title: Jewell (singer)

text: Jewell was among many artists who departed Death Row between 1998 and 1999 due to financial and legal issues involving CEO Suge Knight, and her singing career wound down in the 2000s. In October 2011, she published the memoir "My Blood My Sweat My Tears", in which she claimed that her past association with Knight prevented her from gaining another recording deal. An accompanying soundtrack to the book was released.


title: Jewell (singer)

text: Caples was hospitalized in 2019 after she stopped breathing and collapsed while shopping at a Walmart, with the cause not made public. In an October 2021 interview, she said that she was given six months to live, and hurried to release her final album, "Love + Pain = Musik", as a result. Caples was hospitalized twice in March 2022 due to a self-described "lung injury illness", during which she had eight pounds of fluid removed from her heart, legs and lungs. She died at age 53 on May 6, 2022.


title: Will Grier

text: William Grier (born April 3, 1995) is an American football quarterback for the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Florida and West Virginia and was drafted by the Carolina Panthers in the third round in the 2019 NFL Draft.


title: Will Grier

text: Grier attended SouthLake Christian Academy in Huntersville, North Carolina, then transferred to Davidson Day School in Davidson, North Carolina. As a junior, he threw for a national record 837 yards in a game, breaking the old record of 764. As a senior, he had 4,989 passing yards with a nation-leading and North Carolina record 77 touchdowns. He also rushed for 1,251 yards with 13 touchdowns. He was named the Parade All-American Player of the Year and Mr. Football USA. For his career, Grier had 14,565 passing yards, a state record 195 touchdown passes, 2,955 rushing yards and 31 rushing touchdowns.


title: Will Grier

text: Grier was rated by Rivals.com as a four-star recruit and was ranked as the second best dual-threat quarterback in his class and 46th player overall. Grier was offered scholarships to play football at Auburn, Arkansas, Florida, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Wake Forest. He committed to play quarterback at the University of Florida.


title: Will Grier

text: Grier competed with Treon Harris to be Jeff Driskel's backup as a freshman in 2014, ultimately redshirting the season. As a redshirt freshman in 2015, he competed with Harris to be the starting quarterback. Although Harris started the first game of the season against New Mexico State, Grier received playing time, attempting 18 passes and completing 16 for 166 yards with two touchdowns. He rushed for 43 yards with a touchdown. Grier started the second game, against East Carolina, throwing for 151 yards, two touchdowns and an interception. On October 3, against the Ole Miss Rebels, he had the best game of his young career, going 24-of-29 for 271 yards and four passing touchdowns. He threw his four touchdowns in the first half; he was the first Gator quarterback since Chris Leak in 2005 to accomplish the feat. The game ended up being a 38–10 win for the Gators.


title: Will Grier

text: Grier received a one-year suspension, effective October 12, 2015, after it was revealed that he had tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs. He said the positive test stems from the over-the-counter supplement Ligandrol, and that he was not aware it was banned, while also admitting he never followed protocol to clear the supplement with team trainers. His appeal was rejected by the NCAA, and he would not be eligible to return until the sixth game of the regular season in 2016. On December 19, 2015, Florida announced that Grier planned to transfer to another school.


title: Will Grier

text: On April 6, 2016, Grier announced that he was transferring to West Virginia University. He sat out the 2016 season per NCAA transfer rules. Grier was the presumed starter for West Virginia heading into the 2017 season, but there were questions surrounding his eligibility, since half of his year-long suspension was served in conjunction with his transfer waiting period. On June 20, 2017, West Virginia head coach Dana Holgerson announced that the NCAA had granted Grier a waiver and he would be eligible to play in the season opener against Virginia Tech. In his first game with the Mountaineers, Grier threw for 371 yards, three touchdowns and an interception in a 31–24 loss to Virginia Tech. Grier threw for 352 yards and five touchdowns in a come-from-behind victory over then-No. 24 Texas Tech on October 14, and was named Big 12 Offensive Player of the Week. In the Mountaineers’ 11th game of the season, against Texas, Grier left the game in the second quarter with a broken finger on his throwing hand. Grier had surgery on the broken finger and missed the remainder of the season, finishing with 3,490 passing yards and 36 total touchdowns on the year. At the conclusion of the season, Grier was awarded as Big 12 Offensive Newcomer of the Year.


title: Will Grier

text: On December 14, 2017, Grier announced he would be returning for his senior season rather than entering the 2018 NFL Draft. He was listed on preseason watch lists for several national awards, including the Maxwell Award, Walter Camp Award, and Davey O'Brien Award. Grier appeared in several preseason lists of potential Heisman Trophy candidates. At the 2018 Big 12 Media Days, he was announced as the conference's Preseason Offensive Player of the Year and a preseason first-team all-conference selection.


title: Will Grier

text: Grier finished the 2018 season with 3,864 passing yards, 37 touchdowns, and eight interceptions. He was named second-team All-Big 12 at the conclusion of the regular season. West Virginia finished with an 8–3 regular season record and was invited to the Camping World Bowl; Grier announced that he would not play in the bowl game, in order to prepare for the 2019 NFL Draft. Grier would be named the winner of the 2018 Senior CLASS Award for FBS football as the outstanding senior student-athlete in that grouping of schools.


title: Will Grier

text: On December 16, 2019, it was announced that Grier would be making his first career start in week 16 against the Indianapolis Colts. During the game, Grier threw for 224 yards and three interceptions and rushed for 17 yards during the 38–6 loss. In Week 17 against the New Orleans Saints, Grier threw for four yards and a pick-six before exiting the game due to a foot injury in the second quarter. The Panthers lost the game 42–10.


title: Will Grier

text: On August 30, 2022, Grier was waived by the Cowboys and signed to the practice squad the next day. He was promoted to the active roster on October 5.


title: Will Grier

text: Grier is from Charlotte, North Carolina and is the oldest child of Chad Grier and Elizabeth Grier-Floyd. His father is a football coach and was a former quarterback for the East Carolina Pirates. He has two brothers, Nash and Hayes, a half-sister, Skylynn Elizabeth Floyd and a half-brother, John Henry "Hank" Grier. Nash, Hayes and Skylynn were popular users of Vine, the defunct video sharing service. Grier is married to Jeanne Marie O'Neil Grier and their first daughter was born on November 10, 2016. She gave birth to their second daughter on January 28, 2020.


title: National Commission for Women

text: The National Commission for Women (NCW) is the statutory body of the Government of India, generally concerned with advising the government on all policy matters affecting women. It was established on 31 January 1992 under the provisions of the Indian Constitution, as defined in the 1990 National Commission for Women Act. The first head of the commission was Jayanti Patnaik. As of 30 November 2018, Rekha Sharma is the chairperson.


title: National Commission for Women

text: The objective of the NCW is to represent the rights of women in India and to provide a voice for their issues and concerns. The subjects of their campaigns have included dowry, politics, religion, equal representation for women in jobs, and the exploitation of women for labour. They have also discussed police abuses against women.


title: National Commission for Women

text: The commission regularly publishes a monthly newsletter, "Rashtra Mahila", in both Hindi and English.


title: National Commission for Women

text: In December 2006 and January 2007, the NCW found itself at the center of a minor controversy over its insistence that Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code not be changed to make adulterous wives equally prosecutable by their husbands.


title: National Commission for Women

text: But the grounds on which Ms. Vyas resists the logic of making this a criminal offence — particularly for women, as often recommended — are not as encouraging. She is averse to holding the adulterous woman equally culpable as the adulterous man because women, she believes, are never offenders. They are always the victims.


title: National Commission for Women

text: The NCW has demanded that women should not be punished for adultery, as a woman is "the victim and not an offender" in such cases. They have also advocated the amendment of Section 198 of the CrPC to allow women to file complaints against unfaithful husbands and prosecute them for their promiscuous behaviour. This was in response to "loopholes" in the Indian Penal Code that allowed men to file adultery charges against other men who have engaged in illicit relations but did not allow women to file charges against their husbands.


title: National Commission for Women

text: The NCW came under sharp criticism for their response to the attack by forty male members of the Hindu right-wing Sri Ram Sena on eight women in a bar in Mangalore in late January 2009. Video from the attack shows the women were punched, pulled by their hair, and thrown out of the pub.


title: National Commission for Women

text: NCW member Nirmala Venkatesh was sent to assess the situation, and said in an interview that the pub did not have adequate security and that the women should have protected themselves. Venkatesh said, "If the girls feel they were not doing anything wrong why are they afraid to come forward and give a statement?" On 6 February, the NCW said they decided not to accept Venkatesh's report but would not be sending a new team to Mangalore. On 27 February, the Prime Minister's Office approved the removal of Nirmala Venkatesh on disciplinary grounds.


title: National Commission for Women

text: The NCW came under fire again after the molestation of a 17-year-old girl by a gang of men outside a pub in Guwahati on 9 July 2012. NCW member Alka Lamba was accused of leaking the name of the minor victim to the media, and was subsequently removed from the fact-finding committee, though she remains a member of the commission. The following week, NCW chairperson Mamta Sharma made comments suggesting that women "be careful how you dress", which invited criticism that she was guilty of victim blaming. The controversy led activists to call for a restructuring of the commission.


