title: Algebra over a field

text: where "Z"("A") is the center of "A". Since "η" is a ring homomorphism, then one must have either that "A" is the zero ring, or that "η" is injective. This definition is equivalent to that above, with scalar multiplication


title: Algebra over a field

text: Given two such associative unital "K"-algebras "A" and "B", a unital "K"-algebra homomorphism "f": "A" → "B" is a ring homomorphism that commutes with the scalar multiplication defined by "η", which one may write as


title: Algebra over a field

text: For algebras over a field, the bilinear multiplication from "A" × "A" to "A" is completely determined by the multiplication of basis elements of "A".


title: Algebra over a field

text: Conversely, once a basis for "A" has been chosen, the products of basis elements can be set arbitrarily, and then extended in a unique way to a bilinear operator on "A", i.e., so the resulting multiplication satisfies the algebra laws.


title: Algebra over a field

text: Thus, given the field "K", any finite-dimensional algebra can be specified up to isomorphism by giving its dimension (say "n"), and specifying "n" "structure coefficients" "c", which are scalars.


title: Algebra over a field

text: Note however that several different sets of structure coefficients can give rise to isomorphic algebras.


title: Algebra over a field

text: In mathematical physics, the structure coefficients are generally written with upper and lower indices, so as to distinguish their transformation properties under coordinate transformations. Specifically, lower indices are covariant indices, and transform via pullbacks, while upper indices are contravariant, transforming under pushforwards. Thus, the structure coefficients are often written "c", and their defining rule is written using the Einstein notation as


title: Algebra over a field

text: If "K" is only a commutative ring and not a field, then the same process works if "A" is a free module over "K". If it isn't, then the multiplication is still completely determined by its action on a set that spans "A"; however, the structure constants can't be specified arbitrarily in this case, and knowing only the structure constants does not specify the algebra up to isomorphism.


title: Algebra over a field

text: Two-dimensional, three-dimensional and four-dimensional unital associative algebras over the field of complex numbers were completely classified up to isomorphism by Eduard Study.


title: Algebra over a field

text: There exist two such two-dimensional algebras. Each algebra consists of linear combinations (with complex coefficients) of two basis elements, 1 (the identity element) and "a". According to the definition of an identity element,


title: Algebra over a field

text: There exist five such three-dimensional algebras. Each algebra consists of linear combinations of three basis elements, 1 (the identity element), "a" and "b". Taking into account the definition of an identity element, it is sufficient to specify


title: Algebra over a field

text: In some areas of mathematics, such as commutative algebra, it is common to consider the more general concept of an algebra over a ring, where a commutative unital ring "R" replaces the field "K". The only part of the definition that changes is that "A" is assumed to be an "R"-module (instead of a vector space over "K").


title: Algebra over a field

text: A ring "A" is always an associative algebra over its center, and over the integers. A classical example of an algebra over its center is the split-biquaternion algebra, which is isomorphic to formula_21, the direct product of two quaternion algebras. The center of that ring is formula_22, and hence it has the structure of an algebra over its center, which is not a field. Note that the split-biquaternion algebra is also naturally an 8-dimensional formula_23-algebra.


title: Algebra over a field

text: In commutative algebra, if "A" is a commutative ring, then any unital ring homomorphism formula_24 defines an "R"-module structure on "A", and this is what is known as the "R"-algebra structure. So a ring comes with a natural formula_25-module structure, since one can take the unique homomorphism formula_26. On the other hand, not all rings can be given the structure of an algebra over a field (for example the integers). See "Field with one element" for a description of an attempt to give to every ring a structure that behaves like an algebra over a field.


title: Fermilab

text: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab), located just outside Batavia, Illinois, near Chicago, is a United States Department of Energy national laboratory specializing in high-energy particle physics. Since 2007, Fermilab has been operated by the Fermi Research Alliance, a joint venture of the University of Chicago, and the Universities Research Association (URA). Fermilab is a part of the Illinois Technology and Research Corridor.


title: Fermilab

text: Fermilab's Main Injector, two miles (3.3 km) in circumference, is the laboratory's most powerful particle accelerator. The accelerator complex that feeds the Main Injector is under upgrade, and construction of the first building for the new PIP-II linear accelerator began in 2020. Until 2011, Fermilab was the home of the 6.28 km (3.90 mi) circumference Tevatron accelerator. The ring-shaped tunnels of the Tevatron and the Main Injector are visible from the air and by satellite.


title: Fermilab

text: Fermilab aims to become a world center in neutrino physics. It is the host of the multi-billion dollar Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) now under construction. The project has suffered delays and, in 2022, the journals "Science" and "Scientific American" each published articles describing the project as "troubled".


title: Fermilab

text: Ongoing neutrino experiments are ICARUS (Imaging Cosmic and Rare Underground Signals) and NOνA (NuMI Off-Axis ν Appearance). Completed neutrino experiments include MINOS (Main Injector Neutrino Oscillation Search), MINOS+, MiniBooNE and SciBooNE (SciBar Booster Neutrino Experiment) and MicroBooNE (Micro Booster Neutrino Experiment).


title: Fermilab

text: On-site experiments outside of the neutrino program include the SeaQuest fixed-target experiment and Muon g-2. Fermilab continues to participate in the work at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC); it serves as a Tier 1 site in the Worldwide LHC Computing Grid. Fermilab also pursues research in quantum information science. It founded the Fermilab Quantum Institute in 2019. Since 2020, it also is home to the SQMS (Superconducting Quantum and Materials Science) center.


title: Fermilab

text: In the public realm, Fermilab is home to a native prairie ecosystem restoration project and hosts many cultural events: public science lectures and symposia, classical and contemporary music concerts, folk dancing and arts galleries. The site is open from dawn to dusk to visitors who present valid photo identification.


title: Fermilab

text: Weston, Illinois, was a community next to Batavia voted out of existence by its village board in 1966 to provide a site for Fermilab.


title: Fermilab

text: The laboratory was founded in 1969 as the National Accelerator Laboratory; it was renamed in honor of Enrico Fermi in 1974. The laboratory's first director was Robert Rathbun Wilson, under whom the laboratory opened ahead of time and under budget. Many of the sculptures on the site are of his creation. He is the namesake of the site's high-rise laboratory building, whose unique shape has become the symbol for Fermilab and which is the center of activity on the campus.


title: Fermilab

text: After Wilson stepped down in 1978 to protest the lack of funding for the lab, Leon M. Lederman took on the job. It was under his guidance that the original accelerator was replaced with the Tevatron, an accelerator capable of colliding protons and antiprotons at a combined energy of 1.96 TeV. Lederman stepped down in 1989 and remained Director Emeritus until his death. The science education center at the site was named in his honor.


title: Fermilab

text: Prior to the startup in 2008 of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) near Geneva, Switzerland, the Tevatron was the most powerful particle accelerator in the world, accelerating protons and antiprotons to energies of 980 GeV, and producing proton-antiproton collisions with energies of up to 1.96 TeV, the first accelerator to reach one "tera-electron-volt" energy. At , it was the world's fourth-largest particle accelerator in circumference. One of its most important achievements was the 1995 discovery of the top quark, announced by research teams using the Tevatron's CDF and DØ detectors. It was shut down in 2011.


title: Fermilab

text: Since 2013, the first stage in the acceleration process (pre-accelerator injector) in the Fermilab chain of accelerators takes place in two ion sources which ionize hydrogen gas. The gas is introduced into a container lined with molybdenum electrodes, each a matchbox-sized, oval-shaped cathode and a surrounding anode, separated by 1 mm and held in place by glass ceramic insulators. A magnetron generates a plasma to form the ions near the metal surface. The ions are accelerated by the source to 35 keV and matched by low energy beam transport (LEBT) into the radio-frequency quadrupole (RFQ) which applies a 750 keV electrostatic field giving the ions their second acceleration. At the exit of RFQ, the beam is matched by medium energy beam transport (MEBT) into the entrance of the linear accelerator (linac).


title: Fermilab

text: The next stage of acceleration is linear particle accelerator (linac). This stage consists of two segments. The first segment has five drift tube cavities, operating at 201 MHz. The second stage has seven side-coupled cavities, operating at 805 MHz. At the end of linac, the particles are accelerated to 400 MeV, or about 70% of the speed of light. Immediately before entering the next accelerator, the H ions pass through a carbon foil, becoming H ions (protons).


title: Fermilab

text: The resulting protons then enter the booster ring, a circumference circular accelerator whose magnets bend beams of protons around a circular path. The protons travel around the Booster about 20,000 times in 33 milliseconds, adding energy with each revolution until they leave the Booster accelerated to 8 GeV. In 2021, the lab announced that its latest superconducting YBCO magnet could increase field strength at a rate of 290 tesla per second, reaching a peak magnetic field strength of around 0.5 tesla.


title: Fermilab

text: The final acceleration is applied by the Main Injector [circumference ], which is the smaller of the two rings in the last picture below (foreground). Completed in 1999, it has become Fermilab's "particle switchyard" in that it can route protons to any of the experiments installed along the beam lines after accelerating them to 120 GeV. Until 2011, the Main Injector provided protons to the antiproton ring [circumference ] and the Tevatron for further acceleration but now provides the last push before the particles reach the beam line experiments.


title: Fermilab

text: Recognizing higher demands of proton beams to support new experiments, Fermilab began to improve their accelerators in 2011. Expected to continue for many years, the project has two phases: Proton Improvement Plan (PIP) and Proton Improvement Plan-II (PIP-II).


