title: French Grand Prix

text: The 1914 race, run on a 23mile circuit near Lyon is perhaps the most legendary and dramatic Grand Prix of the preWWI racing era. This circuit, which was popular with drivers and spectators had a twisty and demanding section down to the town of Le Madeline and then an 8.3 mile straight interrupted by a hairpin which returned to the pits. This race was a hard-fought battle between the French Peugeots and the German Mercedes. Although the Peugeots were fast and Boillot ended up leading for 12 of the 20 laps after Max Sailer in a Mercedes unexpectedly dropped out with engine failure on Lap 6, the Dunlop tyres they used wore out badly compared to the Continentials that the Mercedes cars were using. Boillot's four-minute lead was wiped out by Christian Lautenschlager in a Mercedes while Boillot stopped an incredible eight times for tyres. Although Boillot drove very hard to try to catch Lautenschlager, he had to retire on the last lap due to engine failure, and for the second time in 6 years Mercedes finished 1–2–3; a humiliating result for the organizers and Peugeot.


title: French Grand Prix

text: Thanks to World War I and the amount of damage it did to France, the Grand Prix was not brought back until 1921, and that race was won by American Jimmy Murphy with a Duesenberg at the Sarthe circuit at Le Mans, which was the now legendary circuit's first year of operation. Bugatti made its debut at the 1922 race at an 8.3mile (13km) off-public road circuit near Strasbourg near the French-German border – which was very close to Bugatti's headquarters in Molsheim. It rained, and the muddy circuit was in a dreadful condition. This race became a duel between Bugatti and Fiat – and Felice Nazzaro won in a Fiat, although his nephew and fellow competitor Biagio Nazzaro was killed after the axle on his Fiat broke, threw a wheel and hit a tree; the 32-year old and his riding mechanic both suffered fatal head injuries. The 1923 race at another one-off circuit near Tours featured another new Bugatti – the Type 32. This car was insultingly dubbed the "Tank", owing to its streamlined shape and very short wheelbase. This car was fast on the straights of this high-speed public road circuit – but it handled badly and was outpaced by Briton Henry Segrave in a supercharged Sunbeam, supercharging being a common feature of Grand Prix cars during this period. Segrave won the race, and the Sunbeam would be the last British car to win an official Grand Prix until Stirling Moss's victory with a Vanwall at the 1957 British Grand Prix. Segrave, a known teetotaler was given a glass of champagne after his victory, because apparently there wasn't any water available in the pits area. The 1924 race was held again at Lyon, but this time on a shortened 14mile variant of the circuit used in 1914. Two of the most successful Grand Prix cars of all time, the Bugatti Type 35 and the Alfa Romeo P2 both made their debuts at this race. The Bugattis, with their advanced alloy wheels suffered tyre failure, and Italian Giuseppe Campari won in his Alfa P2.


title: French Grand Prix

text: In 1925, the first permanent autodrome in France was built, it was called Autodrome de Linas-Montlhéry, located 20 miles south of the centre of Paris. The 7.7mile (12.3km) circuit included a 51degree concrete banking, an asphalt road course and then-modern facilities, including pit garages and grandstands. Purpose-built autodromes like Montlhéry were often built near the country's largest cities (with the exception of Indianapolis and the Nürburgring). After the construction of Brooklands near London in England in 1907, and Indianapolis in the United States in 1908 and after World War I, Monza near Milan in Italy was opened in 1922, and Stiges–Terramar near Barcelona in Spain was also opened in 1923. The French were then prompted to construct a purpose-built racing circuit at Montlhéry in the north and then Miramas in the south. The Nürburgring in western Germany followed in 1927, to complement eastern Germany's AVUS street circuit. Montlhery first held the Grand Prix de l'ACF in 1925 as part of the inaugural World Manufacturers' Championship, the first time Grands Prix were grouped together to form a championship. The circuit drew huge crowds and they were witnesses to the spectacular sight of fast cars racing on Montlhéry's steep banking and asphalt road course, which had many fast corners and long straights, and was located in a forest. The first race at Montlhéry was marred by the fatal accident of Antonio Ascari in an Alfa P2, when he crashed at a very fast left-hand kink returning to the oval portion. Miramas, a high-banked concrete oval track like Brooklands and part of Montlhéry was completed in 1926, and it played host to the Grand Prix that year. This race saw only three cars compete, all Bugattis, and was won by Frenchman Jules Goux, who had also won the Indianapolis 500 in 1913.


