title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Named after the French mathematician Évariste Galois, an LFSR in Galois configuration, which is also known as modular, internal XORs, or one-to-many LFSR, is an alternate structure that can generate the same output stream as a conventional LFSR (but offset in time). In the Galois configuration, when the system is clocked, bits that are not taps are shifted one position to the right unchanged. The taps, on the other hand, are XORed with the output bit before they are stored in the next position. The new output bit is the next input bit. The effect of this is that when the output bit is zero, all the bits in the register shift to the right unchanged, and the input bit becomes zero. When the output bit is one, the bits in the tap positions all flip (if they are 0, they become 1, and if they are 1, they become 0), and then the entire register is shifted to the right and the input bit becomes 1.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: To generate the same output stream, the order of the taps is the "counterpart" (see above) of the order for the conventional LFSR, otherwise the stream will be in reverse. Note that the internal state of the LFSR is not necessarily the same. The Galois register shown has the same output stream as the Fibonacci register in the first section. A time offset exists between the streams, so a different startpoint will be needed to get the same output each cycle.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: The branch if (lsb) lfsr ^= 0xB400u;can also be written as lfsr ^= (-lsb) & 0xB400u; which may produce more efficient code on some compilers. In addition, the left-shifting variant may produce even better code, as the msb is the carry from the addition of codice_3 to itself.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Binary Galois LFSRs like the ones shown above can be generalized to any "q"-ary alphabet {0, 1, ..., "q" − 1} (e.g., for binary, "q" = 2, and the alphabet is simply {0, 1}). In this case, the exclusive-or component is generalized to addition modulo-"q" (note that XOR is addition modulo 2), and the feedback bit (output bit) is multiplied (modulo-"q") by a "q"-ary value, which is constant for each specific tap point. Note that this is also a generalization of the binary case, where the feedback is multiplied by either 0 (no feedback, i.e., no tap) or 1 (feedback is present). Given an appropriate tap configuration, such LFSRs can be used to generate Galois fields for arbitrary prime values of "q".


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: As shown by George Marsaglia and further analysed by Richard P. Brent, linear feedback shift registers can be implemented using XOR and Shift operations. This approach lends itself to fast execution in software because these operations typically map efficiently into modern processor instructions.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Below is a C code example for a 16-bit maximal-period Xorshift LFSR using the 7,9,13 triplet from John Metcalf:


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Binary LFSRs of both Fibonacci and Galois configurations can be expressed as linear functions using matrices in formula_2 (see GF(2)). Using the companion matrix of the characteristic polynomial of the LFSR and denoting the seed as a column vector formula_3, the state of the register in Fibonacci configuration after formula_4 steps is given by


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: The following table lists examples of maximal-length feedback polynomials (primitive polynomials) for shift-register lengths up to 24. The formalism for maximum-length LFSRs was developed by Solomon W. Golomb in his 1967 book. The number of different primitive polynomials grows exponentially with shift-register length and can be calculated exactly using Euler's totient function .


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Xilinx published an extend list of tap counters up to 168 bit. Tables of maximum length polynomials are available from http://users.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/lfsr/ and can be generated by the https://github.com/hayguen/mlpolygen project.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: LFSRs can be implemented in hardware, and this makes them useful in applications that require very fast generation of a pseudo-random sequence, such as direct-sequence spread spectrum radio. LFSRs have also been used for generating an approximation of white noise in various programmable sound generators.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: The repeating sequence of states of an LFSR allows it to be used as a clock divider or as a counter when a non-binary sequence is acceptable, as is often the case where computer index or framing locations need to be machine-readable. LFSR counters have simpler feedback logic than natural binary counters or Gray-code counters, and therefore can operate at higher clock rates. However, it is necessary to ensure that the LFSR never enters an all-zeros state, for example by presetting it at start-up to any other state in the sequence.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: The table of primitive polynomials shows how LFSRs can be arranged in Fibonacci or Galois form to give maximal periods. One can obtain any other period by adding to an LFSR that has a longer period some logic that shortens the sequence by skipping some states.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: LFSRs have long been used as pseudo-random number generators for use in stream ciphers, due to the ease of construction from simple electromechanical or electronic circuits, long periods, and very uniformly distributed output streams. However, an LFSR is a linear system, leading to fairly easy cryptanalysis. For example, given a stretch of known plaintext and corresponding ciphertext, an attacker can intercept and recover a stretch of LFSR output stream used in the system described, and from that stretch of the output stream can construct an LFSR of minimal size that simulates the intended receiver by using the Berlekamp-Massey algorithm. This LFSR can then be fed the intercepted stretch of output stream to recover the remaining plaintext.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Important LFSR-based stream ciphers include A5/1 and A5/2, used in GSM cell phones, E0, used in Bluetooth, and the shrinking generator. The A5/2 cipher has been broken and both A5/1 and E0 have serious weaknesses.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: LFSRs are used in circuit testing for test-pattern generation (for exhaustive testing, pseudo-random testing or pseudo-exhaustive testing) and for signature analysis.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Complete LFSR are commonly used as pattern generators for exhaustive testing, since they cover all possible inputs for an "n"-input circuit. Maximal-length LFSRs and weighted LFSRs are widely used as pseudo-random test-pattern generators for pseudo-random test applications.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: In built-in self-test (BIST) techniques, storing all the circuit outputs on chip is not possible, but the circuit output can be compressed to form a signature that will later be compared to the golden signature (of the good circuit) to detect faults. Since this compression is lossy, there is always a possibility that a faulty output also generates the same signature as the golden signature and the faults cannot be detected. This condition is called error masking or aliasing. BIST is accomplished with a multiple-input signature register (MISR or MSR), which is a type of LFSR. A standard LFSR has a single XOR or XNOR gate, where the input of the gate is connected to several "taps" and the output is connected to the input of the first flip-flop. A MISR has the same structure, but the input to every flip-flop is fed through an XOR/XNOR gate. For example, a 4-bit MISR has a 4-bit parallel output and a 4-bit parallel input. The input of the first flip-flop is XOR/XNORd with parallel input bit zero and the "taps". Every other flip-flop input is XOR/XNORd with the preceding flip-flop output and the corresponding parallel input bit. Consequently, the next state of the MISR depends on the last several states opposed to just the current state. Therefore, a MISR will always generate the same golden signature given that the input sequence is the same every time.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Recent applications are proposing set-reset flip-flops as "taps" of the LFSR. This allows the BIST system to optimise storage, since set-reset flip-flops can save the initial seed to generate the whole stream of bits from the LFSR. Nevertheless, this requires changes in the architecture of BIST, is an option for specific applications.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: To prevent short repeating sequences (e.g., runs of 0s or 1s) from forming spectral lines that may complicate symbol tracking at the


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: receiver or interfere with other transmissions, the data bit sequence is combined with the output of a linear-feedback register before modulation and transmission. This scrambling is removed at the receiver after demodulation. When the LFSR runs at the same bit rate as the transmitted symbol stream, this technique is referred to as scrambling. When the LFSR runs considerably faster than the symbol stream, the LFSR-generated bit sequence is called "chipping code". The chipping code is combined with the data using exclusive or before transmitting using binary phase-shift keying or a similar modulation method. The resulting signal has a higher bandwidth than the data, and therefore this is a method of spread-spectrum communication. When used only for the spread-spectrum property, this technique is called direct-sequence spread spectrum; when used to distinguish several signals transmitted in the same channel at the same time and frequency, it is called code-division multiple access.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: Neither scheme should be confused with encryption or encipherment; scrambling and spreading with LFSRs do "not" protect the information from eavesdropping. They are instead used to produce equivalent streams that possess convenient engineering properties to allow robust and efficient modulation and demodulation.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: LFSRs are also used in radio jamming systems to generate pseudo-random noise to raise the noise floor of a target communication system.


title: Linear-feedback shift register

text: The German time signal DCF77, in addition to amplitude keying, employs phase-shift keying driven by a 9-stage LFSR to increase the accuracy of received time and the robustness of the data stream in the presence of noise.


title: Triple bar

text: The triple bar, or tribar ≡, is a symbol with multiple, context-dependent meanings. It has the appearance of an equals sign  sign with a third line. The triple bar character in Unicode is code point . The closely related code point is the same symbol with a slash through it, indicating the negation of its mathematical meaning. In LaTeX mathematical formulas, the code codice_1 produces the triple bar symbol and codice_2 produces the negated triple bar symbol as output.


title: Triple bar

text: In logic, it is used with two different but related meanings. It can refer to the if and only if connective, also called material equivalence. This is a binary operation whose value is true when its two arguments have the same value as each other. Alternatively, in some texts ⇔ is used with this meaning, while ≡ is used for the higher-level metalogical notion of logical equivalence, according to which two formulas are logically equivalent when all models give them the same value. Gottlob Frege used a triple bar for a more philosophical notion of identity, in which two statements (not necessarily in mathematics or formal logic) are identical if they can be freely substituted for each other without change of meaning.


title: Triple bar

text: In mathematics, the triple bar is sometimes used as a symbol of identity or an equivalence relation (although not the only one; other common choices include ~ and ≈). Particularly, in geometry, it may be used either to show that two figures are congruent or that they are identical. In number theory, it has been used beginning with Carl Friedrich Gauss (who first used it with this meaning in 1801) to mean modular congruence: formula_1 if "N" divides "a" − "b".


title: Triple bar

text: In category theory, triple bars may be used to connect objects in a commutative diagram, indicating that they are actually the same object rather than being connected by an arrow of the category.


title: Triple bar

text: This symbol is also sometimes used in place of an equal sign for equations that define the symbol on the left-hand side of the equation, to contrast them with equations in which the terms on both sides of the equation were already defined. An alternative notation for this usage is to typeset the letters "def" above an ordinary equality sign, formula_2.


title: Triple bar

text: In botanical nomenclature, the triple bar denotes homotypic synonyms (those based on the same type specimen), to distinguish them from heterotypic synonyms (those based on different type specimens), which are marked with an equals sign.


