title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Approximately 35,000 Kentuckians served as Confederate soldiers, while an estimated 125,000 Kentuckians served as Union soldiers. By the end of the war in 1865, nearly 110,000 Missourians had served in the Union Army and at least 30,000 in the Confederate Army. Some 50,000 citizens of Maryland signed up for the military, with most joining the United States Army. Approximately a tenth as many enlisted to "go South" and fight for the Confederacy. It has been estimated that, of the state's 1860 population of 687,000, about 4,000 Marylanders traveled south to fight for the Confederacy. While the number of Marylanders in Confederate service is often reported as 20,000–25,000 based on an oral statement of General Cooper to General Trimble, other contemporary reports refute this number and offer more detailed estimates in the range of 3,500 (Livermore) to just under 4,700 (McKim). West Virginia was unique among the Union states in that it did not give most of its soldiers to the Union, they were about equally divided, and it was the only state to contain many counties that had formally voted to secede from the Union.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Each of these five states shared a border with the free states and were aligned with the Union. All but Delaware also share borders with states that joined the Confederacy.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: By 1860 Delaware was integrated into the Northern economy, and slavery was rare except in the southern districts of the state; less than 2 percent of the population was enslaved. Both houses of the state General Assembly rejected secession overwhelmingly; the House of Representatives was unanimous. There was quiet sympathy for the Confederacy by some state leaders, but it was tempered by distance; Delaware was bordered by Union territory. Historian John Munroe concluded that the average citizen of Delaware opposed secession and was "strongly Unionist" but hoped for a peaceful solution even if it meant Confederate independence.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Union troops had to go through Maryland to reach the national capital at Washington, D.C. Had Maryland also joined the Confederacy, Washington would have been surrounded. There was popular support for the Confederacy in Baltimore as well as in Southern Maryland and the Eastern Shore, where there were numerous slaveholders and slaves. Baltimore was strongly tied to the cotton trade and related businesses of the South. The Maryland Legislature rejected secession in the spring of 1861, though it refused to reopen rail links with the North. It requested that Union troops be removed from Maryland. The state legislature did not want to secede, but it also did not want to aid in killing southern neighbors in order to force them back into the Union. Maryland's wish for neutrality within the Union was a major obstacle given Lincoln's desire to force the South back into the Union militarily.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: To protect the national capital, Lincoln suspended "habeas corpus" and imprisoned without charges or trials one sitting U.S. congressman as well as the mayor, police chief, entire Board of Police, and city council of Baltimore. Chief Justice Roger Taney, acting only as a circuit judge, ruled on June 4, 1861, in "Ex parte Merryman" that Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus was unconstitutional, but the president ignored the ruling in order to meet a national emergency. On September 17, 1861, the day the legislature reconvened, federal troops arrested without charge 27 state legislators (one-third of the Maryland General Assembly). They were held temporarily at Fort McHenry, and later released when Maryland was secured for the Union. Because a large part of the legislature was now imprisoned, the session was canceled and representatives did not consider any additional anti-war measures. The song "Maryland, My Maryland" was written to attack Lincoln's action in blocking pro-Confederate elements. Maryland contributed troops to both the Union (60,000) and the Confederate (25,000) armies.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: During the war, Maryland adopted a new state constitution in 1864 that prohibited slavery, thus emancipating all remaining slaves in the state.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: I think to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. Kentucky gone, we cannot hold Missouri, nor Maryland. These all against us, and the job on our hands is too large for us. We would as well consent to separation at once, including the surrender of this capitol [Washington, which was surrounded by slave states: Confederate Virginia and Union-controlled Maryland].


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Kentucky Governor Beriah Magoffin proposed that slave states such as Kentucky should conform to the US Constitution and remain in the Union. When Lincoln requested 1,000,000 men to serve in the Union army, however, Magoffin, a Southern sympathizer, countered, "Kentucky had no troops to furnish for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern States." The Kentucky legislature did not vote on any bill to secede but passed two resolutions of neutrality, issuing a neutrality proclamation May 20, 1861, asking both sides to keep out of the state.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: In elections on June 20 and August 5, 1861, Unionists won enough additional seats in the legislature to overcome any veto by the governor. After the elections, the strongest supporters of neutrality were the Southern sympathizers. While both sides had already been openly enlisting troops from the state, after the elections the Union army established recruitment camps within Kentucky.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Neutrality was broken when Confederate General Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861. In response, the Kentucky legislature passed a resolution on September 7 that directed the governor to demand the evacuation of the Confederate forces from Kentucky soil. Magoffin vetoed the proclamation, but the legislature overrode his veto, and Magoffin issued the proclamation.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: The legislature decided to back General Ulysses S. Grant and his Union troops stationed in Paducah, Kentucky, on the grounds that the Confederacy voided the original pledge by entering Kentucky first. The General Assembly soon ordered for the Union flag be raised over the state capitol in Frankfort and declared its allegiance with the Union.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Southern sympathizers were outraged at the legislature's decisions and stated that Polk's troops in Kentucky had been en route to counter Grant's forces. Later legislative resolutions passed by Unionists, such as inviting Union General Robert Anderson to enroll volunteers to expel the Confederate forces, requesting the governor to call out the militia, and appointing Union General Thomas L. Crittenden in command of Kentucky forces, incensed the Southerners. Magoffin vetoed the resolutions but was overridden each time.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: In 1862, the legislature passed an act to disenfranchise citizens who enlisted in the Confederate Army and so Kentucky's neutral status evolved into backing the Union. Most of those who had originally sought neutrality turned to the Union cause.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: During the war, a faction known as the Russellville Convention formed a Confederate government of Kentucky, which was recognized by the Confederate States as a member state. Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: When Confederate General Albert Sidney Johnston occupied Bowling Green, Kentucky, in the summer of 1861, the pro-Confederates in western and central Kentucky moved to establish a Confederate state government in that area. The Russellville Convention met in Logan County on November 18, 1861. The 116 delegates from 68 counties elected to depose the current government and create a provisional government loyal to Kentucky's new unofficial Confederate governor, George W. Johnson. On December 10, 1861, Kentucky became the 13th state admitted to the Confederacy. Kentucky, along with Missouri, was a state with representatives in both Congresses and had regiments in both the Union and the Confederate Armies.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Magoffin, still functioning as official governor in Frankfort, would not recognize the Kentucky Confederates or their attempts to establish a government in his state. He continued to declare Kentucky's official status in the war as a neutral state even though the legislature backed the Union. Fed up with the party divisions within the population and legislature, Magoffin announced a special session of the legislature and resigned his office in 1862.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Bowling Green was occupied by the Confederates until February 1862, when General Grant moved from Missouri through Kentucky along the Tennessee line. Confederate Governor Johnson fled Bowling Green with the Confederate state records, headed south, and joined Confederate forces in Tennessee. After Johnson was killed fighting in the Battle of Shiloh, Richard Hawes was soon named Confederate governor of Kentucky. Shortly afterwards, and the Provisional Confederate States Congress was adjourned on February 17, 1862, on the eve of inauguration of a permanent Congress.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: However, as Union occupation dominated the state after the failure of the Confederate Heartland Offensive to take Kentucky firmly from August to October 1862, the Kentucky Confederate government, as of 1863, existed only on paper. Its representation in the permanent Confederate Congress was minimal. It was dissolved when the Civil War ended in the spring of 1865.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: By the end of the war more than 70% of the pre-war slaves in Kentucky had been freed by Union military measures or escape to Union lines. After the Emancipation Proclamation made the enrollment and freeing of slaves Union Army policy, commanders extended freedom to the Army recruit's entire family and granted liberty passes to freed slaves. When the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was sent to the states for ratification in February 1865, Kentucky's governor in presenting it to the legislature admitted that the continuation of slavery in the state was hopeless. While notices of slave sales continued, prices fell dramatically. But the legislature refused to ratify, leaving the last approximately 65,000 slaves out of a pre-war total 225,483 slaves to await freedom when the amendment became part of the U.S. Constitution in December 1865, without Kentucky's support.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: After the secession of Southern states began, the newly elected governor of Missouri, Claiborne F. Jackson, called upon the legislature to authorize a state constitutional convention on secession. A special election approved of the convention, and delegates to it. This Missouri Constitutional Convention voted to remain within the Union, but rejected coercion of the Southern states by the United States.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Jackson, who was pro-Confederate, was disappointed with the outcome. He called up the state militia to their districts for annual training. Jackson had designs on the St. Louis Arsenal, and had been in secret correspondence with Confederate President Jefferson Davis to obtain artillery for the militia in St. Louis. Aware of these developments, Union Captain Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp and forcing the state militia to surrender. While his troops were marching the prisoners to the arsenal, a deadly riot erupted (the Camp Jackson Affair).