title: National Commission for Women

text: In 2021, the NCW was once again criticized for engaging in victim blaming following the gang rape and murder of a woman in Badaun, Uttar Pradesh. A two-member delegation from the NCW was sent to the site of the incident to meet with the victim's family and prepare a fact-finding report. NCW member Chandramukhi Devi, who was part of the delegation, stated to the press that part of the blame for the incident lay with the victim, as she had chosen to visit the temple late in the evening. Devi stated, "A woman should not go out at odd hours under the influence of somebody. I think if she had not gone out in the evening, or had some child along with her, this could have been prevented." The comments attracted wide criticism on social media, as well as from celebrities. Following public criticism, Devi withdrew her remarks.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (c. 5 January 1928 – 22 October 2011) (Arabic: سلطان بن عبدالعزيز آل سعود "Sulṭān ibn ʿAbdulʿazīz Āl Suʿūd"), called "Sultan the Good" (Arabic: سلطان الخير "Sulṭan al Khair") in Saudi Arabia, was the Saudi defense minister from 1963 to 2011 and the Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia from 2005 to 2011.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Sultan was born in Riyadh sometime between the mid to late 1920s to early 1930s, with the year being given as 1925, 1928, 1930, and 1931. He was the 15th son of Ibn Saud and his mother was Hussa bint Ahmed Al Sudairi. He was the second of the Sudairi Seven, who also included Fahd, Nayef and Salman. Prince Sultan, along with many of his brothers, received his early education in religion, modern culture, and diplomacy at the royal court.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: His career in public service began in 1940 when he was made a deputy to Riyadh governor or emir, Prince Nasser. In 1947, Prince Sultan replaced Prince Nasser as governor of Riyadh. Prince Sultan also assisted King Abdulaziz's attempts to establish a national administrative system based on the Islamic Sharia law during this period. In 1947, Prince Sultan oversaw ARAMCO's construction of the Kingdom's rail link between Dammam and Riyadh. He was appointed as the kingdom's first minister of agriculture in 1953 and minister of transport in 1955.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Following the assassination of Lebanese prime minister, Riad Al Solh, in 1951 King Abdulaziz sent Prince Sultan to Beirut to offer condolences to late prime minister's family.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Although the direct military experience of Prince Sultan was brief, heading the Royal Guard in Riyadh in the early 1950s, he felt a lifelong connection to the military and the cause of Saudi independence from an early age. Major General Carl von Horn, Swedish commander of the UN observer mission during the Yemeni civil war, described the Prince Sultan as "a volatile and emotional young man" in the early days.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In 1963, Crown Prince Faisal appointed Prince Sultan as minister of defense and aviation. He presided over the development of the Saudi armed forces. During the reign of King Faisal, Prince Sultan was particularly interested in Yemen.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: At the beginning of King Faisal's reign in 1964 Prince Sultan became a member of the council which had been established by the king to guide the succession issues. In the late 1966 Prince Sultan survived an assassination attempt by the revolutionary Yemenites who were assisted by Egyptian intelligence. His influence declined under the reign of King Khalid due to the fact that in 1977 Prince Sultan unsuccessfully tried to prevent Prince Abdullah bin Abdulaziz from becoming heir apparent when the king died.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Sultan purchased U.S. tanks, fighter planes, missiles, and AWACS (airborne warning and control systems). However, as a result of problems assimilating technology within its armed forces, a relatively high proportion of the military equipment is stored or under maintenance, despite a large portion of Saudi's $34 billion defense budget being spent on maintaining military equipment. Sultan allegedly became extraordinarily wealthy from kickbacks by Western businesses that handled multibillion-dollar defense contracts. He was involved in many scandals, including the Al Yamamah deal. However, his influence remained unhindered until his health began to deteriorate. During his tenure, Saudi Arabia became the largest importer of U.S. arms, and he was a strong proponent of the U.S.-Saudi partnership.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: As well, Sultan authorized a deal with the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) in 1965. His program, called Operation Magic Carpet, traded £16 million for six second-hand Lightnings, six Hawker Hunters, and a set of missile launchers going to Royal Saudi Air Force. Geoffrey Edwards served as the official intermediary. British pilots also came over, privately contracted. Prince Sultan was an expert on the Yemen civil war and Soviet involvement in the Horn of Africa in 1985.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In 1996, Prince Sultan opposed Pentagon plans to relocate U.S. troops to safer locations after the Dhahran complex bombings. He visited Iran in May 1999 that was the first official visit of a Saudi minister since 1979.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: On 13 June 1982, after the death of King Khalid and Crown Prince Fahd became the King, Prince Sultan was appointed second deputy prime minister. Opposition to his appointment as second deputy prime minister came in particular from his elder half-brothers Musaid and Bandar. The objection of Prince Musaid was easily ignored since his son, Faisal bin Musaid, had assassinated King Faisal. However, the interests of Bandar bin Abdulaziz were much harder to ignore. Thus, he was compensated and the dispute was resolved.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan, in December 1995, attempted to seize power through the support of the Ulema when Crown Prince Abdullah was in Oman for a summit of the Gulf Cooperation Council. However, his attempted coup failed.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan was one of the members of the Al Saud Family Council established by Crown Prince Abdullah in June 2000 to discuss private issues such as business activities of princes and marriages of princess to individuals who were not members of the House of Saud.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: On 1 August 2005, Sultan bin Abdulaziz was designated heir apparent despite having a discord with King Abdullah. During the same period he led the group called Sudairi Seven, being the eldest of the group after King Fahd's demise.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: During the 1970s Prince Sultan was one of the members of the inner family council which was led by King Khalid and included Sultan's brothers Prince Mohammed, Crown Prince Fahd, Prince Abdullah, and Prince Abdul Muhsin and his uncles Prince Ahmed and Prince Musaid.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan was Saudi Arabia's inspector general. He was chairman of the board of Saudi Arabia's national airline, Saudi Arabian Airlines. As chairman, he approved a ban on smoking inside all Saudi airports. In 1986, he founded the Saudi National Commission for Wildlife Conservation. He was chairman of the Higher Council for Islamic Affairs, which financially supports Muslim communities around the world.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan was known as "Sultan the Good" (Arabic:سلطان الخير "Sulṭan al-Khair") in Saudi Arabia for his generosity. He played a role in many charitable works, including providing for the poor and people with special needs. He set up and funded the Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Foundation on 21 January 1995, with the aim of providing humanitarian services and medical services to people unable to afford the expenses. With the exception of his private residence and important necessities, he donated his possessions to the foundation.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: This private committee organizes relief and medical convoys and sets up camps to combat diseases like Malaria and blindness. It has carried out several developmental, social and medical projects, like, digging wells, building schools, public libraries, mosques, hospitals, establishing dialysis centers. It also sponsors Muslim preachers in Ethiopia, Chad, Niger, Malawi, Mali, Comoro Islands, Djibouti and Indonesia.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: He inaugurated and served as the patron of Prince Sultan University in Riyadh. It was named in his honor by the university's parent institution, Al-Riyadh Philanthropic Society, which was founded by the prince's brother, Salman of Saudi Arabia, who would later become king. This is the first private/non-profit university established in the kingdom. In 2007, Prince Sultan was awarded the Medal of Human Honor for his charitable works.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In April 2005, Sultan donated £2 million to the Ashmolean Museum. A year after his donations to establish an art museum, Oxford University agreed to 'expedite' the scholarship application process for Saudi students, and identify colleges for ten Saudi students from Prince Sultan University. When this arrangement became public, it led to criticism due to the donations bypassing Oxford's governing council, and breaching the admissions process for prospective students.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: The press release added further that ‘the new gallery, part of the ambitious redevelopment of one of the world’s oldest museums, will be named the “Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz al Saud Gallery”’. "Arab News" on 21 April 2005 reported that Sultan’s donation was a ‘move to promote understanding between Islam and the West’, adding that ‘Saudi and British officials’ had said that the new gallery ‘will help to portray Islamic culture and civilization in right perspectives.’


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In 2002, families of the victims of the September 11 attacks in the United States sued Prince Sultan and other senior Saudi officials for their alleged contributions to al-Qaeda linked charities. The lawsuits were thrown out by a US federal judge due to insufficient evidence submitted.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan mostly married women who had a tribal background. He had thirty-two children by his multiple wives. His eldest son Khalid bin Sultan, after Prince Sultan's death, was appointed deputy minister of defense and served in the post until 20 April 2013. Bandar bin Sultan was the former ambassador to the United States, the former secretary general of the national security council and the former head of the general intelligence directorate. Fahd bin Sultan is the governor of the Tabuk province. Salman bin Sultan, another son, is the former deputy defense minister. Faisal bin Sultan (born 1951) is the secretary general of Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Foundation.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: His other sons are Turki (1959–2012), Nayef (born 1979), Badr (born 1980), Saud, Ahmad (born 1983), Nawwaf, Abdullah, Mishaal (born 1988), Mansour, Fawwaz, Abdulmajid and Abdul Ilah.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan had fifteen daughters, the oldest of whom is Nawf bint Sultan. One of his daughters, Reema, is the spouse of Muhammad bin Nayef, former Crown Prince. His other daughter, Noura bint Sultan, married Turki bin Nasser. Another daughter, Munira bint Sultan, who was Faisal bin Fahd's spouse, died in June 2011 at age 59.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan was regarded by the House of Saud as a workaholic. He doled out money at banquets in keeping with tribal customs. A conservative, it was expected that he would have put a brake on King Abdullah's timid reforms. Sultan was considered to be pro-American.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Sultan took a lifetime anti-communist and anti-Soviet view, based on his dislike of Soviet state atheism as well as Soviet interest in Gulf oil and access to ports that he felt risked Saudi independence. He rebuked U.S. President Jimmy Carter for what he saw as "pusillanimity" in the face of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In a 23 October 2001 interview in Kuwaiti newspaper "As Seyassa", concerning 9/11 attacks, Sultan stated “Who stands behind this terrorism and who carried out this complicated and carefully planned terrorist operation? Osama bin Laden and those with him have said what indicates that they stand behind this carefully planned act. We, in turn, ask: Are bin Laden and his supporters the only ones behind what happened or is there another power with advanced technical expertise that acted with them?”.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan's wealth in 1990 was reported to be $1.2 billion. In 1993 "Fortune" magazine cited him as the 34th rich person in the world with $4.0 billion wealth. Later, his fortune was estimated at $270 billion, which he distributed between his sons prior to his death in October 2011 in order to support their political position in the competitive princely arena. Prince Sultan owned 2–8a Rutland Gate, the former London residence of the Lebanese politician and businessman Rafic Hariri. Prince Sultan had been given the property after Hariri's assassination in 2005.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Documents in the Paradise Papers release show Prince Sultan used the law firm Appleby at the center of the use of offshore businesses and trusts by world leaders.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Prince Sultan was rumored to have had colon cancer in 2003. A foreign correspondent was forced to leave the country after reporting his health problems.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In 2004, Prince Sultan was diagnosed with colon cancer and underwent several corrective surgeries. He underwent an operation to remove an intestinal polyp in Jeddah in 2005. Prince Sultan visited a Swiss clinic in late April 2008. In April 2009, he began to suffer from Alzheimer's disease.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: A leaked March 2009 diplomatic cable from WikiLeaks stated that U.S. diplomats viewed Prince Sultan as "for all intents and purposes incapacitated". He was possibly suffering dementia, specifically Alzheimer's disease.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In February 2009, Sultan spent several months in New York City at New York–Presbyterian Hospital and underwent surgery in New York. He then convalesced at Agadir, Morocco. He went back to Saudi Arabia, but soon returned to Morocco in August 2009. During his vacation, the Saudi cabinet increased officer salaries, a traditional domain of Sultan.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In 2009, King Abdullah took charge of all defense purchases and reduced the power of the Defense Ministry. In October 2010, Abdullah personally conducted much of the negotiations for the U.S. arms package worth over $60 billion.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: In November 2010, Sultan received in Agadir Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Al-Hariri to discuss the future of Lebanon's government. He had been receiving treatment since 2009 for what analysts and diplomats believed to be cancer. At the end of November 2010, he returned to Saudi Arabia because King Abdullah had left for the United States for surgery. His return was seen as a legal formality necessary under Saudi law, which stipulates that only one of the kingdom's top two officials can be abroad at a given time.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: The Saudi Royal court announced on 22 October 2011 that Prince Sultan died at dawn of an unspecified illness. According to media reports, Prince Sultan had been battling cancer and had been seeking medical treatment in the United States since mid-June 2011. He had a surgical operation in New York in July 2011. Unnamed U.S. officials cited by "The New York Times" stated that he died at New York-Presbyterian Hospital in Manhattan, New York City.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: His body was taken from New York City to Riyadh on 24 October 2011. His funeral was held at the Imam Turki bin Abdullah mosque in Riyadh on 25 October 2011 in the presence of King Abdullah bin Abdulaziz. He was buried in Al Oud cemetery in Riyadh.