title: Triple bar

text: In chemistry, the triple bar can be used to represent a triple bond between atoms. For example, HC≡CH is a common shorthand for acetylene (systematic name: ethyne).


title: Triple bar

text: In mobile, web, and general application design, a similar symbol is sometimes used as an interface element, where it is called a hamburger icon. The element typically indicates that a navigation menu can be accessed when the element is activated; the bars of the symbol may be seen as stylized menu items, and some variations of this symbols add more bars, or bullet points to each bar, to enhance this visual similarity. Usage of this symbol dates back to the early computer interfaces developed at Xerox PARC in the 1980s. It is also similar to the icon frequently used to indicate justified text alignment. It is an oft-used component of Google's Material Design guidelines and many Android apps and web apps that follow these guidelines make use of the hamburger menu.


title: Julie Cypher

text: Julie Cypher (born August 24, 1964) is an American film director best known for being the former partner of musician Melissa Etheridge and former spouse of Lou Diamond Phillips.


title: Julie Cypher

text: Cypher was born in Wichita, Kansas, to Dick and Betty ("" Jackson) Cypher, and has an older sister named Melanie. She attended the University of Texas at Austin studying television and film.


title: Julie Cypher

text: She married actor Lou Diamond Phillips on September 17, 1987. Two years later, she met Etheridge while assisting on the music video for the single "Bring Me Some Water", and split with Phillips in 1990 to start a relationship with Etheridge. Cypher directed the 1995 film "Teresa's Tattoo", starring Phillips, C. Thomas Howell, and Kiefer Sutherland.


title: Julie Cypher

text: After originally spending roughly three years in a marriage with Lou Diamond Phillips, Cypher was a gay rights advocate, and became famous for being one half of one of the first publicly lesbian celebrity couples. In 1995 she and Etheridge appeared in a "We'd Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur" poster campaign for PETA.


title: Julie Cypher

text: During her partnership with Etheridge, Cypher gave birth to two children via artificial insemination: a daughter, Bailey Jean, born in February 1997, and a son, Beckett, born November 1998. Although initially reluctant to discuss it, the couple eventually revealed that the biological father of both children was musician David Crosby; however, Cypher later told Etheridge in a 1999 therapy session that she was "not gay", and the couple split in September 2000. Cypher went on to marry Matthew Hale in 2004.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: Intaglio ( ; ) is the family of printing and printmaking techniques in which the image is incised into a surface and the incised line or sunken area holds the ink. It is the direct opposite of a relief print where the parts of the matrix that make the image stand "above" the main surface.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: Normally, copper or in recent times zinc sheets, called plates, are used as a surface or matrix, and the incisions are created by etching, engraving, drypoint, aquatint or mezzotint, often in combination. Collagraphs may also be printed as intaglio plates.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: After the decline of the main relief technique of woodcut around 1550, the intaglio techniques dominated both artistic printmaking as well as most types of illustration and popular prints until the mid 19th century.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: In intaglio printing, the lines to be printed are cut into a metal (e.g. copper) plate by means either of a cutting tool called a burin, held in the hand – in which case the process is called "engraving"; or through the corrosive action of acid – in which case the process is known as "etching". In etching, for example, the plate is pre-covered in a thin, acid-resistant resin or wax "ground". Using etching needles or burins, the artist or writer (etcher) engraves their image (therefore to be only where the plate beneath is exposed). The plate's ground side is then dipped into acid, or the acid poured onto it. The acid bites into the surface of the plate where it was exposed. Biting is a printmaking term to describe the acid's etching, or incising, of the image; its duration depends on the acid strength, metal's reactivity, temperature, air pressure and the depth desired. After the plate is sufficiently bitten it is removed from the acid bath, the ground is removed gently and the plate is usually dried or cleaned.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: To print an intaglio plate, ink or inks are painted, wiped and/or dabbed into the recessed lines (such as with brushes/rubber gloves/rollers). The plate is then rubbed with tarlatan cloth to remove most of its waste (surface ink) and a final smooth wipe is often done with newspaper or old public phone book pages, leaving it in the incisions. Dampened paper will usually be fed against the plate, covered by a blanket, so when pressed by rolling press it is squeezed into the plate's ink-filled grooves with uniform very high pressure. The blanket is then lifted, revealing the paper and printed image. The final stages repeat for each copy needed.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: Intaglio printmaking emerged in Europe well after the woodcut print, with the earliest known surviving examples being undated designs for playing cards made in Germany, using drypoint technique, probably in the late 1430s. Engraving had been used by goldsmiths to decorate metalwork, including armor, musical instruments and religious objects since ancient times, and the niello technique, which involved rubbing an alloy into the lines to give a contrasting color, also goes back to late antiquity. Scholars and practitioners of printmaking have suggested that the idea of making prints from engraved plates may well have originated with goldsmiths' practices of taking an impression on paper of a design engraved on an object, in order to keep a record of their work, or to check the quality.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: Martin Schongauer was one of the most significant early artists in the engraving technique, and Albrecht Dürer is one of the most famous intaglio artists. Italian and Dutch engraving began slightly after the Germans, but were well developed by 1500. Drypoint and etching were also German inventions of the fifteenth century, probably by the Housebook Master and Daniel Hopfer respectively. In the 15th century, woodcut and engraving served to produce both religious and secular imagery. One of the most popular secular uses of engraver's art was in the production of playing cards, a diversion enjoyed by the aristocracy and the common people.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: In the nineteenth century, Viennese printer Karel Klíč introduced a combined intaglio and photographic process. Photogravure retained the smooth continuous tones of photography but was printed using a chemically etched copper plate. This permitted a photographic image to be printed on regular paper, for inclusion in books or albums.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: In the 1940s and 1950s the Italian security printer Gualtiero Giori brought intaglio printing into the era of high-technology by developing the first ever six-colour intaglio printing press, designed to print banknotes which combined more artistic possibilities with greater security.


title: Intaglio (printmaking)

text: If the letters are cut into the surface of the engraving plate, then, on the print, they stand slightly proud (see image above). The appearance of engraving is sometimes mimicked for items such as wedding invitations, by skiamorphic embossment of lettering printed by another process (such as lithography or offset).


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (; 16 June 192929 September 2020) was the Emir of Kuwait and Commander of the Kuwait Military Forces from 29 January 2006 until his death in 2020.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Al-Sabah was born on 16 June 1929. He received his primary education at Al Mubarakya School in the 1930s and completed his education under tutors. He was the half-brother of the previous Emir of Kuwait, Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah, who appointed Sabah as Prime Minister in July 2003, replacing the Crown Prince of Kuwait, Sheikh Saad Al-Salim Al-Sabah. His brother was killed when Royal Air Maroc Flight 630 was intentionally crashed by its pilot in 1994. Before becoming Emir of Kuwait, Sabah was the foreign minister from 1963 to 2003, making him the longest-serving foreign minister in the world at the time of leaving office, and the second longest-serving so far. As foreign minister, Sabah restored Kuwaiti international relations after the Gulf War. He was also first deputy prime minister while serving as foreign minister. He was acting minister of finance from 1965 to 1967. He was prime minister and "de facto" ruler from 2003 to 2006, due to Jaber III's ill health.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: On 15 January 2006, Emir Jaber, died, making Sheikh Saad, his Crown Prince and a member of the Salim branch of the ruling family, the new Emir. With Saad's accession, Sabah was likely to become the new Crown Prince, retaining his function of Prime Minister. Saad was ill with a form of dementia, some reports suggested that he suffered from Alzheimer's disease or some other debilitating disease; it was generally agreed that he was unable to speak at any length. As there was concern Saad would not be able to take the constitutionally required oath of office, the Speaker of the National Assembly Jassem Al-Kharafi coordinated with members of the National Assembly on a transfer of power to the Prime Minister, Sheikh Sabah Al-Ahmad.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: After a power struggle within the ruling family, Saad agreed to abdicate as Emir of Kuwait on 23 January 2006 due to illness. The ruling family then conferred and Sabah became the new Emir. On 24 January 2006, the National Assembly of Kuwait voted Saad out of office, moments before an official letter of abdication was received. The Cabinet of Kuwait nominated Sabah as Emir. He was sworn in on 29 January 2006 with the National Assembly's approval, ending that crisis.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: In March 2016, Sabah suspended the National Assembly to keep those in opposition from questioning the Kuwaiti prime minister over the government's actions.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Sabah dissolved the National Assembly on 19 March 2008 and called for early elections on 17 May 2008, after the cabinet resigned in the week of 17 March 2008 following a power struggle with the government.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Sabah was a regional and international mediator due in part to his place in the Gulf Cooperation Council's leadership order and his 40 years of service as Foreign Minister and Prime Minister. Under his leadership, Kuwait acted as a go-between for Pakistan and Bangladesh, Turkey and Bulgaria, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan, factions in the civil war in Lebanon, and the Gulf States and Iran. In 2016 Sabah hosted several United Nations sponsored meetings of leaders from the warring factions in the Yemeni Civil War.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Sabah established Kuwait as the key mediator in the Qatar diplomatic crisis that began in 2017, meeting with Saudi and Emirati officials before leaving for Doha to discuss the rift with Qatari leaders. His ongoing efforts were publicly supported by Qatar and other interested parties from the region as well as the U.S., UK, France, and Germany. At the beginning of September 2017, Sabah discussed the situation with top officials in Washington, D.C., including U.S. President Donald Trump, who "hailed his efforts" to mediate and "applauded Kuwait's 'critical contributions to regional stability'". There were some questions from the boycotting countries about any preconditions. French President Emmanuel Macron stated French support for Sabah's mediation efforts after a meeting in Paris on 15 September 2017, reiterating statements of support for the initiative. Trump and Sabah had a third meeting at the White House on 5 September 2018.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Sabah is credited with playing a role in the creation of the Movement for the National Liberation of Palestine, or Fatah, in October 1959 in Kuwait City. Several of the early leaders of Fatah, and later the Palestine Liberation Organization, also formed in Kuwait in 1964, were close to Sabah, like Khaled al-Hassan


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Former U.S. President Jimmy Carter called Sabah a "global humanitarian leader", saying, "His support of disaster relief, peace efforts and advancing public health are an inspiration. Other world leaders can learn from the wise example set by my friend, His Highness the Emir."


