaving vapour-like trails, similar to that of fighter planes. Gannets plunge into the water at up to 100 kilometres per hour (60 mph). They have air sacs under their skin in their face and chest which act like bubble-wrap, cushioning the impact with the water.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Subsets of bottlenose dolphin populations in Mauritania are known to engage in interspecific cooperative fishing with human fishermen. The dolphins drive a school of fish towards the shore where humans await with their nets. In the confusion of casting nets, the dolphins catch a large number of fish as well. Intraspecific cooperative foraging techniques have also been observed, and some propose that these behaviours are transmitted through cultural means. Rendell & Whitehead have proposed a structure for the study of culture in cetaceans.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Some whales lunge feed on bait balls. Lunge feeding is an extreme feeding method, in which the whale accelerates from below a bait ball to a high velocity and then opens its mouth to a large gape angle. This generates the water pressure required to expand its mouth and engulf and filter a huge amount of water and fish. Lunge feeding by the huge rorquals is said to be the largest biomechanical event on Earth.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish schools swim in disciplined phalanxes, with some species, such as herrings, able to stream up and down at impressive speeds, making rapid changes in the shape of the school, without collisions. It is as if their motions are choreographed, though they are not. There must be very fast response systems to allow the fish to do this. Young fish practice schooling techniques in pairs, and then in larger groups as their techniques and senses mature. The schooling behaviour develops instinctively and is not learned from older fish. To school the way they do, fish have sensory systems which can respond with great speed to small changes in their position relative to their neighbour. Most schools lose their schooling abilities after dark, and just shoal. This indicates that vision is important to schooling. The importance of vision is also indicated by the behaviour of fish who have been temporarily blinded. Schooling species have eyes on the sides of their heads, which means they can easily see their neighbours. Also, schooling species often have "schooling marks" on their shoulders or the base of their tails, or visually prominent stripes, which provide reference marks when schooling, similar in function to passive markers in artificial motion capture. However fish without these markers will still engage in schooling behaviour, though perhaps not as efficiently.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Other senses are also used. Pheromones or sound may also play a part but supporting evidence has not been found so far. The lateral line is a line running along each side of the fish from the gill covers to the base of the tail. In laboratory experiments the lateral lines of schooling fish have been removed. They swam closer, leading to a theory that the lateral lines provide additional stimuli input when the fish get too close. The lateral-line system is very sensitive to changes in water currents and vibration in the water. It uses receptors called neuromasts, each of which is composed of a group of hair cells. The hairs are surrounded by a protruding jelly-like cupula, typically 0.1 to 0.2 mm long. The hair cells in the lateral line are similar to the hair cells inside the vertebrate inner ear, indicating that the lateral line and the inner ear share a common origin.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: It is difficult to observe and describe the three dimensional structure of real world fish shoals because of the large number of fish involved. Techniques include the use of recent advances in fisheries acoustics.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The observational approach is complemented by the mathematical modelling of schools. The most common mathematical models of schools instruct the individual animals to follow three rules:


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: An example of such a simulation is the boids program created by Craig Reynolds in 1986. Another is the self-propelled particle model introduced by Vicsek "et al." in 1995 Many current models use variations on these rules. For instance, many models implement these three rules through layered zones around each fish.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The shape of these zones will necessarily be affected by the sensory capabilities of the fish. Fish rely on both vision and on hydrodynamic signals relayed through its lateral line. Antarctic krill rely on vision and on hydrodynamic signals relayed through its antennae.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: In a masters thesis published in 2008, Moshi Charnell produced schooling behaviour without using the alignment matching component of an individuals behaviour. His model reduces the three basic rules to the following two rules:


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: In a paper published in 2009, researchers from Iceland recount their application of an interacting particle model to the capelin stock around Iceland, successfully predicting the spawning migration route for 2008.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: In order to gain insight into "why" animals evolve swarming behaviour, scientists have turned to evolutionary models that simulate populations of evolving animals. Typically these studies use a genetic algorithm to simulate evolution over many generations in the model. These studies have investigated a number of hypotheses explaining why animals evolve swarming behaviour, such as the selfish herd theory, the predator confusion effect, the dilution effect, and the many eyes theory.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: In 2009, building on recent advances in acoustic imaging, a group of MIT researchers observed for "the first time the formation and subsequent migration of a huge shoal of fish." The results provide the first field confirmation of general theories about how large groups behave, from locust swarms to bird flocks.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The researchers imaged spawning Atlantic herring off Georges Bank. They found that the fish come together from deeper water in the evening, shoaling in a disordered way. A chain reaction triggers when the population density reaches a critical value, like an audience wave travelling around a sport stadium. A rapid transition then occurs, and the fish become highly polarised and synchronized in the manner of schooling fish. After the transition, the schools start migrating, extending up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) across the ocean, to shallow parts of the bank. There they spawn during the night. In the morning, the fish school back to deeper water again and then disband. Small groups of leaders were also discovered that significantly influenced much larger groups.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish schools are faced with decisions they must make if they are to remain together. For example, a decision might be which direction to swim when confronted by a predator, which areas to stop and forage, or when and where to migrate.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Quorum sensing can function as a collective decision-making process in any decentralised system. A quorum response has been defined as "a steep increase in the probability of group members performing a given behaviour once a threshold minimum number of their group mates already performing that behaviour is exceeded". A recent investigation showed that small groups of fish used consensus decision-making when deciding which fish model to follow. The fish did this by a simple quorum rule such that individuals watched the decisions of others before making their own decisions. This technique generally resulted in the 'correct' decision but occasionally cascaded into the 'incorrect' decision. In addition, as the group size increased, the fish made more accurate decisions in following the more attractive fish model. Consensus decision-making, a form of collective intelligence, thus effectively uses information from multiple sources to generally reach the correct conclusion. Such behaviour has also been demonstrated in the shoaling behaviour of threespine sticklebacks.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Other open questions of shoaling behaviour include identifying which individuals are responsible for the direction of shoal movement. In the case of migratory movement, most members of a shoal seem to know where they are going. Observations on the foraging behaviour of captive golden shiner (a kind of minnow) found they formed shoals which were led by a small number of experienced individuals who knew when and where food was available. If all golden shiners in a shoal have similar knowledge of food availability, there are a few individuals that still emerge as natural leaders (being at the front more often) and behavioural tests suggest they are naturally bolder. Smaller golden shiners appear more willing than larger ones to be near the front of the shoal, perhaps because they are hungrier. Observations on the common roach have shown that food-deprived individuals tend to be at the front of a shoal, where they obtain more food but where they may also be more vulnerable to ambush predators. Individuals that are wary of predation tend to seek more central positions within shoals.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Experimental studies of shoal preference are relatively easy to perform. An aquarium containing a choosing fish is sandwiched between two aquaria containing different shoals, and the choosing fish is assumed to spend more time next to the shoal it prefers. Studies of this kind have identified several factors important for shoal preference.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish generally prefer larger shoals. This makes sense, as larger shoal usually provide better protection against predators. Indeed, the preference for larger shoals seems stronger when predators are nearby, or in species that rely more on shoaling than body armour against predation. Larger shoals may also find food faster, though that food would have to be shared amongst more individuals. Competition may mean that hungry individuals might prefer smaller shoals or exhibit a lesser preference for very large shoals, as shown in sticklebacks.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish prefer to shoal with their own species. Sometimes, several species may become mingled in one shoal, but when a predator is presented to such shoals, the fish reorganize themselves so that each individual ends up being closer to members of its own species.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish tend to prefer shoals made up of individuals that match their own size. This makes sense as predators have an easier time catching individuals that stand out in a shoal. Some fish may even prefer shoals of another species if this means a better match in current body size. As for shoal size however, hunger can affect the preference for similarly sized fish; large fish, for example, might prefer to associate with smaller ones because of the competitive advantage they will gain over these shoalmates. In golden shiner, large satiated fish prefer to associate with other large individuals, but hungry ones prefer smaller shoalmates.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish prefer to shoal with individuals with which the choosing fish is already familiar. This has been demonstrated in guppies, threespine stickleback, banded killifish, the surfperch "Embiotoca jacksoni", Mexican tetra, and various minnows. A study with the White Cloud Mountain minnow has also found that choosing fish prefer to shoal with individuals that have consumed the same diet as themselves.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Sticklebacks and killifish have been shown to prefer shoals made up of healthy individuals over parasitized ones, on the basis of visual signs of parasitism and abnormal behaviour by the parasitized fish. Zebrafish prefer shoals that consist of well-fed (greater stomach width) fish over food-deprived ones.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Threespine stickleback prefer to join a shoal made up of bold individuals rather than shy ones. Angelfish prefer shoals made up of subordinate rather than dominant individuals. European minnow can discriminate between shoals composed of good versus poor competitors, even in the absence of obvious cues such as differences in aggressiveness, size, or feeding rate; they prefer to associate with the poor competitors. All of this suggests a strategy to obtain food, as bolder individuals should be more likely to find food, while subordinates would offer less competition for the discovered food.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Fish prefer to join shoals that are actively feeding. Golden shiner can also detect the anticipatory activity of shoals that expect to be fed soon, and preferentially join such shoals. Zebrafish also choose shoals that are more active.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: The schooling behaviour of fish is exploited on an industrial scale by the commercial fishing industry. Huge purse seiner vessels use spotter planes to locate schooling fish, such as tuna, cod, mackerel and forage fish. They can capture huge schools by rapidly encircling them with purse seine nets with the help of fast auxiliary boats and sophisticated sonar, which can track the shape of the shoal.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Blacksmith fish live in loose shoals. They have a symbiotic relationship with the parasite eating senorita fish. When they encounter a shoal of senorita fish, they stop and form a tight ball and hang upside down (pictured), each fish waiting its turn to be cleaned. The senorita fish pick dead tissues and external parasites, like parasitic copecods and isocods, from the skin of other fishes.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Some shoals engage in mobbing behaviour. For example, bluegills form large nesting colonies and sometimes attack snapping turtles. This may function to advertise their presence, drive the predator from the area, or aid in cultural transmission of predator recognition.