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: These events resulted in greater Confederate support within the state among some factions. The already pro-Southern Missouri State Legislature passed the governor's military bill creating the Missouri State Guard. Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, who had been president of the convention, as major general of this reformed militia. Price, and Union district commander Harney, came to an agreement known as the Price–Harney Truce, which calmed tensions in the state for several weeks. After Harney was removed, and Lyon placed in charge, a meeting was held in St. Louis at the Planters' House among Lyon, his political ally Francis P. Blair Jr., Price, and Jackson. The negotiations went nowhere. After a few fruitless hours, Lyon declared, "this means war!" Price and Jackson rapidly departed for the capital.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Jackson, Price, and the pro-Confederate portions of the state legislature were forced to flee the state capital of Jefferson City on June 14, 1861, in the face of Lyon's rapid advance against the state government. In the absence of most of the now exiled state government, the Missouri Constitutional Convention reconvened in late July. On July 30, the convention declared the state offices vacant, and appointed a new provisional government with Hamilton Gamble as governor. President Lincoln's administration immediately recognized the legitimacy of Gamble's government, which provided both pro-Union militia forces for service within the state, and volunteer regiments for the Union Army.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from Arkansas and Texas, under General Ben McCulloch. After a string of victories in Cole Camp, Carthage, Wilson's Creek, Dry Wood Creek, Liberty and going up as far north as Lexington (located in the Missouri River Valley region of western Missouri), the secessionist forces retreated to southwestern Missouri, as they were under pressure from Union reinforcements. On October 30, 1861, in the town of Neosho, Jackson called the supporting parts of the exiled state legislature into session, where they enacted a secession ordinance. It was recognized by the Confederate Congress, and Missouri was admitted into the Confederacy on November 28.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: The exiled state government was forced to withdraw into Arkansas. For the rest of the war, it consisted of several wagonloads of civilian politicians attached to various Confederate armies. In 1865, it vanished.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Regular Confederate troops staged several large-scale raids into Missouri, but most of the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted of guerrilla warfare. The guerrillas were primarily Southern partisans, including William Quantrill, Frank and Jesse James, the Younger brothers, and William T. Anderson, and many personal feuds were played out in the violence. Small-unit tactics pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers were used in occupied portions of the Confederacy during the Civil War.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: The James' brothers outlawry after the war has been seen as a continuation of guerrilla warfare. Stiles (2002) argues that Jesse James was an intensely political postwar neo-Confederate terrorist, rather than a social bandit or a plain bank robber with a hair-trigger temper.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: The Union response was to suppress the guerrillas. It achieved that in western Missouri, as Brigadier General Thomas Ewing issued General Order No. 11 on 25 August 1863 in response to Quantrill's raid on Lawrence, Kansas. The order forced the total evacuation of four counties that fall within the area of modern-day Kansas City, Missouri. These had been centers of local support for the guerrillas. Lincoln approved Ewing's plan beforehand. About 20,000 civilians (chiefly women, children, and old men) had to leave their homes. Many never returned, and the counties were economically devastated for years.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: According to Glatthaar (2001), Union forces established "free-fire zones". Union cavalry units would identify and track down scattered Confederate remnants, who had no places to hide and no secret supply bases. To gain recruits, and to threaten St. Louis, Confederate General Sterling Price raided Missouri with 12,000 men in September/October 1864. Price coordinated his moves with the guerrillas, but was nearly trapped, escaping to Arkansas with only half his force after a decisive Union victory at the Battle of Westport. The battle, which took place in the modern-day Westport neighborhood of Kansas City, is identified as the "Gettysburg of the West"; it marked a definitive end to organized Confederate incursions inside Missouri's borders. The Republicans made major gains in the fall 1864 elections on the basis of Union victories and Confederate ineptness. Quantrill's Raiders, after raiding Kansas in the Lawrence Massacre on August 21, 1863, killing 150 civilians, broke up in confusion. Quantrill and a handful of followers moved on to Kentucky, where he was ambushed and killed.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: The serious divisions between the western and eastern sections of Virginia had been simmering for decades, related to class and social differences. The western areas were growing and were based on subsistence farms by yeomen; its residents held few slaves. The planters of the eastern section were wealthy slaveholders who dominated state government. By December 1860 secession was being publicly debated throughout Virginia. Leading eastern spokesmen called for secession, while westerners warned they would not be legislated into treason. A statewide convention first met on February 13; after the attack on Fort Sumter and Lincoln's call to arms, it voted for secession on April 17, 1861. The decision was dependent on ratification by a statewide referendum. Western leaders held mass rallies and prepared to separate, so that this area could remain in the Union. Unionists met at the Wheeling Convention with four hundred delegates from twenty-seven counties. The statewide vote in favor of secession was 132,201 to 37,451. An estimated vote on Virginia's ordinance of secession for the 50 counties that became West Virginia is 34,677 to 19,121 against secession, with 24 of the 50 counties favoring secession and 26 favoring the Union.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: The Second Wheeling Convention opened on June 11 with more than 100 delegates from 32 western counties; they represented nearly one-third of Virginia's total voting population. It announced that state offices were vacant and chose Francis H. Pierpont as governor of Virginia (not West Virginia) on June 20. Pierpont headed the Restored Government of Virginia, which granted permission for the formation of a new state on August 20, 1861. The new West Virginia state constitution was passed by the Unionist counties in the spring of 1862, and this was approved by the restored Virginia government in May 1862. The statehood bill for West Virginia was passed by the United States Congress in December and signed by President Lincoln on December 31, 1862.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: The ultimate decision about West Virginia was made by the armies in the field. The Confederates were defeated, the Union was triumphant, so West Virginia was born. In late spring 1861 Union troops from Ohio moved into western Virginia with the primary strategic goal of protecting the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. General George B. McClellan destroyed Confederate defenses in western Virginia. Raids and recruitment by the Confederacy took place throughout the war. Current estimates of soldiers from West Virginia are 20,000-22,000 men each to the Union and the Confederacy.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: West Virginia was required as part of its admission as a state in 1863 to have a gradual emancipation clause in the new state's constitution. Children were born free or as they came of age, and no new slaves could be brought into the state. About 6,000 would remain enslaved. West Virginia later completely abolished slavery in February 1865, before the end of the war.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: The unique conditions attendant to the creation of the state led the Federal government to sometimes regard West Virginia as differing from the other border states in the post-war and Reconstruction Era. The terms of surrender granted to the Confederate army at Appomattox applied to the soldiers of the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia only. Returning Confederate soldiers from the other border states were required to obtain special permits from the War Department. Similarly, the Southern Claims Commission was originally designed to apply only to the 11 Confederate states and West Virginia, though claims from other states were sometimes honored.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: Though Tennessee had officially seceded and West Tennessee and Middle Tennessee had voted overwhelmingly in favor of joining the Confederacy, East Tennessee in contrast was strongly pro-Union and had mostly voted against secession. The state even went as far as sending delegates for the East Tennessee Convention attempting to secede from the Confederacy and join the Union; however, the Confederate legislature of Tennessee rejected the convention and blocked its secession attempt. Jefferson Davis arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union and held them without trial. Tennessee came under control of Union forces in 1862 and was occupied to the end of the war. It abolished slavery in January 1865 before the war ended. For this reason, it was omitted from the Emancipation Proclamation. After the war, Tennessee was the first Confederate state to have its elected members readmitted to the US Congress.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: With the creation of West Virginia in 1863, the Union supporting Restored Government of Virginia took up residence in Alexandria, Virginia, while much of its claimed territory was still held by the Confederacy. It called a state constitutional convention to make reforms in the state's pre-war constitution. In 1864, it adopted a new state constitution abolishing slavery, which in 1865 came to cover the entire state as the war ended.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: In the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), most Indian tribes owned black slaves and sided with the Confederacy, which had promised them an Indian state after it won the war.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: However, some tribes and bands sided with the Union. A bloody civil war resulted in the territory, with severe hardships for all residents.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: After years of small-scale civil war, Kansas was admitted into the Union as a free state under the "Wyandotte Constitution" on January 29, 1861. Most people gave strong support to the Union cause. However, guerrilla warfare and raids from pro-slavery forces, many spilling over from Missouri, occurred during the Civil War. Although only one battle of official forces occurred in Kansas, there were 29 Confederate raids into the state during the war and numerous deaths caused by the guerrillas. Lawrence came under attack on August 21, 1863, by guerrillas led by William Clarke Quantrill. He was retaliating for "Jayhawker" raids against pro-Confederate settlements in Missouri. His forces left more than 150 people dead in Lawrence.


title: Border states (American Civil War)

text: At the time the Civil War broke out, the present-day states of New Mexico and Arizona did not yet exist. There were various proposals, however, to create a new territory within the southern half of the New Mexico Territory prior to the war. The southern half of the territory was pro-Confederate while the northern half was pro-Union. The southern half was also a target of Confederate Texan forces under Charles L. Pyron and Henry Hopkins Sibley, who attempted to establish control there. They had plans to attack the Union states of California and Colorado Territory (both of which also had Southern sympathizers) as well as the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains, Fort Laramie, and Nevada Territory, followed by an invasion of the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Sonora, and Lower California. Ultimately their defeat at the Battle of Glorieta Pass prevented these plans from fruition and Sibley's Confederates fled back to East Texas.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: Parker was born in Iowa City, Iowa and raised in Cincinnati, Ohio. He moved to New York City with his family in 1977 as he began pursuing his professional career. Toby is one of eight children. He has three brothers and four sisters, most of whom also have careers in the entertainment industry, including siblings Sarah Jessica Parker and Pippin Parker.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: In October 1976, Parker made his Broadway debut as an understudy at the Morosco Theatre in a revival of the play "The Innocents", adapted and directed by Harold Pinter.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: In 1978, he was cast in "Runaways", which made its Off-Broadway premiere at The Public Theater and later moved to Broadway at the Plymouth Theatre. He was in the original cast of "The Visit" at Criterion Center Stage Right in 1992, in which he played the roles of Ottilie Schill, Pedro Cabral, and Wechsler.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: In 1996, he joined Anthony Rapp, Adam Pascal, Daphne Rubin-Vega, Taye Diggs, Wilson Jermaine Heredia, and Idina Menzel in the Broadway cast of "Rent". His roles included Gordon in "Life Support", the man in "Christmas Bells", Mr. Grey in "La Vie Boheme", and others. His voice can be heard on the original Broadway cast recording of "Rent". He appeared with the rest of the cast to perform "Seasons of Love" and "La Vie Boheme" at the 1996 Tony Awards. Among the four awards the show won that evening was a Tony Award for Best Musical. The original cast has reunited to celebrate the show's 5th and 10th anniversaries in special one-night concerts. Parker joined the original cast at the Final Broadway Production of Rent, where the final cast and original cast sang an encore of "Seasons of Love".