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: According to the 2014 Middle East Coutts Report, Sabah provided the largest individual donation in 2013 among GCC members in support of Syrian refugees in neighboring countries, $300 million. In 2014, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon cited Sabah as a humanitarian leader globally and presented him with a Humanitarian Award. Ban said, "It gives me great pleasure and honour to be here today to recognize the leadership of His Highness Sheikh Sabah Al Ahmad Al Jaber al Sabah, Emir of Kuwait. This is a great humanitarian day. We are sitting together with a great humanitarian leader of our world". In 2015, Sabah pledged $500 million toward easing the Syrian humanitarian crisis at a UN Summit convened in Kuwait.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: In August 2017, UN Secretary-General António Guterres expressed gratitude for Kuwait's leadership in humanitarian action, adding, "But it's not only the humanitarian leadership of Kuwait, it's the wisdom, the dialogue, the promotion of understanding that Kuwait has shown in relation to all conflicts in the region. Kuwait has no agenda. The agenda of Kuwait is peace; is understanding." Guterres further noted the positive role Sabah played in the GCC crisis and recalled that when he was High Commissioner for Refugees (June 2005 to December 2015) Sabah presided over the three conferences to mobilize the international community to support the Syrian people.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Dozens of protesters in Kuwait were arrested for criticizing Al-Sabah. In 2010, the U.S. State Department said it had concerns about the case of Kuwaiti blogger and journalist Mohammad Abdul-Kader al-Jassem who was on trial for allegedly criticizing the ruling al-Sabah family and accusing Prime Minister Nasser Al-Sabah of mismanagement and corruption, and faced up to 18 years in prison if convicted. He was detained after a complaint against him was issued by the office of Sabah al-Ahmad al-Sabah.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: In January 2013, Ayad Al-Hirbi was sentenced to two years in prison for tweeting: "We call on the Kuwaiti government to abide by international agreements it has signed respecting human rights. As a nation, Kuwait must work toward broadening freedoms, not limiting them."


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: Al-Sabah jailed several members of parliament for criticizing him publicly. In February 2013, a Kuwaiti court sentenced three former MPs to three years in prison with hard labor for insulting Sabah, and sentenced another man to five years in prison for insulting Sabah. At the time, over 300 people were detained in Kuwait on charges of insulting him.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: In 2016, a Kuwaiti court sentenced 16 people to two years in prison after they were found re-circulating a 2012 speech by opposition leader Musallam Al-Barrak which criticised Al Sabah. Al-Barrak, a former MP, was sentenced to two years in prison in 2015.


title: Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah

text: After months of hospitalization in the Mayo Clinic Hospital in Rochester, Minnesota, the United States, Sheikh Sabah died on 29 September 2020 at the age of 91 due to long-term health issues. The Kuwaiti government declared 40 days of mourning. Sabah's half-brother, the crown prince of Kuwait, Sheikh Nawaf, was announced as the Emir of Kuwait. Al-Sabah was buried at Sulaibikhat Cemetery alongside his family. After Sabah death, many Arab countries declared mourning periods. Jordan announced forty days of national mourning. Qatar, Bahrain, Oman, Egypt, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Lebanon, State of Palestine and Mauritania all declared three-day mourning periods. Djibouti declared two days of mourning. India, Iraq, Bangladesh and Cuba declared one day of mourning.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconium dioxide (), sometimes known as zirconia (not to be confused with zircon), is a white crystalline oxide of zirconium. Its most naturally occurring form, with a monoclinic crystalline structure, is the mineral baddeleyite. A dopant stabilized cubic structured zirconia, cubic zirconia, is synthesized in various colours for use as a gemstone and a diamond simulant.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Three phases are known: monoclinic below 1170 °C, tetragonal between 1170 °C and 2370 °C, and cubic above 2370 °C. The trend is for higher symmetry at higher temperatures, as is usually the case. A small percentage of the oxides of calcium or yttrium stabilize in the cubic phase. The very rare mineral tazheranite, , is cubic. Unlike , which features six-coordinated titanium in all phases, monoclinic zirconia consists of seven-coordinated zirconium centres. This difference is attributed to the larger size of the zirconium atom relative to the titanium atom.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconia is chemically unreactive. It is slowly attacked by concentrated hydrofluoric acid and sulfuric acid. When heated with carbon, it converts to zirconium carbide. When heated with carbon in the presence of chlorine, it converts to zirconium(IV) chloride. This conversion is the basis for the purification of zirconium metal and is analogous to the Kroll process.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconium dioxide is one of the most studied ceramic materials. adopts a monoclinic crystal structure at room temperature and transitions to tetragonal and cubic at higher temperatures. The change of volume caused by the structure transitions from tetragonal to monoclinic to cubic induces large stresses, causing it to crack upon cooling from high temperatures. When the zirconia is blended with some other oxides, the tetragonal and/or cubic phases are stabilized. Effective dopants include magnesium oxide (MgO), yttrium oxide (, yttria), calcium oxide (), and cerium(III) oxide ().


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconia is often more useful in its phase 'stabilized' state. Upon heating, zirconia undergoes disruptive phase changes. By adding small percentages of yttria, these phase changes are eliminated, and the resulting material has superior thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties. In some cases, the tetragonal phase can be metastable. If sufficient quantities of the metastable tetragonal phase is present, then an applied stress, magnified by the stress concentration at a crack tip, can cause the tetragonal phase to convert to monoclinic, with the associated volume expansion. This phase transformation can then put the crack into compression, retarding its growth, and enhancing the fracture toughness. This mechanism, known as transformation toughening, significantly extends the reliability and lifetime of products made with stabilized zirconia.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: The band gap is dependent on the phase (cubic, tetragonal, monoclinic, or amorphous) and preparation methods, with typical estimates from 5–7 eV.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: A special case of zirconia is that of tetragonal zirconia polycrystal, or TZP, which is indicative of polycrystalline zirconia composed of only the metastable tetragonal phase.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: The main use of zirconia is in the production of hard ceramics, such as in dentistry, with other uses including as a protective coating on particles of titanium dioxide pigments, as a refractory material, in insulation, abrasives, and enamels.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Stabilized zirconia is used in oxygen sensors and fuel cell membranes because it has the ability to allow oxygen ions to move freely through the crystal structure at high temperatures. This high ionic conductivity (and a low electronic conductivity) makes it one of the most useful electroceramics. Zirconium dioxide is also used as the solid electrolyte in electrochromic devices.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconia is a precursor to the electroceramic lead zirconate titanate ("PZT"), which is a high-κ dielectric, which is found in myriad components.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: The very low thermal conductivity of cubic phase of zirconia also has led to its use as a thermal barrier coating, or TBC, in jet and diesel engines to allow operation at higher temperatures. Thermodynamically, the higher the operation temperature of an engine, the greater the possible efficiency. Another low-thermal-conductivity use is as a ceramic fiber insulation for crystal growth furnaces, fuel-cell stacks, and infrared heating systems.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: This material is also used in dentistry in the manufacture of subframes for the construction of dental restorations such as crowns and bridges, which are then veneered with a conventional feldspathic porcelain for aesthetic reasons, or of strong, extremely durable dental prostheses constructed entirely from monolithic zirconia, with limited but constantly improving aesthetics. Zirconia stabilized with yttria (yttrium oxide), known as yttria-stabilized zirconia, can be used as a strong base material in some full ceramic crown restorations.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Transformation-toughened zirconia is used to make ceramic knives. Because of the hardness, ceramic-edged cutlery stays sharp longer than steel edged products.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Due to its infusibility and brilliant luminosity when incandescent, it was used as an ingredient of sticks for limelight.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconia has been proposed to electrolyze carbon monoxide and oxygen from the atmosphere of Mars to provide both fuel and oxidizer that could be used as a store of chemical energy for use with surface transportation on Mars. Carbon monoxide/oxygen engines have been suggested for early surface transportation use, as both carbon monoxide and oxygen can be straightforwardly produced by zirconia electrolysis without requiring use of any of the Martian water resources to obtain hydrogen, which would be needed for the production of methane or any hydrogen-based fuels.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconia can be used as photocatalyst since its high band gap (~ 5 eV) allows the generation of high energetic electrons and holes. Some studies demonstrated the activity of doped zirconia (in order to increase visible light absorption) in degrading organic compounds and reducing Cr(VI) from wastewaters.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconia is also a potential high-κ dielectric material with potential applications as an insulator in transistors.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Zirconia is also employed in the deposition of optical coatings; it is a high-index material usable from the near-UV to the mid-IR, due to its low absorption in this spectral region. In such applications, it is typically deposited by PVD.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: In jewelry making, some watch cases are advertised as being "black zirconium oxide". In 2015 Omega released a fully watch named "The Dark Side of The Moon" with ceramic case, bezel, pushers, and clasp, advertising it as four times harder than stainless steel and therefore much more resistant to scratches during everyday use.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: In gas tungsten arc welding, tungsten electrodes containing 1% zirconium oxide (a.k.a. zirconia) instead of 2% thorium have good arc starting and current capacity, and are not radioactive.


title: Zirconium dioxide

text: Single crystals of the cubic phase of zirconia are commonly used as diamond simulant in jewellery. Like diamond, cubic zirconia has a cubic crystal structure and a high index of refraction. Visually discerning a good quality cubic zirconia gem from a diamond is difficult, and most jewellers will have a thermal conductivity tester to identify cubic zirconia by its low thermal conductivity (diamond is a very good thermal conductor). This state of zirconia is commonly called "cubic zirconia", "CZ", or "zircon" by jewellers, but the last name is not chemically accurate. Zircon is actually the mineral name for naturally occurring zirconium(IV) silicate ().