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Piranha have a reputation as fearless fish that hunt in ferocious packs. However, recent research, which "started off with the premise that they school as a means of cooperative hunting", discovered that they were in fact rather fearful fish, like other fish, which schooled for protection from their predators, such as cormorants, caimans and dolphins. Piranhas are "basically like regular fish with large teeth".


title: Shoaling and schooling

text: Humboldt squid are large carnivorous marine invertebrates that move in schools of up to 1,200 individuals. They swim at speeds of up to 24 kilometres per hour () propelled by water ejected through a siphon and by two triangular fins. Their tentacles bear suckers lined with sharp teeth with which they grasp prey and drag it towards a large, sharp beak. During the day the Humboldt squid behave similar to mesopelagic fish, living at depths of . Electronic tagging has shown that they also undergo diel vertical migrations which bring them closer to the surface from dusk to dawn. They hunt near the surface at night, taking advantage of the dark to use their keen vision to feed on more plentiful prey. The squid feed primarily on small fish, crustaceans, cephalopods, and copepod, and hunt for their prey in a cooperative fashion, the first observation of such behaviour in invertebrates. The Humboldt squid is also known to quickly devour larger prey when cooperatively hunting in groups. Humboldt squid are known for their speed in feasting on hooked fish, sharks, and squid, even from their own species and shoal, and have been known to attack fishermen and divers.