title: French Grand Prix

text: The 1927 race at Montlhéry was won by Frenchman Robert Benoist in a Delage. 1929 saw a brief return to Le Mans, which was won by William Grover-Williams in a Bugatti; this was the man who had won the first ever Monaco Grand Prix earlier in the year; Grover-Williams had also won the 1928 race in a Bugatti at the 17-mile (28 km) Saint-Gaudens circuit in the south, not far from Toulouse. The 1930 French Grand Prix, held at Pau back down in the south was one of the more memorable French Grands Prix of the pre-World War II period. This race, held in September on a one-off triangular 9.8mile (15.8-km) public road circuit just a few kilometres away from the current Pau Grand Prix track saw a special supercharged version of the famous Bentley 4½ Litre called the Blower Bentley compete in the race with Briton and "Bentley Boy" Tim Birkin driving. The Bentley team had been dominating the famed 24 Hours of Le Mans, and this Blower Bentley had its headlights and mudguards removed, as these were not needed for this race, giving it the appearance of an open-wheel car. The Bentley, which was much larger and heavier than the small Bugattis around it performed well – at this very fast circuit which was made up of very long straights and tight hairpins actually suited the powerful Blower Bentley, and it enabled Birkin to pass the pits at 130 mph (208 km/h) (very fast for that time), and he overtook car after car – to the amazement of the crowd. But he finished second to Frenchman Philippe Étancelin in a Bugatti.


title: French Grand Prix

text: Montlhéry would also be part of the second Grand Prix championship era; the European Championship when it began in 1931. Other public road circuits also played host to French Grand Prix, such as the fast, straight and slow corner-dominated 4.8mile Reims-Gueux circuit in the Champagne wine region of Northern France 144km (90mi) east of Paris for 1932, where Italian legend Tazio Nuvolari won in an Alfa Romeo. But from 1933 to 1937 Montlhéry would become the sole host of the event. The 1934 French Grand Prix marked the return of Mercedes-Benz to Grand Prix racing after 20 years, with an all-new car, team, management, and drivers, headed by Alfred Neubauer. 1934 was the year where the German Silver Arrows debuted (an effort heavily funded by Hitler's Third Reich), with Auto Union having already debuted its powerful mid-engined Type–A car for a race at AVUS in Germany. Although the Monégasque driver Louis Chiron won in an Alfa, the Silver Arrows dominated the race. The high-tech German cars seemed to float over the rough concrete banking at Montlhéry where all the other cars seemed to be visibly affected by the concrete surface. Makeshift chicanes were placed at certain points on the high-speed circuit in an effort by the French to slow the very fast German cars down for the 1935 race, but this effort came to nothing as Mercedes superstar Rudolf Caracciola won that year's race.


title: French Grand Prix

text: The French Grand Prix returned to the Reims-Gueux circuit for 1938 and 1939, where the Silver Arrows continued their domination of Grand Prix racing. The Reims-Gueux circuit had its straights widened and facilities updated for the 1938 race. It was around this time that the French Grand Prix had some of its prestige transferred after 2 years of being a sportscar race- the Monaco Grand Prix had gained a huge amount of prestige and would become the premier French-related Grand Prix event, taking place in a tiny principality surrounded by France; but the French Grand Prix was still an important race now held traditionally on the first weekend of July. But when World War II began, the French Grand Prix did not come back until 1947, where it was held at the one-time Parilly circuit near Lyon, a race that was marred by an accident involving Pierre Levegh crashing into and killing 3 spectators. After that, Grand Prix racing returned to Reims-Gueux, where another manufacturer – Alfa Romeo – would dominate the event for 4 years. 1950 was the first year of the Formula One World Championship, but all the Formula One-regulated races were held in Europe. The race was won by Argentine Juan Manuel Fangio, who also won the next year's race – the longest Formula One race ever held in terms of distance covered, totalling 373 miles.


title: French Grand Prix

text: The prestigious French event was held for the first time at the Rouen-Les-Essarts circuit in 1952, where it would be held four more times over the next 16 years. Rouen was a very high speed circuit located in the northern part of the country, that was made up mostly of high speed bends. But the race returned to Reims in 1953, where the triangular circuit, which was originally made up of three long straights (with a few slight kinks) two tight 90 degree right hand corners and a very slow right hand hairpin had been modified to bypass the town of Gueux, making it slightly faster. Reims now had two straights (including the even longer back straight), three very fast bends and two very slow and tight hairpins. This race was a classic, with Fangio in a Maserati and Briton Mike Hawthorn in a Ferrari having a race-long battle for the lead, with Hawthorn taking the checkered flag. 1954 was another special event, and this marked Mercedes's return to top-flight road racing led by Alfred Neubauer, 20 years after their first return to Grand Prix racing – in France. After two wins for the works Maserati team that year at Buenos Aires and Spa, Fangio was now driving for Mercedes and he and teammate Karl Kling effectively dominated the race from start to finish with their advanced W196's. It was not a popular win – Mercedes, a German car manufacturer, had won on French soil – only 9 years after the German occupation of France had ended. The French Grand Prix was cancelled in 1955 because of the Le Mans disaster, and Mercedes withdrew from all racing at the end of that year. The race continued to be held at Reims in 1956, another spell at a lengthened Rouen-Les-Essarts in 1957 and back to Reims again from 1958 to 1961, 1963 and one last event in 1966 at this circuit, located where champagne is made. The 1956 race saw a one-off appearance by Bugatti- they entered a new mid-engined Grand Prix car (which was a novelty at the time, and only the second Grand Prix car ever to be designed this way after the 1930s Auto Unions) designed by renowned Italian engineer Colombo and driven by Maurice Trintignant, but the car was underpowered, overweight, and over-complicated, and it proved to be very difficult to drive; it retired early in the race. The 1958 race was marred by the fatal accident of Italian Luigi Musso, driving a works Ferrari, and it was also Fangio's last Formula One race. Hawthorn, who like many other F1 drivers at the time, held Fangio in very high regard; and was about to lap Fangio (driving in an outdated Maserati) on the last lap on the pit straight when he slowed down and let Fangio cross the line before him so the respected Argentine driver could complete the whole race distance. Hawthorn won, and Fangio finished fourth. 1961 saw the race being held in weather, and the track broke up at the hairpins. The race came down to a slipstreaming battle between American Dan Gurney in a Porsche and Italian Giancarlo Baghetti in the sharknose Ferrari. Baghetti won the race- which astonishingly was his first ever championship Grand Prix by less than a car's length from Gurney.