title: Sultan bin Abdulaziz

text: Various leaders, including the president of Afghanistan, Farouk Al Sharaa, the vice-president of Syria, the Iranian foreign minister and the head of Egypt's ruling military council, participated in the funeral. Additionally, other statesmen went to Riyadh to offer their condolences, such as the US Vice President Joe Biden, Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari and Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak.


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: 4, also known as Foreigner 4, is the fourth studio album by the British-American rock band Foreigner, released on July 3, 1981, on Atlantic Records. Several singles from the album were hits, including "Urgent", "Waiting for a Girl Like You" and "Juke Box Hero".


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: The album name represented the band's fourth studio album and also the band's reduction from six to four members. Musically, it showed Foreigner shifting from hard rock to more accessible mainstream rock and pop music.


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: The album was a success worldwide, holding the #1 position on the "Billboard" album chart for a total of 10 weeks. It eventually sold over six million copies in the US alone.


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: The album was originally titled "Silent Partners" and later was changed to "4", reflecting both the fact that it was Foreigner's fourth album and that the band was now down to four members. In 1981, art studio Hipgnosis was asked to design a cover based on the original title, and they developed a black and white image of a young man in bed with a pair of binoculars suspended in the air overhead. The resulting design was rejected by the band as they felt it was "too homosexual". The replacement cover for "4" was designed by Bob Defrin and modeled after an old fashioned film leader. Hipgnosis is still credited with designing the record labels.


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: Both Ian McDonald and Al Greenwood had left before the recording of "4", part because they wanted to take a more significant role in writing songs, while Mick Jones wanted to control the songwriting along with Lou Gramm. As a result, all of the songs on the album are compositions by Jones and/or Gramm. McDonald and Greenwood had played saxophone and keyboards, respectively, and so several session musicians were needed to replace their contributions, among them Junior Walker, who played the saxophone solo in the bridge of "Urgent", and a young Thomas Dolby, who soon leveraged this collaboration into a successful solo career.


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: The album took 10 months to produce. During that time they went from starting work at the recording studio around noon to starting around midnight. This changing schedule helped inspire the opening song on the album, "Night Life." According to Jones "The later it got at night, the bigger the buzz got, and a lot of weird characters, some of them hookers, would appear. It was a big mixture of a lot of different characters – so that was the inspiration for opening song, 'Night Life.'”


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: The editors of "Classic Rock" called "4" Foreigner's "masterpiece." "Ultimate Classic Rock" critic Matt Wardlaw rated four of the songs from "4" - "Juke Box Hero," "Waiting for a Girl Like You," "Urgent" and "Night Life" among Foreigner's top 10 songs. "Ultimate Classic Rock" critic Eduardo Rivadavia rated two of the songs from "4" - "Girl on the Moon" and "Woman in Black" among Foreigner's 10 most underrated songs. "Classic Rock" critic Malcolm Dome also rated two songs from "4", but two different ones, as being among Foreigner's 10 most underrated – "I’m Gonna Win," which he compares to "Juke Box Hero," at #8 and "Night Life," – which he praises for its " confident energy," at #1.


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: Jones has rated three of the songs from "4" ("Urgent," "Juke Box Hero" and "Girl on the Moon") as being among his 11 favorite Foreigner songs.


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: "4" was released in 2001 in multichannel DVD-Audio, and on September 14, 2011, on hybrid stereo-multichannel Super Audio CD by Warner Japan in their Warner Premium Sound series.


title: 4 (Foreigner album)

text: June 2015 saw its re-release on Atlantic Records premium 180-gram vinyl with its original 1981 classic track listing.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Inferno is a 1980 Italian supernatural horror film written and directed by Dario Argento, and starring Irene Miracle, Leigh McCloskey, Eleonora Giorgi, Daria Nicolodi and Alida Valli. The plot follows a young man's investigation into the disappearance of his sister, who had been living in a New York City apartment building that also served as a home for a powerful, centuries-old witch. The cinematography was by Romano Albani, and Keith Emerson composed the film's musical score.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: A thematic sequel to "Suspiria" (1977), the film is the second installment of Argento's Three Mothers trilogy, though it is the first in the trilogy to explore the idea of the Three Mothers. The long-delayed concluding entry, "The Mother of Tears", was released in 2007. All three films are partially derived from Thomas de Quincey's 1845 work "Suspiria de Profundis", a collection of prose poetry in which he proposes the concept of three "Ladies of Sorrow" (Mater Lachrymarum, Mater Suspiriorum and Mater Tenebrarum), concurrent with the three Fates and Graces in Greek mythology.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Unlike "Suspiria", "Inferno" received a very limited theatrical release, thus unable to match the box office success of its predecessor. While initial critical response was mostly negative, its reputation has improved considerably over the years. Kim Newman has called it "perhaps the most underrated horror movie of the 1980s." In 2005, the magazine "Total Film" named "Inferno" one of the 50 greatest horror films of all time.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Rose Elliot, a poet living alone in New York City's Upper West Side, purchases a book from an antiques dealer, titled "The Three Mothers". The book, written by an alchemist named Varelli, tells of three evil sisters who rule the world with sorrow, tears, and darkness, and dwell inside separate homes that had been built for them by the alchemist. Mater Suspiriorum, the Mother of Sighs, lives in Freiburg. Mater Lachrymarum, the Mother of Tears, lives in Rome, and Mater Tenebrarum, the Mother of Darkness, lives in New York. Rose suspects that she is living in Mater Tenebrarum's building, and writes to her brother Mark, a music student in Rome, urging him to visit her. Using the clues provided in the book, Rose searches the cellar of her building and discovers a hole in the floor which leads to a water-filled ballroom. She accidentally drops her keys and enters the water to find them. After she reclaims the keys, a putrid corpse rises from the depths, frightening her. Rose manages to swim out and flee.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: In Rome, Mark attempts to read Rose's letter during class. He is distracted by the intense gaze of a beautiful student, who leaves suddenly; Mark follows, leaving the letter behind. His friend Sara picks up the letter, and later reads it. Horrified by the letter's contents, she takes a taxi to a library and finds a copy of "The Three Mothers". Trying to find her way out, Sara becomes lost in the library basement and finds a room filled with boiling cauldrons. Sara is attacked there by a monstrous figure who recognizes the book. She throws the book to the ground and escapes.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Returning to her home, she phones Mark telling him to come and asks a neighbour, Carlo, to keep her company. The lights go out and both Sara and Carlo are stabbed to death by a gloved killer. Mark discovers the bodies and two torn fragments from Rose's letter. After the police arrive, he walks out of Sara's apartment and sees a taxi slowly driving by. In the back seat of the vehicle is the music student, staring at him intently. Mark telephones Rose and promises to visit, but the phone call is cut short. Rose sees two shadowy figures preparing to enter her apartment. She leaves through a back door, but is followed. Running into a decrepit laboratory, she is grabbed by a clawed assailant and guillotined with the glass of a broken window.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Arriving in New York, Mark goes straight to Rose's building, where he meets Carol, the concierge, and some of the residents, including a nurse who cares for elderly Professor Arnold, a wheelchair user who cannot speak. Mark encounters the sickly Countess Elise De Longvalle Adler, who tells him that Rose has disappeared. After the two find blood on the carpet outside Rose's room, Mark follows the stains. Inhaling a strange odour, he becomes ill and falls unconscious. Elise sees a black-robed figure dragging Mark away, but the figure stops and gives chase to Elise. The figure eventually finds her swarmed with rabid cats in a room and stabs her to death. Mark staggers to the apartment building's lobby where Carol and the nurse put him to bed.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: The following morning, Mark asks Kazanian, the antique dealer who sold Rose "The Three Mothers", about his sister's whereabouts. However, the man provides no information. That night, Kazanian drowns several cats in a Central Park pond and falls into the water. Hundreds of rats from a nearby drain crawl over him, gnawing his flesh. A hot dog vendor hears Kazanian's cries for help and rushes over, but proceeds to kill him with a knife.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: More strange deaths occur in the building, when Carol and Elise's butler, John, plots to take advantage of the Countess' death by stealing her valuables. A shocked Carol finds John's corpse in Elise's apartment, and drops a lit candle which starts a fire. Attempting to put out the flames, she becomes entangled in burning draperies and falls from a window to her death.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Mark uses the final clue from Rose's letter to discover that beneath each floor is a secret crawl space. He follows hidden passages to a suite of rooms where he finds Professor Arnold who reveals, via an electronic voice generator, that he is in fact Varelli. He tries to kill Mark with a hypodermic injection. During the struggle, Varelli's neck is caught in his vocal apparatus, choking him. Mark frees him, only to be told that he is still being watched as Varelli dies. Mark follows a shadowy figure to a lavishly furnished chamber, where he finds Varelli's nurse. Laughing maniacally, she reveals to him that she is Mater Tenebrarum. She vanishes, but re-emerges through a mirror as Death personified. However, the fire that has consumed much of the building enables Mark to escape from the witch's den. Debris crashes down on the fiend, destroying her.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: In 1977, "Suspiria" had been an unexpectedly big box office hit for 20th Century Fox, released in the U.S. under their "International Classics" banner. Capitalizing on the commercial success of the film, Argento and Daria Nicolodi, who had co-written the screenplay, announced that "Suspiria" was only the first of a proposed trilogy which they referred to as "The Three Mothers" trilogy. The basic concept of all three films is derived from Thomas de Quincey's "Suspiria de Profundis", a sequel to his "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater". A prose poem of the book entitled "Levana and Our Ladies of Sorrow", details how, just as there are three Fates and three Graces, there are also three Sorrows: "Mater Lachrymarum" (The Lady of Tears), "Mater Suspiriorum" (The Lady of Sighs) and "Mater Tenebrarum" (The Lady of Darkness). As the title suggests, "Suspiria" focused on Mater Suspiriorum; the evil sister featured in "Inferno" is Mater Tenebrarum. The concluding chapter of Argento's trilogy, "The Mother of Tears" (2007), is about Mater Lachrymarum.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: When Argento proposed "Inferno" as his follow-up to "Suspiria", 20th Century Fox agreed to co-finance the production. The film was budgeted at USD $3,000,000, and producer Claudio Argento secured additional co-production money from Italian and German consortia.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Nicolodi devised the original story concept but received no on-screen credit for her work on the screenplay. Nicolodi explained that she did not seek credit because "having fought so hard to see my humble but excellent work in "Suspiria" recognized (up until a few days before the première I didn't know if I would see my name in the film credits), I didn't want to live through that again, so I said, 'Do as you please, in any case, the story will talk for me because I wrote it.'" Working from Nicolodi's original story notes, Argento wrote the screenplay while staying in a New York hotel room with a view of Central Park.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: The filming of "Inferno" took place mainly on interior studio sets in Rome, but a short amount of time was also set aside for location shooting in New York, including Central Park. Sacha Pitoëff's death scene was filmed on location in Central Park during the summer of 1979. William Lustig, who was credited as the film's Production Coordinator, recalled:


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: During the film's production, Argento became stricken with a severe case of hepatitis---and had to direct some sequences while lying on his back. At one point, the illness became so painful that he was bedridden for a few days; filming was then restricted to second unit work, some of which was done by Mario Bava. Argento has called "Inferno" one of his least favorite of all his films, as his memories of the movie are tainted by his recollection of the painful illness he suffered.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Argento invited his mentor, Mario Bava, to provide some of the optical effects, matte paintings and trick shots for the film. Some of the cityscape views seen in "Inferno" were actually tabletop skyscrapers built by Bava out of milk cartons covered with photographs. The apartment building that Rose lived in was in fact only a partial set built in the studio—it was a few floors high and had to be visually augmented with a small sculpture constructed by Bava. This sculpture was set aflame toward the end of production and served as the burning building seen in the climax.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Bava also provided some second unit direction for the production. Maitland McDonagh has suggested that Bava had his hand in the celebrated watery ballroom scene, but that sequence was shot in a water tank by Gianlorenzo Battaglia, without any optical effects work at all. Bava's son, Lamberto Bava, was the film's assistant director.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: The film's fiery final sequence was shot without a stunt performer filling in for Leigh McCloskey. After the production's principal photography had been completed, the film's producer, Claudio Argento, asked if McCloskey would be willing to perform the stuntwork himself, as the stuntman hired for the job had broken his leg. The producer assured the actor: "It'll be absolutely safe". The actor agreed, and when he walked onto the set the following day he observed "three rows of plexiglass in front of everything and everyone is wearing hard hats. I'm the only guy standing on the other side of this!... Needless to say, I did it all on instinct... I still feel that blast of the door blowing by me. When they tell you in words, its one thing, but when you feel that glass go flying past you with a sound like a Harrier jet, you never forget it!"


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Dario Argento chose progressive rocker Keith Emerson to compose "Inferno"s soundtrack because he "wanted a different sort of score [from that by Italian prog group Goblin on "Suspiria"], a more delicate one".


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Argento prominently featured a selection from Giuseppe Verdi's "Nabucco" throughout "Inferno", the Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves ("Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate"), an operatic chestnut, from scene two of the opera's third act. In two instances, a recording of the Sinphonic ["sic"] Orchestra and Chorus of Rome was used. Argento also tasked Emerson with including the piece in his soundtrack. He re-orchestrated "Va, pensiero..." in five-four time to mimic a "fast and bumpy" taxi ride through Rome. When Argento reviewed Emerson's progress he did not initially recognize the remix, but was later pleased to discover it was used for Sara's taxi ride.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: A soundtrack album was originally released as an LP in 1980 on Atlantic Records (K 50753), and by the Cinevox label in 1981. In 2000, Cinevox released an expanded version of the album on CD. In 2018, Waxwork Records released the complete soundtrack on a double LP.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Emerson's music met with a mixed response from critics, some of whom compared it unfavorably to Goblin's score for "Suspiria". "Time Out"s Scott Meek noted that "Argento's own over-the-top score [for "Suspiria"] has been replaced by religioso thunderings from the keyboards of Keith Emerson". A review of the 2000 Cinevox CD by AllMusic notes, "The keyboard selections are rather unremarkable, except for the finale, "Cigarettes, Ice, Etc.", on which Emerson uses his full keyboard arsenal to excellent effect."


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: "Inferno" was distributed in Italy by 20th Century Fox on February 8, 1980. The film grossed a total of 1,331,763,000 Italian lire domestically (around $1.6 million at the time). The film had initially promising box office with the films premier in Rome had 500 tickets returned as the venue was packed with audiences even sitting on the floor of the theatre. Overall the film was the 14th highest grossing film in Italy in 1980 and eighth among the highest grossing films of the year.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: For reasons never specified, Fox did not commit to a wide theatrical release of "Inferno" in the United States. In an interview with Maitland McDonagh, Argento speculated that Fox's decision was made due to an abrupt change in management at the studio that left "Inferno" and several dozen other films in limbo as a result of them having been greenlighted by the previous management. The movie sat on the shelf for five years and was released straight to VHS in 1985 via the studio's Key Video subsidiary. The following year, it had a belated theatrical release by Fox, playing for a one-week engagement in a New York City movie theatre. Worldwide, the film only had a very abbreviated and minimal theatrical release. As noted by Argento, "I think anybody outside of Italy was lucky to see "Inferno"." Consequently, "Inferno" was not a commercial success.


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: Initial critical response was fairly muted. Several reviewers expressed disappointment, comparing the film unfavorably to the much more bombastic "Suspiria". In a review that was later reprinted in McDonagh's critically acclaimed "Broken Mirrors/Broken Minds: The Dark Dreams of Dario Argento" (1994), "Variety" said "Inferno" was a "lavish, no-holds-barred witch story whose lack of both logic and technical skill are submerged in the sheer energy of the telling", then complained that the film "fails mainly because it lacks restraint in setting up the terrifying moment, using close-ups and fancy camera angles gratuitously and with no relevance to the story." Reviewing the film during its brief theatrical release in 1986, Nina Darnton of "The New York Times" noted, "The movie's distinguishing feature is not the number or variety of horrible murders, but the length of time it takes for the victims to die. This is a technique that may have been borrowed from Italian opera, but without the music, it loses some of its panache. The film... is shot in vivid colors, at some striking angles, and the background music is Verdi rather than heavy metal. But the script and acting are largely routine." However, "Cinefantastique" described the film as "the stuff of all our worst dreams and nightmares and a tour de force from Italian director Dario Argento... "Inferno" brings his personal redefinition of the genre close to perfection."


title: Inferno (1980 film)

text: "Inferno" continues to have a mixed critical reputation. The film has a 64% favorable rating on film review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 14 reviews. Metacritic assigned the film a score of 69 out of 100 based on 8 critic reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". "Leonard Maltin's Movie Guide" gave the film two and a half stars and opined it was a "surreal, hypnotic shocker... short on sense, but long on style." But several critics have praised the film. Upon its initial release on videotape, Tim Lucas in "The Video Watchdog Book" said, "The movie is terrific, much more exciting than most contemporary horror video releases..." Kim Newman, in "The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural", noted that "Inferno" was "a dazzling series of set pieces designed to give the impression that the real world is terrifying, beautiful, erotic and dangerous... "Inferno" is a masterpiece of absolute film, and perhaps the most underrated horror movie of the 1980s." In 2013, "Time Out" compiled a list of the 100 greatest horror films ever made based on the top ten lists of over one hundred film directors, screenwriters, and critics, and "Inferno" was listed as No. 92; in the resulting critical commentary for the film, Nigel Floyd wrote, "Horror cinema at its most baroque: a simple libretto is embroidered with elaborate, flowing camera movements, abstract blocks of colour, unsettling sound effects and soundtrack composer Keith Emerson’s thunderous rock variations on Verdi... Argento’s best work is far behind him, but this alone justifies his cult reputation."


title: Navaratnas

text: Navaratnas (Sanskrit dvigu "nava-ratna", ) () or Nauratan was a term applied to a group of nine extraordinary people in an emperor's court in India. The well-known Nauratnas include the ones in the courts of the Hindu emperor Vikramaditya, the Mughal emperor Akbar, and the feudal lord Raja Krishnachandra.


title: Navaratnas

text: Vikramaditya was a legendary emperor, who ruled from Ujjain; he is generally identified with the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. According to folk tradition, his court had 9 famous scholars.