title: Fermilab

text: The overall goals of PIP are to increase the repetition rate of the Booster beam from 7 Hz to 15 Hz and replace old hardware to increase reliability of the operation. Before the start of the PIP project, a replacement of the pre-accelerator injector was underway. The replacement of almost 40 year-old Cockcroft–Walton generators to RFQ started in 2009 and completed in 2012. At the Linac stage, the analog beam position monitor (BPM) modules were replaced with digital boards in 2013. A replacement of Linac vacuum pumps and related hardware is expected to be completed in 2015. A study on the replacement of 201 MHz drift tubes is still ongoing. At the boosting stage, a major component of the PIP is to upgrade the Booster ring to 15 Hz operation. The Booster has 19 radio frequency stations. Originally, the Booster stations were operating without solid-state drive system which was acceptable for 7 Hz but not 15 Hz operation. A demonstration project in 2004 converted one of the stations to solid state drive before the PIP project. As part of the project, the remaining stations were converted to solid state in 2013. Another major part of the PIP project is to refurbish and replace 40 year-old Booster cavities. Many cavities have been refurbished and tested to operate at 15 Hz. The completion of cavity refurbishment is expected in 2015, after which the repetition rate can be gradually increased to 15 Hz operation. A longer term upgrade is to replace the Booster cavities with a new design. The research and development of the new cavities is underway, with replacement expected in 2018.


title: Fermilab

text: The goals of PIP-II include a plan to delivery 1.2 MW of proton beam power from the Main Injector to the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment target at 120 GeV and the power near 1 MW at 60 GeV with a possibility to extend the power to 2 MW in the future. The plan should also support the current 8 GeV experiments including Mu2e, Muon g−2, and other short-baseline neutrino experiments. These require an upgrade to the Linac to inject to the Booster with 800 MeV. The first option considered was to add 400 MeV "afterburner" superconducting Linac at the tail end of the existing 400 MeV. This would have required moving the existing Linac up . However, there were many technical issues with this approach. Instead, Fermilab is building a new 800 MeV superconducting Linac to inject to the Booster ring.


title: Fermilab

text: Construction of the first building for the PIP-II accelerator began in 2020. The new Linac site will be located on top of a small portion of Tevatron near the Booster ring in order to take advantage of existing electrical and water, and cryogenic infrastructure. The PIP-II Linac will have low energy beam transport line (LEBT), radio frequency quadrupole (RFQ), and medium energy beam transport line (MEBT) operated at the room temperature at with a 162.5 MHz and energy increasing from 0.03 MeV. The first segment of Linac will be operated at 162.5 MHz and energy increased up to 11 MeV. The second segment of Linac will be operated at 325 MHz and energy increased up to 177 MeV. The last segment of linac will be operated at 650 MHz and will have the final energy level of 800 MeV.


title: Fermilab

text: As of 2022, the estimated PIP-II accelerator start date for the accelerator is 2028. The project was approved for construction in April 2022 with an expected cost to the Department of Energy of $978M and with an additional $330M in contributions from international partners.


title: Fermilab

text: Fermilab dismantled the CDF (Collider Detector at Fermilab) experiment to make the space available for IARC (Illinois Accelerator Research Center). Construction work has started for LBNF/DUNE and PIP-II while the NOνA and Muon g−2 experiments continue to collect data. The laboratory also conducts research in quantum information science, including the development of teleportation technology for the quantum internet and increasing the lifetime of superconducting resonators for use in quantum computers.


title: Fermilab

text: Fermilab strives to become the world leader in Neutrino physics through the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment at the Long Baseline Neutrino Facility. Other leaders are CERN, which leads in Accelerator physics with the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), and Japan, which has been approved to build and lead the International Linear Collider (ILC). Fermilab will be the site of LBNF's future beamline, and the Sanford Underground Research Facility (SURF), in Lead, SD, is the site selected to house the massive far detector. The term "baseline" refers to the distance between the neutrino source and the detector. The far detector current design is for four modules of instrumented liquid argon with a fiducial volume of 10 kilotons each.


title: Fermilab

text: According to the 2016 Conceptual Design Report, the first two modules were expected to be complete in 2024, with the beam operational in 2026. The final modules were planned to be operational in 2027. In 2022, the cost for two far detector modules and the beam, alone, had risen to $3B. This led to a decision by the Department of Energy Office of Science to phase the experiment. Phase I would consist of two modules, to be completed in 2028-29, and the beamline, to be completed in 2032. The installation of phase II, the remaining two far detector modules, is not yet planned and will be at a cost above the $3B estimate for phase I.


title: Fermilab

text: A large prototype detector constructed at CERN took data with a test beam from 2018-2020. The results show that ProtoDUNE performed with greater than 99% efficiency.


title: Fermilab

text: LBNF/DUNE program in neutrino physics plans to measure fundamental physical parameters with high precision and to explore physics beyond the Standard Model. The measurements DUNE will make are expected to greatly increase the physics community's understanding of neutrinos and their role in the universe, thereby better elucidating the nature of matter and anti-matter. It will send the world's highest-intensity neutrino beam to a near detector on the Fermilab site and the far detector 800 miles (1300 km) away at SURF.


title: Fermilab

text: The MiniBooNE detector was a diameter sphere containing 800 tons of mineral oil lined with 1,520 phototube detectors. An estimated 1 million neutrino events were recorded each year. SciBooNE sat in the same neutrino beam as MiniBooNE but had fine-grained tracking capabilities. The NOνA experiment uses, and the MINOS experiment used, Fermilab's NuMI (Neutrinos at the Main Injector) beam, which is an intense beam of neutrinos that travels through the Earth to the Soudan Mine in Minnesota and the Ash River, Minnesota, site of the NOνA far detector. In 2017, the ICARUS neutrino experiment was moved from CERN to Fermilab.


title: Fermilab

text: Muon g−2: (pronounced “gee minus two”) is a particle physics experiment to measure the anomaly of the magnetic moment of a muon to a precision of 0.14 ppm, which will be a sensitive test of the Standard Model.


title: Fermilab

text: Fermilab is continuing an experiment conducted at Brookhaven National Laboratory to measure the anomalous magnetic dipole moment of the muon.


title: Fermilab

text: The magnetic dipole moment ("g") of a charged lepton (electron, muon, or tau) is very nearly 2. The difference from 2 (the "anomalous" part) depends on the lepton, and can be computed quite exactly based on the current Standard Model of particle physics. Measurements of the electron are in excellent agreement with this computation. The Brookhaven experiment did this measurement for muons, a much more technically difficult measurement due to their short lifetime, and detected a tantalizing, but not definitive, 3 "σ" discrepancy between the measured value and the computed one.


title: Fermilab

text: The Brookhaven experiment ended in 2001, but 10 years later Fermilab acquired the equipment, and is working to make a more accurate measurement (smaller "σ") which will either eliminate the discrepancy or, hopefully, confirm it as an experimentally observable example of physics beyond the Standard Model.


title: Fermilab

text: Central to the experiment is a 50 foot-diameter superconducting magnet with an exceptionally uniform magnetic field. This was transported, in one piece, from Brookhaven in Long Island, New York, to Fermilab in the summer of 2013. The move traversed 3,200 miles over 35 days, mostly on a barge down the East Coast and up the Mississippi.


title: Fermilab

text: The magnet was refurbished and powered on in September 2015, and has been confirmed to have the same p-p basic magnetic field uniformity that it had before the move.


title: Fermilab

text: The project worked on shimming the magnet to improve its magnetic field uniformity. This had been done at Brookhaven, but was disturbed by the move and had to be re-done at Fermilab.


title: Fermilab

text: In 2018, the experiment started taking data at Fermilab. In 2021, the laboratory reported that results from initial study involving the particle challenged the Standard Model, with the potential for discovery of new forces and particles.


title: Fermilab

text: The LHC Physics Center (LPC) at Fermilab is a regional center of the Compact Muon Solenoid Collaboration (the experiment is housed at CERN). The LPC offers a vibrant community of CMS scientists from the US and plays a major role in the CMS detector commissioning, and in the design and development of the detector upgrade. Fermilab is the host laboratory for USCMS, which includes researchers from 50 U.S. universities including 715 students. Fermilab hosts the largest CMS Tier 1 computing center, handling approximately 40% of global CMS Tier 1 computing requests. On February 9, 2022, Fermilab's Patricia McBride (physicist) was elected spokesperson of the CMS collaboration.


title: Fermilab

text: In 2014, the Particle Physics Project Prioritization Panel ("P5") recommended three major initiatives for construction on the Fermilab site. Two were particle physics experiments: the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment and Mu2e. The third was the PIPII accelerator upgrade described above. Also, P5 recommended Fermilab participation in LHC at CERN.


title: Fermilab

text: The high-energy physics community has expressed concern that the cost of major projects at Fermilab have led to diversion of funds from the high-energy physics core research program, harming the health of the field. Congress increased the annual HEP budget from less than $800 million by about $250M to more than $1 billion—a 30% increase that went mainly to support large projects at Fermilab.


title: Fermilab

text: It has been pointed out that the project delays come at a time when leaders of Fermilab-related projects are leaving their roles. On March 31, 2022, James Siegrist, Associate Director for High Energy Physics in the Department of Energy Office of Science, who has overseen the response to the P5 report, stepped down. In September, 2021, Nigel Lockyer, Director of Fermilab, resigned. Lockyer has now been replaced by Lia Merminga, head of the PIP II project. Kevin T. Pitts, Chief Research Officer has become Dean of Science at Virginia Institute of Technology in 2022.


title: Fermilab

text: In 1999, physicists at on the KTeV experiment were also the first to observe direct CP violation in kaon decays.


title: Fermilab

text: The DØ experiment and CDF experiment each made important contributions to the observation of the Higgs Boson, announced in 2012.


title: Fermilab

text: In spring 2022, the Fermilab site reopened to the public for outdoor activities after closure due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Activities may include biking, hiking, running and viewing the bison herd, however, fishing, which was previously allowed, is now forbidden. Indoor access remains limited. All adult visitors entering site must present a government-issued photo ID, and REAL ID-compliant IDs will be required after May 3, 2023. Up-to-date specifics about access can be found on the Fermilab website.