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: Since 1991, Parker had a recurring role as a Forensics Technician on "Law & Order" with "Rent" co-star Jesse L. Martin. His film credits include Marshall Fine in "Gold Coast"; Bill in "The Last Supper"; and the M.C./King of Comedy in "Joey Breaker".


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: Parker originated the role of Doctor Dillamond on the First National US Tour of the musical "Wicked", which began previews in Toronto on March 9, 2005 and opened March 31. He left the cast on March 5, 2006 to join the show's sit-down production in Chicago, replacing Steven Skybell on March 28, 2006. He left the Chicago cast on December 10, 2006.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: He originated the role of Doctor Dillamond in the Los Angeles sit-down production, which opened on February 21, 2007, following previews on February 10. He played his final performance on May 25, 2008.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: He reprised the role in the Broadway production, beginning performances on September 2, 2008, again replacing Skybell.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: On October 27, 2008, he appeared in "The Yellow Brick Road Not Taken", a one night only benefit performance celebrating the fifth anniversary of "Wicked".


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: He played Doctor Dillamond in early drafted scenes that were cut from the final version of the musical. After over two years in the Broadway company, making him the longest-running Broadway Dillamond to date, he played his final performance October 31, 2010.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: After a year away from the show and Doctor Dillamond, Parker returned to the role in the Second National US Tour company, marking his fourth North American production. He replaced Martin Moran on December 20, 2011, and he played his last show on September 30, 2012. From March 20 through April 14, 2013, he returned to the first touring production, where he created the role in 2005, covering in the absence of Clifton Davis.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: On September 23, 2014, he returned to the show on Broadway, replacing K. Todd Freeman as Doctor Dillamond and played his final performance on January 31, 2016.


title: Timothy Britten Parker

text: Along with eleven other theater artists, including his brother Pippin Parker, Toby co-founded Naked Angels Theater Company in New York City in 1986.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: Tsingtao Brewery Co. Ltd. () is China's second largest brewery, with about 15% of domestic market share and also accounts for half of China’s national beer exports. It was founded in 1903 by German settlers in Tsingtau (Qingdao), Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory. In 2016, Tsingtao was the second most consumed beer globally and had reached 2.8% share of the global beer market, after its share of the world's beer market had been steadily growing by at least 0.1 percentage points every year since 2009. Its logo displays an image of Huilan Pavilion that stands on the end of Zhanqiao Pier, located on Qingdao's southern shore.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: Tsingtao Brewery was founded by the Anglo-German Brewery Co. Ltd., an English-German joint stock company based in Hong Kong which owned it until 1916. The brewery sold beers to mainly Europeans in China. The brewery was founded on August 15, 1903 as the "Germania-Brauerei" ("Germania" Brewery) with a paid-in capital of 400,000 Mexican silver dollars divided into 4,000 shares priced at $100 each.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: Following the Siege of Tsingtao during World War I, Tsingtao came under Japanese military control. On August 16, 1916 an extraordinary general meeting was held in Shanghai. Liquidators were appointed and it was decided the company would be sold to the Dai-Nippon Brewery (, which in 1949 was split into Asahi Breweries and what later became Sapporo Brewery). The Japanese military administration in Tsingtao approved the liquidation on September 9, 1916. German equity was approximately 70 percent. The German share of the sales price attributable to shareholders was in the hands of the liquidators by April 2, 1921.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: After Japan's surrender to the Allies and its retreat from China at the end of World War II, the Tsingtao Brewery was turned into a Chinese brewery under ownership of the Tsui family and supervision of the Nationalist government in Nanjing. However, this period of ownership only lasted until 1949 when, after a civil war, the People's Republic of China was founded. Shortly after, due to Communist policies, all private shares of the Tsingtao Brewery that had previously belonged to the Tsui family were confiscated and the company became a state-owned enterprise.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: The company was privatized in the early 1990s and in 1993 merged with three other breweries in Qingdao and was finally renamed Tsingtao Brewery Company Limited. At one point 27% of the company was owned by Anheuser-Busch. The company once owned several other breweries in China, some of which also produced Tsingtao Beer.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: On January 23, 2009, Anheuser-Busch InBev announced that it was selling 19.9% to Asahi Breweries for $667 million. The sale will make Asahi Breweries, Ltd. the second largest shareholder in Tsingtao behind only the Tsingtao Brewery Group. On May 9, 2009 Anheuser-Busch InBev sold its remaining 7% to Chinese tycoon Chen Fashu () for $235 million.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: In January 2017, Asahi Breweries announced that it would sell its 20 percent share in Tsingtao which it had owned since 2009; the value of this share of the company is estimated at US$1.1 billion.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: "Tsingtao Beer", a well-hopped standard pale lager of 4.7% abv, is the flagship brew, accounting for most of the brewery's production. An unpasteurized version is sold as "Tsingtao Draft Beer". Tsingtao Beer was long advertized as being "brewed with mineral water from the Laoshan Spring", which contributed to its characteristic flavor, but that now applies only to beer produced in Qingdao, and not to that produced in the company's other breweries.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: The brewery also produces a number of other beers, mostly for the local market. Those sometimes found outside China include "Tsingtao Dark Beer" (5.2% abv), and more rarely "Tsingtao Spirulina Green Beer", also sold as "Tsingtao Green Beer", a 4.5% abv green pilsner colored by spirulina and claimed to promote good health. The alcohol content of export versions may vary slightly from those for the domestic market.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: The beer market in China was very underdeveloped in the 1980s and the brewery was forced to concentrate on overseas markets. The Chinese economic reforms in the early 1980s facilitated exportation. However, while concentrating on international markets, the brewery also attempted to sell its beer on the domestic market and competed with other domestic brands as well as foreign brands.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: The main export company for the brewery was the "Good Harvest of Five Grains Corporation" based in Hong Kong. The Good Harvest of Five Grains Corporation also tried to market the beer in Hong Kong itself and later built a wholesale network consisting of up to 300 companies.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: Tsingtao Beer was introduced to the United States in 1972, and soon became the top-selling Chinese beer in the U.S. market; it has maintained this leadership within the United States ever since, despite increasing competition from other well known Chinese beer brands, Zhujiang and Yanjing. , distribution in the UK and Ireland is handled by C&C Group PLC. The Tsingtao brand is sold in 62 countries and regions around the world, and accounts for more than 50% of China's beer exports. According to the company's financial figures from 2010, Tsingtao saw a 6.6% year-on-year revenue increase from sales to Hong Kong and other overseas markets.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: Before the 1949 takeover by the new PRC government, the brewery had used imported raw material and water from the Laoshan mountain. With the outbreak of the Korean War and the resulting embargo of the People's Republic by the West, the brewery was forced to use domestic products, and the government encouraged peasants in Shandong to harvest the necessary raw materials (mainly hops and barley) themselves. The government used various incentives, like free seeds, to achieve this goal.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: The brewery had previously used nationalistic marketing strategies, and after the switchover to production using only domestic material this nationalist marketing effort was increased. However, the brewery still maintained its international roots.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: The brewery first applied for permission for a Qingdao International Beer Festival in 1991 and received approval and support from the Qingdao municipal administration, even to the extent that the city became the main sponsor. The first festival was opened on June 23, 1991, and has been held annually ever since. The festival was named ""International" Beer Festival" to attract foreigners as well as Chinese, although the main purpose of the festival was to make the brand more popular for domestic consumers.