title: Formula One regulations

text: The numerous Formula One regulations, made and enforced by the FIA and later the FISA, have changed dramatically since the first Formula One World Championship in 1950. This article covers the current state of F1 technical and sporting regulations, as well as the history of the technical regulations since 1950.


title: Formula One regulations

text: An F1 car can be no more than 200 cm wide and 95 cm tall. Though there is no maximum length, other rules set indirect limits on these dimensions, and nearly every aspect of the car carries size regulations; consequently the various cars tend to be very close to the same size. The car and driver must together weigh at least 740 kg.


title: Formula One regulations

text: The car must only have four wheels mounted externally of the body work with only the front 2 steered and only the back 2 driven. There are minimum distances allowed between the wheels and the rear and front body work.


title: Formula One regulations

text: The main chassis contains a "safety cell" which includes the cockpit, a structure designed to reduce impact directly in front of the cockpit, and the fuel cell directly behind the cockpit. Additionally, the car must contain roll structures behind and ahead of the driver. The driver must be able to enter and exit the cockpit without any adjustments other than removing the steering wheel.


title: Formula One regulations

text: There are also mandatory crash test standards. There is a head-on impact into a steel barrier; "average deceleration must not exceed 25g", with a maximum 60g for a minimum 3 milliseconds, with no damage to the chassis beyond the nose section. The same chassis must then sustain a rear impact from a sled travelling at , with no damage in front of the rear axle. The roll hoop is not permitted to crush beyond , and structural failure is only permitted in the top of the body. Side impacts by a object at must be decelerated at less than 20g, and absorb no less than 15% and no more than 35% of the total energy; can not be exceeded more than 3 milliseconds. The steering wheel must survive the impact of an -diameter object at with no deformation of the wheel or damage to the quick-release mechanism.


title: Formula One regulations

text: In addition, there are "squeeze tests" on the cockpit sides, fuel tank, and nosebox. The cockpit must survive a force with no failure; for the fuel tank, is applied. A maximum deformation is allowed. For the cockpit rim, the figures are and . The nosebox must withstand for 30 seconds without failing.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Onboard electrical and computer systems, once inspected at the start of the season, may not be changed without prior approval. Electronic starters and launch control are forbidden. The computers must contain a telemetric accident data reporting system.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Continuously variable transmissions (CVTs) have been banned since 1994, two weeks after very successful tests in the Williams FW15C in 1993 that proved CVTs had the potential to keep other teams at a competitive disadvantage for a long time due to the difficulties of designing sufficiently strong belts for use in CVTs. It was speculated that the use of a CVT alone led to an advantage of several seconds per lap. CVTs have never been used in Formula 1 races. A rule was added in 1994 that stated that gearboxes must have anywhere from 2 to 7 discrete gear ratios, alongside a clause that explicitly bans CVTs. Active suspensions were also banned in 1994 due to safety concerns by the FIA over ever-higher speeds, and other "driver aids" were also banned that same year, including 4-wheel steering, which was tested and found to provide negligible if any reduction in lap times.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Since 2014, transmissions with 8 gear ratios and 1 reverse gear ratio are required in Formula 1 cars.


title: Formula One regulations

text: 2.4-litre V8 engines were used in the 2013 season. The engine technology was greatly changed from the 2014 season with the introduction of the 1.6-litre turbocharged V6-hybrid engine. The engine minimum weight is 145 kg.


title: Formula One regulations

text: For the 2017 season, the fuel limit per race was increased to 105 kg. For the 2019 season, the limit was again increased to 110 kg.


title: Formula One regulations

text: The power outputs of F1 engines have not been disclosed since the 1990s, however, the consensus is that the 1.6 L turbocharged V-6 engines produce 750 to 850 bhp, depending on trims and mappings.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Another radical change in 2014 was the introduction of the ERS (Energy Recovery System). This system works similarly to KERS, with drivers getting a full-time boost of about 160 bhp from electric motors used in conjunction with the internal combustion engine (generating around 1,000 bhp in total) instead of a 6-second bank of extra power per lap. The combination of these systems led to the term "power unit" being used in lieu of "engine".