title: Fermilab

text: Fermilab's first director, Robert Wilson, insisted that the site's aesthetic complexion not be marred by a collection of concrete block buildings. The design of the administrative building (Wilson Hall) was inspired by St. Pierre's Cathedral in Beauvais, France, though it was realized in a Brutalist style. Several of the buildings and sculptures within the Fermilab reservation represent various mathematical constructs as part of their structure.


title: Fermilab

text: The Archimedean Spiral is the defining shape of several pumping stations as well as the building housing the MINOS experiment. The reflecting pond at Wilson Hall also showcases a hyperbolic obelisk, designed by Wilson. Some of the high-voltage transmission lines carrying power through the laboratory's land are built to echo the Greek letter π. One can also find structural examples of the DNA double-helix spiral and a nod to the geodesic sphere.


title: Fermilab

text: Wilson's sculptures on the site include "Tractricious", a free-standing arrangement of steel tubes near the Industrial Complex constructed from parts and materials recycled from the Tevatron collider, and the soaring "Broken Symmetry", which greets those entering the campus via the Pine Street entrance. Crowning the Ramsey Auditorium is a representation of the Möbius strip with a diameter of more than . Also scattered about the access roads and village are a massive hydraulic press and old magnetic containment channels, all painted blue.


title: Fermilab

text: In 1967, Wilson brought five American bison to the site, a bull and four cows, and an additional 21 were provided by the Illinois Department of Conservation. Some fearful locals believed at first that the bison were introduced in order to serve as an alarm if and when radiation at the laboratory reached dangerous levels, but they were assured by Fermilab that this claim had no merit. Today, the herd is a popular attraction that draws many visitors and the grounds are also a sanctuary for other local wildlife populations. A Christmas Bird Count has occurred at the lab every year since 1976.


title: Fermilab

text: Working with the Forest Preserve District of DuPage County, Fermilab has introduced barn owls to selected structures around the grounds.


title: Fermilab

text: During running, particle beams produce tritium, an isotope of hydrogen consisting of a proton and two neutrons that is weakly radioactive with a half-life of 12.3 years. This can bind with oxygen to form water. Tritium levels measured on site are very low compared to federal health and environmental standards. Fermilab monitors tritium leaving the site in surface and sewer water, and provides a useful FAQ sheet for those who want to learn more.


The 2020 United States presidential election in New Mexico was held on Tuesday, November 3, 2020, as part of the 2020 United States presidential election in which all 50 states plus the District of Columbia participated. New Mexico voters chose electors to represent them in the Electoral College via a popular vote, pitting the Republican Party's nominee, incumbent President Donald Trump, and running mate Vice President Mike Pence against Democratic Party nominee, former Vice President Joe Biden, and his running mate California Senator Kamala Harris. New Mexico has five electoral votes in the Electoral College.


title: 2020 United States presidential election in New Mexico

text: New Mexico was won by Biden by a 10.79% margin of victory. Prior to the election, most news organizations making election predictions considered New Mexico as a state Biden would win, or a safe blue state. The state used to be quite competitive, voting for Democrat Al Gore in 2000 with a margin of only 366 votes and Republican George W. Bush in 2004 by 5,988 votes. However, the Land of Enchantment has become a reliably blue state since then as Democrats have relied on Hispanic, Native American, and urban voters to deliver victories. Biden scored victories in all of the state's three largest counties: Bernalillo, Doña Ana, and Santa Fe counties, home to Albuquerque, Las Cruces, and Santa Fe, respectively; all of them voted for Biden in margins greater than ten points. Aggregate polling correctly showed Biden being up by double-digits in the state.


text: Per exit polls by the Associated Press, much of Biden's strength in New Mexico came from Latino voters, from whom he garnered 61% of the vote. These included 54% of Latinos of Mexican heritage and 70% of Spanish-Americans. Biden also carried a plurality of Caucasian/white voters in the state (49% to Trump's 48%). He also won over Native Americans, garnering 60–90% of the vote. 53% of voters believed the Trump administration was doing too little to help Native American reservations in New Mexico during the COVID-19 pandemic, and these voters broke for Biden by 75%–23%.


text: On the other hand, Trump increased his popular vote percentage by 3.46%, earning 43.5% of the vote share and over 400,000 votes in total. Much of this improvement could be attributed to the fact that the Libertarian Party nominee in 2016 had been former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson, who earned 9.34% of the vote in his home state; Johnson did not run in 2020. That said, Trump's 43.5% represented not only an improvement on his own vote share in 2016, but also on those of future Utah Senator Mitt Romney in 2012 (42.84%) and Arizona Senator John McCain in 2008 (41.78%). This was the first election since 1968 in which New Mexico voted more Republican than neighboring Colorado. Biden became the first Democrat to win the White House without carrying Colfax County since 1912, when New Mexico was granted statehood, or Hidalgo County since 1920, when it was created. This was the first election since 1948 in which Valencia County voted for the losing candidate.


text: Donald Trump ran unopposed in the Republican primary, and thus received all of the state's 22 delegates to the 2020 Republican National Convention.


text: On December 14, 2020, the Trump campaign filed a lawsuit against the New Mexico Secretary of State over the use of ballot drop-boxes for the 2020 presidential election. However, on January 11, 2021, five days after Congress certified the results for Joe Biden, the campaign dropped the lawsuit. Trump attorneys Mark Caruso and Michael Smith cited “events that have transpired since the inception of this lawsuit” in a three-page motion as the reason for dropping the lawsuit. Despite the withdrawal, the motion still allows for revisiting these concerns in the future.


title: Video game content rating system

text: A video game content rating system is a system used for the classification of video games based on suitability for target audiences. Most of these systems are associated with and/or sponsored by a government, and are sometimes part of the local motion picture rating system. The utility of such ratings has been called into question by studies that publish findings such as 90% of teenagers claim that their parents "never" check the ratings before allowing them to rent or buy video games, and as such, calls have been made to "fix" the existing rating systems. Video game content rating systems can be used as the basis for laws that cover the sales of video games to minors, such as in Australia. Rating checking and approval is part of the game localization when they are being prepared for their distribution in other countries or locales. These rating systems have also been used to voluntarily restrict sales of certain video games by stores, such as the German retailer Galeria Kaufhof's removal of all video games rated 18+ by the USK following the Winnenden school shooting.


title: Video game content rating system

text: A comparison of current video game rating systems, showing age on the horizontal axis. Note however that the specific criteria used in assigning a classification can vary widely from one country to another. Thus a color code or age range cannot be directly compared from one country to another.


title: Video game content rating system

text: Similar to other forms of media, video games have been the subject of argument between leading professionals and restriction and prohibition. Often these bouts of criticism come from use of debated topics such as video game graphic violence, virtual sex, violent and gory scenes, partial or full nudity, drug use, portrayal of criminal behavior or other provocative and objectionable material.


title: Video game content rating system

text: Video games have also been studied for links to addiction and aggression. A meta analysis of studies from both eastern and western countries yielded evidence that "strongly suggests that exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behavior."


title: Video game content rating system

text: There are also groups that have argued to the contrary, that few if any scientifically proven studies exist to back up these claims, and that the video game industry has become an easy target for the media to blame for many contemporary issues. Researchers have also proposed potential positive effects of video games on aspects of social and cognitive development and psychological well-being. It has been shown that action video game players have better hand-eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than non-players.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The law 26.043 (passed in 2005) states that the National Council of Children, Youth and Family ('Consejo Nacional de la Niñez, Adolescencia y la Familia') in coordination with the National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts will be the government agencies that assigns age ratings. The Argentine Game Developer Association (Asociación de Desarrolladores de Videojuegos Argentina) was critical of the law. There are three ratings: "Suitable for all public", "Suitable for those over 13 years of age" and "Suitable for those over 18 years of age".


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Australian Classification Board (ACB) is a statutory classification body formed by the Australian Government which classifies films, video games and publications for exhibition, sale or hire in Australia since its establishment in 1970. The Classification Board was originally incorporated in the Office of Film and Literature Classification (OFLC) which was dissolved in 2006. Originally a part of the Attorney-General's Department and overseen by the Minister for Justice, the ACB is now a branch of the Department of Communications and the Arts which provides administrative support to the Board and is overseen by the Minister for Communications & the Arts. Decisions made by the Board may be reviewed by the Australian Classification Review Board.


title: Video game content rating system

text: There is no uniform ratings system in Austria, and the nine states regulate content in different ways. The two main systems are PEGI (applied in Vienna) and Germany's USK system (applied in Salzburg).


title: Video game content rating system

text: The advisory rating (ClassInd) ("Classificação Indicativa" in Portuguese) rates films, games and television shows in Brazil. It is controlled by the Ministry of Justice ("Ministério da Justiça").


title: Video game content rating system

text: Games are classified by the Council of Cinematographic Classification ("Consejo de Calificación Cinematográfica") which is a central agency under the Ministry of Education.


title: Video game content rating system

text: China introduced a pilot content rating system in December 2020 called the Online Game Age-Appropriateness Warning, which is overseen by the governmental agency (CADPA). Games with online components are required to show one of the three classifications on websites and registration pages: green for "8+" (appropriate for players 8 years and older), blue for "12+", and yellow for "16+".


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Pan European Game Information (PEGI) is a European video game content rating system established to help European parents make informed decisions on buying computer games with logos on games boxes. It was developed by the Interactive Software Federation of Europe (ISFE) and came into use in April 2003; it replaced many national age rating systems with a single European system. The PEGI system is now used in more than thirty-one countries and is based on a code of conduct, a set of rules to which every publisher using the PEGI system is contractually committed. PEGI self-regulation is composed by five age categories and seven content descriptors that advise the suitability and content of a game for a certain age range based on the games content. The age rating does not indicate the difficulty of the game or the skill required to play it.Turkey is a semi-official user of PEGI, but it is not represented in the PEGI council, alongside Northern Cyprus but it is not recognized internationally.


title: Video game content rating system

text: Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle (USK) ("Entertainment Software Self-control"), is Germany's software rating organization founded in 1994.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Indonesian Game Rating System (IGRS) is an official video game content rating system founded and set by the Indonesian Ministry of Communication and Informatics in 2016. IGRS rates games that are developed and published in Indonesia. There are 5 classifications of ratings based on the game content, which includes the use of alcohol, cigarettes, drugs, violence, blood, language, sexual content, etc.


title: Video game content rating system

text: As of November 2019, various imported PlayStation titles released since then have been rated by the IGRS after SIE Asia opened their Indonesian office. Those titles are also marked as "Official Indonesia Products" ().