title: French Grand Prix

text: Rouen-Les-Essarts hosted the event in 1962 and 1964, and Gurney won both these events, one in a Porsche and another in a Brabham. In 1965 the race was held at the 5.1 mile Charade Circuit in the hills surrounding Michelin's hometown of Clermont-Ferrand in central France. Unlike the long straights that made up Reims and the fast curves that made up Rouen, Charade was known as a mini-Nürburgring and was twisty, undulating and very demanding. The short Bugatti Circuit at Le Mans held the race in 1967, but the circuit was not liked by the Formula One circus, and it never returned. Rouen-Les-Essarts hosted the event in 1968, and it was a disastrous event; Frenchman Jo Schlesser crashed and was killed at the very fast "Six Frères" corner in his burning Honda, and Formula One did not return to the public-road circuit. Charade hosted two more events, and then Formula One moved to the newly built, modern Circuit Paul Ricard on the French riviera for 1971. Paul Ricard Circuit, located in Le Castellet, just outside Marseille and not far from Monaco, was a new type of modern facility, much like Montlhéry had been in the 1920s. It had run-off areas, a wide track and ample viewing areas for spectators. Charade hosted the event one last time in 1972; Formula One cars had become too fast for public road circuits; the circuit was littered with rocks and Austrian Helmut Marko was hit in the eye by a rock thrown up from Brazilian Emerson Fittipaldi's Lotus which ended his racing career.


title: French Grand Prix

text: Formula One returned to Paul Ricard in 1973; the French Grand Prix was never run on public road circuits like Reims, Rouen and Charade ever again. Paul Ricard circuit also had a driving school, the École de Pilotage Winfield, run by the Knight brothers and Simon Delatour, that honed the talents of people such as France's first (and so far only) Formula One World Champion Alain Prost, and Grand Prix winners Didier Pironi and Jacques Laffite. The event was run at the new fast, up-and-down Prenois circuit near Dijon in 1974, before returning to Ricard in 1975 and 1976. The race was originally scheduled to be run at Clermont-Ferrand for 1974 and 1975, but the circuit was deemed too dangerous for Formula One. The two venues alternated the venue until 1984, with Ricard getting the race in even-numbered years and Dijon in odd-numbered years (except 1983). 1977 saw a new part of the Dijon circuit built called the "Parabolique". This was done to increase lap times which had been very nearly below a minute in 1974, and the race featured a battle between American Mario Andretti and Briton John Watson; Andretti came out on top to win. Lotus teammates Andretti and Swede Ronnie Peterson dominated the race in 1978 with their dominant 79s, a car that dominated the field in a way not seen since the dominating Alfa Romeo and domineering Ferrari in the early 1950s. The 1979 race was another classic, with the famous end-of-race duel for second place between Frenchman René Arnoux in a 1.5-liter turbocharged V6 Renault and Canadian Gilles Villeneuve in a 3-liter Flat-12 Ferrari. It is considered to be one of the all-time great duels in motorsports, with Arnoux and Villeneuve banging wheels and cars around the fast Dijon circuit before Villeneuve came out on top. The race was won by Arnoux's French teammate Jean-Pierre Jabouille, which was the first race ever won by a Formula One car with a turbo-charged engine. 1980 saw rookie Prost qualify his slower McLaren seventh and Australian Alan Jones beat French Ligier drivers Laffite and Pironi on their home soil, and the 1981 race was the first of 51 victories by future 4-time world champion Prost; driving a Renault, the famed French marque won the next three French Grands Prix. The 1982 event at Ricard was a memorable one for France – it was a turbo-charged engine/French walkover and 4 French drivers finished in the top 4 positions – each of them driving a car with a turbo-charged engine. Renault driver René Arnoux won from his teammate Prost and Ferrari drivers Pironi and Patrick Tambay finished 3rd and 4th. But this French triumph was internally sour: Arnoux violated an agreement that if he was in front of Prost, he would let him by because Prost was better placed in the championship. Much to the chagrin of Prost and the French Renault team's management Arnoux did not do this, despite the management holding out pit boards ordering him to let Prost past. Prost won the next year at the same place, beating out Nelson Piquet in a Brabham with a turbocharged BMW engine; Piquet had led the previous year's race but retired with engine failure.