title: Formula One regulations

text: Devices designed to inject any substance into the cylinders other than air and fuel (petrol) are forbidden, as are variable-length intake and exhaust systems.


title: Formula One regulations

text: The crankshaft and camshafts must be made of steel or cast iron. The use of carbon composite materials for the cylinder block, cylinder head and pistons is not allowed.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Separate starting devices may be used to start engines in the pits and on the grid. If the engine is fitted with an anti-stall device, this must be set to cut the engine within ten seconds in the event of an accident.


title: Formula One regulations

text: The engines, now referred to as "power units", are divided into 6 components: the internal combustion engine (ICE); turbocharger (TC); Motor Generator Unit-Kinetic (MGU-K), which harvests energy that would normally be wasted under braking; Motor Generator Unit-Heat (MGU-H), which collects energy in the form of heat as it is expelled through the exhaust; Energy Store (ES), which functions as batteries, holding the energy gathered by the Motor Generator Units; and Control Electronics (CE), which includes the Electronic Control Unit and software used to manage the entire power unit. In 2015, each driver was allowed to use up to four of each component during a season that is up to 20 scheduled races in length; a fifth power unit (and its components) could be used without penalty if more than 20 races are scheduled to take place. A ten-place starting grid penalty was applicable for the use of a power unit component used beyond the established allocation, and a pit lane start for the entire unit changes beyond the limit.


title: Formula One regulations

text: "*Note": The density of fuel here varies, but is approx. between 0.7 - 0.77 g/mL. *("Figures above reflect that range.")*


title: Formula One regulations

text: From 2010, refuelling is no longer permitted during the race and now every car starts with a full fuel load. The 2010 season cars were about 22 cm longer than 2009 cars to accommodate the enlarged fuel tank this necessitated.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Formula 1 has contracted a single supplier of tyres since the 2007 season. The supplier (Pirelli since ) supplies 5 specifications of slick dry-weather tyres (C1, C2, C3, C4, C5), of which 3 compounds are provided at each race (as soft, medium and hard). From to , 2 types of dry tyres were provided at each race weekend, known as the Prime and the Option. Teams are supplied with more sets of Prime tyres than Option tyres for use throughout the weekend. The Prime tyre is usually harder and therefore more durable than the Option tyre, while the Option tyre provides more grip and therefore allows faster lap times when the tyres are fresh. At some events the selection is reversed, with the Option tyre being harder than the Prime. The combination of longer lasting and faster tyres adds an element to each car's race strategy. Additionally, 2 wet-weather compounds are provided by the supplier: intermediate and full wet. From onward, 3 dry tyre compounds are brought to a race weekend. Since 2019, regardless of tyre compound, one tyre is designated as soft, one as medium, and one as hard. One set of the softest tyres is set aside for Q3 and two sets of the middle and the hardest tyres are kept for the race. Drivers select 10 sets of tyres for a race weekend. Each compound is differentiated by a colour-coded band painted around the tyre's sidewall and including the supplier's logo: red for soft, yellow for medium, white for hard, green for intermediate, and blue for full wet.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Competitors are allowed only a limited number of tyre sets during a race event: 13 dry, 4 intermediate, 3 wet. Each tyre must be marked with a unique identifier for tracking and scrutinising during a race event. During the practice sessions drivers are limited to the use of 3 sets of dry tyres, and certain sets must be returned to the supplier before the second and third sessions. From 2014 to 2021, if qualifying and starting the race on dry tyres, drivers who completed a lap during the third period of qualifying (the top ten) were required to start the race on the tyre set with which they recorded their fastest time during the second period. Any cars that qualified outside the top ten may have started the race on any remaining set of tyres. This rule was removed prior to the 2022 season. Cars must race on any 2 dry compounds during a race unless intermediate or wet tyres have been used by that car in that race.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Prior to qualifying, wet and intermediate tyres may only be used if the track is judged wet by the race director. Starting the race behind the safety car due to heavy rain requires cars to be fitted with wet tyres until they make a pit stop.