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Entertainment Software Rating Association () (ESRA) is a governmental video game content rating system that is used in Iran. Games that have been exempt from the rating are "de facto" banned from sale in Iran.


title: Video game content rating system

text: In practise, the rating applies largely to PC and mobile games, as none of the console games are officially released for the Iranian market.


title: Video game content rating system

text: In Japan, the content rating is not required by law, but most commercial video game publishers take the industry self-regulations. Console manufacturers force for video game publishers that games must be rated by CERO. Distributors of PC games (mostly dating sims, visual novels, and eroge) require games having the approval of EOCS or Japan contents Review Center. These ratings are referred to by local governments, and the Ordinance Regarding the Healthy Development of Youths (青少年健全育成条例) prohibits retailers from supplying 18+ rating games to persons under 18. Dōjin softs don't have such restrictions, but distribution of obscene materials can be punished under the Article 175 of the Penal Code of Japan.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The (CERO) is an organization that rates video games in Japan, with different levels of rating that inform the customer of the nature of the product and what age group it suits. It was established in June 2002 as a branch of the Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association, and became an officially recognized non-profit organization in December 2003. It currently consists of five age categories and nine content descriptors.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The (EOCS, or Sofurin) is an incorporated association that rates PC games in Japan. It was established on November 20, 1992, and was incorporated in 2009. The association also works to crack down on copyright infringement of PC games for the companies it represents, and sponsors the to help PC game sales.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The is a cooperative that reviews adult videos and adult PC games in Japan. The organization was founded on December 1, 2010 as after the dissolution of the Content Soft Association (CSA).


title: Video game content rating system

text: On November 27, 2020, the Secretariat of the Interior (SEGOB) published a new set of guidelines on the Official Journal of the Federation called Lineamentos Generales del Sistema Mexicano de Equivalencias de Clasificación de Contenidos de Videojuegos (General Guidelines of the Mexican System of Classification Equivalencies for Video Game Content). This states that all games distributed in Mexico will have their own set of ratings effective May 27, 2021, replacing the ESRB ratings system that was being used, while still being in accordance with them.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Office of Film and Literature Classification (OFLC) is the government agency in New Zealand that is responsible for classification of all films, videos, publications, and some video games in New Zealand. It was created by the Films, Videos, and Publications Classification Act 1993 (FVPC Act), replacing various film classification acts, and is an independent Crown entity in terms of the Crown Entities Act 2004. The head of the OFLC is called the Chief Censor, maintaining a title that has described the government officer in charge of censorship in New Zealand since 1916.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) is a self-regulatory organization that assigns age and content ratings, enforces industry-adopted advertising guidelines, and ensures responsible online privacy principles for computer and video games and other entertainment software in Canada and the United States. PEGI ratings are used on some French-language games sold in Canada. Despite being self-regulatory, in Canada, games rated by the ESRB are required by law to be rated and/or restricted, though this only varies at a province and territory level. ESRB ratings can be found on games for Nintendo systems in the countries of Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates. This system was used in Mexico as well until it was replaced by a local rating system on May 27, 2021.


title: Video game content rating system

text: A similar system also exists for arcade video games, which is enforced by the American Amusement Machine Association (AAMA) and the Amusement and Music Operators Association (AMOA). It is called the Parental Advisory System, and uses three colors for ratings - green (Suitable for All Ages), yellow (Mild Content), and red (Strong Content). Stickers displaying the ratings are placed on the game marquees, and the rating can also be displayed during the attract mode if the game's developer or publisher chooses to do so.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Age classification of information products is a new statutory classification set of rules formed by the Russian Government after enacting in September 2012 a Federal Law of Russian Federation no. 436-FZ of 2010-12-23 “On Protecting of Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development” (), which classifies films, video games and publications for exhibition, sale or hire in Russia since 1 September 2012. The Ministry of Culture provides administrative support to the classification.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The General Commission for Audiovisual Media () (GCAM) is responsible for the age-ratings of films, television programs and interactive games.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA) is a statutory board of the Singapore Government which regulates films, television programs and video games in Singapore.


title: Video game content rating system

text: Jetnotný systém označovania (English: Unified System of Age Rating/Labeling) (JSO) is a statutory board of Ministry of Culture of Slovakia under act 589/2007, which regulates age restriction of films, television programs and video games in Slovakia.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The labeling is mandatory for all physical releases (Games redeemable from gift cards including), but there is no legislative basis for labeling electronic releases (instead, PEGI rating is shown).


title: Video game content rating system

text: The South African Film and Publication Board (FPB) is a statutory classification body formed by the South African Government under the Films and Publications Act of 1996 which classifies films, music, television programmes, and video games for exhibition, sale or hire in South Africa. Distributors and exhibitors are legally compelled to comply with the age ratings.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The Game Rating and Administration Committee (게임물관리위원회 "Geimmul Gwanri Wiwonhoe") (GRAC) is the South Korean video game content rating board. A governmental organization, the GRAC rates video and computer games to inform customers of the nature of game contents.


title: Video game content rating system

text: Game Software Rating Regulations (遊戲軟體分級辦法), also translated as Game Software Rating Management Regulations, is the video game content rating system used in Taiwan.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The National Media Council () (NMC) is a body of the federal U.A.E. government which regulates all aspects of media production, publication, and media trade in the United Arab Emirates. The body was established under Federal Law (1) of 2006. By 2013, the NMC has sustained full authority over the media market in the country.


title: Video game content rating system

text: In 2018, the NMC introduced local age rating systems for various media, including video games available in retail.


title: Video game content rating system

text: In June 2021, the Ministry of Culture & Youth launched the Media Regulatory Office () (MRO) to execute a number of functions and tasks previously under the National Media Council, following a restructure of the federal U.A.E. government that was approved in July 2020. In June 2022, the 2018 NMC rating labels for video games began phasing out in favour of new labels reflecting the corporate image of the MRO. The ratings themselves are unchanged.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The British Board of Film Classification (BBFC), originally British Board of Film Censors, is a non-governmental organisation, funded by the film industry and responsible for the national classification of films within the United Kingdom. It has a statutory requirement to classify videos and DVDs. It no longer has responsibility for rating video games in the UK. This role has been passed to the Video Standards Council (formerly known as the VSC Rating Board).


title: Video game content rating system

text: In July 2012, the VSC Rating Board became the sole UK statutory video games regulator for the UK. The VSC Rating Board has been a PEGI Administrator since 2003 and subsequently uses the PEGI criteria to classify video games. The UK Interactive Entertainment Association, a UK industry trade group, works with the VSC to help properly label such games and provide informational material to parents. Games featuring strong pornographic content or ancillary mini-games to be included with a DVD feature will still be rated by the BBFC.


title: Video game content rating system

text: Some app stores that support IARC use this rating in countries and regions where there is no rating system. The classification standard adopted by IARC is the same as that of PEGI. This rating is not recognized in some countries.


title: Video game content rating system

text: The image below presents outdated usage of various video game content rating systems around the world. Countries filled with gradients are using several rating systems.


title: Proscription

text: Proscription () is, in current usage, a 'decree of condemnation to death or banishment' ("Oxford English Dictionary") and can be used in a political context to refer to state-approved murder or banishment. The term originated in Ancient Rome, where it included public identification and official condemnation of declared enemies of the state and it often involved confiscation of property.


title: Proscription

text: Its usage has been significantly widened to describe governmental and political sanctions of varying severity on individuals and classes of people who have fallen into disfavor, from the "en masse" suppression of adherents of unorthodox ideologies to the suppression of political rivals or personal enemies. In addition to its recurrences during the various phases of the Roman Republic, it has become a standard term to label:


title: Proscription

text: Proscriptions (Latin "proscriptio", plural "proscriptiones") initially meant public advertisements or notices signifying property or goods for sale.


title: Proscription

text: During the dictatorial reign of Sulla, the word took on a more sinister meaning. In 82 or 81 BC, Sulla instituted the process of proscription in order to avenge the massacres of Gaius Marius and his son. He instituted a notice for the sale of confiscated property belonging to those declared public enemies of the state (some modern historians estimate about 520 people were proscribed as opposed to the ancient estimate of 4,700 people) and therefore condemned to death those proscribed, called "proscripti" in Latin.


title: Proscription

text: There were multiple reasons why the ancient Roman government may have desired to proscribe or attribute multiple other forms of pain. One of the most prevalent reasons for punishment are treason crimes, also known as lex maiestatis. Treason crimes consisted of a very broad and large number of regulations, and such crimes had a negative effect on the government. This list includes, but is not limited to: assisting an enemy in any way, Crimen Laesae Majestasis, acts of subversion and usurpation, offense against the peace of the state, offenses against the administration of justice, and violating absolute duties. Overall, crimes in which the state, emperor, the state's tranquility, or offenses against the good of the people would be considered treason, and, therefore, would constitute proscription. Some of these regulations are understandable and comparable to safety laws today; however, others, like violating absolute duties, could very easily be accidents or circumstantial crises that would deserve punishment regardless.