title: Audi S8

text: The Audi S8 is a full-size luxury car of the Audi S models produced by the German automaker Audi AG, manufactured by Audi Sport GmbH at the Neckarsulm plant. The S8 is the mechanically-upgraded, high-performance version of the Audi A8, fitted standard with Audi's quattro all-wheel drive system, and was only offered with a short-wheelbase for the first three generations, being joined by a long-wheelbase variant for the fourth generation.


title: Audi S8

text: Audi S8 (D2) was produced from 1996 to 2003. The car featured a 4.2 liter V8 with . The D2 S8 could accelerate from 0– in 6.2 seconds. It has a curb weight of . In 1999, the car was updated with a power increase to , which brought the 0– acceleration down to 5.6 seconds. Top speed was electronically limited to . It has a curb weight of . An Audi S8 (D2) was chosen as the car of the protagonists of the film Ronin.


title: Audi S8

text: Audi S8 (D3) was released from 2006 to 2010. The car was equipped with a modified V10 engine shared with the Lamborghini Gallardo of the same years. It produces , detuned by from the Gallardo's power output of with the purpose of increasing its fuel efficiency. The top speed is electronically limited to . Acceleration from 0– takes 5.1 seconds. It has a curb weight of .


title: Audi S8

text: Audi S8 (D4) (2012–2015, facelift 2015–2018) 3,993 V8 TFSI. It produces . It accelerates from 0- in 3.6 seconds, bests the quarter mile in 11.9 seconds at and reaches a top speed of . Curb weight is .


title: Audi S8

text: In 2016, the "S8 plus" version was launched with an increased engine power of . Acceleration from 0– takes 3.3 seconds and with the Dynamic Package it can reach a top speed of . Unlike the regular S8 which was built by Audi on the regular assembly line alongside other A8 variants, the S8 Plus was built by Audi Sport (formerly Quattro GmbH) and has a VIN that starts with WUA to identify it.


title: Audi S8

text: The release of the fourth generation S8 is planned to begin in 2019–2020. For the first time, it will be offered in both short and long-wheelbase versions, with the long-wheelbase S8 (i.e., an S8L) being the sole variant offered in North America. The S8 is now the flagship of the Audi A8 range, since the nominally higher-end A8 L W12 was no longer offered after the 2018 model year.


title: Audi S8

text: The Audi S8 (D5) features and of torque as a result of its 4.0-liter twin-turbo V8. A 48-volt mild hybrid system will allow for stop-start use and coasting. Compared to the S8 plus (D4), the S8 (D5) has less but more torque.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) is an agency of the Ministry of Earth Sciences of the Government of India. It is the principal agency responsible for meteorological observations, weather forecasting and seismology. IMD is headquartered in Delhi and operates hundreds of observation stations across India and Antarctica. Regional offices are at Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata, Nagpur, Guwahati and New Delhi.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: IMD is also one of the six Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres of the World Meteorological Organisation. It has the responsibility for forecasting, naming and distribution of warnings for tropical cyclones in the Northern Indian Ocean region, including the Malacca Straits, the Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: In 1686, Edmond Halley published his treatise on the Indian summer monsoon, which he attributed to a seasonal reversal of winds due to the differential heating of the Asian landmass and the Indian Ocean. The first meteorological observatories were established in India by the British East India Company. These included the Calcutta Observatory in 1785, the Madras Observatory in 1796 and the Colaba Observatory in 1826. Several other observatories were established in India during the first half of the 19th century by various provincial governments.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: The Asiatic Society, founded in Calcutta in 1784 and in Bombay in 1804, promoted the study of meteorology in India. Henry Piddington published almost 40 papers dealing with tropical storms from Calcutta between 1835 and 1855 in "The Journal of the Asiatic Society". He also coined the term "cyclone", meaning the coil of a snake. In 1842, he published his landmark thesis, "Laws of the Storms".


title: India Meteorological Department

text: After a tropical cyclone hit Calcutta in 1864, and the subsequent famines in 1866 and 1871 due to the failure of the monsoons, it was decided to organise the collection and analysis of meteorological observations under one roof. As a result, the India Meteorology Department was established in 15 January 1875. Henry Francis Blanford was appointed the first Meteorological Reporter of the IMD. In May 1889, Sir John Eliot was appointed the first "Director General of Observatories" in the erstwhile capital, Calcutta. The IMD headquarters were later shifted to Shimla in 1905, then to Pune in 1928 and finally to New Delhi in 1944.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: IMD became a member of the World Meteorological Organisation after independence on 27 April 1949. The agency has gained in prominence due to the significance of the monsoon rains on Indian agriculture. It plays a vital role in preparing the annual monsoon forecast, as well as in tracking the progress of the monsoon across India every season.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: . IMD has six "Regional Meteorological Centre"s, each under a Deputy Director General. These are located in Chennai, Guwahati, Kolkata, Mumbai, Nagpur and New Delhi. There is also a Meteorological Centre in each state capital. Other IMD units such as Forecasting Offices, Agrometeorological Advisory Service Centers, Hydro-meteorological Office, Flood Meteorological Offices, Area Cyclone Warning Centers and Cyclone Warning Centers are usually co-located with various observatories or meteorological center.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: IMD operates a network of hundreds of surface and glacial observatories, Upper Air (high altitude) stations, ozone and radiation observatories and meteorological radar stations. Additional data is received from India's constellation of satellites, such as Kalpana-1, Megha-Tropiques and instruments on board the IRS series and the INSAT series of satellites. Data and observations are also reported into the IMD network from meteorological instruments on board Indian merchant marine and Indian Navy ships. IMD was the first organisation in India to deploy a message switching computer for supporting its global data exchange.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: IMD collaborates with other agencies such as the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting and the National Institute of Ocean Technology.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: IMD also operates seismic monitoring centres at key locations for earthquake monitoring and measurements.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: IMD undertakes observations, communications, forecasting and weather services. In collaboration with the Indian Space Research Organisation, the IMD also uses the IRS series and the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) for weather monitoring of the Indian subcontinent. IMD was first weather bureau of a developing country to develop and maintain its own satellite system.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: IMD is one of the six worldwide Regional Specialised Meteorological Centres of the Tropical Cyclone Programme of the World Weather Watch of the World Meteorological Organization. It is regional nodal agency for forecasting, naming and disseminating warnings about tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean north of the Equator.


title: India Meteorological Department

text: The IMD launched System of Aerosol Monitoring and Research (SAMAR) in January 2016 to study the concentration of Black carbon, radiative properties of aerosols, environmental visibility and their climatological impacts. It would contain a network of 16 aethalometers, 12 sky radiometers and 12 nephelometers.


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: TWA Flight 841 was a scheduled passenger flight from John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City, en route to Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport in Minneapolis, Minnesota. On April 4, 1979, at or around 9:48 p.m. Eastern Standard Time (01:48 UTC), while flying over Saginaw, Michigan, the Boeing 727-31 airliner began a sharp, uncommanded roll to the right, and subsequently went into a spiral dive. The pilots were able to regain control of the aircraft and made a successful emergency landing at Detroit Metropolitan Airport.


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: At 8:25p.m. EST, TWA Flight 841 departed JFK International after a 45-minute delay due to traffic congestion and reached its initial cruising altitude of 35,000feet at 8:54p.m. Due to a headwind, the pilots requested to climb to 39,000feet at 9:25p.m., which was granted. At 9:49p.m., after traveling nearly , while cruising at near the city of Saginaw, Michigan, Captain Harvey "Hoot" Gibson (44), said the aircraft was operating with the autopilot on "Altitude Hold" mode when he felt a light buffeting of the airframe. He saw the plane banking right and the autopilot moving the control wheel to the left to level the wings. This had no effect so Gibson disconnected the autopilot and applied full left aileron which had no effect. He got on the rudder pedals to apply full left rudder. He would state that as he did so he felt something didn't feel right with the rudder but didn't know what it was. Captain Gibson's inputs had no effect as the plane very quickly began a steep roll to the right. Gibson shouted "Get em' up!" referring to the co-pilot to deploy the speed brakes, but the co-pilot didn't understand what the Captain meant so Gibson deployed them. Despite the best efforts of the flight crew, the aircraft spiraled out of control; Gibson shouted, "We're going over!". Flight 841 dived about in just 63seconds. During the course of the dive, the plane rolled through 360degrees twice and exceeded the Mach limit for the 727 airframe. During the dive, Captain Gibson got so desperate to save the plane that he began moving his control column from all the way left to all the way right, then all the way forward and all the way back, but his efforts were fruitless.


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: At about the pilots extended the landing gear in an attempt to slow the aircraft. A few seconds after extending the gear, Captain Gibson managed to regain control and pull the 727 out of its dive, and at about the nose finally came up again. The plane suffered substantial structural damage with the System A hydraulics ruptured as a result of the right main landing gear overextending but made an emergency landing at Detroit Metropolitan Airport in Michigan at 10:31p.m. EST without further trouble. No fatalities occurred among the 82passengers and 7crew members. Eight passengers reported minor injuries related to high .


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigated the accident, conducting what was at the time the lengthiest accident investigation in NTSB history. In its final report, published in June 1981, the NTSB concluded the probable cause of the accident was a mechanical failure of a leading-edge slat under inappropriate manipulation and the captain's untimely action.


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: Among the damage discovered after the accident, investigators found the #7 slat missing from the leading edge of the right wing. NTSB investigators requested the aircraft manufacturer, Boeing, inspect the remainder of the slat assembly, including a portion of the slat actuator cylinder (the motor that moves the slat and holds it in position). Boeing determined that the #7 slat had failed because the slats had been extended while the aircraft was flying at cruising speed. They also determined that it was "impossible" for the flaps to extend without manipulating the controls.


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: After eliminating all individual and combined sources of mechanical failure, the NTSB ruled that the extension of the slats was due to the flight crew manipulating the flap/slat controls in an inappropriate manner. Investigators believed that 727 pilots (in general, and this flight specifically) were setting the trailing edge flaps to two degrees during high altitude cruise, while at the same time pulling the circuit breaker for the slats so that they would not activate. This configuration was rumored to result in increased lift with no increase in drag, thus allowing more speed, higher elevation, or decreased fuel consumption. Flaps and slats were intended to only be deployed at low speeds during take-off or landing.