title: Formula One regulations

text: After weighing during each qualifying session, teams are required to take their cars to a place in the paddock, sectioned off by the FIA, known as "parc fermé"; they may not do work on the cars, other than routine maintenance, until they are released from "parc fermé" for the race the next morning.


title: Formula One regulations

text: If a team must do other significant work, body work or suspension adjustments, the car will start from the pit lane.


title: Formula One regulations

text: The pit lane opens forty minutes before the start of a race (t−40:00), during which time drivers may drive around the track as much as they like, driving through the pit lane each time around in order to avoid the grid. Drivers must be in their cars and in place on the grid by time the pit lane closes at t−30:00; otherwise they must start the race from the pits. Meanwhile, teams may work on their cars on the grid.


title: Formula One regulations

text: At t−10:00 the grid is cleared of everyone except team mechanics, race marshals, and drivers. A team will generally want to keep its tyres off their cars and heated in their tyre-warmers for as long as possible, but they must be attached to the cars by t−3:00.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Engines must be running by t−1:00; at fifteen seconds to the start all personnel must be clear of the track. Green lights signify the start of the formation lap, also known as the parade lap, during which drivers must remain in the same order (no passing) except if a car ahead has stopped due to a technical problem, or has had an accident. The cars circle the track once, usually weaving from side to side to warm up their tyres, and form up again in their starting positions on the grid. A series of short, controlled burnouts is usually performed as each driver approaches their grid box in order to maximize rear tyre temperature and clean off any debris from the parade lap.


title: Formula One regulations

text: If, for some reason, a car cannot start the race (engine failure during qualifying or practice, suspension fails, etc.), the car can still join the race, but will take a 10-position penalty at the start. For example, if the car qualifies in 3rd, but has to change an engine at any point during the race weekend prior to the actual race, the car will start from 13th position. For strategy's sake, teams will sometimes opt to start a car affected in this way from the pit lane. This means they start at the tail end of the grid; however, they can not only change an engine, but also start the race with fresh tyres.


title: Formula One regulations

text: Gearboxes must be used for five consecutive events (counted as P3, the qualifying practice session and the race). A 5-place grid penalty will be incurred if a replacement gearbox is used (Pole position becomes 6th).


title: Formula One regulations

text: The race is started by ten red lights in two rows of five (i.e. 5 columns of 2). The red lights in each column operate as a pair i.e. both go on and off together. The lights illuminate one pair at a time, left to right, in one-second intervals, and then go out simultaneously after a random interval (i.e. 4–7 seconds). When the lights go out, the race officially begins. Should the start need to be aborted for any reason, all 5 pairs of red lights will come on as normal, but instead of going out, the orange lights will flash. All engines are stopped and the start resumes from the 5-minute point. If a single driver raises his hand to indicate that he can't start, the marshal for that row will wave a yellow flag, then after a few seconds, both the red and orange lights will extinguish and the green lights will come on to indicate another formation lap.(No overtaking in formation laps)


title: Formula One regulations

text: The Drivers' and Constructors' Championships are decided by points, which are awarded according to the place in which a driver classifies at each grand prix. To receive points a racer need not finish the race, but at least 90% of the winner's race distance must be completed. Therefore, it is possible for a driver to receive some points even though they retired before the end of the race. In that case the scoring is based on the distance completed in comparison to other drivers. It is also possible for the lower points not to be awarded (as at the 2005 United States Grand Prix) because insufficient drivers completed 90% of the winner's distance. The system was revised in 2003 and later amended for the 2010 season because of two new teams entering the sport. The scoring system from 2019 on is:


title: Formula One regulations

text: For scoring systems prior to 2019, refer to the List of Formula One World Championship points scoring systems.