title: Proscription

text: Punishments for treason were quite harsh by today's standards and were meant to highlight the seriousness and shamefulness of the treason crimes committed. There were a variety of punishments for capital crimes, including death, loss of a freedman's status, loss of citizenship with a loss of family rights, and a loss of family rights only. Death was a very common punishment and was referred to as "summum supplicium", or the "extreme penalty". The death sentence was often the punishment for all but the mildest forms of treason. Julius Caesar was an influential framer of the law on treason. The Interdiction from Water and Fire was a civil excommunication resulting in ultimate exile, which included forfeiture of citizenship and forfeiture of property. Those who were condemned would be deported to an island. Emperor Augustus frequently utilized this method of exile, as he desired to keep banished men from banding together in large groups. Such punishment was given for only the mildest forms of treason, in comparison to the death penalty, which served for most other treason crimes. Augustus also created the prefect, whose powers included the ability to banish, deport, or send to the mines. The prefect also heard appeals.


title: Proscription

text: An early instance of mass proscription took place in 82 BC, when Lucius Cornelius Sulla was appointed "dictator rei publicae constituendae" ("Dictator for the Reconstitution of the Republic"). Sulla proceeded to have the Senate draw up a list of those he considered enemies of the state and published the list in the Roman Forum. Any man whose name appeared on the list was "ipso facto" stripped of his citizenship and excluded from all protection under law; reward money was given to any informer who gave information leading to the death of a proscribed man, and any person who killed a proscribed man was entitled to keep part of his estate (the remainder went to the state). No person could inherit money or property from proscribed men. Many victims of proscription were decapitated and their heads were displayed on spears in the Forum.


title: Proscription

text: Sulla used proscription to restore the depleted Roman Treasury ("Aerarium"), which had been drained by costly civil and foreign wars in the preceding decade, and to eliminate enemies (both real and potential) of his reformed state and constitutions; the plutocratic knights of the Ordo Equester were particularly hard-hit. Giving the procedure a particularly sinister character in the public eye was the fact that many of the proscribed men, escorted from their homes at night by groups of men all named "Lucius Cornelius", never appeared again. (These men were all Sulla's freedmen.) This gave rise to a general fear of being taken from one's home at night as a consequence of any outwardly seditious behaviour.


title: Proscription

text: Sulla's proscription was bureaucratically overseen, and the names of informers and those who profited from killing proscribed men were entered into the public record. Because Roman law could criminalise acts "ex post facto", many informers and profiteers were later prosecuted.


title: Proscription

text: The proscription of 82 BC was overseen by Sulla's freedman steward Lucius Cornelius Chrysogonus, and was rife with corruption.


title: Proscription

text: The proscription lists created by Sulla led to mass terror in Rome. During this time, "the cities of Italy became theaters of execution." Citizens were terrified to find their names on the lists. Those whose names were listed were ultimately sentenced to death. The executions were brutal and consisted of beheading. Often, the heads were then put on display for the city to see. The bodies of the condemned were often mutilated and dragged before being thrown into the Tiber River. Additionally, those who were condemned lost rights even after their brutal death. Those killed were denied the right to a funeral, and all of their possessions were auctioned off, often to the ones who killed them. Negative consequences arose for anyone that chose to assist those on the list, despite not being listed on the proscribed lists themselves. Anyone who was found guilty of assisting the condemned was capitally punished.


title: Proscription

text: Families were also punished as a result of being related to one of the proscribed. It was forbidden to mourn the death of a proscribed person. According to Plutarch, the greatest injustice of all the consequences was stripping the rights of their children and grandchildren. While those proscribed and their loved ones faced harsh consequences, the people who assisted the government by killing any person on the proscription list were actually rewarded.


title: Proscription

text: The proscription of 43 BC was the second major proscription. It began with an agreement in November 43 between the triumvirs Octavian Caesar, Marcus Antonius, and Marcus Lepidus after two long meetings. Their aim was to avenge Julius Caesar’s assassination, eliminate political enemies, and acquire their properties. The proscription was aimed at Julius Caesar’s conspirators, such as Brutus and Cassius, and other individuals who had taken part in the civil war, including wealthy people, senators, knights, and republicans such as Sextus Pompey and Cicero. There were 2,000 names on the list in total, and a handsome reward of 2,500 drachmae for bringing back the head of a free person on the list (a slave's head was worth 1,000 drachmae); the same rewards were given to anyone who gave information on where someone on the list was hiding. Anyone who tried to save people on the list was added to the list. The material belongings of the dead victims were to be confiscated. Some of the listed were stripped of their property but protected from death by their relatives in the Triumvirate ("e.g.", Lucius Julius Caesar and Lepidus' brother Paullus). Most, however, were killed, in some cases gruesomely. Cicero, his younger brother Quintus Tullius Cicero (one of Julius Caesar's legates) and Marcus Favonius were all killed in the proscription. Cicero's head and hands were famously cut off and fastened to the Rostra.


title: Proscription

text: Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was most responsible for the proscriptions and killing. However, the sources agree that enacting the proscriptions was a means by all three factions to eliminate political enemies. Marcus Velleius Paterculus asserted that Octavian tried to avoid proscribing officials whereas Lepidus and Antony were to blame for initiating them. Cassius Dio defended Octavian as trying to spare as many as possible, whereas Antony and Lepidus, being older and involved in politics longer, had many more enemies to deal with.


title: Proscription

text: This claim was rejected by Appian, who maintained that Octavian shared an equal interest with Lepidus and Antony in eradicating his enemies. Suetonius said that Octavian was reluctant to proscribe officials, but did pursue his enemies with more vigor than the other triumvirs. Plutarch described the proscriptions as a ruthless and cutthroat swapping of friends and family among Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian. For example, Octavian allowed the proscription of his ally Cicero, Antony the proscription of his maternal uncle Lucius Julius Caesar, and Lepidus his brother, although only Cicero would ultimately be killed as a result of these concessions.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: Russell Kunkel (born September 27, 1948) is an American drummer who has worked as a session musician with many popular artists, including Jackson Browne, Joni Mitchell, Jimmy Buffett, Harry Chapin, Rita Coolidge, Neil Diamond, Bob Dylan, Dan Fogelberg, Glenn Frey, Art Garfunkel, Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, Carole King, Lyle Lovett, Reba McEntire, Stevie Nicks, Linda Ronstadt, Bob Seger, Carly Simon, Stephen Stills, James Taylor, Joe Walsh, Steve Winwood, Neil Young, and Warren Zevon. He was the studio and touring drummer for Crosby & Nash in the 1970s, and has played on all four of their studio albums.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: Kunkel was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania but by the age of nine he moved to Southern California. There, he was part of an orchestra at the local elementary school. Prior to moving, he was influenced by his brother and the song "Wipe Out" to play drums. During his high school years he lived in Long Beach, California. He played for approximately six different bands, including the Barons, and appeared at many sock hops and high school dances, playing surf music and Beatles songs. In his last two years of high school he was a jazz drummer and later worked for John Stewart and the Kingston Trio.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 1966, Kunkel moved to Los Angeles. He joined the band Things to Come and performed in Hollywood. During the summer of 1968, they performed at the Whisky a Go Go, a club on Sunset Strip. In 1967, when Jimi Hendrix's album "Are You Experienced" came out, Kunkel was impressed by Hendrix's playing style and they became good friends. A year later, Kunkel started working for the Band when they released "Music from Big Pink".


title: Russ Kunkel

text: Kunkel's first single was a demo with Joel Sill for Trousdale Music, which included musicians Joe Osborn and Larry Knechtel. In the late 1960s Kunkel worked for Bob Dylan and together they released a soundtrack to the movie "Pat Garrett & Billy the Kid". In 1970 Kunkel helped Bob Dylan and drummer Billy Mundi release an album titled "New Morning". During this time, Kunkel was a part of B.B. King's group, playing with pianist Carole King, and meeting Bill Szymczyk, Leon Russell, and Joe Walsh. He recorded "Hummingbird" for King's album "Indianola Mississippi Seeds".


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In early 1970s, while rehearsing for the upcoming tour, he met Chris Darrow, a former player of John Stewart's, who was a friend of Peter Asher and together along with James Taylor and bassist Leland Sklar they had put out an album. Later on, guitarist Danny Kortchmar came to them from The Flying Machine along with keyboardist Craig Doerge and together, the four of them, had formed a band called The Section. The group existed between 1972 and 1977, during which time they had recorded three albums. A few years later however, the band got smaller because Sklar preferred to work in the studio, and Doerge had joined another band.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 1970 Kunkel helped James Taylor to record the "Sweet Baby James" album. Kunkel played on Tony Kosinec's "Bad Girl Songs," which was produced by Peter Asher. In 1971 Kunkel worked with Gerry Goffin, Gary Hart, and Carole King on the "Tapestry" album, which became a classic. From 1971 to 1972 Kunkel worked with Joni Mitchell on her albums "Blue" and "For the Roses". Along with his bandmates in the Section, he appeared on the first album by Crosby & Nash, and would continue working with the duo through the decade. From 1972 to 1973 he played in the attic of James Taylor's house at Martha's Vineyard where he recorded parts of the "One Man Dog" album. In 1972 Kunkel helped Willis Alan Ramsey to release the album, "Willis Alan Ramsey", which was issued under Shelter Records label.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: Three years later, Kunkel participated in the Carly Simon song "Waterfall" and played a part in James Taylor's album "Gorilla" in a song "How Sweet It Is (To Be Loved By You)". In 1977 during the recording of Jackson Browne's "Running on Empty" album, Kunkel played on Pearl and North Drum sets, and went on a tour to promote the album. During the same year, Kunkel played hi-hat on the Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young album "CSN". A year later, he worked with Warren Zevon on "Excitable Boy" as part of the Section.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 1980 during his tour with Jackson Browne to promote his album "Hold Out", he played a tom, a floor tom, a bass drum, a snare drum, and two cymbals. During those years, he also was a drummer for the "Lawyers In Love" album where he played in a song "Say It Isn't True". In 1980s album "Mad Love" by Linda Ronstadt, Kunkel along with Waddy Wachtel and Danny Kortchmar performed in the songs "How Do I Make You" and "Mad Love". In 1981, Kunkel joined Stevie Nicks and Fleetwood Mac to create the "Bella Donna" album, playing on tracks "After the Glitter Fades", and "Edge of Seventeen".