title: Navaratnas

text: The earliest source that mentions this legend is "Jyotirvidabharana" (22.10), a treatise attributed to Kalidasa. According to this text, the following 9 scholars (including Kalidasa himself) attended Vikramaditya's court:


title: Navaratnas

text: Another popular tradition mentions the astronomer Brahmagupta and the magician Vaitalik instead of Ghatkharpar and Vetala-Bhatta.


title: Navaratnas

text: Multiple scholars consider "Jyotirvidabharana" a literary forgery of a date later than Kalidasa. V. V. Mirashi dates the work to 12th century, and points out that it could not have been composed by Kalidasa, because it contains grammatical faults. There is no mention of such "Navaratnas" in earlier literature. D. C. Sircar calls this tradition "absolutely worthless for historical purposes".


title: Navaratnas

text: There is no historical evidence to show that these nine scholars were contemporary figures or proteges of the same king. Vararuchi is believed to have lived around 3rd or 4th century CE. The period of Kalidasa is debated, but most historians place him around 5th century CE. Varahamihira is known to have lived in 6th century CE. Dhanavantari was the author of a medical glossary (Nighantu); his period is uncertain. Amarasimha cannot be dated with certainty either, but his lexicon utilizes the works of Dhanavantari and Kalidasa; therefore, he cannot be dated to 1st century BCE, when the legendary Vikramaditya is said to have established the Vikrama Samvat in 57 BCE. Not much is known about Shanku, Vetalabhatta, Kshapanaka and Ghatakarpara. Some Jain writers identify Siddhasena Divakara as Kshapanaka, but this claim is not accepted by historians.


title: Navaratnas

text: Kalidasa is the only figure whose association with Vikramaditya is mentioned in works earlier than "Jyotirvidabharana". Rajasekhara's "Kāvyamimāṃsa" (10th century), Bhoja's "Sringara Prakasa" (11th century) and Kshemendra's "Auchitya-Vichara-Charcha" (11th century) mention that Vikramaditya sent Kalidasa as his ambassador to the Kuntala country (identified with present-day Uttara Kannada). The historicity of these legends is doubtful.


title: Navaratnas

text: According to popular tradition, the court of the Mughal ruler Akbar had nine intellectuals called the Navaratnas or the nine gems. As in Vikramaditya's case, this tradition has no historical basis. According to historian G.S. Sardesai, Hindu pandits in the court of Shah Jahan or Dara Shikoh - Jagannathrai or Kavindracharya - may have started this tradition.


title: Navaratnas

text: Since this tradition is historically inaccurate, the names of the nine gems varies between sources. Some of the names included in various lists include:


title: Navaratnas

text: For example, a painting kept at the Lala Sri Ramdas Library (Delhi) in the 1940s depicts the following people as the nine gems: Abdul Rahim, Todar Mal, Man Singh, Birbal, Miyan Kokultash, Hakim Humam, Abul Hasan, Abu'l-Fazl, and Faizi.


title: Navaratnas

text: Raja Krishnachandra was a ruler of Bengal, who ruled over 1727 to 1772. According to legend, his court had 9 famous scholars, who are mentioned as ‘Nabaratnas’ (নবরত্ন). These included Gopal Bhar, Bharatchandra Raygunakor, Ramprasad Sen, Baneshwar Bidyalankar, Krishnananda Bachaspati, Rammohan Goswami, Madhusudan Nyayalankar, Jagannath Tarkapanchanan and Hariram Tarkasiddhanta.


title: Navaratnas

text: Many famous emperors in India had courtiers labeled in similar ways. For example, the valuable members of the court of Krishna Deva Raya were termed Astadiggajas, "the eight scholars." Lakshmana Sena the ruler of the Sena Empire had "Pancharatnas" (meaning 5 gems who were Govardhana, Sarana, Jayadeva(author of Gita govinda), umapati, Dhoyi in his court. Ashtapradhan mandal was the title given to the council of Shivaji.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The Opel Zafira is a car manufactured and marketed across three generations between 1999 and 2019 by Opel. Based on the Opel Astra platform, it is developed to occupy the multi-purpose vehicle (MPV) segment.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The Zafira was also marketed under the Vauxhall marque in the United Kingdom until June 2018, the Holden marque in Australia until June 2005, and under a number of other market-specific brands and names.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The name "Zafira" derives from the Arabic word meaning "to succeed." Since 2011, it received an additional moniker as the Zafira Tourer.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The first generation Zafira was internally designated as the "Zafira A". Co-developed with Porsche, it debuted in concept form at the 1997 Frankfurt Auto Show and entered series production in January 1999, with sales beginning in April of that year.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The Zafira shared the T platform with the 1998 Astra G, sharing much commonality with that car. The Zafira seated seven passengers in three rows. Using a system marketed as "Flex 7", the split back seat could fold into the floor to increase cargo space, without requiring removal.


title: Opel Zafira

text: Offered with a series of petrol engines and initially a single diesel offering, the "X" engines were replaced by the newer "Z" engine generation in 2000. These featured variable intake manifolds and were able to meet Euro 3 emissions standards. The 2.0-litre turbodiesels were complemented by a 2.2-litre option in January 2002.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The Zafira ranked third in the European Car of the Year for 2000, behind only the Fiat Multipla and Toyota Yaris. In TüV's ranking of the quality of three year old cars, the Zafira was by far the best Opel; only slightly behind the winning Ford Focus.


title: Opel Zafira

text: Zafira A production ended on 25 May 2005, in Bochum. It was replaced by Zafira B in Europe, but was still sold in most other markets until 2012 (albeit that its cousin the Chevrolet Astra was discontinued in 2011), except for Australia and New Zealand, where the model was cancelled altogether.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The Zafira was marketed in the Philippines from 2001 to 2005, as the last Europe-based Opel marketed in the Philippines after they stopped selling the Opel Astra in 2003. Although sold as the Chevrolet Zafira, it was sold alongside other Opel vehicles until it the Opel name was pulled out of the Philippine-market by its distributor, GM Philippines.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The Zafira was produced and sold in the Thailand from 2000 to 2005. it was sold alongside other Opel vehicles until it the Opel name was pulled out of the Thai-market by its distributor, GM Thailand. Thailand’s domestic family wagon segment with 3,946 units sold.


title: Opel Zafira

text: Introduced at Geneva in February 2001, the turbocharged Zafira OPC went on sale in October 2001. With , this was the fastest minivan on sale in Europe. Only available with a five speed manual transmission, 0–100 km/h (62 mph) can be reached in 8.2 seconds and the top speed is .


title: Opel Zafira

text: The Zafira was sold in Japan from August 2001 through to November 2004 as the Subaru Traviq alongside the standard Opel vehicle. In exchange, Subaru supplied the Subaru Forester as the Chevrolet Forester in India since 2003.


title: Opel Zafira

text: According to Subaru, the Traviq name was a combination of the words "travel" and "quick". Imported from Thailand, the Traviq was originally only available with the bigger 2.2 litre engine, although a 1.8 L, lower priced alternative was added in July 2003. The engines used were not Subaru supplied boxer engines, but were conventional in line units that were uncharacteristic to market recognised Subaru products, and all-wheel drive was also not available.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The sale of the Zafira as a Subaru created a conflict with previously established Yanase Co., Ltd. retail dealerships, in that Yanase was already selling Opel products, like the Zafira. When production of the Traviq ended, Yanase continued to import Opel products into Japan until 2006. It was replaced later in 2008 by the Subaru Exiga – developed from the Subaru Legacy platform.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The second generation Zafira, internally designated "Zafira B", debuted in Europe on 12 February 2005, with sales starting on 9 June 2005. It shared the platform and mechanical parts with the Opel Astra H. In February 2007, the Zafira B was launched in Singapore. By March 2007, the model had only been introduced in Europe and Singapore.


title: Opel Zafira

text: It went on sale in Mexico in April 2006, and Chile in September 2007. In both countries, it was branded as the "Chevrolet Zafira". Although this generation was replaced in the end of 2011 by the Zafira C, this model remained in production until May 2014 as the Zafira "Family". This name change occurred in markets including Germany.


title: Opel Zafira

text: In Mexico the Chevrolet Zafira was discontinued after the 2006 model year, and replaced by the five-passenger Chevrolet HHR.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The Zafira B's engine line was partly carried over from the previous Astra/Zafira generation. Opel replaced the 2.0 and 2.2 turbodiesel I4 engines with 1.9 L common rail turbodiesels developed by Fiat (Multijet). Opel Performance Center developed a turbocharged 2.0 L performance version of the Zafira B as well. A CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) version of the new Zafira with a 1.6 L engine is also available.


title: Opel Zafira

text: In December 2015, safety officials in the United Kingdom asked Vauxhall to initiate a full safety recall of the model Zafira B, due to a worrying level of car fires apparently or alleged to have been caused by 'Improper Repairs'.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The fires continued, even those recalled, and a second full safety recall was announced in May 2016, with all owners advised not to use the fan in speeds regulated by the "resistor pack" which contained a solder based unreliable safety critical thermal fuse, until the second recall, starting August 2016, had been carried out.


title: Opel Zafira

text: On 3 May 2018, a criminal investigation into Vauxhall's handling of the fires of the Zafira B and recalls was launched in the United Kingdom.


title: Opel Zafira

text: On 31 August 2019, major damage occurred in a parking garage in Cork, Ireland when an Opel Zafira caught fire.


title: Opel Zafira

text: On 7 January 2020, there was a spontaneous fire in an Opel Zafira, which caused over 200 to 300 cars in a parking garage at Stavanger Airport, Sola to be destroyed. No people were harmed.


title: Opel Zafira

text: The third generation of the Zafira, called the Zafira Tourer, was previewed in concept form at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show, as the 'Zafira Tourer Concept'.


title: Opel Zafira

text: It was largely based on the Opel Astra J, and when the Zafira Tourer C went on sale, the Zafira B remained on sale from 2011 up to 2014, albeit in facelifted form as the "Zafira Family", to act as a smaller and cheaper version, as the Zafira Tourer C increased in size, to act as a proper rival to the Ford C-Max.