title: French Grand Prix

text: Dijon was last used in 1984, and by then turbo-charged engines were almost ubiquitous, save the Tyrrell team who were still using the Cosworth V8 engine. The international motorsports governing body at the time, FISA, had instituted a policy of long-term contracts with only one circuit per Grand Prix. The choice was between Dijon and Ricard – the small Prenois circuit had cars lapping in the 1 minute 1 second range, and Ricard was the main testing facility for Formula One at the time. So it was Ricard that was chosen, and it hosted the race from 1985 to 1990. From 1986 onwards Formula One used a shortened version of the circuit, after Elio de Angelis's fatal crash at the fast Verriere bends. De Angelis was not injured by the crash, however his car caught fire and there were no marshals to help him as it was a test session, and he died of smoke inhalation in hospital the next day. These two fast corners and the whole top section of the circuit was not used for the last five races. Prost won the final three races there, the 1988 one being a particularly dramatic win; he overtook his teammate Ayrton Senna at the Curbe de Signes at the end of the ultra fast Mistral Straight and held onto the lead all the way to the finish, and the 1990 (by which time turbo-charged engines had been banned) event was led for more than 60 laps by Italian Ivan Capelli and Brazilian Maurício Gugelmin in underfunded, Adrian Newey designed Leyton-House cars – two cars that had failed to qualify at the previous event in Mexico. Prost, now driving for Ferrari after driving for McLaren from 1984 to 1989, made a late-race charge and passed Capelli to take the victory; Gugelmin had retired earlier.


title: French Grand Prix

text: In 1991, the race moved to the Circuit de Nevers Magny-Cours, where it stayed for another 17 years. Magny-Cours was the seventh venue to host the French Grand Prix as a part of the Formula One World Championship, and the sixteenth in total. The move to Magny-Cours was an attempt to stimulate the economy of the area, but many within Formula One complained about the remote nature of the circuit. Highlights of Magny-Cours's time hosting the French Grand Prix include Prost's final of six wins on home soil in 1993, and Michael Schumacher's securing of the 2002 championship after only 11 races. The 2004 and 2005 races were in doubt because of financial problems and the addition of new circuits to the Formula One calendar. These races went ahead as planned, but it still had an uncertain future.


title: French Grand Prix

text: In 2007 it was announced by the FFSA, the race promoter, that the 2008 French Grand Prix was put on an indefinite "pause". This suspension was due to the financial situation of the circuit, known to be disliked by many in F1 due to the circuit's location. Then Bernie Ecclestone confirmed (at the time) that the 2007 French Grand Prix would be the last to be held at Magny-Cours. This turned out not to be true, because funding for the 2008 race was found, and this race at Magny-Cours was the last French Grand Prix for 10 years.


title: French Grand Prix

text: After various negotiations, the future of the race at Magny-Cours took another turn, with increased speculation that the 2008 French Grand Prix would return, with Ecclestone himself stating "We're going to maybe resurrect it for a year, or something like that". On 24 July, Ecclestone and the French Prime Minister met and agreed to possibly maintain the race at Magny Cours for 2008 and 2009. The change in fortune was completed on July, when the FIA published the calendar with a 2008 French Grand Prix scheduled at Magny-Cours once again. The 2009 race, however, was again cancelled on 15 October 2008, with the official website citing "economic reasons". A huge makeover of Magny-Cours ("2.0") was planned, but cancelled in the end. The race's promoter FFSA then started looking for an alternative host. There were five different proposals for a new circuit: in Rouen with 3 possible layouts (a street circuit, in the dock area, or a permanent circuit near the airport), a street circuit located near Disneyland Resort Paris, Versailles, and in Sarcelles ("Val de France"), but all were cancelled. A final location in Flins-Les Mureaux, near the Flins Renault Factory was being considered however that was cancelled as well on 1 December 2009. In 2010 and 2011, there was no French Grand Prix on the Formula 1 calendar, although the Circuit Paul Ricard candidated itself for 2012.


title: French Grand Prix

text: 10 French drivers have won the French Grand Prix; 7 before World War I and II and 3 during the Formula One championship. French driver Alain Prost won the race six times at three different circuits; however German driver Michael Schumacher has won eight times – the joint most anybody has ever won any Grand Prix (Lewis Hamilton has since won the British and Hungarian Grands Prix eight times). Monégasque driver Louis Chiron won it five times, and the Argentine driver Juan Manuel Fangio and British driver Nigel Mansell both won four times.


title: French Grand Prix

text: In December 2016, it was confirmed that the French Grand Prix would return in 2018 at the Circuit Paul Ricard and it currently holds a contract to host the French Grand Prix until at least 2022.


title: French Grand Prix

text: In an announcement to the nation on 13 April 2020, Emmanuel Macron, the French president, said that restrictions on public events as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic would continue until mid-July, putting the 2020 French Grand Prix, scheduled for 28 June, at risk of postponement. The race was later cancelled with no intention to reschedule for the 2020 championship. The race returned for the 2021 season.


title: French Grand Prix

text: The promoters of the French Grand Prix confirmed that the race will not be on the 2023 calendar, stating that they aim for a rotational race deal, sharing its slot with other Grands Prix.