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 1981, Kunkel worked for Bee Gees and performed in three of their songs: "Wildflower", "Cryin' Every Day", and "Be Who You Are", for the album "Living Eyes". In 1982, Kunkel, along with Kenny Passarelli, worked with Dan Fogelberg on a song "Tell Me to My Face". In 1983 he helped Jackson Browne and Danny Kortchmar to write a song called "Tender Is the Night" and during that time met with Alan White of Yes. In 1990s he was invited by Joe Walsh to perform the song "I Keep Forgettin'", where he overdubbed with Linn drums.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 1980, Kunkel played in Linda Ronstadt's band for a concert that was shown on HBO, along with the guitarists Kenny Edwards and Danny Kortchmar, bassist Bob Glaub, keyboardist Billy Payne, pedal steel guitarist Dan Dugmore, and backing vocalist Wendy Waldman. Thirty-nine years later, an album of the concert, "Live in Hollywood", was produced by Peter Asher and released in CD and vinyl formats by Rhino Entertainment.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: Kunkel had a cameo as doomed drummer Eric "Stumpy Joe" Childs in the 1984 film "This Is Spinal Tap". Before the cameo appearance, he practiced it with Judith Owen and her husband Harry Shearer in Hollywood Hills.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 1991, after his appearance in the 1984 rockumentary, Kunkel joined Spinal Tap. The same year, he appeared in Bob Seger's "The Fire Inside" where he played with former E Streeter Roy Bittan.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 2004, Kunkel reunited with Crosby & Nash for their eponymous album, acting as both drummer and co-producer. In 2010 Kunkel joined the Troubadour Reunion Tour supporting James Taylor and Carole King.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 2014, Judith Owen, along with her husband and musician Harry Shearer had issued an "Ebb & Flow" album where Kunkel, Sklar, and Wachtel performed on songs such as Mungo Jerry's "In the Summertime", James Taylor's "Hey Mister", "I've Never Been To Texas", and "I Would Give Anything". Owen invited him to rehearse for the 2016 album of hers called "Somebody's Child".


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 2018 Kunkel played on "Small Change", a song written by Harry Shearer. The song featured the Hungarian Studio Orchestra, Judith Owen and Danny Kortchmar and was issued in an album called "Smalls Change" by Twanky Records/BMG on April 13. He started his own company called Chateau Beach Entertainment in 2019 on which he recorded an album called "Rivage".


title: Russ Kunkel

text: Kunkel, Kortchmar, Sklar and Wachtel, along with guitarist Steve Postell, reunited to form a new band, The Immediate Family, which released its debut album "Honey Don't Leave L.A." in May 2018 from Japanese Vivid Sound label. A live CD "Live In Japan 2018" followed in December of that year. The band's U.S. debut single, "Cruel Twist," was released in June 2020.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: Kunkel is a self taught drummer and has a studio at his home, where he plays all kinds of instruments including keyboard, guitar, snare drums, bass drums, various toms, and Zildjian and Paiste cymbals. He endorses DW drums, Evans, drumheads and Pro-Mark sticks. He has previously used Gretsch, Sonor, Yamaha, Pearl and Premier drums, as well as Remo drumheads, prior to switching to Paiste in 1983. Other than drumming, he is credited with playing tambourine, shaker, cabasa, congas, timbales, castanets, wood block, hi-hats, cardboard box, cowbell, marimba, bongos, bells, timpani, cajon and percussion.


title: Russ Kunkel

text: In 1968, Kunkel married Leah Kunkel, née Leah Cohen, who was the younger sister of Cass Elliot of The Mamas & The Papas. Their son Nathaniel, now a Grammy- and Emmy-winning recording engineer and producer, was born in 1970. When Cass Elliot died in 1974, Russ and Leah Kunkel took in her daughter Owen and raised her. In 1990, Kunkel married singer Nicolette Larson, and that same year their daughter Elsie May Larson-Kunkel was born. Kunkel and Larson were married until her death in 1997. In 2014 he married Shauna Drayson.


title: Mean free path

text: In physics, mean free path is the average distance over which a moving particle (such as an atom, a molecule, or a photon) travels before substantially changing its direction or energy (or, in a specific context, other properties), typically as a result of one or more successive collisions with other particles.


title: Mean free path

text: Imagine a beam of particles being shot through a target, and consider an infinitesimally thin slab of the target (see the figure). The atoms (or particles) that might stop a beam particle are shown in red. The magnitude of the mean free path depends on the characteristics of the system. Assuming that all the target particles are at rest but only the beam particle is moving, that gives an expression for the mean free path:


title: Mean free path

text: where is the mean free path, is the number of target particles per unit volume, and is the effective cross-sectional area for collision.


title: Mean free path

text: The area of the slab is , and its volume is . The typical number of stopping atoms in the slab is the concentration times the volume, i.e., . The probability that a beam particle will be stopped in that slab is the net area of the stopping atoms divided by the total area of the slab:


title: Mean free path

text: The drop in beam intensity equals the incoming beam intensity multiplied by the probability of the particle being stopped within the slab:


title: Mean free path

text: whose solution is known as Beer–Lambert law and has the form formula_5, where is the distance traveled by the beam through the target, and is the beam intensity before it entered the target; is called the mean free path because it equals the mean distance traveled by a beam particle before being stopped. To see this, note that the probability that a particle is absorbed between and is given by


title: Mean free path

text: The fraction of particles that are not stopped (attenuated) by the slab is called transmission formula_8, where is equal to the thickness of the slab.


title: Mean free path

text: In the kinetic theory of gases, the "mean free path" of a particle, such as a molecule, is the average distance the particle travels between collisions with other moving particles. The derivation above assumed the target particles to be at rest; therefore, in reality, the formula formula_9 holds for a beam particle with a high speed formula_10 relative to the velocities of an ensemble of identical particles with random locations. In that case, the motions of target particles are comparatively negligible, hence the relative velocity formula_11.


title: Mean free path

text: If, on the other hand, the beam particle is part of an established equilibrium with identical particles, then the square of relative velocity is:


title: Mean free path

text: In equilibrium, formula_13 and formula_14 are random and uncorrelated, therefore formula_15, and the relative speed is


title: Mean free path

text: This means that the number of collisions is formula_17 times the number with stationary targets. Therefore, the following relationship applies:


title: Mean free path

text: and using formula_19 (ideal gas law) and formula_20 (effective cross-sectional area for spherical particles with radius formula_21), it may be shown that the mean free path is


title: Mean free path

text: where "k" is the Boltzmann constant, formula_23 is the pressure of the gas and formula_24 is the absolute temperature.


title: Mean free path

text: In practice, the diameter of gas molecules is not well defined. In fact, the kinetic diameter of a molecule is defined in terms of the mean free path. Typically, gas molecules do not behave like hard spheres, but rather attract each other at larger distances and repel each other at shorter distances, as can be described with a Lennard-Jones potential. One way to deal with such "soft" molecules is to use the Lennard-Jones σ parameter as the diameter.


title: Mean free path

text: Another way is to assume a hard-sphere gas that has the same viscosity as the actual gas being considered. This leads to a mean free path


title: Mean free path

text: where formula_26 is the molecular mass, formula_27 is the density of ideal gas, and "μ" is the dynamic viscosity. This expression can be put into the following convenient form


title: Mean free path

text: The following table lists some typical values for air at different pressures at room temperature. Note that different definitions of the molecular diameter, as well as different assumptions about the value of atmospheric pressure (100 vs 101.3 kPa) and room temperature (293.17 K vs 296.15 K or even 300 K) can lead to slightly different values of the mean free path.


title: Mean free path

text: In gamma-ray radiography the "mean free path" of a pencil beam of mono-energetic photons is the average distance a photon travels between collisions with atoms of the target material. It depends on the material and the energy of the photons:


title: Mean free path

text: where "μ" is the linear attenuation coefficient, "μ/ρ" is the mass attenuation coefficient and "ρ" is the density of the material. The mass attenuation coefficient can be looked up or calculated for any material and energy combination using the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) databases.


title: Mean free path

text: In X-ray radiography the calculation of the "mean free path" is more complicated, because photons are not mono-energetic, but have some distribution of energies called a spectrum. As photons move through the target material, they are attenuated with probabilities depending on their energy, as a result their distribution changes in process called spectrum hardening. Because of spectrum hardening, the "mean free path" of the X-ray spectrum changes with distance.


title: Mean free path

text: Sometimes one measures the thickness of a material in the "number of mean free paths". Material with the thickness of one "mean free path" will attenuate to 37% (1/"e") of photons. This concept is closely related to half-value layer (HVL): a material with a thickness of one HVL will attenuate 50% of photons. A standard x-ray image is a transmission image, an image with negative logarithm of its intensities is sometimes called a "number of mean free paths" image.


title: Mean free path

text: In macroscopic charge transport, the mean free path of a charge carrier in a metal formula_31 is proportional to the electrical mobility formula_32, a value directly related to electrical conductivity, that is:


title: Mean free path

text: where "q" is the charge, formula_34 is the mean free time, "m" is the effective mass, and "v" is the Fermi velocity of the charge carrier. The Fermi velocity can easily be derived from the Fermi energy via the non-relativistic kinetic energy equation. In thin films, however, the film thickness can be smaller than the predicted mean free path, making surface scattering much more noticeable, effectively increasing the resistivity.


title: Mean free path

text: Electron mobility through a medium with dimensions smaller than the mean free path of electrons occurs through ballistic conduction or ballistic transport. In such scenarios electrons alter their motion only in collisions with conductor walls.


title: Mean free path

text: If one takes a suspension of non-light-absorbing particles of diameter "d" with a volume fraction "Φ", the mean free path of the photons is:


title: Mean free path

text: where "Q" is the scattering efficiency factor. "Q" can be evaluated numerically for spherical particles using Mie theory.