title: Opel Zafira

text: A hybrid/electric version was expected to follow during 2012. This car indirectly replaced the Opel Sintra, the only previous full sized Vauxhall/Opel MPV in Europe, which was discontinued in May 1999 after just three years on sale, as a slow selling product built in the United States. The production version debuted at the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show in September, and went on sale November 2011.


title: Opel Zafira

text: A natural gas version of the Zafira Tourer was announced in December 2011. A dual fuel vehicle, its CNG tank driving the car 530 kilometres, and a 14-litre petrol tank provided additional range or operation when a CNG filling station was not available.


title: Opel Zafira

text: In June 2016, a facelift was unveiled for 2017 (with sales starting at the end of 2016), dropping 'Tourer' from the name when sold as an Opel. As part of the upgrade, new front and rear bumpers and new interior brought styling in line with the Opel Astra K. OnStar navigation was also introduced as part of an updated IntelliLink infotainment system, complete with 4G LTE hotspot, Apple CarPlay and Android Auto compatibility.


title: Opel Zafira

text: Other new options for MY2017 included adaptive LED headlights, "Opel Eye" front camera, high beam assist, traffic sign assist, forward collision warning, lane departure warning and adaptive cruise control.


title: Opel Zafira

text: In June 2018, the Vauxhall Zafira Tourer was discontinued from the United Kingdom, citing the rise of SUV and crossover vehicles.


title: Opel Zafira

text: All engines had a six speed manual gearbox as standard, bar the 1.8 petrol, which had a five speed manual gearbox as standard. An automatic gearbox was available as an option on the 1.4T and 2.0 CDTI (165 PS), both without S/S.


title: Opel Zafira

text: An EcoFLEX version went on sale in 2012, equipped with the 2.0 CDTI (130PS) engine and it gained a Start/Stop system to make it more economical, emitting 119g/km of , as for petrol variants they were 1.4T ecoFLEX with a Start/Stop system with same amount of power (120 and 140 PS) like standard versions but with lower emissions – 144g/km and better fuel efficiency.


title: Opel Zafira

text: In 2013, two all new engines were introduced: 1.6 SIDI Turbo petrol engine with 170 PS and 200 PS, and newly developed 1.6 CDTI diesel engine with 136 PS. In September 2014, Opel introduced its all new generation of engines – Large Diesel engines, starting with 2.0 CDTI engine with 170 PS and 400 Nm, which is a part of new strategy in which Opel will introduce seventeen new engines, in a period from 2014–2018.


title: Alginic acid

text: Alginic acid, also called algin, is a naturally occurring, edible polysaccharide found in brown algae. It is hydrophilic and forms a viscous gum when hydrated. With metals such as sodium and calcium, its salts are known as alginates. Its colour ranges from white to yellowish-brown. It is sold in filamentous, granular, or powdered forms.


title: Alginic acid

text: It is a significant component of the biofilms produced by the bacterium "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", a major pathogen found in the lungs of some people who have cystic fibrosis. The biofilm and "P. aeruginosa" have a high resistance to antibiotics, but susceptible to inhibition by macrophages.


title: Alginic acid

text: Alginic acid is a linear copolymer with homopolymeric blocks of (1→4)-linked β-D-mannuronate (M) and α-L-guluronate (G) residues, respectively, covalently linked together in different sequences or blocks. The monomers may appear in homopolymeric blocks of consecutive G-residues (G-blocks), consecutive M-residues (M-blocks) or alternating M and G-residues (MG-blocks). α-L-guluronate is the C-5 epimer of β-D-mannuronate.


title: Alginic acid

text: Alginates are refined from brown seaweeds. Throughout the world, many of the Phaeophyceae class brown seaweeds are harvested to be processed and converted into sodium alginate. Sodium alginate is used in many industries including food, animal food, fertilisers, textile printing, and pharmaceuticals. Dental impression material uses alginate as its means of gelling. Food grade alginate is an approved ingredient in processed and manufactured foods.


title: Alginic acid

text: Brown seaweeds range in size from the giant kelp "Macrocystis pyrifera" which can be 20–40 meters long, to thick, leather-like seaweeds from 2–4 m long, to smaller species 30–60 cm long. Most brown seaweed used for alginates are gathered from the wild, with the exception of "Laminaria japonica", which is cultivated in China for food and its surplus material is diverted to the alginate industry in China.


title: Alginic acid

text: Alginates from different species of brown seaweed vary in their chemical structure resulting in different physical properties of alginates. Some species yield an alginate that gives a strong gel, another a weaker gel, some may produce a cream or white alginate, while others are difficult to gel and are best used for technical applications where color does not matter.


title: Alginic acid

text: Commercial grade alginate are extracted from giant kelp "Macrocystis pyrifera", "Ascophyllum nodosum", and types of "Laminaria". Alginates are also produced by two bacterial genera "Pseudomonas" and "Azotobacter", which played a major role in the unravelling of its biosynthesis pathway. Bacterial alginates are useful for the production of micro- or nanostructures suitable for medical applications.


title: Alginic acid

text: Calcium alginate (CaCHO), is made from sodium alginate from which the sodium ion has been removed and replaced with calcium (ion exchange).


title: Alginic acid

text: The manufacturing process used to extract sodium alginates from brown seaweed fall into two categories: 1) calcium alginate method and, 2) alginic acid method.


title: Alginic acid

text: Chemically the process is simple, but difficulties arise from the physical separations required between the slimy residues from viscous solutions and the separation of gelatinous precipitates that hold large amounts of liquid within their structure, so they resist filtration and centrifugation.


title: Alginic acid

text: Alginate absorbs water quickly, which makes it useful as an additive in dehydrated products such as slimming aids, and in the manufacture of paper and textiles. It is also used for waterproofing and fireproofing fabrics, in the food industry as a thickening agent for drinks, ice cream, cosmetics, and as a gelling agent for jellies, known by the code E401. Sodium alginate is mixed with soybean flour to make meat analogue.


title: Alginic acid

text: Alginate is used as an ingredient in various pharmaceutical preparations, such as Gaviscon, in which it combines with bicarbonate to inhibit gastroesophageal reflux. Sodium alginate is used as an impression-making material in dentistry, prosthetics, lifecasting, and for creating positives for small-scale casting.


title: Alginic acid

text: Sodium alginate is used in reactive dye printing and as a thickener for reactive dyes in textile screen-printing. Alginates do not react with these dyes and wash out easily, unlike starch-based thickeners. It also serves as a material for micro-encapsulation.


title: Alginic acid

text: Calcium alginate is used in different types of medical products, including skin wound dressings to promote healing, and may be removed with less pain than conventional dressings.


title: Alginic acid

text: Alginate may be used in a hydrogel consisting of microparticles or bulk gels combined with nerve growth factor in bioengineering research to stimulate brain tissue for possible regeneration. In research on bone reconstruction, alginate composites have favorable properties encouraging regeneration, such as improved porosity, cell proliferation, and mechanical strength, among other characteristics.


title: Arizona Beverage Company

text: Arizona Beverages USA (stylized as AriZona) is an American producer of many flavors of iced tea, juice cocktails, and energy drinks based in Woodbury, New York. Arizona's first product was made available in 1992, to compete with Snapple. Both companies originated in New York.


title: Arizona Beverage Company

text: Arizona is known for its "Big Can" drinks holding 23 fl. oz. (680 ml) of iced teas, juice drinks and other beverages that retail for around the price of US$0.99 in the United States and C$1.29 in Canada. Their beverages also come in 16 oz, 11.5 oz, as well as a 128 oz (gallon) of AriZona.


title: Arizona Beverage Company

text: The "Arnold Palmer blend" of iced tea and lemonade has been commercially available since the 1990s, though Arizona has since risen to become the most popular primary distributor of the beverage, with over $100 million in sales in 2010.


title: Arizona Beverage Company

text: Arizona also distributes packed trays of tortilla chip products, consisting of "Nachos 'n' Cheese" and "Salsa 'n' Chips". In 2020, the company introduced a line of fruit snacks in mixed fruit, Arnold Palmer, and green tea varieties.


title: Arizona Beverage Company

text: The company roots trace back to 1971 when friends John Ferolito and Don Vultaggio opened a beverage distribution business in Brooklyn, New York. The company was a successful beer distributor.


title: Arizona Beverage Company

text: In 1990, they saw the success of Snapple (also a Brooklyn-based company founded in the 1970s) bottled juices and teas, and attempted to make their product.