title: French Grand Prix

text: "A green background indicates an event which was part of the pre-war World Manufacturers' Championship."


title: French Grand Prix

text: "A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship or any of the above mentioned championships."


title: French Grand Prix

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Built by Cosworth, funded by Ford.<br><nowiki>**</nowiki> Built by Ilmor in 2000, funded by Mercedes.


title: French Grand Prix

text: Beginning in the early 1920s, French media represented eight races held in France before 1906 as being Grands Prix de l'Automobile Club de France, leading to the first French Grand Prix being known as the ninth Grand Prix de l'ACF. This was done to give the Grand Prix the appearance of being the world's oldest motor race. The winners of these races, along with their original titles, are listed here.


title: Grodno

text: Grodno (, ; ) or Hrodna ( ), is a city in western Belarus. The city is located on the Neman River, 300 km (186 mi) from Minsk, about 15 km (9 mi) from the Polish border and 30 km (19 mi) away from Lithuania. In 2019 the city had 373,547 inhabitants. Grodno is the capital of Grodno Region and Grodno District.


title: Grodno

text: In Belarusian Classical Orthography (Taraškievica) the city is named as (Horadnia). In Latin it was also known as (), in Polish as , in Lithuanian as , in Latvian as , in German as , and in Yiddish as (Grodne).


title: Grodno

text: The modern city of Gordno originated as a small fortress and a fortified trading outpost maintained by the Rurikid princes on the border with the lands of the Baltic tribal union of the Yotvingians. The first reference to Grodno dates to 1005.<ref name="USSR/1965">"Археографический ежегодник за 1964 год". The Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1965, pg. 271. The name derives from the Old East Slavic verb "gorodit", i.e., "to enclose, to fence" (see "grad" for details) or Lithuanian 'gardas', i.e., "a fence"(see Lithuanian language dictionary for details), both from an old Indo-European word.</ref>


title: Grodno

text: The official foundation year is 1127. In this year Grodno was mentioned in the Primary Chronicle as Goroden and located at a crossing of numerous trading routes, this Lithuanian settlement,


title: Grodno

text: Along with Navahrudak, Grodno was regarded as the main city on the western borderlands of Black Ruthenia. The border region neighboured the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It was often attacked by various invaders, especially the Teutonic Knights. In the 1240–1250s the Grodno area, as well as the most of Black Ruthenia, was controlled by princes of Lithuanian origin (Mindaugas and others) to form the Baltic state—Grand Duchy of Lithuania—on these territories, which since 1385 formed part of the Polish–Lithuanian union. After the Prussian uprisings a large population of Old Prussians sought refuge in the region. The famous Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas was the prince of Grodno from 1376 to 1392, and he stayed there during his preparations for the Battle of Grunwald (1410). Since 1413, Grodno had been the administrative center of a powiat in Trakai Voivodeship.


title: Grodno

text: To aid the reconstruction of trade and commerce, the grand dukes allowed the creation of a Jewish commune in 1389. It was one of the first Jewish communities in the grand duchy. In 1441 the city received its charter, based on the Magdeburg Law.


title: Grodno

text: As an important centre of trade, commerce, and culture, Grodno was a notable royal city and was also one of the royal residences and political centers of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Old and New Castles were often visited by the Commonwealth monarchs including famous Stephen Báthory of Poland who made a royal residence there. Kings Casimir IV Jagiellon and Stephen Báthory died there. Grodno was one of the places where the Sejms of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were held, incl. the last Sejm in the history of the Commonwealth in 1793.


title: Grodno

text: The city was the site of two battles, Battle of Grodno (1706) and Battle of Grodno (1708) during the Great Northern War.


title: Grodno

text: After the Second Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and a subsequent administrative reform of the remainder of the Commonwealth, Grodno became the capital of the short-lived Grodno Voivodeship in 1793.


title: Grodno

text: In 1795, Russia annexed the city in the Third Partition of Poland. It was in the New Castle on 25 November that year that the last Polish king and Lithuanian grand duke Stanisław August Poniatowski abdicated. In the Russian Empire, the city continued to serve its role as a seat of Grodno Governorate since 1801. The industrial activities started in the late 18th century by Antoni Tyzenhaus, continued to develop.


title: Grodno

text: Count Aleksander Bisping was arrested and imprisoned here during the January Uprising (1863-1864) before his exile to Ufa.


title: Grodno

text: Like many other cities in Eastern Europe, Grodno had a significant Jewish population before the Holocaust: according to Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 46,900, Jews constituted 22,700 (around 48%, or almost half of the total population).


title: Grodno

text: After the outbreak of World War I, Grodno was occupied by Germany (3 September 1915) and ceded by Bolshevist Russia under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918. After the war the German government permitted a short-lived state to be set up there, the first one with a "Belarusian" name—the Belarusian People's Republic. This declared its independence from Russia in March 1918 in Minsk (known at that time as Mensk), but then the BNR's "Rada" (Council) had to leave Minsk and fled to Grodno. All this time the military authority in the city remained in German hands.