title: Tsingtao Brewery

text: The festival is usually held in late August and lasts for 14 days. During the festival, there are shows in the city and people enjoy many varieties of international beer instead of only Tsingtao. Nowadays the International Beer Festival is not meant simply to publicize the Tsingtao Brewery, but also to encourage the development of Qingdao's beer culture.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: An operant conditioning chamber (also known as a Skinner box) is a laboratory apparatus used to study animal behavior. The operant conditioning chamber was created by B. F. Skinner while he was a graduate student at Harvard University. The chamber can be used to study both operant conditioning and classical conditioning.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Skinner created the operant conditioning chamber as a variation of the puzzle box originally created by Edward Thorndike. While Skinner's early studies were done using rats, he later moved on to study pigeons. The operant conditioning chamber may be used to observe or manipulate behaviour. An animal is placed in the box where it must learn to activate levers or respond to light or sound stimuli for reward. The reward may be food or the removal of noxious stimuli such as a loud alarm. The chamber is used to test specific hypotheses in a controlled setting.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Skinner was noted to have expressed his distaste of becoming an eponym. It is believed that Clark Hull and his Yale students coined the expression "Skinner box". Skinner stated he did not use the term himself, and went so far as to ask Howard Hunt to use "lever box" instead of "Skinner box" in a published document.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: In 1898, American psychologist, Edward Thorndike proposed the 'law of effect', which formed the basis of operant conditioning. Thorndike conducted experiments to discover how cats learn new behaviors. His work involved monitoring cats as they attempted to escape from puzzle boxes. The puzzle box trapped the animals until they moved a lever or performed an action which triggered their release. Thorndike ran several trials and recorded the time it took for them to perform the actions necessary to escape. He discovered that the cats seemed to learn from a trial-and-error process rather than insightful inspections of their environment. The animals learned that their actions led to an effect, the type of effect influenced whether the behavior would be repeated. Thorndike's 'law of effect' contained the core elements of what would become known as operant conditioning. B. F. Skinner expanded upon Thorndike's existing work. Skinner theorized that if a behavior is followed by a reward, that behavior is more likely to be repeated, but added that if it is followed by some sort of punishment, it is less likely to be repeated. He introduced the word reinforcement into Thorndike's law of effect. Through his experiments, Skinner discovered the law of operant learning which included extinction, punishment and generalization.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Skinner designed the operant conditioning chamber to allow for specific hypothesis testing and behavioural observation. He wanted to create a way to observe animals in a more controlled setting as observation of behaviour in nature can be unpredictable.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: An operant conditioning chamber allows researchers to study animal behaviour and response to conditioning. They do this by teaching an animal to perform certain actions (like pressing a lever) in response to specific stimuli. When the correct action is performed the animal receives positive reinforcement in the form of food or other reward. In some cases, the chamber may deliver positive punishment to discourage incorrect responses. For example, researchers have tested certain invertebrates' reaction to operant conditioning using a "heat box". This box has two walls used for manipulation; one wall can undergo temperature change while the other cannot. As soon as the invertebrate crosses over to the side which can undergo temperature change, the researcher will increase the temperature. Eventually, the invertebrate will be conditioned to stay on the side that does not undergo a temperature change. After conditioning, even when the temperature is turned to the lowest the invertebrate will avoid that side of the box.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Skinner's pigeon studies involved a series of levers, when the lever was pressed the pigeon would receive a food reward. This was made more complex as researchers studied animal learning behaviours. A pigeon would be placed in the conditioning chamber and another one would be placed in an adjacent box separated by a plexiglass wall. The pigeon in the chamber would learn to press the lever to receive food as the other pigeon watched. The pigeons would then be switched, and researchers would observe them for signs of cultural learning.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: The outside shell of an operant conditioning chamber is a large box big enough to easily accommodate the animal being used as a subject. Commonly used animals include rodents—usually lab rats—, pigeons, and primates. The chamber is often sound-proof and light-proof to avoid distracting stimuli.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Operant conditioning chambers have at least one response mechanism that can automatically detect the occurrence of a behavioral response or action (i.e., pecking, pressing, pushing, etc.). This may be a lever or series of lights which the animal will respond to in the presence of stimulus. Typical mechanisms for primates and rats are response levers; if the subject presses the lever, the opposite end closes a switch that is monitored by a computer or other programmed device. Typical mechanisms for pigeons and other birds are response keys with a switch that closes if the bird pecks at the key with sufficient force. The other minimal requirement of an operant conditioning chamber is that it has a means of delivering a primary reinforcer such as a food reward.A simple configuration, such as one response mechanism and one feeder, may be used to investigate a variety of psychological phenomena. Modern operant conditioning chambers may have multiple mechanisms, such as several response levers, two or more feeders, and a variety of devices capable of generating different stimuli including lights, sounds, music, figures, and drawings. Some configurations use an LCD panel for the computer generation of a variety of visual stimuli or a set of LED lights to create patterns they wish to be replicated.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Some operant chambers can also have electrified nets or floors so that shocks can be given to the animals as a positive punishment. Or lights of different colors that give information about when the food is available.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Operant conditioning chambers have become common in a variety of research disciplines especially in animal learning. The chambers design allows for easy monitoring of the animal and provides a space to manipulate certain behaviours. This controlled environment may allow for research and experimentation which cannot be performed in the field.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: There are a variety of applications for operant conditioning. For instance, shaping the behavior of a child is influenced by the compliments, comments, approval, and disapproval of one's behavior. An important factor of operant conditioning is its ability to explain learning in real-life situations. From an early age, parents nurture their children's behavior by using reward and praise following an achievement (crawling or taking a first step) which reinforces such behavior. When a child misbehaves, punishment in the form of verbal discouragement or the removal of privileges are used to discourage them from repeating their actions.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Skinner's studies on animals and their behaviour laid the framework needed for similar studies on human subjects. Based on his work, developmental psychologists were able to study the effect of positive and negative reinforcement. Skinner found that the environment influenced behaviour and when that environment is manipulated, behaviour will change. From this, developmental psychologists proposed theories on operant learning in children. This research was applied to education and the treatment of illness in young children. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning played a key role in helping psychologists understand how behavior is learned. It explains why reinforcement can be used so effectively in the learning process, and how schedules of reinforcement can affect the outcome of conditioning.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Slot machines and online games are sometimes cited as examples of human devices that use sophisticated operant schedules of reinforcement to reward repetitive actions.


title: Operant conditioning chamber

text: Gamification, the technique of using game design elements in non-game contexts, has also been described as using operant conditioning and other behaviorist techniques to encourage desired user behaviors.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Chappaquiddick, sometimes known as The Senator, is a 2017 American political drama film directed by John Curran, and written by Taylor Allen and Andrew Logan. The film stars Jason Clarke as U.S. Senator from Massachusetts Ted Kennedy and Kate Mara as Mary Jo Kopechne, with Ed Helms, Bruce Dern, Jim Gaffigan, Clancy Brown, and Olivia Thirlby in supporting roles. The plot details the 1969 Chappaquiddick incident, in which Kennedy's negligence caused an automobile accident which resulted in the death of his 28-year-old passenger Mary Jo Kopechne trapped inside the vehicle, and the Kennedy family's response.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Principal photography began in Boston, in September 2016. The film originally premiered at the Gala Presentations section at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 10, 2017, and was released in the United States on April 6, 2018, by Entertainment Studios. It received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its balanced screenplay and Clarke's performance.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: In July 1969, U.S. Senator Ted Kennedy (D–MA) is asked in an interview how it feels to stand in the shadow of his dead brothers John and Bobby. Then he phones his cousin Joe Gargan and tells him to book hotel rooms on Martha's Vineyard for the Boiler Room Girls, who worked for Bobby's presidential campaign. He travels to Chappaquiddick Island, where he meets Gargan and Paul Markham for a sailboat race. After losing, Kennedy goes to a party at a cottage with five friends and six Boiler Room Girls.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Kennedy leaves the party with Mary Jo Kopechne. On the road, they encounter a police officer, who asks if they need help. Kennedy backs up and drives quickly away. He accidentally drives off the Dike Bridge, causing the car to flip over before it submerges into a pond. Kennedy climbs out of the vehicle, and calls out to Kopechne, but receives no response. He sits down and cries, before walking back to the cottage. He summons Gargan and Markham, and they drive quickly to the bridge. Gargan and Markham attempt multiple times to retrieve Kopechne from the overturned vehicle, but are unable to open any of the doors or windows. They insist Kennedy report the incident immediately, but instead, he gets in a rowing boat, and Gargan and Markham row him to Edgartown, where they go their separate ways.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Kennedy walks past the phone booth outside his hotel and up to his room and gets undressed. He takes a bath, gets dressed, and combs his hair. He goes down to the phone and calls his father Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. for advice. His partially-paralyzed father says one word: "alibi". Kennedy sits on the steps outside his room. He asks the night porter the time, which is 2.25 a.m. Kennedy claims he is having trouble sleeping, but he goes to sleep without contacting the police.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: The next morning, the overturned vehicle is discovered by father-and-son fishermen, who call the police. Police Chief Arena and the fire department recover Kopechne's body from the car, which they find is registered to Kennedy. Gargan and Markham realize that he has not reported the accident, and insist again that he must. Kennedy goes with Markham to the Edgartown Police Department and commandeers the Chief's office, waiting for his return.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: After giving the Chief a statement written by Markham, Kennedy travels to the family compound in Hyannisport, believing he has contained the situation. He is shocked as his father tells him his actions have disgraced the family and is surprised by a damage control team led by Robert McNamara, convened to address the legal (potential charge of manslaughter) and political consequences. First, they make sure the body is not examined again, and that the official record that his licence has expired is changed by a Kennedy-friendly official. Then they craft a strategy to push the court hearing after the current news cycle, dominated by the landing of the first men on the Moon. Kennedy attends Kopechne's funeral wearing a neck brace to gain sympathy, but this ploy backfires in the press.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Kennedy suggests an appeal to the people of Massachusetts on national television, which his damage control team heartily endorses. They use the family's influence to resolve the court case without a trial, where anything he says publicly could be used against him. Kennedy receives the minimum sentence by pleading guilty to leaving the scene of an accident: two months' jail time, which the judge suspends based on Kennedy's character and good standing.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Gargan, who has become increasingly disgusted with Kennedy for not being honest about the facts of the case and attempting to play the victim, attempts to resign. Kennedy, having just been slapped by his father, tells Gargan he intends to resign from the Senate and asks him to draft a resignation speech. He tells Gargan not to tell anyone.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: As Kennedy is ready to go on national television with the speech prepared by Ted Sorensen, designed to elicit public sympathy, Gargan gives Kennedy the resignation speech, telling him it is the right thing to do. But Kennedy throws it away, and Gargan is pressed to hold Kennedy's cue cards for Sorensen's speech. Although the public has mixed views, the majority interviewed say they would re-elect him.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: The credits explain that Joseph Kennedy Sr. died soon after the incident; Gargan became estranged from the family; and Kennedy lost the 1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries but continued in the U.S. Senate for another forty years after the incident.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: On December 14, 2015, it was announced that Sam Taylor-Johnson would direct the film, though she later dropped out. On April 25, 2016, it was announced Jason Clarke would play Ted Kennedy, with John Curran directing. On July 7, 2016, Kate Mara and Ed Helms joined the cast, to play Mary Jo Kopechne and Joe Gargan, respectively. On July 20, 2016, Bruce Dern was added as Joseph P. Kennedy Sr., while Jim Gaffigan and Olivia Thirlby joined the cast on August 31, 2016, and principal photography began in Boston on September 7, 2016.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: The car crash was filmed on a recreation of the Dike Bridge in a water tank at Baja Studios in Rosarito, Baja California, Mexico.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: On September 8, 2017, Entertainment Studios acquired distribution rights to the film for $4 million. The film premiered at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival on September 10. The film was initially scheduled for an awards season release, on December 8, 2017, but was moved back to April 6, 2018. The studio spent $16 million on prints and advertising.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Chappaquiddick" was released alongside "A Quiet Place", "Blockers" and "The Miracle Season", and was projected to gross $2–4 million from 1,560 theaters in its opening weekend. It ended up debuting above expectations with $5.8 million, finishing 7th at the box office. "Deadline Hollywood" noted it was still a low figure given Entertainment Picture's $4 million purchase of the film and their $16 million advertising campaign, although the studio itself was satisfied with the results. In its second weekend the film dropped 47% to $3.1 million, finishing 10th. It was the 16th highest-grossing independent film of 2018.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 80% based on 147 reviews, and an average rating of 7.00/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Chappaquidick" can't help leaving some of this true story's most intriguing questions unanswered, but it's bolstered by outstanding work from Jason Clarke in the central role." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film has an average score of 67 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported men and women over the age of 25 (the film's largest demographic) gave it respective overall positive scores of 80% and 72%.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" called the film methodical and lacking passion, writing: "It's doubtful that many Americans under the age of 40 or so even know what the name Chappaquiddick refers to, which might in itself provide solid justification for making a film about it. But the drama of the tragic July 18, 1969, accident... needed more energetic and incisive treatment than it receives in this sober, somewhat slack telling."