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: The crew, Capt. Harvey G. "Hoot" Gibson (1934-2015), first officer J. Scott Kennedy (1939-2017), and flight engineer Gary N. Banks, denied that their actions had been the cause of the flaps' extension:


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: The crew suggested instead that an actuator on the #7 slat had failed, causing its inadvertent deployment. The NTSB rejected this as improbable and attributed the extension of the flaps to the deliberate actions of the crew. The crew claimed that such failures had happened on other 727s prior and subsequent to this incident. The NTSB report noted that between 1970 and 1973, seven separate cases involving a single leading edge slat extension and separation were reported, but none of these reports indicated whether or not the slat extension was due to flight crew involvement. Records after 1974 did include this information, and (other than Flight 174) only two slat extension problems were reported between 1974 and the close of the NTSB's investigation in 1981, one of which was inadvertently caused by the flight crew.


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: The flight crew testified that they had not engaged the flaps, and the NTSB concluded that "if the flightcrew's recollections are accurate," the slat extension must have been caused by a mechanical failure or defect. However, the NTSB ultimately concluded that the flight crew was probably attempting to use 2º of flaps at cruising speed:


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: When retraction of the flaps was ordered, the Number 7 leading edge slat failed to retract, causing the uncommanded roll to the right.


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: Gibson appealed against the NTSB's findings, first to the NTSB itself and then to the U.S. Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals. Both petitions were rejected: the former for lack of new evidence, and the latter for lack of jurisdiction due to the NTSB's "unreviewable discretion".


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: The aircraft was equipped with a Fairchild Industries Model A-100 cockpit voice recorder (CVR). However, 21 minutes of the 30-minute tape were blank. Tests of the CVR in the aircraft revealed no discrepancies in the CVR's electrical and recording systems.The CVR tape can be erased by means of the bulk-erase feature on the CVR control panel located in the cockpit. This feature can be activated only after the aircraft is on the ground with its parking brake engaged. In a deposition taken by the Safety Board, the captain stated that he usually activates the bulk-erase feature on the CVR at the conclusion of each flight to preclude inappropriate use of recorded conversations. However, in this instance, he could not recall having done so. The NTSB made the following statement in the accident report:


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: In the book "Emergency: Crisis In the Cockpit", Stanley Stewart, a professional pilot, has raised questions about the NTSB findings:


title: TWA Flight 841 (1979)

text: This incident was the subject of a 44-minute CBS News Special titled "The Plane That Fell From The Sky". The special won a Peabody Award in 1983.


The Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal (GWOT-EM) is a United States Armed Forces award created by George W. Bush on 12 March 2003, through Executive Order 13289. The medal recognizes those military service members who have deployed overseas in direct service to the War on Terror from 11 September 2001 to a date to be determined. Prior to 30 April 2005, the medal was awarded for service within Iraq and Afghanistan, but has been replaced with the Iraq Campaign Medal and Afghanistan Campaign Medal and now serves primarily as recognition for personnel who have deployed in support of the War on Terror to locations beyond Iraq and Afghanistan. In a similar fashion the Inherent Resolve Campaign Medal is now issued instead for service in the fight against ISIS, with eligibility retroactive to 15 June 2014.


title: Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal

text: The War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal was designed by John Sproston of the Army's Institute of Heraldry.


text: The following are the approved operations and respective dates for the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal (retroactive to 11 September 2001):


text: The following ribbon devices are authorized for wear on the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal:


text: To be awarded the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal a military service member must perform duty in a deployed status and must participate in designated anti-terrorism operation for a period of either 30 consecutive or 60 non-consecutive days of duty. For those who were engaged in combat, killed, or wounded in the line of duty, the time requirement is waived. The term "deployed status" indicates either temporary or permanent orders to a duty station outside the borders of the United States of America with such duty being in direct support of anti-terrorism operations. For a service member to receive the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal, the deployment must also have taken place in a nation which is currently recognized as a base for anti-terrorism operations by the United States Department of Defense.


text: On 30 April 2005, the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal was discontinued for service within Iraq and Afghanistan, such service now being recognized with the Iraq Campaign Medal and Afghanistan Campaign Medal. Personnel who received the GWOT-EM for previous service in these two regions may elect to exchange the GWOT-EM or retain the original award.


text: On February 9, 2015 the Defense Department authorized service stars to be worn on the GWOT-EM to represent different operations the recipient participated in.


text: The GWOT-EM is a Defense Department expeditionary medal. Award of this medal does not prevent award of other types of recognition (such as decorations) normally associated with deployment. This medal may be awarded posthumously.


text: The Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal may be awarded for approved operations performed in any of the following geographical areas:


text: A similar medal, the Global War on Terrorism Service Medal (GWOT-SM), was created under the same Presidential Order that authorized the GWOT Expeditionary Medal. The primary difference between the two awards is that the service medal is intended for those who performed support duty within the United States, while the expeditionary medal recognizes those who were deployed to foreign countries. For those participating in multiple operations, both the GWOT Service and GWOT Expeditionary Medal may be authorized, but both medals can no longer be bestowed for the same qualifying period of service. The only exception is for service personnel who served in Iraq or Afghanistan prior to 30 April 2005. These personnel were awarded both the Global War on Terrorism Service Medal and the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal.


title: Awaken (TV series)

text: Awaken () is a 2020–2021 South Korean television series starring Namkoong Min, Kim Seol-hyun, Lee Chung-ah and Kim Chang-wan. The series, directed by Kim Jung-hyun and written by Shin Yoo-dam, revolves around two police officers as they dig up the secrets of mysterious events that occurred in a village 28 years ago.


title: Awaken (TV series)

text: It aired on tvN from November 30, 2020, to January 19, 2021, every Monday and Tuesday at 21:00 (KST).


title: Awaken (TV series)

text: Do Jung-woo, the leader of a special task force in the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency, ends up investigating a series of mysterious murders. Together with his team, which includes hot-headed Officer Gong Hye-won and Jamie, a detective on loan from the FBI, they uncover clues that these crimes are somehow related to a tragic event that happened 28 years ago in a village called "White Night".


title: Awaken (TV series)

text: In December 2019, 935 Entertainment, Namkoong Min's agency reported that he had received the offer to play Do Jeong-woo, an investigator. At the same time, Han Ye-seul's agency Partners Park informed that she had been offered to appear in the series. Both confirmed their appearance in the series later on. In March 2020, Lee Chung-ah joined Namkoong Min in the cast. The script reading took place in April 2020. Yoon Kyung-ho joined the cast in June 2020. In August 2020, the filming of the drama was stopped due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In October 2020, Baek Ji-won and Lee Shin-young were confirmed to appear in the series, as the script reading was continued from where it was left in August. The first stills from the production were released on November 3, 2020.


title: Smile (band)

text: Smile were an English rock band based in London, and the predecessor to rock band Queen. The band was formed in 1968 by Brian May, who went on to become Queen's guitarist. It included Tim Staffell as lead singer and bass guitarist, and later, drummer Roger Taylor, who also went on to play for Queen. They recorded only six songs and disbanded in 1970. These songs were titled "April Lady", "Step on Me", "Polar Bear", "Earth", "Blag", and "Doin' Alright" (later re-recorded by Queen for their self-titled debut album in 1973). These songs exist on the CD "Ghost of a Smile". "April Lady" was dedicated to Roger Taylor's girlfriend at the time.


title: Smile (band)

text: In 1968, Brian May, a student at London's Imperial College, and Tim Staffell formed a group when May placed an advertisement on the college notice board for a "Ginger Baker type" drummer, and a young dental student named Roger Taylor auditioned and got the job. Smile were signed to Mercury Records in 1969, and that year had their first experience of a recording studio, at Trident Studios. Staffell was attending Ealing Art College with Freddie Bulsara, and introduced him to the band. Bulsara soon became a keen fan.


title: Smile (band)

text: The group's biggest public performance was on 27 February 1969 at a concert in aid of the National Council for the Unmarried Mother and Her Child, held at the Royal Albert Hall. May, Taylor and Staffell performed as a trio on guitar, drums and bass respectively.


title: Smile (band)

text: Smile gigged quite a bit on the London scene, according to "Time Out"s listings. On 19 April they played at the Speakeasy, and on 31 May appeared at the Whisky-A-Go-Go.


title: Smile (band)

text: In March 1969, the band played at a venue known as PJ's, using claims to have previously been played on BBC Radio 1 to secure an audience. It seems likely that the claims were fictitious, however. Shortly after they were given a one-off recording deal by Mercury Records to record three tracks, "Earth" (Staffell), "Step on Me" (May), and "Doin' All Right" (May/Staffell). These were recorded in June 1969 at Trident Studios in Soho.


title: Smile (band)

text: Ultimately this U.S. promotional recording was never published commercially, however, in September of the same year, Mercury Records commissioned them to record three more songs: "April Lady" (Stanley Lucas), "Blag", and "Polar Bear", a "gentle song about a polar bear" written and led by May, at De Lane Lea Studios. Again, the record was not released at the time.


title: Smile (band)

text: When Staffell left in 1970 to join another band, Humpy Bong, Smile effectively disbanded. Bulsara persuaded May and Taylor to continue, and at about the same time, changing his surname from Bulsara to Mercury, joined them as lead vocalist, thus forming a new group, Queen. Queen tried several bass players during this period – Mike Grose, Barry Mitchell and Doug Bogie – none of whom fitted in with the band's chemistry. Not until February 1971 did John Deacon join and complete the lineup, whereupon they began rehearsing for their first album. This definitive lineup lasted until Mercury's death in 1991, their last album being "Made in Heaven", released posthumously in 1995.


title: Smile (band)

text: For their debut album, Queen recorded "Doing All Right". According to the book "Queen: The Early Years", Staffell has been well compensated through royalties from the sale of the album, given his co-songwriting credit for the song with May. Queen also recorded the song for their first BBC recording session with John Peel. That session, along with their third session, have been released in the UK as "At the Beeb" (Band of Joy Records) in 1989, and in the U.S. as "Queen at the BBC" (Hollywood Records) in 1995. Also in 1995, Queen issued their "Let Me Live" singles, one of which features three of the first session BBC recordings, including "Doing Alright".


title: Smile (band)

text: Smile reunited for several songs on 22 December 1992. Taylor's band The Cross were headlining a gig, and he brought May and Staffell on to play "Earth" and "If I Were a Carpenter". May also performed several other songs that night.


title: Smile (band)

text: In 2018, Smile reunited once more, at Abbey Road Studios to re-record "Doing All Right". This release was used in Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" movie, with May and Taylor taking lead vocals and using Staffell's vocals from the original recording on the middle section.


title: Smile (band)

text: "Gettin' Smile" (LP) from Japan, released 23 September 1982, on Mercury Records. The sleeve contains notoriously inaccurate lyrics and songwriting credits for the songs. This release was used for all subsequent bootlegs which contain the songs.


title: Smile (band)

text: "Ghost of a Smile" (CD) from the Netherlands, released in 1997, on Pseudonym Records. The CD booklet is comprehensive and features new liner notes by Staffell. All the tracks were newly remastered. The album also features two versions of the Eddie Howell/Freddie Mercury collaboration "The Man from Manhattan" (no relation to Smile, except that May plays guitar on it).


title: Smile (band)

text: There is a bootleg album of their early tracks circa the Smile-era titled "Pre-Ordained". Most of them also appeared on the 1995 Italian bootleg "In Nuce".