title: Grodno

text: After the outbreak of the Polish–Bolshevik War, the German commanders of the Ober Ost feared that the city might fall to Soviet Russia, so on 27 April 1919 they passed authority to Poland, which just regained independence several months earlier. The city was taken over by the Polish Army the following day and Polish administration was established in the city. The city was lost to the Red Army on 20 July 1920 in what became known as the First Battle of Grodno. The city was also claimed by Lithuanian government, after it was agreed by the Soviet–Lithuanian Treaty of 1920 signed on 12 July 1920 in Moscow that the city would be transferred to Lithuania. However, Soviet defeat in the Battle of Warsaw made these plans obsolete, and Lithuanian authority was never established in the city. Instead, the Red Army organised its last stand in the city and the Battle of Neman took place there. On 23 September the Polish Army recaptured the city. After the Peace Treaty of Riga, Grodno remained in Poland.


title: Grodno

text: Initially, prosperity was reduced due to the fact that the city remained only the capital of a powiat, while the capital of the voivodeship was moved to Białystok. However, in the late 1920s the city became one of the biggest Polish Army garrisons. This brought the local economy back on track. Also, the city was a notable centre of Jewish culture, with roughly 37% of the city's population being Jewish, while Poles constituted 60% of the inhabitants of Grodno.


title: Grodno

text: During the Polish Defensive War of September to October 1939 the garrison of Grodno was mostly used for the formation of numerous military units fighting against the invading Wehrmacht. In the course of the Soviet invasion of Poland (initiated on 17 September 1939) heavy fighting took place in the city between Soviet and improvised Polish forces, composed mostly of march battalions and volunteers. In the course of the Battle of Grodno (20-22 September) the Red Army lost some hundred men (according to Polish sources; according to Soviet sources – 57 killed and 159 wounded) and also 19 tanks and 4 APCs destroyed or damaged. The Polish side suffered at least 100 killed in action, military and civil, but losses still remain uncertain in detail (Soviet sources claim 644 killed and 1543 captives with many guns and machine guns etc. captured). Over 300 captured Polish defenders of the city, including Polish Army officers and youth, were massacred afterwards by the Soviets. After the Soviet forces surrounded the engaged Polish units, the escaping Polish units withdrew to Lithuania.


title: Grodno

text: In accordance with the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, the city was occupied by the Soviet Union and annexed into the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Several thousand of the city's Polish inhabitants were deported to remote areas of the Soviet Union. On 23 June 1941 the city came under German occupation that lasted until 16 July 1944. It was administered as part of the Bialystok District. Surviving inmates of the Grodno prison were released and the scale of the NKVD prisoner massacres revealed.<ref name="ipn/pdf">


title: Grodno

text: Institute of National Remembrance, Lato 1941 – polski dramat (Summer of 1941 – the Polish drama). Special Issue, 22 June 2011. PDF file, 1.63 MB.


title: Grodno

text: In the course of the Operation Barbarossa in World War II, the majority of Jews were herded by the Nazis into the Grodno Ghetto and subsequently killed in extermination camps. The Germans also operated a Nazi prison in the city.


title: Grodno

text: Since 1945, the city has been a centre of one of the provinces of the Byelorussian SSR, now of the independent Republic of Belarus. Most of the Polish inhabitants were expelled or fled to Poland in 1944–1946 and 1955–1959. However nowadays Poles are still the second-most numerous nationality in the city (25%), after Belarusians (60%).


title: Grodno

text: Jews began to settle in Grodno in the 14th century after the approval given to them by the Lithuanian Grand Duke Vytautas. During the next years, their status had changed several times and in 1495 the Jews were deported from the city and banned from settling in Grodno (the ban was lifted in 1503). In 1560 there were 60 Jewish families in Grodno. They were concentrated on the "Jewish street" with their own synagogue and "hospital". In the year 1578 the great synagogue of Grodno was built by rabbi Mordehai Yaffe (Baal ha-Levush). The synagogue was severely damaged in a fire in 1599.


title: Grodno

text: The community was not affected by the Khmelnytsky uprising but suffered during the 1655 Cossack uprising and during the (1703–1708). After Grodno was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1795 the Jewish population continued to grow and in 1907 there were 25,000 Jews out of a total population of 47,000.


title: Grodno

text: In the period of independent Poland, a yeshiva had operated in the city (Shaar ha-Tora) under the management of Rabbi Shimon Shkop. Before the German-Soviet invasion of Poland there were about 25,000 Jews in Grodno out of 50,000 total population. During the German occupation of the city, on 1 November 1942 the Jews were concentrated in 2 ghettos. 15,000 men were confined to the old part of the city where the main synagogue was located. A high wall of 2 meters was built around the ghetto. The second ghetto was located in the Slovodka part of the city with 10,000 inhabitants. The head of the Judenrat was appointed Dr. Braur (or Brawer), the school's headmaster, who served in this duty until his execution in February 1943 during a roundup for a deportation to Treblinka. Several local Jews were rescued by Poles who either hidden them in the city or transported them to other locations.