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: In a March 2018 interview, Byron Allen, CEO of Entertainment Studios, which distributed the film, stated that "there are some very powerful people who tried to put pressure on me not to release this movie". "Boston Herald" journalist Howie Carr speculated that this was a reference to Chris Dodd, who had been a longtime friend and ally of Kennedy's when he served in the U.S. Senate, and had more recently been president of the Motion Picture Association of America.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Liberal journalist Neal Gabler, who at the time was writing a biography of Ted Kennedy, criticized the film as a mix of "conjecture and outright fabrication". As one example, he stated, "Contrary to the film's implications, Mr. Kennedy immediately and forever after felt deep remorse and responsibility for the accident; it haunted him." Similarly, longtime Kennedy aide and speechwriter Bob Shrum criticized the film for "trafficking in conspiracy theories", stating that Kennedy had never tried to cover up or minimise his responsibility for Kopechne's death.


title: Chappaquiddick (film)

text: Conservative commentator Mark Steyn called "Chappaquiddick" an "excellent film" that shows how the "acidic glamour of power corrodes" Kennedy and many of those around him. He also stated his opinion that one exchange in the film was based on something he (Steyn) had written previously: in the film, Kennedy remarks that even acclaimed historical figures, such as Moses, had personal flaws, and his cousin Joe Gargan retorts, "Moses didn't leave a girl at the bottom of the Red Sea." Steyn noted that he had written something very similar in response to a 2009 column by Joan Vennochi praising Kennedy after his death.


title: Biocon

text: Biocon Limited is an Indian biopharmaceutical company based in Bangalore. It was founded by Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw in 1978. The company manufactures generic active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) that are sold in approximately 120 countries, including the United States and Europe. It also manufactures novel biologics as well as biosimilar insulins and antibodies, which are sold in India as branded formulations. Biocon's biosimilar products are also sold in both bulk and formulation forms in several emerging markets.


title: Biocon

text: Biocon's formulations for the Indian market include metabolics, oncology, immunotherapy and nephrology products. Some of Biocon's key brands in India include INSUGEN (rh-insulin), BASALOG (Glargine), BIOMAb EGFR (Nimotuzumab), BLISTO (Glimepiride + Metformin), CANMAb (Trastuzumab), Evertor (Everolimus), TACROGRAF (Tacrolimus), ALZUMAb(Itolizumab) and KRABEVA (Bevacizumab).


title: Biocon

text: Syngene International Limited (Syngene) is a publicly listed subsidiary of Biocon, operating in the contract research services space. Biocon and Syngene together employ about 9,200 personnel.


title: Biocon

text: Her efforts in biotechnology have drawn global recognition both for the industry in India and for Biocon and was called India's "biotech queen" by "The Economist" and India's "mother of invention" by "The New York Times". She was named among "Time" magazine's 2010 100 most influential people in the world based not only on her contribution to the biotech industry but also because she gives back to the community. Shaw features on the "Forbes" list of "The World's 100 Most Powerful Women" and in the "Financial Times" "Top 50 Women in Business" list.


title: Biocon

text: Shaw is the recipient of several awards including the Nikkei Asia Prize, 2009 for Regional Growth, Express Pharmaceutical Leadership Summit Award 2009 for Dynamic Entrepreneur, "The Economic Times" 'Businesswoman of the Year', the 'Veuve Clicquot Initiative For Economic Development For Asia, Ernst & Young's Entrepreneur of the Year Award for Life Sciences & Healthcare, 'Technology Pioneer' recognition by World Economic Forum and the Indian Chamber of Commerce Lifetime Achievement Award. She has received two Indian national awards—Padma Shri (1989) and Padma Bhushan (2005) for her pioneering efforts in Industrial Biotechnology.


title: Biocon

text: Biocon announced that Dr. Christiane Hamacher has been appointed as the CEO of Biocon Biologic India Limited, with her term having started in March 2019.


title: Biocon

text: On 3 December 2019, Siddharth Mittal took over from Dr. Arun Chandavarkar who retired as CEO & Joint Managing Director of Biocon.


title: Biocon

text: Biocon Biologics is Biocon's biosimilar subsidiary. In 2021 Biocon and Viatris received approval to launch Semglee, an insulin glargine-yfgn injection, which is the first interchangble biosimilar for diabetes in the United States. In 2021, Biocon Biologics sold 15% of the subsidiary to Serum Institute of India for a valuation of $4.9 billion, for which Biocon will receive access to 100 million doses of vaccines per annum for 15 years. These vaccines will mainly be supplied from Serum Institute's upcoming vaccine facility in Pune, and Biocon will also have the commercialization rights of Serum Institute's vaccine portfolio, which includes the COVID-19 vaccine, for the international markets. In May 2022, Viatris sold its biosimilars division to Biocon Biologies for a price of US$3.335 billion.


title: Biocon

text: Established in 1993, Syngene International Limited is a contract research and development organization (CDMO). In the CDMO space, Syngene primarily focuses on research innovation and manufacturing services for their clients. The company has four divisions: drug discovery services, dedicated research centres, development devices and manufacturing. Syngene works with eight of the top 10 global pharma firms and, the company's clients include Amgen, Zoetis, GlaxoSmithKline and Bristol Myers Squibb. Syngene has been expanding its operations. Since 2020, he company has opened an R&D centre in Hyderabad, is building an API manufacturing facility in Mangalore, which is scheduled to be commissioned in 2022, and has expanded their R&D facility in Bangalore. Syngene also provides biologics CDMO services. In July 2022, Syngene signed a 10-year agreement with Zoetis to manufacture the drug substance for Librela (bedinvetmab), a first-in-class monoclonal antibody used for treating osteoarthritis in dogs. SynVent is Syngene's drug discovery and development platform for both small and large molecules. In September 2022, Biocon divested 5.4% of its shares in Syngene International.


title: Biocon

text: Clinigene International Limited is a subsidiary on Syngene offering international pharmaceutical majors Phase I-IV clinical trials and studies for novel/generic molecules.


title: Biocon

text: Biocon established Biocon Biopharmaceuticals Pvt. Ltd. (BBPL) in 2003 as a joint venture with the Cuban institute CIMAB to develop and market a range of MAbs and cancer vaccines.


title: Biocon

text: In 2008, Biocon acquired a majority stake of 70% in AxiCorp GmbH, a German pharmaceutical marketing company.


title: Biocon

text: Incorporated in January 2008, NeoBiocon FZ LLC is a research and marketing pharmaceutical company based in Abu Dhabi.


title: Biocon

text: In 2009, Biocon and Amylin Pharmaceuticals of the United States entered into an agreement to develop, commercialise and manufacture a novel peptide therapeutic for the potential treatment of diabetes. Amylin provides expertise in peptide hormone development, particularly in the area of phybrid technology and metabolic disease therapeutics. Biocon will utilise its expertise in recombinant microbial expression and experience in preclinical and clinical development of diabetes products to manufacture the compound.


title: Biocon

text: In 2008, Biocon and IATRICa of the United States announced a strategic partnership to co-develop immunoconjugates for targeted immunotherapy of cancers and infectious diseases. The companies are co-developing candidate products based upon IATRICa's technology platform and Biocon's expertise in drug development, biologics manufacturing, and clinical research. The goal of this collaboration is to develop a therapeutic vaccine where the T cell mediated immunity is enhanced and maintained against a tumor which otherwise evades immune responses. Methods of developing, characterising and scaling up of conjugated monoclonal antibody production are being currently studied.


title: Biocon

text: In 2009, Biocon signed a collaboration agreement with Viatris to develop and commercialize generic biologics. Viatris and Biocon will share development, capital and other costs to bring products to market. Viatris will have exclusive commercialisation rights in USA, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, EU and European Free Trade Association countries through a profit sharing arrangement with Biocon.