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: Freddy's Nightmares is an American horror anthology television series, which aired in syndication from October 1988 until March 1990. A spin-off from the "A Nightmare on Elm Street" film series, each episode is introduced by Freddy Krueger (played, as in the films, by Robert Englund), and features two different stories, with eight of them throughout the series actually having Freddy Krueger as the main antagonist. The pilot episode was directed by Tobe Hooper, and begins with Krueger's prosecution on child-murdering charges.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: The series was produced by New Line Television, producers of the film series, and Stone Television. It was originally distributed by Lorimar-Telepictures. Afterwards, Warner Bros. Television would assume syndication rights after acquiring Lorimar-Telepictures in 1989.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: Due to the murderous basis of Freddy Krueger, New Line Cinema opted not to develop a television series with a regular batch of characters to mix it up with Krueger on a continuous basis; deeming it futile, since he would inevitably kill most of them, and there would be no one left. Instead the producers created an anthology series, employing a new crop of actors to be used for each episode.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: Each episode tells a different story of a dark rooted and/or grim nature that takes place in the fictitious town of Springwood, Ohio, and in particular, on Elm Street; the same setting as the "A Nightmare on Elm Street" films. Though the Freddy Krueger character occasionally plays a part in the plot, most of the stories do not involve him (it is, however, often hinted that Krueger indirectly influenced the desolate nature of the plotlines).


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: Similar to the Crypt Keeper in "Tales from the Crypt", Krueger's primary function is to host the series. He is featured in regular bumper segments, where he offers an ominous or slapstick reaction to the happenings of the episode—culminating in him giving a quick, and usually eerie, epilogue at the end.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: One element that made the series unique is its two-tier story approach. Most of the episodes feature two different stories that each take up the first and second halves. Every second story, however, usually built on a character who played a minor (or supporting) role in the first.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: Several episodes throughout the second season form mini-arcs, with the events of one episode being followed up and/or referenced in a later episode. Examples of this include the episode "Interior Loft", which was given a direct sequel, "Interior Loft-Later" and "Lucky Stiff", which was followed up with "Easy Come, Easy Go".


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: Torrance High School was used as the filming location for Springwood High School, predating its use in later horror series like "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: The only actor from the film series retained for the TV series was Robert Englund, as Freddy Krueger.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: With the exception of the pilot, and S1e7 "Sister's Keeper", all of the episodes carried two separate storylines. The first half hour would be devoted to one story, while the last half hour would be devoted to a second storyline.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: In the US, five VHS tapes were released by Warner Home Video in September 1991. Each tape featured one episode. The episodes released were:


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: In the UK, eight VHS tapes were released by Braveworld Ltd., originally in 1989 as rental-only tapes and then again in 1993 to the sell-through market. Each tape features two episodes.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: In Germany, eight VHS tapes were released by Virgin Video, originally in 1989 as rental-only tapes. Eacht tape features two episodes.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: In 2003, Volume 1 (the first 3 episodes) was released on Region 2 DVD in Ireland and the UK, by Warner Home Video. Volume 2 and Volume 3 was also planned to be released later in future years to come, however, Warner canceled the releases due to poor sales.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: In 2011, a Blu-ray collection of the original seven "A Nightmare on Elm Street" films was released in the US. The set included a DVD with special features, which included two episodes of the show ("It's a Miserable Life" and "Killer Instinct").


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: The violent and sexual content of the series often meant that episodes were heavily edited before airing. An example of this is the series finale Safe Sex, which had 8 minutes of its more explicit footage deleted.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: In 2006, AOL teamed up with distributor Warner Bros. Television to bring "Freddy's Nightmares" to its new In2TV broadband service.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: NBCUniversal's horror and suspense-themed cable channel Chiller previously aired "Freddy's Nightmares" with marathons once a month. Season one and two were shown one after another, with commercial breaks, however, the channel ended the run on March 31, 2011.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: In the UK, Sky and Virgin Media customers could watch the entire first series, one episode per night, at 8pm on Zone Horror, starting June 8, 2009.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: As of February 15, 2022, the series is available on Screambox, a streaming service dedicated to horror content.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: As of May 1, 2022, the series is now streaming on Tubi, an ad-supported free content platform owned by Fox Corporation.


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: Mark Pellegrini of the "Adventures in Poor Taste" gave the show overall rating of 6 out of 10. In a review he explains his reasons for it as that only 8 out of 44 episodes are about Freddy Krueger. Out of those 8 episodes the "Photo Finish" received the best score, while the "Safe Sex" was booted out as the worst. "No More Mr. Nice Guy" episode was greeted with a homage to the first five "Nightmare on Elm Street" films, while the scene where Freddy gets burned alive was shown later in "Freddy vs. Jason" and "".


title: Freddy's Nightmares

text: The genesis of the series and its impact were later revisited in the 2010 documentary "", which features interviews with a number of the show's writers, directors and other parties involved like original Elm Street director Wes Craven and New Line producer Bob Shaye. The Blu-ray release of the documentary includes outtakes from the series as well as footage that was deleted due to it being too graphic for television.


title: Bakerloo line

text: The Bakerloo line () is a London Underground line that goes from in suburban north-west London to in south London, via the West End. Printed in brown on the Tube map, it serves 25 stations, 15 of which are underground, over . It runs partly on the surface and partly in deep-level tube tunnels.


title: Bakerloo line

text: The line's name is a portmanteau of its original name, the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway. From to Harrow & Wealdstone (the section above ground), the line shares tracks with the London Overground Watford DC line and runs parallel to the West Coast Main Line. There is, however, a short tunnel at the western end of .


title: Bakerloo line

text: Opened between 1906 and 1915, many of its stations retain elements of their design to a common standard: the stations below ground using Art Nouveau decorative tiling by Leslie Green, and the above-ground stations built in red brick with stone detailing in an Arts & Crafts style. It is the ninth-busiest line on the network, carrying more than 111 million passengers annually.


title: Bakerloo line

text: The line uses 1972 Stock trains, which are the oldest trains in passenger service in Britain at 50 years old.


title: Bakerloo line

text: The route had its origins in the failed projects of the pneumatic 1865 Waterloo and Whitehall Railway and the 1882 Charing Cross and Waterloo Electric Railway.


title: Bakerloo line

text: Originally called the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway, the line was constructed by the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) and opened between Lambeth North (at the time named "Kennington Road") and Baker Street on 10 March 1906. It was extended eastward to Elephant & Castle five months later, on 5 August. The contraction of the name to "Bakerloo" rapidly caught on, and the official name was changed to match in July 1906.


title: Bakerloo line

text: When work on the line started in June 1898, it had been financed by the mining entrepreneur and company promoter Whitaker Wright, who fell foul of the law over the financial proceedings involved and dramatically committed suicide at the Royal Courts of Justice, after being convicted in 1904. As a result, work on the line was stopped for a few months and did not resume until Charles Yerkes and UERL stepped in and took over the project.


title: Bakerloo line

text: By 1913, the line had been extended westward from its original northern terminus at Baker Street, with interchange stations with the Great Central Railway at Marylebone and with the Great Western Railway at Paddington, and a new station at Edgware Road.


title: Bakerloo line

text: In 1915, the line was extended to Queen's Park, where it joined the LNWR's Euston-Watford DC line (now part of London Overground) to Watford Junction. Bakerloo services to Watford Junction were reduced in the 1960s and cut back in 1982 to Stonebridge Park.


title: Bakerloo line

text: Services as far as Harrow & Wealdstone were gradually restored from 1984, and in 1989 the present all-day service was instituted.


title: Bakerloo line

text: By the mid-1930s, the Metropolitan line was suffering from congestion caused by the limited capacity of its tracks between Baker Street and Finchley Road stations. To relieve this pressure, the network-wide New Works Programme included the construction of new sections of tunnel between the Bakerloo line's platforms at Baker Street and Finchley Road and the replacement of three Metropolitan line stations (Lord's, Marlborough Road and Swiss Cottage) between those points with two new Bakerloo stations (St John's Wood and Swiss Cottage). The Bakerloo line took over the Metropolitan line's service to Stanmore on 20 November 1939. The branch remained part of the Bakerloo line until 1 May 1979, when similar congestion problems for the Bakerloo line caused by two branches converging at Baker Street led to the creation of the Jubilee line, initially formed by connecting the Stanmore branch to new tunnels bored between Baker Street and Charing Cross.


title: Bakerloo line

text: When the Bakerloo line was extended to Watford in 1915, it acquired an interchange at Harrow & Wealdstone with another route to Stanmore, the Stanmore branch line. This branch line was operated by the LNWR and terminated at a separate Stanmore station (later renamed ""). It was closed in 1964, partly due to the success of the rival Metropolitan/Bakerloo Underground line to Stanmore.