title: Arizona Beverage Company

text: In 1992, they produced the first bottles of their own AriZona teas. Vultaggio said the name was originally Santa Fe, in response to the adobe-style house he lived in, but he felt it didn't look right on the packaging. He went with Arizona even though he had never been to the state and, in fact, hadn't even traveled west of the Mississippi River.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: The Equality Act 2010 is an Act of Parliament of the United Kingdom passed during the Brown ministry with the primary purpose of consolidating, updating and supplementing the numerous prior Acts and Regulations, that formed the basis of anti-discrimination law in mostly England, Scotland and Wales; some sections also apply to Northern Ireland. These consisted, primarily, of the Equal Pay Act 1970, the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, the Race Relations Act 1976, the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 and three major statutory instruments protecting discrimination in employment on grounds of religion or belief, sexual orientation and age.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: The Act has broadly the same goals as the four major EU Equal Treatment Directives, whose provisions it mirrors and implements. However, the Act also offers protection beyond the EU directives, protecting against discrimination based on a person's nationality and citizenship and also extending individuals' rights in areas of life beyond the workplace in religion or belief, disability, age, sex, sexual orientation and gender reassignment.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: The Act protects people against discrimination, harassment or victimisation in employment, and as users of private and public services based on nine protected characteristics: age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation. The Act includes provisions for single-sex services where the restrictions are "a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim". In the case of disability, employers and service providers are under a duty to make reasonable adjustments to their workplaces to overcome barriers experienced by disabled people. In this regard, the Equality Act 2010 did not change the law. Under s.217, with limited exceptions the Act does not apply to Northern Ireland.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: The Labour Party included a commitment to an Equality Bill in its 2005 election manifesto. The "Discrimination Law Review" was established in 2005 to develop the legislation and was led by the Government Equalities Office. The review considered the findings of the Equalities Review Panel, chaired by Trevor Phillips, which reported in February 2007. The Act is intended to simplify the law by bringing together existing anti-discrimination legislation. The Equality Act 2010 has replaced the Equal Pay Act 1970, Sex Discrimination Act 1975, Race Relations Act 1976, Disability Discrimination Act 1995, Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations 2003, Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations 2003 and the Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: Polly Toynbee wrote that the bill, which was drafted under the guidance of Harriet Harman, was "Labour's biggest idea for 11 years. A public-sector duty to close the gap between rich and poor will tackle the class divide in a way that no other policy has... This new duty to narrow the gap would permeate every aspect of government policy. Its possible ramifications are mind-bogglingly immense." One cabinet member described it as "socialism in one clause". This part of the legislation was never brought into force, except for Scottish devolved authorities.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: Sections 104–105 of the Act extend until 2030 the exemption from sex discrimination law, which allows political parties to create all-women shortlists. The exemption was previously permitted by the Sex Discrimination (Election Candidates) Act 2002.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: The Parliamentary process was completed, following a debate, shortly after 11 pm on 6 April 2010, when amendments by the House of Lords were accepted in full.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: In April 2008, Solicitor General Vera Baird announced that as part of the Single Equality Bill, legislation would be introduced to repeal parts of the Act of Settlement 1701 that prevent Roman Catholics or those who marry Roman Catholics from ascending to the throne, and to change the inheritance of the monarchy from cognatic primogeniture to absolute primogeniture, so that the first-born heir would inherit the throne regardless of gender or religion.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: However, later in 2008, the Attorney General Baroness Scotland of Asthal decided not to sponsor a change in the law of succession, saying, "To bring about changes to the law on succession would be a complex undertaking involving amendment or repeal of a number of items of related legislation, as well as requiring the consent of legislatures of member nations of the Commonwealth". The published draft bill did not contain any provisions to change the succession laws. Cognatic primogeniture for the British monarchy was instead abolished separately three years after the Equality Act came into force, with the enactment of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: Although the act was never going to change the law with regard to churches from its existing position, nor change the binding European Union law which covers many more Roman Catholics than those living in the United Kingdom, and although the position had been spelled out in the High Court in "R (Amicus) v Secretary of State for Trade and Industry", a small number of Roman Catholic bishops in England and Wales made claims that they might in future be prosecuted under the Equality Act 2010 for refusing to allow women, married men, transgender people, and gay people into the priesthood. This claim was rejected by the government. A spokesman said an exemption in the law "covers ministers of religion such as Catholic priests" and a document released by the Government Equalities Office states that "the Equality Bill will not change the existing legal position regarding churches and employment". The legislation was also criticised by Anglican clergy.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: The duty set out in section 149 requires those public authorities which are subject to it to have due regard to three aims:


title: Equality Act 2010

text: The Cabinet Office's "Information Note 1/13", "Public Procurement and the Public Sector Equality Duty", noted that public authorities needed to have due regard to tis duty when planning and undertaking procurement activities, stating in particular that when contracting out public functions, it would be usual to include contract conditions which specified how equality obligations and objectives were to be complied with.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: The Equality Act 2010 (Specific Duties) Regulations 2011 (SI 2011–2260), made on 9 September 2011, required public authorities to publish information to demonstrate their compliance with the public sector equality duty and to identify one or more objectives which they thought they should work to achieve.


title: Equality Act 2010

text: In 2020, certain groups attempted to legally challenge the EHRC's Code of Practice on "Services, Public Functions and Associations", which attempts to provide practical guidance on implementing the Equality Act, concerning the advice that service providers should in general treat trans people as their acquired gender. The challenge failed to get a hearing before the High Court of Justice, because the justice did not consider the case to be arguable.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: The Twin is a 2022 psychological horror film directed by Taneli Mustonen. The original screenplay is written by Taneli Mustonen and Aleksi Hyvärinen, who also produced the film. The film tells story about a mother, who has to confront the unbearable truth about her surviving twin son. The film is starred by Teresa Palmer and Steven Cree.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: Rachel, her husband Anthony, and their son Elliot have moved to Finland from New York in order to deal with the grief of losing Elliot's twin brother Nathan in a car accident. During an excursion Elliot discovers a wall purported to grant wishes and makes a secret wish. Shortly thereafter he begins talking to an invisible person. Rachel attends a welcome party held by the townspeople where she meets the town doctor and Helen, the latter of whom cryptically references Elliot's wish.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: Elliot begins to exhibit increasingly disturbing behaviors, including him claiming that he is Nathan. An attempt by Rachel to get the town doctor to treat Elliot ends with him insisting that she is sick and needs therapy. Desperate for answers Rachel reaches out to Helen, who tells her that the town is part of a satanic cult. Helen further remarks that her dead husband was possessed by an evil entity that showed up in photographs. At home, Rachel takes photographs of Elliot and brings them to the town to get developed. Later she and Elliot hold a séance of sorts that is interrupted by the townspeople and Anthony, who inform her that they want to use Elliot as part of a ritual.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: The following day Rachel retrieves the photographs and is terrified when Elliot doesn't show up in any of the pictures. She takes them to Helen, who tells her that this is the demon taunting her. She convinces Rachel to take her to Elliot so she can try to save him, but upon meeting the boy Helen instead tells Rachel that she is sick. The two women are then surrounded by the townspeople. Rachel is sedated and forced to participate in a satanic ritual, after which she is again sedated. When she awakens Rachel is locked in her room, but manages to escape after she hears Elliot call for help.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: Anthony chases Rachel into the forest, where he reveals that Elliot does not exist. Rachel was trying to leave Anthony and take Nathan with her when the accident occurred. Out of a sense of grief and anger she created Elliot as a coping mechanism. Eager to avoid leaving Rachel in an asylum, he went along with the delusion and moved her to Finland to start over. "Elliot" then flees, insisting that Anthony is trying to kill him. Rachel follows him to a grain silo, where Anthony again tries to appeal to his wife by "killing" Elliot by submerging him in the grain. This instead results in Rachel accidentally killing Anthony in an attempt to stop him. She then tries digging Elliot out of the grain, only to find nothing.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: The film ends with Rachel returning to New York, where it is shown that she is still delusional. Despite visiting Nathan and Anthony's graves, she believes that they, along with Elliot, are still alive.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: On March 2, 2021, it was announced that Teresa Palmer will star in a horror film for the Finnish production company Don Films. London-based sales agency Film Constellation handles world sales.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: Principal photography began on March 18, 2021 in Finland and Estonia and concluded on April 28, 2021.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: The world premiere of the film was on March 24, 2022 at the Night Visions film festival. In the United States, the film was streamed exclusively on Shudder starting May 6, 2022.


title: The Twin (2022 film)

text: The film has been very successful in Latin America: in Mexico, the film gathered more than 110,000 viewers on its premiere, and in both Argentina and Peru, the film reached the Top 3 lists of the most watched.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: Charlotte Julia Ronson (born 7 August 1977) is an English fashion designer, currently based in Los Angeles, US.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: Charlotte Ronson always had an interest in fashion, however, she began designing after friends asked her to create pieces for them. She graduated from New York University (NYU) after majoring in Studio Art and interned at "Harper's Bazaar", "Rolling Stone", and with designer Cynthia Rowley.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: In 2001, she began garnering attention from popular fashion magazines such as "Vogue". By May 2002, Ronson had opened her flagship store on Elizabeth Street in New York. The Charlotte Ronson brand is partnered with Japanese apparel company, The Wall.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: The original line of C. Ronson is now an offshoot of the larger Charlotte Ronson brand and the current New York store is now located on Mulberry Street. In 2008, Ronson designed a collaboration called "Play" by C. Ronson for Urban Outfitters, named after a mixtape her sister, Samantha Ronson, made for her. She designed a line for JCPenney called I 'Heart' Ronson. Spring 2009 was Ronson's first showing in Bryant Park, the main tents, for New York Fashion Week.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: Charlotte Ronson's brand has been worn by celebrities such as Mischa Barton, Gisele Bündchen, Andy Dick, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Lindsay Lohan, Kate Moss, Ellen Pompeo, Nicole Richie, Winona Ryder, Jessica Simpson, and Gwen Stefani.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: Ronson was born the daughter of writer and socialite Ann Dexter–Jones and real estate mogul Laurence Ronson. She has said that her mother was strict when she was growing up and would not let her attend concerts.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: She is related to politicians Malcolm Rifkind and Leon Brittan, and is a niece of businessman Gerald Ronson. Her parents are of Ashkenazi Jewish descent, with ancestors from Russia, Lithuania and Austria and Ronson was raised in Conservative Judaism. Ronson's family name was originally Aaronson but her grandfather Henry Ronson changed it to Ronson.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: She has two siblings, fraternal twin sister Samantha Ronson, who is a DJ, and older brother Mark Ronson, who is a music producer, singer/songwriter, and DJ as well. Ann Dexter-Jones and Laurence Ronson divorced. Ronson's mother remarried, to Mick Jones of Foreigner, and the family relocated to New York. Ronson has five half-siblings by her parents' remarriages.