title: Biocon

text: Biocon and Optimer Pharmaceuticals, a biopharmaceutical company focused on the treatment of serious infections such as Clostridium Difficile Infection (CDI), have entered into a long-term supply agreement for the commercial manufacturing of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, fidaxomicin.,


title: Biocon

text: Biocon is also developing fully human antibodies BVX 10 and BVX-20 with a US antibody technology partner, Vaccinex. The partnership was initiated in 2004. BVX 10 targets TNF (Tumor Necrosis Factor) which is expressed at high levels in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Biocon's strategic partnership with Vaccinex allows access to their proprietary human antibody platform technology, thereby providing a strong IP protection to Biocon's antibody pipeline.,


title: Biocon

text: In 2007, Biocon and Abraxis BioScience, Inc. entered into an agreement which helped Biocon out-license the rights to develop and market a biosimilar version of GCSF (Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor) to North American and European markets.


title: Biocon

text: In January 2018, Sandoz (a Novartis division) announced a global partnership with Biocon to develop, manufacture and commercialize multiple biosimilars in immunology and oncology for patients worldwide. .


title: Biocon

text: Biocon's R&D focuses on the entire drug development pathway – from process development to non-clinical and clinical research.


title: Biocon

text: Biocon offers 36 brands of products across the four therapeutic divisions of diabetology, nephrology, oncology, and cardiology.


title: Prairie oyster

text: A prairie oyster (sometimes also prairie cocktail) is a traditional beverage consisting of a raw egg (often yolk alone), Worcestershire sauce, vinegar and/or hot sauce, table salt, and ground black pepper. Tomato juice is sometimes added, reminiscent of a Bloody Mary. The egg is broken into a glass so as not to break the yolk. The mixture is quickly swallowed. The unbroken yolk causes the drink to bear a texture similar to that of an oyster. The concoction has been referred to as a traditional cure for hangovers, and has appeared in media for decades.


title: Prairie oyster

text: Though considered a traditional hangover remedy, the prairie oyster has not been scientifically proven to treat hangover symptoms. Headache experts say that a prairie oyster will not work as a remedy for a hangover.


title: Prairie oyster

text: It has been suggested that the raw egg in a prairie oyster may alleviate the symptoms of a hangover since eggs contain cysteine, an amino acid which helps the body break down acetaldehyde, a by-product of processing alcohol. However, there is no reliable evidence showing that consuming foods with this amino acid relieves hangover symptoms. Furthermore, research shows that amino acids in raw eggs are less digestible than amino acids in cooked eggs.


title: Prairie oyster

text: It has also been suggested that a prairie oyster may seem to relieve hangover symptoms by acting as a distraction and a placebo.


title: Prairie oyster

text: The prairie oyster has appeared in popular media since the early 20th century. Notable appearances include:


title: Mechanical pencil

text: A mechanical pencil, also clutch pencil, is a pencil with a replaceable and mechanically extendable solid pigment core called a "lead" . The lead, often made of graphite, is not bonded to the outer casing, and can be mechanically extended as its point is worn away as it is being used.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Other names include: microtip pencil, automatic pencil, drafting pencil, technical pencil, click pencil (generally refers to a specific brand), pump pencil, leadholder, Pacer (Australian English, ca. the 1980s), propelling pencil (British and Australian English, often refers to higher-end mechanical pencils), pen pencil (Indian English), and lead pencil (Bangladeshi and American English).


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Mechanical pencils are used to provide lines of constant width, without need of sharpening, for tasks such as technical drawing as well as for clean looking writing. They are also used for fine-art drawing. Since they do not have to be sharpened, they are also popular with students. Mechanical pencils were first used in the 18th century, with many designs patented in the 19th and 20th centuries.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Conrad Gesner described a lead holder pencil in 1565, but the lead had to be manually adjusted to sharpen it. The earliest extant example of a mechanical pencil was found aboard the wreckage of HMS "Pandora", which sank in 1791.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: The first patent for a refillable pencil with lead-propelling mechanism was issued to Sampson Mordan and John Isaac Hawkins in Britain in 1822. After buying out Hawkins' patent rights, Mordan entered into a business partnership with Gabriel Riddle from 1823 to 1837. The earliest Mordan pencils are thus hallmarked SMGR. After 1837, Mordan ended his partnership with Riddle and continued to manufacture pencils as "S. Mordan & Co". His company continued to manufacture pencils and a wide range of silver objects until World War II, when the factory was bombed.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Between 1822 and 1874, more than 160 patents were registered pertaining to a variety of improvements to mechanical pencils. The first spring-loaded mechanical pencil was patented in 1877 and a twist-feed mechanism was developed in 1895. The 0.9  mm lead was introduced in 1938, and later it was followed by 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 sizes. Eventually, 1.3 and 1.4  mm mechanisms were available, and 0.4 and 0.2 versions are now produced.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: The mechanical pencil became successful in Japan with some improvements in 1915 by Tokuji Hayakawa, a metalworker who had just finished his apprenticeship. It was introduced as the "Ever-Ready Sharp Pencil". Success was not immediate since the metal shaft—essential for the pencil's long life—was unfamiliar to users. The Ever-Ready Sharp began selling in huge numbers after a company from Tokyo and Osaka made large orders. Later, Tokuji Hayakawa's company got its name from that pencil: Sharp.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: At nearly the same time in the US, Charles R. Keeran was developing a similar pencil that would be the precursor of most of today's pencils. Keeran's design was ratchet-based, whereas Hayakawa's was screw-based. These two development histories – Hayakawa and Keeran – are often mistakenly combined into one. Keeran patented his lead pencil in 1915 and soon afterwards arranged production. After some improvements, his design was marketed as the "Eversharp" pencil by the Wahl Adding Machine Company; by the early 1920s, Wahl had sold more than 12,000,000 Eversharps.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Some of the manufacturers are: Pentel, Pilot, Tombow, Uni-ball and Zebra of Japan; Faber-Castell, Lamy, Rotring and Staedtler of Germany; Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth of the Czech Republic; Bic of France; Monami of South Korea; PaperMate and Parker of USA; Caran d'Ache of Switzerland and numerous Chinese as well as other Asian and European manufacturers.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Mechanical pencils can be divided into two basic types: those that both hold the lead and can actively propel it forward, and those that only hold the lead in position.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Screw-based pencils advance the lead by twisting a screw, which moves a slider down the barrel of the pencil. This was the most common type in the earlier part of the twentieth century. Many of these have a locking mechanism one way to allow the lead to be pushed back into the pencil.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: A clutch pencil (or leadholder) tends to use thicker leads (2.0–5.6 mm) and generally holds only one piece of lead at a time. A typical clutch pencil is activated by pressing the eraser cap on the top, to open the jaws inside the tip and allow the lead to freely drop through from the barrel (or back into it when retracting). Because the lead falls out freely when the jaws are opened, its forward movement cannot be controlled except by external means. This can be easily done by keeping the tip of the pencil a few millimeters above a work surface or the palm of one's hand. Some clutch pencils do have mechanisms which incrementally advance the lead, such as the Alvin Tech-Matic leadholder, but these are not normally considered to be in the same category as most pencils with propelling mechanisms.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Ratchet-based pencils are a variant of the clutch pencil, in which the lead is held in place by two or three small jaws inside a ring at the tip. The jaws are controlled by a button on the end or the side of the pencil. When the button is pushed, the jaws move forward and separate, allowing the lead to advance. When the button is released and the jaws retract, the "lead retainer" (a small rubber device inside the tip) keeps the lead in place, preventing the lead from either falling freely outward or riding back up into the barrel until the jaws recover their grip. Other designs use a precisely-fitted metal sleeve to guide and support the lead, and do not need a rubber retainer.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: In one type of ratchet-based pencil, shaking the pencil back and forth causes a weight inside the pencil to operate a mechanism in the cap. A button may be present on the top or side of the pencil, to allow the user to advance the lead manually when necessary. Another variation advances the lead automatically. In this design, the lead is advanced by a ratchet but only prevented from going back into the pencil, just held from falling by a small amount of friction. The nib is a spring-loaded collar that, when depressed as the lead is worn away, extends out again when pressure is released.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: An advanced ratchet type has a mechanism that rotates the pencil lead 9° counter-clockwise every time the lead is pressed on to the paper (which counts as one stroke), to distribute wear evenly. This "auto-rotation" mechanism keeps the lead 50% narrower than in the common propelling mechanical pencils, resulting in uniform thickness of the lines written onto the paper. The design was first patented by Schmidt of Germany, and later developed by Mitsubishi Pencil Company of Japan, and named "Kuru Toga" under the Uni brand. This type of pencil is most suited for Asian languages that have multiple strokes per letter or word, where the pencil is frequently lifted off the paper. The mechanism is less suitable for cursive writing used in western scripts. Another recent auto-rotation movement by Uni rotates the lead 18 degrees per stroke (or 20 strokes per complete revolution), which is better suited for western scripts.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: There exist protection mechanisms that prevent the lead from breaking (within certain limits) when excessive pressure is exerted while writing. A mechanism employed in the "DelGuard" system by Zebra of Japan causes the lead sleeve to extend outward when excessive pressure is applied at an angle. When excess vertical pressure is applied on the lead, the lead is automatically retracted inwards.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Higher-end mechanical pencils often feature a lead hardness grade indicator and sometimes feature a retractable lead guide pipe. This allows the lead guide pipe to retract back into the pencil body, which will keep it protected in storage and during transit and makes it 'pocket-safe'.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: In spite of the name, pencil leads do not contain the toxic chemical element lead, but are typically made with graphite and clay, or plastic polymers. Compared to standard pencils, mechanical pencils have a smaller range of marking types, though numerous variations exist. Most mechanical pencils can be refilled, but some inexpensive models are meant to be disposable and are discarded when empty.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Mechanical pencil mechanisms use only a single lead diameter. Some pencils, such as the Pentel Function 357, place several mechanisms within the same housing, so as to offer a range of thicknesses (in this case three: 0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 mm). 1.00 mm leads also exist, but they are very rare. (See table below.).