title: Mean free path

text: where "V" is the volume of the cavity, "S" is the total inside surface area of the cavity, and "F" is a constant related to the shape of the cavity. For most simple cavity shapes, "F" is approximately 4.


title: Mean free path

text: This relation is used in the derivation of the Sabine equation in acoustics, using a geometrical approximation of sound propagation.


title: Mean free path

text: In particle physics the concept of the mean free path is not commonly used, being replaced by the similar concept of attenuation length. In particular, for high-energy photons, which mostly interact by electron–positron pair production, the radiation length is used much like the mean free path in radiography.


title: Mean free path

text: Independent-particle models in nuclear physics require the undisturbed orbiting of nucleons within the nucleus before they interact with other nucleons.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Loathe are an English heavy metal band from Liverpool. Formed in 2014, the group consists of lead vocalist Kadeem France, guitarist and second vocalist Erik Bickerstaffe, drummer Sean Radcliffe and bassist Feisal El-Khazragi.


title: Loathe (band)

text: They are signed to SharpTone Records and have released two EPs and three studio albums. "Prepare Consume Proceed" was released in 2015 and was re-issued in 2016 through SharpTone Records as the label's first release. They released their debut studio album, "the Cold Sun", in 2017, then a split EP recorded with label-mate Holding Absence titled "This Is as One" in 2018. Loathe released their second studio album "I Let It In and It Took Everything" on 7 February 2020. Their third studio album "the Things They Believe" was released on 7 February 2021 and was made up entirely of ambient tracks.


title: Loathe (band)

text: The band's music makes use of elements of metalcore and nu metal, while also incorporating more experimental aspects from genres like shoegaze, progressive metal and industrial music. Loathe have been nominated for Heavy Metal Awards best UK breakthrough band and "Metal Hammer" Golden Gods Awards best new band in 2018. In a 2020 poll by "Revolver" magazine, they were voted the third most likely contemporary band to break through into the mainstream.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Loathe has its origins in the Liverpool melodic metalcore band Our Imbalance, which Erik Bickerstaffe was a founding member of. Eventually, Kadeem France, who at that time was the drummer for Escapists UK, replaced Our Imbalance's founding vocalist Harry Rule. By 2014, the band also included drummer Sean Radcliffe. Around this time, Our Imbalance morphed into Loathe with the recruitment of guitarist Connor Sweeney and bassist Shayne Smith.


title: Loathe (band)

text: In 2015, they performed at Deadbolt Festival on 8 August, and in Autumn that same year they released their first EP titled "Prepare Consume Proceed" independently. The band initially kept their names anonymous, using stage names (DRK, DRT, SNK, MWL and NIL) along with not revealing their origin. Kadeem France was the only one whose stage name was revealed (DRK) as he is the lead vocalist, and was identified by a prophetic mask of unknown significance, which was used as the album artwork for their EP. on 22 November, the band supported metal band Empires Fade during their show in Manchester.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Moving onto June 2016, the band would tour as support act for Oceans Ate Alaska during their UK tour. On 8 July the same year, their EP was re-issued through SharpTone Records as the labels first release since its conception a month prior, and was accompanied with a music video for a new song exclusive to the re-issue, "In Death", which featured France wearing his mask. Bickerstaffe explained that the band was discovered by the label shortly after their independent release of their first music video for Sheol/In Death, and after their initial dialogue and exchanging of ideas, the band and label managers "clicked" and they partnered up. The EP received positive reviews, Kerrang! magazine praised the album's heavy Djent style and "synthy atmosphere" but criticised the band's horror-like image, stage names and France's mask as "some bargain-bin horror flick", giving the album 3 K's out of 5.


title: Loathe (band)

text: As the band's career progressed, the members decided that the use of code-names and the mask was unnecessary, citing that they just wanted to be themselves when performing their music and pointed to the likes of Ghost and Slipknot and their influences for starting that gimmick in the first place. Bickerstaffe would later admit that their use of masks and code-names was "...shamelessly taking ideas from other bands.", ditching them as a means of distinguishing themselves. Also in early July the band performed at Tech-Fest, later on the same month they toured as the support act for metal band Carcer City around the UK, and on 25 September, the band performed at Ozzfest meets Knotfest California on the Nuclear Blast stage.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Initially, the band was planned to start off 2017 as a support act for Emmure during their UK tour in January, however due to unforeseen delays in Emmure's album production, the tour was cancelled. In April the band toured as a support act for Blood Youth and in May the band also performed at the London warm-up show for Hellfest. A few months later, they released their debut studio album, titled "The Cold Sun" on 2 June 2017. The album was produced by Matt McClellan and was recorded in the Dark Studios in Atlanta, Georgia. From 23 August to 5 September the band headlined a tour in the UK with metal band Harbinger, following up with three more dates from 6 to 8 with metal band Lotus Eater, and later throughout October and November, the band was the support act for Bury Tomorrow during their "Stage Invasion" tour in the UK. One of their last shows of the year was performed at Binfest 2017 in late November.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Starting off 2018, the band released a split EP with SharpTone Records label mate Holding Absence on 8 February, and was followed up with a co-headline tour in March with support act Modern Error, along with God Complex at a show in Leeds. The band were nominated for their first award at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards for best new band of 2018, and in April they were also be nominated for Heavy Metal Awards best UK breakthrough band, the latter of which the band performed at the award's announcements ceremony in Manchester. The band performed at the Slam Dunk and Teddy Rocks festivals in May, and in June the band's bassist Shayne Smith announced that after performing at Download Festival, he will be departing from the band to pursue a career as a tattoo artist, with his role being filled by ex-Holding Absence guitarist Feisal El-Khazragi. In early July the band performed at the 2018 Tech-Fest, and later that same month the band performed at the 2000 trees festival. In September, they were the supporting band for Sikth during their "Riddles of Humanity" UK tour, along with also supporting Of Mice & Men on their mini-tour in the UK in November. In December, the band supported metal band Palm Reader in London.


title: Loathe (band)

text: When queried regarding new music, Bickerstaffe confirmed that the band had been writing new songs, stating that at some point they may recluse somewhere to focus solemnly on making music, though at the time he admitted that he wasn't sure if the next album would be an EP or a full studio release, with an initial prediction of it being released in 2019. In October 2018, Bickerstaffe commented that the band had planned 12 new songs for the album, meanwhile he was also busy producing music for other metals acts, one such release being the EP "Created Sick" by Merseyside band God Complex whom they toured with earlier the same year, while vocalist Kadeem France collaborated with metal band Of Legions on their single "Vision of Misery".


title: Loathe (band)

text: In late April and early May, Loathe supported Hollywood Undead on the stretch of their UK tour, attended the Two Thousand Trees Festival in July, and attended both the Radar Festival and the Heavy Metal Music Awards in August. Loathe released an EP titled "Gored/New Face in the Dark" featuring the two new singles on 20 September 2019, along with a music video for "Gored" with one for "New Faces in the Dark" being released on 10 October, and toured through Japan and China throughout the month alongside label mates Crystal Lake. On 29 November, the band released a new song titled Aggressive Evolution, along with the announcement of their new album titled "I Let It In and It Took Everything" and was set to release on 7 February 2020. In December, the band toured as a support act for Stray from the Path during their European tour, along with the Devil Wears Prada and Gideon.


title: Loathe (band)

text: On 10 January 2020, the band released Two-Way Mirror, accompanied with a music video. The band released the song "Screaming" a day prior to the release of their second album on 6 February in anticipation of its release, which coincided with their UK Headlining tour, where they were supported by bands The Well Runs Red, Phoxjaw, and God Complex. Upon the album's release, Bickerstaffe expressed that the new family of tracks "...offers a brand new perspective and identity for Loathe." while still retaining some familiar aspects of their previous music. In June, the band participated in the virtual Download Festival.


title: Loathe (band)

text: On 22 January 2021, the band announced that they would release their new album called "The Things They Believe" on 7 February 2021, exactly one year to the date since the release of "I Let It In and It Took Everything", and named after the script of the 2007 vampire thriller 30 Days of Night. It is the bands first instrumental album, and is intended to expand on, and run parallel with, their previous album by creating sonic soundscapes and atmospheres as a means to expand on the Loathe lore, as well as providing solace during lockdown as consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. The album also features collaborations with The 1975's saxophonist John Waugh, Parting Gift guitarist Peter Vybiral, and Vincent Weight.


title: Loathe (band)

text: On 1 September, Loathe announced that they would be playing the entirety of their album "I Let It in and It Took Everything" as part of an 8-date headline UK tour. It started on 9 December in Glasgow and finished on 18 December in London. It also included a show in their hometown Liverpool on 10 December. On 18 September, the band announced the departure of guitarist Connor Sweeney, while thanking him for his contributions, the guitarist clarified that part of the reason for leaving was because he "thought some things might have changed with time within the band but unfortunately in this case things continued to stay the same" so to preserve his sanity and mental health he chose to leave, and added that he would be back with new music and playing shows once "all is ready".


title: Loathe (band)

text: On 6 January 2022, the band released a new song titled "Dimorphous Display", which was followed by a rerecording of their song, "Is It Really You" featuring Sleep Token. On August 17, Loathe announced that they had cancelled their upcoming tour in order to focus their efforts on writing and recording their upcoming fourth studio album.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Critics have categorised Loathe's music as metalcore, nu metal, shoegaze, progressive metal, post-metal, melodic hardcore, and alternative metal. In an interview with "PopMatters", France categorised the band as a "nu-metal-y metalcore band", likening their sound to that of Code Orange and Vein.fm. This sentiment was echoed in an article by "Distorted Sound" Magazine, where the band were referred to as being part of the latest metalcore movement within the genre, along the likes of Code Orange and Ocean Grove. They have also been grouped by publications like "NME" and "Hysteria" magazine with similar bands such as Lotus Eater, Modern Error, Holding Absence and God Complex, noted as a new wave of bands within the genre.