title: Bakerloo line

text: An extension at the southern end of the line to Camberwell and Denmark Hill was proposed and approved in 1931 as part of the "London Electric Metropolitan District and Central London Railway Companies (Works) Act, 1931". In April 1937, the estimated cost of the proposed extension was £5,000,000 (approximately £ today) and the London Passenger Transport Board announced that, due to rising materials prices, the extension had been postponed until the Board's finances improved. Apart from the extension of the sidings south of Elephant & Castle, no work on the extension took place before the Second World War, but the powers were renewed by the government in 1947 under the "Special Enactments (Extension of Time) Act, 1940". A projected extension as far as Camberwell was shown on a 1949 edition of the Underground map but no further work was done. The train describers at Warwick Avenue station showed "Camberwell" as a destination until the 1990s. Further extensions of the line were considered, south to Peckham Rye in the 1970s, and east to London Docklands and Canary Wharf in the 1980s. Neither proposal was proceeded with.


title: Bakerloo line

text: One oddity is that, almost from its opening until 1917, the Bakerloo operated with the polarity of the conductor rails reversed, the outside rail negative and the centre rail positive. This came about because the Bakerloo shared a power source with the District Railway. On the Bakerloo, the outside conductor rail tended to leak to the tunnel wall, whereas on the District Railway, the centre rail shared a similar problem. The solution was to reverse the polarity on the Bakerloo line, so that the negative rail leaked on both systems. In 1917, the two lines were separated when the LNWR began its 'New Line' service between Euston and Watford Junction, which the Bakerloo would share north of Queens Park. As a result, normal operation was restored.


title: Bakerloo line

text: The line celebrated its centenary on 10 March 2006, when events were organised with actors and staff in Edwardian costume entertaining travellers.


title: Bakerloo line

text: In 2017, a big fire at Oxford circus station caused disruption on the Bakerloo line. A number of people were treated for smoke inhalation after the fire broke out.


title: Bakerloo line

text: Over the next few years the northern section of the line may again see changes following the decision in February 2006 to transfer responsibility for Euston-Watford suburban services (on the Watford DC Line) from the Department for Transport (DfT) to Transport for London (TfL). This was in conjunction with the reorganisation of a number of north London railways under London Overground.


title: Bakerloo line

text: Under a former London Plan, it was projected that by 2026 the Bakerloo line would be re-extended from Harrow & Wealdstone to Watford Junction, restoring the pre-1982 service. The railway line from Queens Park to Watford Junction, currently shared with London Overground, would be shared with the Bakerloo line. The Best And Final Bid documentation for the Croxley Rail Link project indicates that this Bakerloo line extension is now "unlikely" because "TfL's plans to extend the Bakerloo line to Watford Junction are on hold indefinitely due to funding and business case constraints".


title: Bakerloo line

text: Since the late 2000s, Transport for London (TfL) has been planning an extension of the line, with a route to Lewisham via Old Kent Road safeguarded in 2021. Four stations would be built, at Burgess Park, Old Kent Road, New Cross Gate and Lewisham, with provision for a further extension along the Mid-Kent line to Hayes and Beckenham Junction. This could occur following the completion of the extension to Lewisham. Estimated to cost between £4.7bn to £7.9bn (in 2017 prices), the extension would take around 7 years to construct. Due to TfL's poor finances following the COVID-19 pandemic, work to implement the extension is currently on hold.


title: Bakerloo line

text: The Bakerloo line is operated entirely by 1972 Stock, displaced from the Jubilee line by 1983 stock. The trains are maintained at Stonebridge Park depot. All Bakerloo line trains are painted in the London Underground livery of red, grey and blue, and are the smaller size of the two sizes used on the network, since the line goes deep underground in small tunnels.


title: Bakerloo line

text: In the early 2000s, the interiors of the trains were 'deep-cleaned' and the upholstery replaced using a blue moquette. The seating layouts are both longitudinal and transverse; some cars have longitudinal seating only. A TfL Finance and Policy Committee Paper dated 11 March 2015 revealed that the repair programme for the 1972 Stock would be more expensive than anticipated, due to the unexpectedly inferior condition of the fleet.


title: Bakerloo line

text: In early 2016, a four-year refurbishment programme began with the first of the new-look cars operating on the line in March. Each car's interior is being cleaned, the seating moquette replaced with a variation of the Barman type seen on other lines, and handrails and lighting renewed. Each car is being assessed and repair work carried out to ensure the stock can operate safely.


title: Bakerloo line

text: Based on a November 2021 paper, due to a lack of funding, replacement may not occur until the late 2030s or early 2040s, being possibly 60-70 years old at the time of replacement, likely double their design life. Since the withdrawal of the Class 483 on the Isle of Wight, the 1972 Stock have become the oldest non-heritage trains running in the United Kingdom.


title: Bakerloo line

text: In the late 1990s, the Labour government initiated a public–private partnership (PPP) to reverse years of underinvestment in London Underground. Under the PPP contract, Metronet – the private consortium responsible for the Bakerloo line – would order new rolling stock for the line. This would take place following the delivery of 2009 Stock and S Stock trains, with an order for 24 new Bakerloo line trains. These would have entered service by 2019. However, Metronet collapsed in 2007 after cost overruns, and the PPP ended in 2010.


title: Bakerloo line

text: In the mid 2010s, TfL began a process of ordering new rolling stock to replace trains on the Piccadilly, Central, Bakerloo and Waterloo & City lines. A feasibility study into the new trains showed that new generation trains and re-signalling could increase capacity on the Bakerloo line by 25%, with 27 trains per hour.


title: Bakerloo line

text: In June 2018, the Siemens Mobility Inspiro design was selected. These trains would have an open gangway design, wider doorways, air conditioning and the ability to run automatically with a new signalling system. TfL could only afford to order Piccadilly line trains at a cost of £1.5bn. However, the contract with Siemens includes an option for 40 trains for the Bakerloo line in the future. This would take place after the delivery of the Piccadilly line trains in the late 2020s.


title: Bakerloo line

text: When opened in 1906, the Bakerloo line was operated by Gate Stock trains, built at Trafford Park, Manchester. To cope with the extension to Queen's Park, 12 extra motor cars of the London Underground 1914 Stock were ordered, ten from Brush of Loughborough and two from the Leeds Forge Company.


title: Bakerloo line

text: To operate services north of Queen's Park, 72 additional cars were built by the Metropolitan Carriage, Waggon and Finance Company of Birmingham. These trains, known as the Watford Joint Stock, were partly owned by the Underground and partly by the London and North Western Railway (later London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS)). They were initially painted in LNWR livery. They were not equipped with air-operated doors and proved slow and unreliable, so they were replaced by new trains of Standard Stock in 1930 (although a few were retained by the LMS). For some years in the 1930s, Watford trains had a distinctive blue stripe at window level.


title: Bakerloo line

text: In 1932, some carriages built for the Piccadilly line by Cammell Laird in Nottingham in 1919 were transferred to the Bakerloo line. When built, these had been the first Tube trains to have air-operated doors. These were later replaced by more trains of Standard Stock, in turn being replaced by 1938 stock and 1949 stock.


title: Bakerloo line

text: Until the opening of the Jubilee line in 1979, the Bakerloo line was worked by both 1938 stock and 1972 stock. The 1972 stock was intended for the Jubilee line, so from 1979 the Bakerloo line (now minus the Stanmore branch) was again entirely operated by 1938 stock. From 1983, the 1938 stock began to be replaced by trains of 1959 stock, but this was a temporary measure until 1972 stock became available. The last 1938 stock train was withdrawn on 20 November 1985. From 1986, the 1959 stock was transferred to the Northern line.


title: Bakerloo line

text: This forms a 16 tph service (or a train approximately every 4 minutes) between Queen's Park and Elephant & Castle. A 20 tph service runs on this section of the line during the weekday peak and all day on Saturdays.


title: Bakerloo line

text: Between 1917 and 1982, Bakerloo line trains continued along the DC line past Harrow & Wealdstone to Watford Junction. These stations continue to be served by London Overground. Proposals have surfaced to re-extend the Bakerloo line to Watford Junction and service the following stations:


title: Bakerloo line

text: The Stanmore branch was originally constructed by the Metropolitan Railway and was designated as the Stanmore branch of the Bakerloo line in 1939. It was transferred to the Jubilee line on 1 May 1979. It connected to the main Bakerloo line at Baker Street.


title: Bakerloo line

text: The Bakerloo line is currently served by three depots: a main depot at Stonebridge Park, opened on 9 April 1978 on the site of a former British Rail power station which contains the fleet's maintenance facilities; the original depot at London Road (between Elephant and Castle and Lambeth North, though connected to the line between Lambeth North and Waterloo); and a small depot immediately north of Queens Park, built in 1915. The Queens Park depot is unique on the London Underground network in that trains in passenger service run through it.


title: Bakerloo line

text: When Bakerloo line services ran to Watford, there was also an additional depot, Croxley Green Light Maintenance Depot at Croxley Green; this depot closed in November 1985 following the withdrawal of services.


title: Bakerloo line

text: When the Bakerloo had two branches at its northern end, to Queens Park (as currently) and to Stanmore (now taken over by the Jubilee line), the depot at Neasden on the Stanmore branch was the principal one on the line. The Jubilee taking over this branch from 1979 was the reason behind building the new Stonebridge Park depot.


title: Bakerloo line

text: The London Road depot is unusual in that, although the depot is on the surface, the line passes nearby in tunnel, connected by a short and sharply graded branch tunnel.


title: Rasgulla

text: Rasgulla, also known as rasagola, rosogola or rosogolla, is a syrupy dessert popular in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent. It is made from ball-shaped dumplings of chhena and semolina dough, cooked in light sugar syrup made of sugar. This is done until the syrup permeates the dumplings.