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Different sizes of lead diameters are available to accommodate various preferences and pencil builds, as shown in the table below. The more common lead sizes are 0.5 mm and 0.7 mm, whose line widths provide a favourable balance between precision and strength. Less common lead sizes can range from 0.2 mm up to 5.6 mm. Pentel has also previously demonstrated a prototype 0.1 mm pencil.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Pencils with sub-millimeter leads can usually hold multiple leads at the same time, reducing the frequency of refills. One exception was the Pentel 350 E, possibly Pentel's first mechanical pencil, which could only hold a single stick of 0.5 mm lead. Refill leads can be bought in small tubes and inserted into the barrel as needed.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: As with non-mechanical pencils, the leads of mechanical pencils are available in a range of hardness ratings, depending on the user's desired balance between darkness and durability. A commonly-used mechanical pencil lead is identical in density, but not in thickness to a traditional HB (US#2) pencil lead.


title: Mechanical pencil

text: Mechanical pencils with colored leads are less common, but do exist. Crayola's "Twistable" product line includes two different types of colored pencils (erasable and non-erasable) with mechanical feed mechanisms, but does not offer refill leads. Several companies such as Pentel, Pilot, and Uni-ball (Mitsubishi Pencil Co.) currently manufacture colored refill leads in a limited range of diameters (0.5 mm, 0.7 mm, or 2.0 mm) for their own products. Koh-i-Noor makes mechanical colored pencils with replaceable leads in 2.0, 3.15 and 5.6 mm sizes.


title: Dandan noodles

text: Dandan noodles or dandanmian (), literally "carrying-pole noodles", is a noodle dish originating from Chinese Sichuan cuisine. It consists of a spicy sauce usually containing preserved vegetables (often including "zha cai" (榨菜), lower enlarged mustard stems, or "ya cai" (芽菜), upper mustard stems), chili oil, Sichuan pepper, minced pork, and scallions served over noodles. The dish can either be served dry or as a noodle soup.


title: Dandan noodles

text: The "dandanmian" originated in Chengdu, the capital of Sichuan province. The original dish is served with no soup in a small bowl covered in a "mala" meat sauce and pickled vegetables, with peanuts and spring onions served on top. The soup variant is from Hong Kong and is more widespread across the rest of China but it is uncommon in Sichuan itself where the authentic style dominates.


title: Dandan noodles

text: Sesame paste or peanut butter is sometimes added, and occasionally replaces the spicy sauce, usually in the American Chinese style of the dish. In this case, "dandanmian" is considered as a variation of "ma jiang mian" (麻醬麵), sesame sauce noodles, although "ma jiang mian" usually refers to a specific Shanghainese dish.


title: Dandan noodles

text: The name refers to a type of carrying pole ("dan dan") that was used by walking street vendors who sold the dish to passers-by. The pole was carried over the shoulder, with two baskets containing noodles and sauce attached at either end. As the noodles were affordable due to their low cost, the local people gradually came to call them "dandan" noodles, referencing the street vendors. The name translates directly as "noodles carried on a pole", but may be better translated as "peddler's noodles".


title: Dandan noodles

text: A variety of English spellings are used. The first word may be either "dandan", "dundun" or "tantan", and the last word may also be spelled "mein" (Cantonese pronunciation).


title: Dandan noodles

text: The same sauce is frequently served over poached chicken (called "bonbon" or "bangbang" chicken (棒棒鸡)), and on steamed, meat-filled dumplings in another Sichuan dish called "suanla chaoshou". The corresponding Japanese dish is "tantan-men," a form of ramen (formally 担担麺, as in Chinese, but often written with 々, or with 坦 instead of 担).


title: Kofi Cockburn

text: Kofi Cockburn ( ; born 1 September 1999) is a Jamaican professional basketball player who currently plays for Niigata Albirex of the Japanese B. League. He played college basketball for the Illinois Fighting Illini.


title: Kofi Cockburn

text: Cockburn was born in Kingston, Jamaica, and in 2014, moved to Queens, New York, to be with his mother, who had moved to Queens in 2009. In addition to his participation in basketball at a young age, Cockburn also played soccer, cricket, and ran in track and field.


title: Kofi Cockburn

text: Cockburn first enrolled in high school at St. Andrew Technical High in Kingston Jamaican then Christ the King Regional High School in Middle Village, New York. He played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball for the New York (NY) Rens, and was teammates with his future Illinois teammate Alan Griffin. During the summer of 2018 on the Nike Elite Youth Basketball League (EYBL) circuit with the NY Rens, Cockburn averaged 16.3 points and 10.3 rebounds per game, while shooting 53.9 percent from the field. Prior to his junior year, Cockburn was selected to participate in the 2017 Basketball Without Borders Americas camp that was held in Nassau, Bahamas. After his junior season, Cockburn was named to the World Team for the 2018 Nike Hoop Summit. For his senior season, Cockburn transferred to Oak Hill Academy in Mouth of Wilson, Virginia, where he was teammates with fellow five-star recruits Cole Anthony and Cameron Thomas.


title: Kofi Cockburn

text: Prior to his senior high school season at Oak Hill Academy, Cockburn held 26 scholarship offers and narrowed the list of schools he was considering to 12, which included Cincinnati, Florida State, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, LSU, Oregon, Pittsburgh, South Carolina, St. John's, Syracuse, and UConn. Citing his relationship with Illinois assistant coach Orlando Antigua and the rest of the Illinois coaching staff, Cockburn committed to playing college basketball for Illinois on 6 January 2019. Cockburn was a consensus four-star recruit and was considered a top 50 player in the 2019 class.


title: Kofi Cockburn

text: In his debut for Illinois, Cockburn had 10 points and 11 rebounds to help defeat Nicholls 78–70 in overtime. The following game, Cockburn scored 23 points and pulled down 14 rebounds in a 83–71 win over Grand Canyon. Cockburn was named Big Ten player of the week on 25 November after setting a school freshman record for rebounds in a game with 17 to go along with 18 points in a win versus The Citadel. On 11 December 2020, Cockburn had 19 points, 10 rebounds and four blocks in a 71–62 victory over 5th ranked Michigan, Illinois' first win over a top-five program since 2013. At the close of the regular season, Cockburn was named Big Ten Freshman of the Year. He was selected to the Third Team All-Big Ten by the media and was Honorable Mention All-Conference according to the coaches. As a freshman, Cockburn was Illinois’ second-leading scorer and top rebounder, averaging 13.3 points and 8.8 rebounds per game while leading the Illini with 1.4 blocks per game. He shot 53.2 percent from the floor and 67.7 percent at the foul line. Following the season, he declared for the 2020 NBA draft. Cockburn announced he was pulling out of the draft on August 1 and returning for his sophomore season.


title: Kofi Cockburn

text: As a sophomore, Cockburn averaged 17.7 points, 9.5 rebounds and 1.3 blocks per game, shooting 65.4 percent from the field. He was a Second Team All-American and First Team All-Big Ten selection. Following the season, he declared for the 2021 NBA draft and entered the transfer portal. Cockburn ultimately returned for his junior season at Illinois. He was suspended for the first three games of his junior season due to selling apparel and memorabilia. On 26 November 2021, Cockburn scored a career-high 38 points along with 10 rebounds in a 94–85 win against Texas–Rio Grande Valley. He was named to the First Team All-Big Ten. As a junior, Cockburn averaged 20.9 points and 10.6 rebounds per game. On 20 April 2022, he declared for the 2022 NBA draft, forgoing his remaining college eligibility.


title: 1993–94 FA Premier League

text: The 1993–94 FA Premier League (known as the FA Carling Premiership for sponsorship reasons) was the second season of the Premier League, the top division of professional football in England. Manchester United won the league by eight points over nearest challengers Blackburn Rovers, their second consecutive league title. Swindon Town finished bottom of the league in their first season of top-flight football and were relegated along with Sheffield United and Oldham Athletic. Manchester United also broke their own record of the most points in a season, set by themselves the previous season. This would be surpassed by Chelsea in the 2004–05 season.


title: 1993–94 FA Premier League

text: Just before the start of the season, Roy Keane became the most expensive footballer signed by an English football team. The 22-year-old Irish midfielder left relegated Nottingham Forest for Manchester United for a fee of £3.75 million.


title: 1993–94 FA Premier League

text: During the 1993–94 season, many players were transferred between Premier League clubs for fees exceeding £1 million. They included David White (Manchester City to Leeds United), David Rocastle (Leeds United to Manchester City), Roy Wegerle (Blackburn Rovers to Coventry City) and Tim Flowers (Southampton to Blackburn Rovers). At £2.5 million, Flowers became the most expensive goalkeeper in English football.


title: 1993–94 FA Premier League

text: Manchester United led the 1993–94 Premier League for almost all of the season, eventually finishing as champions eight points ahead of runners-up Blackburn Rovers. They also won the FA Cup after beating Chelsea 4–0 in the final, thereby becoming only the fourth team to achieve this feat in the 20th century (after Tottenham in 1961, Arsenal in 1971 and Liverpool in 1986). Their lead of the Premier League stood at 11 points by the end of October and peaked at 16 points two months later, but a run of bad results in March was followed by defeat at Blackburn at the beginning of April, which meant that they now led the league merely on goal difference. A return to form then saw United seal the league title with two games still to play.