title: Loathe (band)

text: The band often uses the dynamic of clean and unclean vocals. While Bickerstaffe used to be the sole clean vocalist, France has increasingly done more clean vocals on recent songs. Metal Injection, upon reviewing the band's debut studio album "the Cold Sun", also went on to call it borderline deathcore along with the band's experimental and progressive take on metalcore, but the likes of DistortedSoundMag.com, TheMonoloth.com and Kerrang! have all also used deathcore/death metal as a way to describe their music. The band have been praised by publications such as Metal Hammer and Metal Injection, for their use of electronics in their music, often delivered purely for atmosphere rather than the forefront of the band's music, and is often accredited as the band's experimental features, often going into industrial territory.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Expanding on the band's metalcore sound further, others have also pointed out the band's incorporation of elements from other genres, one frequent point made is the band's use of djent elements in their music, typically regarding their guitar styles. In an article for Revolver magazine, they were described as making music ranging between "industrialized metallic hardcore that's as crushing as it comes, to shoegaze-inflected post-rock that soars and shimmers". Other elements the band has been found to incorporate in their style are nu metal, shoegaze, and progressive metal. The band has been recommended for listeners of such bands like Attila, Slipknot, Fit for an Autopsy, the Devil Wears Prada, Between the Buried and Me and Code Orange.


title: Loathe (band)

text: The 2021 instrumental album "the Things They Believe" also showcases the bands ability to create atmospheric sounds and sonic soundscapes with their use of expressionist, experimental, and synth heavy sounds, which has been compared to the works of Trent Reznor & Atticus Ross, Vangelis, and soundtracks to David Lynch films, described as noir-like electronic-ambience.


title: Loathe (band)

text: The band describes themselves as a conceptual band, as throughout all of their album releases they have been telling stories of fiction. Their first release, "Prepare Consume Proceed", was said to involve a story about a tormented protagonist, who loses a loved one and is later killed by the end of the EP's run. The studio album "the Cold Sun" tells a narrative of a violent post-apocalyptic setting, mixing themes of desolation with an overarching sense of positivity and heroism. The record supposedly tells a story of two protagonists who exist during this dystopian setting set up by in the album. Bickerstaffe has stated that they don't take influence from other major concept records and acts such as Thirty Seconds to Mars and Pink Floyd, making the remark: "Our inspiration to create concept records mostly comes from wanting to create our own worlds within the music, almost like looking at the album as a book with separate chapters."


title: Loathe (band)

text: For the second album, Bickerstaffe has stated that their writing process starts with the concept, which is spread out across 12 songs. Once they have a plan for what they want to create, they focus on sustaining those songs.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Metal Hammer and WhatCulture writer Matt Mills named the band 2018's greatest live metal act, stating that their presence on stage is "always intense and cinematic" whilst applauding the band's use of atmospheric, minimalist interludes inspired by film soundtracks. The band's lead vocalist Kadeem France utilised a prophetic mask of unknown significance, which was used as the album artwork for their EP. Bickerstaffe mentioned to Kerrang! that they "...take a lot of inspiration from Marvel, DC and the rest of the comic world - seeing our live shows like performance art." adding that "The mask is definitely a big part of that what we do, but it's not entirely everything." Since 2016 however, the band has not used the mask, citing the gimmick to be influenced by major acts such as Ghost and Slipknot, wearing it to pay homage to such bands. During the same year, Kerrang! writer Sam Law criticised the band's use of masks and then stage names in 2016, calling it "shittily clichéd". The use of TV screens on the stage is also utilised for the band's gritty, theatrical presence.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Major acts such as Deftones, Slipknot, and Korn have all been cited as major influences on the band's sound, with Bickerstaffe stating that the band aspires to be on the same level as them, going on to say that he and the other members are not inspired by the sound of "modern bands today", preferring the sounds from those they do take influence from. On their earliest releases, Slipknot was their biggest influence, particularly in terms of the band's use of dark atmospheric and industrial elements and vocal aggression. In an interview with "Distorted Sound" magazine, France and Bickerstaffe also cited Meshuggah as an influence, as well as going onto elaborate that Deftones influenced their use of clean vocals and heavy guitars, and Radiohead influenced their drive to experiment musically. Bickerstaffe has also mentioned that his teenage influences consisted of Miss May I and Attack Attack!, grouping them as synthcore, and whilst at the time he disregarded much music outside of metal at the time, he had matured to enjoy a much greater range of music since.


title: Loathe (band)

text: Major influences outside of the metal band scene are the soundtracks for "Silent Hill 2", composed by Akira Yamaoka, and "Akira", composed by Geinoh Yamashirogumi, and the "Blade Runner" soundtrack composed by Vangelis. These soundtracks influenced the band's debut album, "the Cold Sun", regarding its story-telling and atmosphere, along with "Akira" being an influence on the album's artwork. They are also major influences on the bands creation of their 2021 ambient instrumental album "the Things They Believe".


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: Halifax Stanfield International Airport is a Canadian airport in Goffs, Nova Scotia, a rural community of the Halifax Regional Municipality. It serves the Halifax region, mainland Nova Scotia, and adjacent areas in the neighbouring Maritime provinces. The airport is named in honour of Robert Stanfield, the 17th Premier of Nova Scotia and leader of the federal Progressive Conservative Party of Canada.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: The airport, owned by Transport Canada since it opened in 1960, has been operated since 2000 by the Halifax International Airport Authority (HIAA). It forms part of the National Airports System.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: Designated as an international airport by Transport Canada, Halifax Stanfield is the 8th busiest airport in Canada by passenger traffic. It handled a total of 4,316,079 passengers in 2018 and 84,045 aircraft movements in 2017. It is a hub for Air Canada Express, Cougar Helicopters, Maritime Air Charter, PAL Airlines.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: An airfield in the West End, known as Chebucto Field, was built as the Halifax Civic Airport by the City of Halifax in 1931 on the former site of Blueball Farm. It served as the city's main airport until 1942, when it was closed and converted to an army base. Today Saunders Park, named after the first Halifax airport manager and Aero Club manager Donald Saunders, and some parts of the residential area of Westmount Subdivision, mark the site. Dartmouth Airport and later as RCAF Station Shearwater subsequently functioned as Halifax's primary airport until the current airport was opened. In October 1945, the City of Halifax asked the federal Department of Transport for help choosing a site for a new civil airport.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: A key factor was to find a site near Halifax with a minimal number of days per year when fog would affect airport operation. Lucasville was favoured, but after a year of study it was found to have similar average visibility to the frequently foggy airport at Shearwater. A site near Kelly Lake was then scrutinized based on a recommendation by Trans-Canada Air Lines. After two years of monitoring, the site was officially approved in 1954 for construction of a modern, C$5 million airport. The land was purchased by the City of Halifax on April 5, 1955, while the federal Department of Transport was tasked with building the airport.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: Construction of the new airport began in November 1955. The runways were built by Diamond Construction of Halifax. The modernist terminal building was designed by Gilleland and Strutt, an architecture firm which previously designed a similar-looking terminal at Ottawa.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: The new airport was substantially completed in June 1960, and a temporary licence for daytime visual flight rules (VFR) operations was issued that month. An opening gala was held on Dominion Day of 1960, the same day a licence permitting full operations was issued. At 4:50 am on August1, 1960 the first airplane landed there, a Vickers Viscount running the Trans-Canada Airlines Flight 400 between Montreal and Newfoundland. It was piloted by Halifax native W.E. Barnes. The first overseas flight arrived an hour later, travelling from London en route to Montreal. The airport was formally inaugurated on September 10, 1960, by the Minister of Transport, George Hees. The ultimate cost of construction was about $18 million.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: Passenger numbers grew steadily during the first few decades of operation. The passenger terminal was substantially renovated in 1966. A passenger terminal extension opened in July 1976, which saw the installation of the airport's first three air bridges. By 1990, approximately 2,500,000 passengers passed through the airport annually, up from about 180,000 when it first opened. A southern expansion was opened in December 1994 by Minister of Transport Doug Young, while the check-in area was expanded in 1998.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: Owing to the National Airports Policy, announced in 1994, the Halifax International Airport Authority (HIAA) was founded in November 1995. Management of the airport was officially passed from Transport Canada to HIAA on February 1, 2000.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: Following the September 11 attacks the airport took part in Operation Yellow Ribbon, commenced to accept United States civilian flights after the Federal Aviation Administration closed down U.S. airspace. Halifax airport took in 47 flights—more flights than any other Canadian airport involved in the operation—carrying about 7,300 passengers—more passengers than any other Canadian airport involved in the operation other than Vancouver, which registered 8,500. Much of this was because flights that were coming from Europe were told to avoid the major airports in Central Canada, like Toronto Pearson, Montréal-Dorval, and Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: Shortly after the attacks, the airport was advised that as many as 40 to 50 planes would divert to Halifax. In response, runway 15/33 (now 14/32) was shut down to accommodate the parked aircraft. The first diverted aircraft, a United Airlines Boeing 767, arrived at 11:35 am. The number of arriving passengers greatly outstripped the capacity of the airport, which faced processing 7,000–8,000 people with an arrivals facility designed to handle 900 per hour. The Halifax municipal government was tasked with providing emergency shelter, food, transportation and care to the stranded travellers, who were housed in city sports complexes and schools, churches, universities, military bases, as well as the homes of private citizens. A memorial ceremony was held in the airport terminal on September 14, 2001.


title: Halifax Stanfield International Airport

text: To honour the people of Gander and Halifax for their support during the operation, Lufthansa named a new Airbus A340-300 "Gander-Halifax" on May 16, 2002. That airplane is listed with the registration D-AIFC, and is the first aircraft of the whole fleet with a city name outside of Germany. On September 11, 2006, five years after the attacks, United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Halifax airport and delivered a speech of thanks.