title: Charlotte Ronson

text: She and partner, Fun. frontman Nate Ruess, welcomed their first child, a son, in February 2017. They welcomed their second child, a daughter, in April 2019.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: In spacecraft propulsion, a Hall-effect thruster (HET) is a type of ion thruster in which the propellant is accelerated by an electric field. Hall-effect thrusters (based on the discovery by Edwin Hall) are sometimes referred to as Hall thrusters or Hall-current thrusters. Hall-effect thrusters use a magnetic field to limit the electrons' axial motion and then use them to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust, and neutralize the ions in the plume. The Hall-effect thruster is classed as a moderate specific impulse (1,600s) space propulsion technology and has benefited from considerable theoretical and experimental research since the 1960s.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Hall thrusters operate on a variety of propellants, the most common being xenon and krypton. Other propellants of interest include argon, bismuth, iodine, magnesium, zinc and adamantane.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Hall thrusters are able to accelerate their exhaust to speeds between 10 and 80 km/s (1,000–8,000 s specific impulse), with most models operating between 15 and 30 km/s. The thrust produced depends on the power level. Devices operating at 1.35 kW produce about 83 mN of thrust. High-power models have demonstrated up to 5.4 N in the laboratory. Power levels up to 100 kW have been demonstrated for xenon Hall thrusters.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: , Hall-effect thrusters ranged in input power levels from 1.35 to 10 kilowatts and had exhaust velocities of 10–50 kilometers per second, with thrust of 40–600 millinewtons and efficiency in the range of 45–60 percent.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The applications of Hall-effect thrusters include control of the orientation and position of orbiting satellites and use as a main propulsion engine for medium-size robotic space vehicles.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Hall thrusters were studied independently in the United States and the Soviet Union. They were first described publicly in the US in the early 1960s. However, the Hall thruster was first developed into an efficient propulsion device in the Soviet Union. In the US, scientists focused on developing gridded ion thrusters.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The SPT design was largely the work of A. I. Morozov. The first SPT to operate in space, an SPT-50 aboard a Soviet Meteor spacecraft, was launched December 1971. They were mainly used for satellite stabilization in north–south and in east–west directions. Since then until the late 1990s 118 SPT engines completed their mission and some 50 continued to be operated. Thrust of the first generation of SPT engines, SPT-50 and SPT-60 was 20 and 30 mN respectively. In 1982, the SPT-70 and SPT-100 were introduced, their thrusts being 40 and 83 mN, respectively. In the post-Soviet Russia high-power (a few kilowatts) SPT-140, SPT-160, SPT-200, T-160 and low-power (less than 500 W) SPT-35 were introduced.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Soviet-built thrusters were introduced to the West in 1992 after a team of electric propulsion specialists from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Glenn Research Center, and the Air Force Research Laboratory, under the support of the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, visited Russian laboratories and experimentally evaluated the SPT-100 (i.e., a 100 mm diameter SPT thruster). Over 200 Hall thrusters have been flown on Soviet/Russian satellites in the past thirty years. No failures have ever occurred on orbit. Hall thrusters continue to be used on Russian spacecraft and have also flown on European and American spacecraft. Space Systems/Loral, an American commercial satellite manufacturer, now flies Fakel SPT-100's on their GEO communications spacecraft.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Since their introduction to the West in the early 1990s, Hall thrusters have been the subject of a large number of research efforts throughout the United States, France, Italy, Japan, and Russia (with many smaller efforts scattered in various countries across the globe). Hall thruster research in the US is conducted at several government laboratories, universities and private companies. Government and government funded centers include NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA's Glenn Research Center, the Air Force Research Laboratory (Edwards AFB, California), and The Aerospace Corporation. Universities include the US Air Force Institute of Technology, University of Michigan, Stanford University, The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Princeton University, Michigan Technological University, and Georgia Tech. A considerable amount of development is being conducted in industry, such as IHI Corporation in Japan, Aerojet and Busek in the US, SNECMA in France, LAJP in Ukraine, SITAEL in Italy, and Satrec Initiative in South Korea.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The first use of Hall thrusters on lunar orbit was the European Space Agency (ESA) lunar mission SMART-1 in 2003.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Hall thrusters were first demonstrated on a western satellite on the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) STEX spacecraft, which flew the Russian D-55. The first American Hall thruster to fly in space was the Busek BHT-200 on TacSat-2 technology demonstration spacecraft. The first flight of an American Hall thruster on an operational mission, was the Aerojet BPT-4000, which launched August 2010 on the military Advanced Extremely High Frequency GEO communications satellite. At 4.5 kW, the BPT-4000 is also the highest power Hall thruster ever flown in space. Besides the usual stationkeeping tasks, the BPT-4000 is also providing orbit-raising capability to the spacecraft. The X-37B has been used as a testbed for the Hall thruster for the AEHF satellite series. Several countries worldwide continue efforts to qualify Hall thruster technology for commercial uses. The SpaceX Starlink constellation, the largest satellite constellation in the world, uses Hall thrusters. They are also included in the design of the Psyche spacecraft for asteroid exploration.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The essential working principle of the Hall thruster is that it uses an electrostatic potential to accelerate ions up to high speeds. In a Hall thruster, the attractive negative charge is provided by an electron plasma at the open end of the thruster instead of a grid. A radial magnetic field of about is used to confine the electrons, where the combination of the radial magnetic field and axial electric field cause the electrons to drift in azimuth thus forming the Hall current from which the device gets its name.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: A schematic of a Hall thruster is shown in the adjacent image. An electric potential of between 150 and 800 volts is applied between the anode and cathode.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The central spike forms one pole of an electromagnet and is surrounded by an annular space, and around that is the other pole of the electromagnet, with a radial magnetic field in between.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The propellant, such as xenon gas, is fed through the anode, which has numerous small holes in it to act as a gas distributor. As the neutral xenon atoms diffuse into the channel of the thruster, they are ionized by collisions with circulating high-energy electrons (typically 10–40 eV, or about 10% of the discharge voltage). Most of the xenon atoms are ionized to a net charge of +1, but a noticeable fraction (c. 20%) have +2 net charge.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The xenon ions are then accelerated by the electric field between the anode and the cathode. For discharge voltages of 300 V, the ions reach speeds of around for a specific impulse of 1,500 s (15 kN·s/kg). Upon exiting, however, the ions pull an equal number of electrons with them, creating a plasma plume with no net charge.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The radial magnetic field is designed to be strong enough to substantially deflect the low-mass electrons, but not the high-mass ions, which have a much larger gyroradius and are hardly impeded. The majority of electrons are thus stuck orbiting in the region of high radial magnetic field near the thruster exit plane, trapped in "E"×"B" (axial electric field and radial magnetic field). This orbital rotation of the electrons is a circulating Hall current, and it is from this that the Hall thruster gets its name. Collisions with other particles and walls, as well as plasma instabilities, allow some of the electrons to be freed from the magnetic field, and they drift towards the anode.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: About 20–30% of the discharge current is an electron current, which does not produce thrust, thus limiting the energetic efficiency of the thruster; the other 70–80% of the current is in the ions. Because the majority of electrons are trapped in the Hall current, they have a long residence time inside the thruster and are able to ionize almost all of the xenon propellant, allowing mass use of 90–99%. The mass use efficiency of the thruster is thus around 90%, while the discharge current efficiency is around 70%, for a combined thruster efficiency of around 63% (= 90% × 70%). Modern Hall thrusters have achieved efficiencies as high as 75% through advanced designs.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Compared to chemical rockets, the thrust is very small, on the order of 83 mN for a typical thruster operating at 300 V and 1.5 kW. For comparison, the weight of a coin like the U.S. quarter or a 20-cent euro coin is approximately 60 mN. As with all forms of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion, thrust is limited by available power, efficiency, and specific impulse.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: However, Hall thrusters operate at the high specific impulses that are typical for electric propulsion. One particular advantage of Hall thrusters, as compared to a gridded ion thruster, is that the generation and acceleration of the ions takes place in a quasi-neutral plasma, so there is no Child-Langmuir charge (space charge) saturated current limitation on the thrust density. This allows much smaller thrusters compared to gridded ion thrusters.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Another advantage is that these thrusters can use a wider variety of propellants supplied to the anode, even oxygen, although something easily ionized is needed at the cathode.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Xenon has been the typical choice of propellant for many electric propulsion systems, including Hall thrusters. Xenon propellant is used because of its high atomic weight and low ionization potential. Xenon is relatively easy to store, and as a gas at spacecraft operating temperatures does not need to be vaporized before usage, unlike metallic propellants such as bismuth. Xenon's high atomic weight means that the ratio of energy expended for ionization per mass unit is low, leading to a more efficient thruster.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Krypton is another choice of propellant for Hall thrusters. Xenon has an ionization potential of 12.1298 eV, while krypton has an ionization potential of 13.996 eV. This means that thrusters utilizing krypton need to expend a slightly higher energy per mole to ionize, which reduces efficiency. Additionally, krypton is a lighter ion, so the unit mass per ionization energy is further reduced compared to xenon. However, xenon can be more than ten times as expensive as krypton per kilogram, making krypton a more economical choice for building out satellite constellations like that of SpaceX's Starlink, whose Hall thrusters are fueled with krypton.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Although conventional (annular) Hall thrusters are efficient in the kilowatt power regime, they become inefficient when scaled to small sizes. This is due to the difficulties associated with holding the performance scaling parameters constant while decreasing the channel size and increasing the applied magnetic field strength. This led to the design of the cylindrical Hall thruster. The cylindrical Hall thruster can be more readily scaled to smaller sizes due to its nonconventional discharge-chamber geometry and associated magnetic field profile. The cylindrical Hall thruster more readily lends itself to miniaturization and low-power operation than a conventional (annular) Hall thruster. The primary reason for cylindrical Hall thrusters is that it is difficult to achieve a regular Hall thruster that operates over a broad envelope from c.1 kW down to c. 100 W while maintaining an efficiency of 45–55%.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Sputtering erosion of discharge channel walls and pole pieces that protect the magnetic circuit causes failure of thruster operation. Therefore, annular and cylindrical Hall thrusters have limited lifetime. Although magnetic shielding has been shown to dramatically reduce discharge channel wall erosion, pole piece erosion is still a concern. As an alternative, an unconventional Hall thruster design called external discharge Hall thruster or external discharge plasma thruster (XPT) has been introduced. The external discharge Hall thruster does not possess any discharge channel walls or pole pieces. Plasma discharge is produced and sustained completely in the open space outside the thruster structure, and thus erosion-free operation is achieved.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: Hall thrusters have been flying in space since December 1971, when the Soviet Union launched an SPT-50 on a Meteor satellite. Over 240 thrusters have flown in space since that time, with a 100% success rate. Hall thrusters are now routinely flown on commercial LEO and GEO communications satellites, where they are used for orbital insertion and stationkeeping.


title: Hall-effect thruster

text: The first Hall thruster to fly on a western satellite was a Russian D-55 built by TsNIIMASH, on the NRO's STEX spacecraft, launched on October 3, 1998.