title: 1993–94 FA Premier League

text: Norwich City, Leeds United, Newcastle United, Everton and Aston Villa were among the sides who showed promise early in the season before Manchester United established a runaway lead. Norwich reached the third round of the UEFA Cup after famously beating Bayern Munich in the second round, but their league form slumped after manager Mike Walker departed to Everton in January, and the Norfolk side finished 12th. Everton's brief lead of the league in the opening stages of the season was followed by a slump in form, and manager Howard Kendall stepped down at the beginning of December with the Toffees now in the bottom half of the table. They only narrowly avoided relegation on the final day of the season. Aston Villa finished a disappointing 10th in the league, but won the Football League Cup for the fourth time.


title: 1993–94 FA Premier League

text: Finishing runners-up in the Premier League were Blackburn Rovers. In third place came Newcastle United, whose 22-year-old striker Andy Cole was the Premier League's leading scorer with 34 goals in 40 games, with a total of 41 goals in all competitions. In fourth place came Arsenal, who achieved success in European competition with a 1–0 win over Parma in the Cup Winners' Cup final.


title: 1993–94 FA Premier League

text: Swindon Town managed just five league wins all season and were relegated in bottom place having conceded 100 league goals in 42 games. Oldham Athletic, who had avoided relegation on goal difference the previous season, were relegated on the final day of the season after failing to win at Norwich City. The final relegation place went to Sheffield United, who were relegated from the top flight after a 3–2 defeat at Chelsea, with the winning goal coming in injury time (a draw would have been enough to survive, and a loss would have still been enough had Everton not won their final match, 3–2 at home to Wimbledon after coming from 0–2 down).


title: 1993–94 FA Premier League

text: Twenty-two teams competed in the league – the top nineteen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the First Division. The promoted teams were Newcastle United, West Ham United and Swindon Town. Newcastle United and West Ham United returned to the top flight after absences of four and one year respectively, while Swindon Town played in the top flight for the first time. They replaced Crystal Palace, Middlesbrough and Nottingham Forest, ending their top flight spells of four, one and sixteen years respectively.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: The Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) is the second-largest Presbyterian church body, behind the Presbyterian Church (USA), and the largest conservative Calvinist denomination in the United States. The PCA is Reformed in theology and presbyterian in government.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: Presbyterians trace their history to the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. The Presbyterian heritage, and much of its theology, began with the French theologian and lawyer John Calvin (1509–64), whose writings solidified much of the Reformed thinking that came before him in the form of the sermons and writings of Huldrych Zwingli. From Calvin's headquarters in Geneva, the Reformed movement spread to other parts of Europe. John Knox, a former Catholic priest from Scotland who studied with Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland, took Calvin's teachings back to Scotland and led the Scottish Reformation of 1560. As a result, the Church of Scotland embraced Reformed theology and presbyterian polity. Immigrants from Scotland and Ireland brought Presbyterianism to America as early as 1640, and immigration would remain a large source of growth throughout the colonial era. Another source of growth were a number of New England Puritans who left the Congregational churches because they preferred presbyterian polity. In 1706, seven ministers led by Francis Makemie established the first American presbytery at Philadelphia, which was followed by the creation of the Synod of Philadelphia in 1717.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: The PCA has its roots in theological controversies over liberalism in Christianity and neo-orthodoxy that had been a point of contention in the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. (formerly the Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America) which had split from the mainline Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A along regional lines at the beginning of the Civil War. While the Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy had led to a split in the PC-USA in the mid-1930s, leading to the formation of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church and Bible Presbyterian Church, the PCUS remained intact. However, beginning in 1942, as the PCUS began to experiment with confessional revision, and later, when neo-orthodoxy and liberalism began to become influential in the PCUS' seminaries, and attempts were made to merge with the more liberal PC-USA and its successor, the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., renewal groups began to be formed, including the Presbyterian Churchmen United, which had been formed by more than 500 ministers and ran 3/4-page statements of their beliefs in 30 newspapers, the Presbyterian Evangelistic Fellowship, conducted revivals in PCUS churches, the Concerned Presbyterians, and the Presbyterian Churchmen United (PCU), an organization of conservative pastors in the Southern Presbyterian Church. They sought to reaffirm the Westminster Confession of Faith as the fullest and clearest exposition of biblical faith, which many conservatives felt that presbyteries had been violating by receiving ministers who refused to affirm the virgin birth and bodily resurrection, and to expect all pastors and leaders to affirm the inerrancy of scripture. Opponents of the merger took specific issue with the United Presbyterian Church's adherence to the Auburn Affirmation and the Confession of 1967; the Southern Presbyterian denomination rejected the adoption of these confessions as official standards, noting amorphous biblical doctrine, lax sexual ethic, and conversations with other church bodies that rejected the Reformed faith, such as those explored by the Consultation on Church Union.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: It remains controversial as to whether racial tensions may have contributed to the formation of the PCA. Many in the PCA have adamantly maintained that race played little role in the genesis of the new denomination, but many outside the PCA have a historical memory of racial animus irrefutably contributing to the desire for exodus from the Southern Presbyterian denomination, the PCUS. However, on June 23, 2016, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in America voted to approve a statement on racial reconciliation that specifically recognized "corporate and historical sins, including those committed during the Civil Rights era, and continuing racial sins of ourselves and our fathers such as the segregation of worshipers by race; the exclusion of persons from Church membership on the basis of race; the exclusion of churches, or elders, from membership in the Presbyteries on the basis of race; the teaching that the Bible sanctions racial segregation and discourages inter-racial marriage; the participation in and defense of white supremacist organizations; and the failure to live out the gospel imperative that ‘love does no wrong to a neighbor’ (Romans 13:10)." This admission of "historical sins" during the Civil Rights era has helped to ameliorate the conflict that some black members of the PCA may have felt about the denomination's failure to fully embrace and protect the rights of African Americans both within and outside of the church during the PCA's formative years.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: Conservatives also felt the church should disavow the ordination of women. They also criticized the PCUS Board of Christian Education's published literature and believed that the denomination's Board of World Missions no longer placed its primary emphasis on carrying out the Great Commission. In 1966, conservatives within the PCUS, concerned about the denominational seminaries founded Reformed Theological Seminary.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: Finally, when word came out that a planned Plan of Union between the UPCUSA and PCUS lacked an "escape clause" which would have allowed for PCUS congregations that wanted no part in the planned union to leave without forfeiture of property, the steering committee of several of the renewal groups called for conservative PCUS congregations to leave.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: In December 1973, delegates, representing some 260 congregations with a combined communicant membership of over 41,000 that had left the PCUS, gathered at Briarwood Presbyterian Church in Birmingham, Alabama, and organized the National Presbyterian Church, which later became the Presbyterian Church in America.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: After protests from a UPCUSA congregation of the same name in Washington, D.C., the denomination at its Second General Assembly (1974) renamed itself the National Reformed Presbyterian Church, then adopted its present name the next day. At its founding, the PCA consisted of 16 presbyteries.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: During the 1970s, the denomination added a significant number of congregations outside the South when several UPCUSA churches in Ohio and Pennsylvania joined. This move was precipitated by a case regarding an ordination candidate, Wynn Kenyon, denied by the Pittsburgh Presbytery because he refused to support women's ordination (a decision upheld by the UPCUSA General Assembly). The seceder churches formed the Ascension Presbytery, officially organised on July 29, 1975. That year, a minister of that presbytery described its history as follows:


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: For example, seceders from Union UPCUSA formed Providence Presbyterian Church in Pittsburgh under the leadership of Rev. Broadwick.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: Dozens of churches from the Midwest become part of the Presbyterian Church in America leaving the Synod of the West of the PC(USA) then the United Presbyterian Church in the USA. This become Siouxlands Presbytery composed of only South Dakota, but in 1982 the Joining and Receiving took place with the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod, boundaries were expanded to cover Minnesota, North Dakota, Nebraska and Iowa.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: In the state of Michigan dissenting Christian Reformed and RCA church members, about 75 households formed Covenant Presbyterian Church in Holland, MI in 1996 under the leadership of Rev. Tom Vanden Heuvel, former pastor of First Christian Reformed Church (Grand Rapids, Michigan), who cited that Christian Reformed Church(CRC) has departed from its original commitment to the clarity of Scripture, the authority of Scripture. In that time another CRC church joined the PCA in Texas, as well as in New York, the Monsey Christian Church.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: Dissenting conservative Southern Presbyterian Churches joined the PCA until the early 1990s. Early PCA growth was largely through secessions from the Southern Presbyterian Church (PCUS), which from 1983 to 1990 allowed churches to leave with their property. About 110 to 120 churches did come in during that period of time to the PCA with their properties, allowed by various PC(USA) Presbyteries. Since that time, PCA growth has been largely through church planting and local congregational outreach rather than by transfers of entire churches from other denominations. PC(USA) ministers are now required to agree with the ordination of women, which the PCA opposes. However, since 1996 about 23 PC(USA) congregations have joined the PCA. As of the 2014 PC(USA) General assembly, most churches withdrawing from the PC(USA) are joining the Evangelical Presbyterian Church or the newly formed ECO due to their acceptance of women ministers, though since then many conservative PC(USA) groups and even whole congregations have affiliated with the PCA.


title: Presbyterian Church in America

text: In 1982, the PCA merged with the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod (RPCES), with 25,673 communicant members and 482 ministers in 189 congregations in the United States as well as in a few Canadian provinces. Discussions had begun in 1979 with the Reformed Presbyterian Church, Evangelical Synod, which had itself come about due to a merger between the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (formerly the Bible Presbyterian Church – Columbus Synod and not the current denomination of the same name) and the Reformed Presbyterian Church, General Synod (a group of "New Light" Covenanters). The RPCES brought to the PCA a more broadly national base of membership with a denominational college, Covenant College, and a seminary, Covenant Theological Seminary. Previously, the PCA had relied on independent evangelical institutions such as Reformed Theological Seminary in Jackson, Mississippi and Westminster Theological Seminary in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.