title: Rasgulla

text: The earliest evidence of rasagola can be found in the epic poem Dandi Ramayana which was composed by famous Odia poet Balarama Dasa in which he mentioned that rasagola is offered to Maa Laxmi by Lord Jagannath in a ritual called Niladri Bije.


title: Rasgulla

text: While it is near-universally agreed upon that the dessert originated in the eastern Indian subcontinent, the exact locus of origin is disputed between locations such as West Bengal, Bangladesh, and Odisha, where it is offered at the Puri Jagannath Temple.


title: Rasgulla

text: In 2016, the West Bengal government applied for a geographical indication (GI) tag for the variant called "Banglar rosogolla" (Bengali rasgulla) clarifying that the Bengal and Odisha variants were different in "both in colour, texture, taste, juice content and method of manufacturing."


title: Rasgulla

text: In 2017, when West Bengal got its rosogolla's Geographical indication status, the Registry office of India clarified that West Bengal was given GI status for Banglar rosogolla and Odisha can claim it too if they cite the place of origin of their variant along with colour, texture, taste, juice content and method of manufacturing. Thus, in 2018, the government of Odisha applied for GI status for "Odisha Rasagola" (Odia Rasagola), which was approved by GI Registry of India and on July 29, 2019.


title: Rasgulla

text: The dessert is in Bengali, and in Odia and in Sanskrit. Rasgulla is derived from the words "ras" ("juice") and "gulla" ("ball"). Other names for the dish include, Rasagulla, Rossogolla, Roshogolla, Rasagola, Rasagolla, and Rasbhari or Rasbari (Nepali).


title: Rasgulla

text: According to historians of Odisha, the rasgulla originated in Puri, as "khira mohana", which later evolved into the Pahala rasgulla. It has been traditionally offered as "bhog" to goddess Lakshmi at Jagannath Temple, Puri. According to the local legend, Laxmi gets upset because her husband Lord Jagannath goes on a 9-day sojourn (the "ratha yatra") without her consent. So, she locks "Jai Vijay Dwar", one of the temple gates and prevents his convoy from re-entering the sanctum sanctorum of the temple. To appease her, Jagannath offers her rasgullas. This ritual, known as "Bachanika", is part of the "Niladri Bije" (or "Arrival of the God") observance, which marks the return of the deities to the temple after the Ratha Yatra.


title: Rasgulla

text: The Jagannath Temple scholars such as Laxmidhar Pujapanda and researchers like Jagabandhu Padhi state that the tradition has existed since the 12th century, when the present-day temple structure was first built. Pujapanda states that the Niladri Bije tradition is mentioned in "Niladri Mahodaya", which is dated to the 18th century by Sarat Chandra Mahapatra. According to Mahapatra, several temple scriptures, which are over 300 years old, provide the evidence of rasgulla offering ritual in Puri.


title: Rasgulla

text: According to folklore, Pahala (a village on the outskirts of Odisha's capital Bhubaneshwar) had a large number of cows. The village would produce excess milk, and the villagers would throw it away when it became spoilt. When a priest from the Jagannath Temple saw this, he taught them the art of curdling, including the recipe for rasagulla. Pahala thus went on to become the biggest market for chhena-based sweets in the area.


title: Rasgulla

text: According to Asit Mohanty, an Odia research scholar on Jagannath cult and traditions, the sweet is mentioned as "Rasagola" in the 15th century text "Jagamohana Ramayana" of Balaram Das. The text mentions Rasagola, along with other sweets found in Odisha. There is also mention of many other cheese made sweets like "Chhenapuri", "Chhenaladu" and "Rasabali". Another ancient text "Premapanchamruta" of Bhupati also mentions cheese (Chhena). It is being argued that cheese making process was well known before coming of Portuguese in Odisha.


title: Rasgulla

text: According to the Bengali culinary historian Pritha Sen, in the mid-18th century, many Odia cooks were employed in Bengali homes who arguably have introduced Rasgulla along with many other Odia dishes, but there is no substantial claim to prove that. According to another theory, it is possible that the Bengali visitors to Puri might have carried the recipe for rasgulla back to Bengal in the nineteenth century. But no substantial claim regarding that was ever found by any historian or any one else.


title: Rasgulla

text: This claim is contested by Bengali historians. According to food historians K. T. Achaya and Chitra Banerji, there are no references to cheese (including chhena) in India before the 17th century. The milk-based sweets were mainly made up of khoa, before the Portuguese influence led to introduction of cheese-based sweets. Therefore, the possibility of a cheese-based dish being offered at Jagannath Temple in the 12th century is highly unlikely. According to Nobin Chandra Das' descendant Animikh Roy and historian Haripada Bhowmik, rasgulla is not even mentioned as one of the "chhappan bhog" ("56 offerings") in the early records of the Temple; the name of the sweet was coined in Bengal. They also state that it would have been a blasphemy to offer something made from spoiled milk (chhena) to a deity. However, Michael Krondl argues that Hindu dietary rules vary from region to region, and it is possible that this restriction did not exist in present-day Odisha. But at the same time, he could not give any substantial information to uphold the claim which he was forwarding.


title: Rasgulla

text: The spongy white rasgulla is believed to have been introduced in present-day West Bengal in 1868 by a Kolkata-based confectioner named Nobin Chandra Das. Das started making rasgulla by processing the mixture of chhena and semolina in boiling sugar syrup in contrast to the mixture sans semolina in the original rasgulla in his sweet shop located at Sutanuti (present-day Baghbazar). His descendants claim that his recipe was an original, but according to another theory, he modified the traditional Odisha rasgulla recipe to produce this less perishable variant.


title: Rasgulla

text: Yet another theory is that rasgulla was first prepared by someone else in Bengal, and Das only popularized it. In "Banglar Khabar" (1987), food historian Pranab Ray states that a man named Braja Moira had introduced rasgulla in his shop near Calcutta High Court in 1866, two years before Das started selling the dish. In 1906, Panchana Bandopadhyay wrote that rasgullla was invented in the 19th century by Haradhan Moira, a Phulia-based sweetmaker who worked for the Pal Chowdhurys of Ranaghat. According to "Mistikatha", a newspaper published by West Bengal Sweetmeat Traders Association, many other people prepared similar sweets under different names such as "gopalgolla" (prepared by Gopal Moira of Burdwan district), "jatingolla", "bhabanigolla" and "rasugolla". Food historian Michael Krondl states that irrespective of its origin, the rasgulla likely predates Nobin Chandra Das. A sales brochure of the company run by Das' descendants also hints at this: "it is hard to tell whether or not cruder versions of similar sweets existed anywhere at that time. Even if they did, they did not match the quality of Nobin Chandra, and having failed to excite the Bengali palate, they slipped into oblivion."


title: Rasgulla

text: Bhagwandas Bagla, a Marwari businessman and a customer of Nobin Chandra Das, popularized the Bengali rasgulla beyond the shop's locality by ordering huge amounts.


title: Rasgulla

text: Portuguese settlers made sweet curd cheese and Sandesh-like confections from milk in the sixteenth century, which they brought with them to Bengal. Bengali housewives then improvised the recipe. Late veteran recipe writer and food connoisseur Shawkat Osman told BBC Bangla that ancestors of Nobin Chandra Das, the maker of Rasgulla, were originally from Barisal and they lived near Patuakhali. It is believed that the main origin was formulated in Bangladesh and then became popular in Kolkata.


title: Rasgulla

text: In 1930, the introduction of vacuum packing by Nobin Chandra's son Krishna Chandra Das led to the availability of canned Rasgullas, which made the dessert popular outside Kolkata, and subsequently, outside India. Krishna Chandra's son Sarada Charan Das established the K.C. Das Pvt Ltd company in 1946. Sarada Charan's younger, estranged son Debendra Nath established K.C. Das Grandsons in 1956.


title: Rasgulla

text: Today, canned rasgullas are available throughout India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as in South Asian grocery stores outside the Indian subcontinent. In Nepal, Rasgulla became popular under the name "Rasbari".


title: Rasgulla

text: The Indian space agency, ISRO is developing dehydrated rasgullas and other dishes for Indian astronauts in its planned manned missions.


title: Rasgulla

text: In 2015, the Odisha government initiated a move to get Geographical indication (GI) status for the rasagulla made in Pahala. On 30 July, the people of Odisha celebrated "Rasagola Dibasa" ("Rasgulla Day") to reaffirm Odisha as the place of the dish's origin. In August, West Bengal decided to legally contest Odisha's move to obtain GI Status. In 2015 The odisha state government constituted three committees to claim over the Rasgulla . The committees submitted their interim report to the government. Noted journalist and food researcher Bhakta Tripathy and a member of the committee had submitted dossier containing historical evidence of Rasgulla origin in Odisha. The Science and Technology department of the West Bengal government also started the process to get its own GI status for the dessert.


title: Rasgulla

text: On 30 July 2015, on the day of "Niladri Bije", a social media campaign was started by using a hashtag #RasagolaDibasa and it later became a mainstream celebration as the maiden day to celebrate Rasgulla's origin to be Odisha. Odia newspaper Sambad and FM radio Radio Choklate in collaboration with the confectioners of Pahala celebrated a rasgulla exhibition-cum-awareness event in Bhubaneswar. Sand artist Sudarshan Patnaik made a sand sculpture in Puri Beach depicting "Niladri Bije" and Jagannath offering rasgulla to Lakshmi.


title: Rasgulla

text: It has been agreed upon to celebrate the Rasagola Dibasa every year on the tithi of Niladri Bije in the lunar calendar. In the year 2016, the Rasagola Dibasa has been celebrated on 17 July.


title: Rasgulla

text: To pay tribute to the inventor of rosogolla, ‘Nobin Chandra Das’, and to promote Bengali claim of authenticity over Rosogolla, from 2017 The government of West Bengal has decided to celebrate "Rosogolla Utsob" every year on 28 December. And in 2017 'Rosogolla festival', Bengali confectioners prepared world's largest Rasgulla which weighted 9 kilograms. To celebrate 150 years of Rosogolla's invention, The government of West Bengal had also organized a 3-day grand ‘Rosogolla festival’ from 28 December 2018 to 30 December 2018.