title: Grodno

text: On 2 November 1942 the deportations to the death camps began and during 5 days in February 1943, 10,000 Jews were sent to Auschwitz. Later, on 13 February, 5,000 Jews were sent to Treblinka. During the deportations, many synagogues were looted and some people were murdered. The last Jews were deported in March 1943. By the end of the war, only one Jew had remained in the ghetto. However, a few hundred survived in the camps or in hiding in the area. Perhaps as many as 2000 survived, including those who fled or were deported to the USSR.


title: Grodno

text: After the war, the Jewish community was revived. Most of the Jews emigrated after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Today there are several hundred Jews in the city with most of the community's activity centralized in the main synagogue that had been returned to the community by the authorities in the 1990s. The head of the community is Rabbi Yitzhak Kaufman.


title: Grodno

text: A memorial plaque, commemorating the 25,000 Jews who were exterminated in the two ghettos in the city of Grodno was placed on a building in Zamkavaja vulica, where the entrance to the ghetto once was.


title: Grodno

text: The following rivers flow through the city: the Neman River, the Lasosna River and the Haradničanka River with its branch the Yurysdyka River.


title: Grodno

text: The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "Dfb" (Warm Summer Continental Climate).


title: Grodno

text: The city has one of the largest concentrations of Roman Catholics in Belarus. It is also a centre of Polish culture, with a significant number of Poles living in Belarus residing in the city and its surroundings.


title: Grodno

text: The Eastern Orthodox population is also widely present. The city's Catholic and Orthodox churches are important architectural treasures.


title: Grodno

text: The city houses the Grodno State Medical University where many students from different parts of Belarus acquire academic degrees, as do a number of foreign students. Other higher educational establishments are Yanka Kupala State University of Grodno (the largest education centre in Grodno Province) and Grodno State Agrarian University. To support the Polish community, a Polish school was built in 1995, where all subjects are taught in Polish and students are able to pass exams to get accepted into Polish universities.


title: Grodno

text: The town was planned to be dominated by the Old Grodno Castle, first built in stone by Grand Duke Vytautas and thoroughly rebuilt in the Renaissance style by Scotto from Parma at the behest of Stefan Batory, who made the castle his principal residence. Batory died at this palace seven years later (December 1586) and originally was interred in Grodno. (His autopsy there was the first to take place in Eastern Europe.) After his death, the castle was altered on numerous occasions, although a 17th-century stone arch bridge linking it with the city still survives. The Wettin monarchs of Poland were dissatisfied with the old residence and commissioned Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann to design the New Grodno Castle, whose once sumptuous Baroque interiors were destroyed during World War II.


title: Grodno

text: The oldest extant structure in Grodno is the Kalozha Church of Sts. Boris and Gleb (Belarusian: "Каложская царква"). It is the only surviving monument of ancient Black Ruthenian architecture, distinguished from other Orthodox churches by prolific use of polychrome faceted stones of blue, green or red tint which could be arranged to form crosses or other figures on the wall.


title: Grodno

text: The church was built before 1183 and survived intact until 1853, when the south wall collapsed, due to its perilous location on the high bank of the Neman. During restoration works, some fragments of 12th-century frescos were discovered in the apses. Remains of four other churches in the same style, decorated with pitchers and coloured stones instead of frescos, were discovered in Grodno and Vaŭkavysk. They all date back to the turn of the 13th century, as do remains of the first stone palace in the Old Castle.


title: Grodno

text: The Cathedral of St. Francis Xavier stands on Batory Square (now: Soviet Square). The cathedral was a Jesuit church until 1773. This specimen of high Baroque architecture, exceeding 50 metres in height, was started in 1678. Due to wars that rocked Poland-Lithuania at that time, the cathedral was consecrated only 27 years later, in the presence of Peter the Great and Augustus the Strong. Its late Baroque frescoes were executed in 1752.


title: Grodno

text: The extensive grounds of the Bernardine monastery (1602–18), renovated in 1680 and 1738, display all the styles flourishing in the 17th century, from Gothic to Baroque. The interior is considered a masterpiece of so-called Vilnius Baroque. Other monastic establishments include the old Franciscan cloister (1635), Basilian convent (1720–51, by Giuseppe Fontana III), the church of the Bridgettine cloister (1642, one of the earliest Baroque buildings in the region) with the wooden two-storey dormitory (1630s) still standing on the grounds, and the 18th-century buildings of the Dominican monastery (its cathedral was demolished in 1874).


title: Grodno

text: Other sights in Grodno include the Orthodox cathedral, a polychrome Russian Revival extravaganza from 1904; the botanical garden, the first in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, founded in 1774; a curiously curved building on the central square (1780s); a 254-metre-high TV tower (1984); and Stanisławów, a summer residence of the last Polish king.


title: Grodno

text: The city is served by Grodno Airport located 18 km south-east of Grodno. Some seasonal international and charter flights are available throughout the year.


title: Grodno

text: The city's public transport includes trolleybuses, which began operating in Grodno on 5 November 1974. The trolleybus system is operated by the city, and in 2009 it had 12 routes and carried around 66.5 million passengers per year. Additional routes have been opened subsequently, including routes 21 and 22 in November 2019.


title: Grodno

text: Sport complex "Viktoryya", based teams: basketball club Grodno-93, women basketball club Alimpiya, handball club Kronan, women handball club Haradnichanka


title: Grodno

text: Grodno state agrarian universityGrodno State Agrarian University - The information website for foreign students,


title: Grodno

text: In 21 club municipal office more than 220 collectives, circles and also studios of amateur performances work. In them about 6500 children and adults are engaged. From 83 on-stage performance groups the rank "national" is carried 39, "exemplary" — 43, "professional" — 1.


title: Grodno

text: Since 1996 the biggest in Belarus Festival of National Cultures is hold in Grodno Every two years the Festival of National Cultures invites many guests into the city.


title: Grodno

text: Various festivals, national holidays and ceremonies are held annually in Grodno, among them "Student's spring", an international celebration of piano music or the republican festival of theatrical youth.


title: Grodno

text: In 2001 the Grodno regional executive committee founded Alexander Dubko's award — the governor of Grodnenshchina — for the best creative achievements in the sphere of culture. 84 persons have been awarded this prize.


title: Grodno

text: From 26 October 2016 residents of 77 countries can travel to Grodno and the Grodno District without a visa and stay there for up to 10 days.


title: Grodno

text: In March 2022, the Polish cities of Augustów, Białystok and Słupsk terminated their partnership with Grodno as a consequence of Belarus's involvement in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Fjällräven

text: Fjällräven (, Swedish for 'The Arctic Fox') is a Swedish brand specialising in outdoor equipment—mostly upscale clothing and luggage. It was founded in 1960 by Åke Nordin (1936–2013). The company went public in 1983 with an over-the-counter listing in Stockholm. Since 2014, Fjällräven has been a subsidiary of Fenix Outdoor International AG, which is listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange. The group also includes the Tierra, Primus, Hanwag, Brunton, and Royal Robbins brands. The CEO of Fenix as of March 2018 was Martin Nordin, the oldest son of Åke Nordin.


title: Fjällräven

text: At the age of 14, Åke Nordin from Örnsköldsvik in northern Sweden became disappointed with the design of the uncomfortable backpack that he intended to take on a planned hiking trip in the summer of 1950 to Dikanäs, a small community in the Västerbotten mountains.


title: Fjällräven

text: After undertaking some research, he learned that a pack's weight should be positioned high and close to the wearer's spine. Using his mother's Singer treadle sewing machine, he made a bag out of strong cotton material in his parents' basement. He fastened it to a wooden frame using leather straps with calfskin for the support straps. The frame distributed the load better across his back and increased the ventilation between him and the pack. In addition, he could carry a heavier pack.


title: Fjällräven

text: Nordin's invention caught the attention of the indigenous Sámi people, one of whom asked Nordin to build him a backpack, and after that a tent.


title: Fjällräven

text: During his time serving in the Swedish Armed Forces, he realized there was a space in the market for a durable and lightweight backpack. As a result, upon his discharge from the military, he established Fjällräven in 1960 and initially operated out of his family's basement.


title: Fjällräven

text: By 1996, sales had reached 133 million Swedish kronor (US$20.3 million) of which 71% was from exports.


title: Fjällräven

text: In 2002, following the purchase of the garment maker Tierra AB and the retail chains Friluftsbolaget AB and Naturkompaniet AB in 2001, the Fjällräven group changed its name to Fenix Outdoor. Fjällräven retained its separate brand identity.


title: Fjällräven

text: In 2012, Fjällräven opened its first store in New York. In 2013, founder Åke Nordin died at the age of 77.


title: Fjällräven

text: Fjällräven has a strong market presence in the Nordic countries. It is also represented in other European countries. As of 2017, Fjällräven products are available in over 40 countries.


title: Fjällräven

text: Fjällräven means "The Arctic Fox" in Swedish and their products can be identified by their Arctic Fox logo, often found on the left sleeve of their tops and outerwear. The badge itself either follows the outline of the fox logo, or is in a shield-like shape. Most Fjällräven products also possess a small Swedish flag, usually located on a seam.


title: Fjällräven

text: Fjällräven's original product was the first commercially made external framed backpack. It used an aluminium frame.


title: Fjällräven

text: In 1968, they introduced the iconic “Greenland” jacket with G-1000, Which is also released in the same year, many


title: Fjällräven

text: In 1973, they introduced the High Alpine Polar (HAP) sleeping bag which had armholes and drawcord foot openings, which allowed users to walk around in it.


title: Fjällräven

text: Today among its more well-known products are Greenland jackets, Vidda Trousers, Expedition Down Jacket, and various versions of the "Kånken" rucksack.


title: Fjällräven

text: Most of Fjällräven's products are made from its G-1000 material, released in 1968. This is 65% polyester and 35% cotton. It comes in various types: Original, Silent, Lite and HeavyDuty, each with slightly different properties. G-1000 can be waxed with Fjällräven's Greenland Wax, which can be impregnated with heat applied from a hairdryer, iron or campfire. This affects the water resistance and breathability of the item. Some products come pre-waxed. The process is similar to that of Belstaff wax jackets.


title: Fjällräven

text: Prior to Fjällräven's entry into the market, most tents were constructed of a single layer of cotton, weighed around when dry, which then doubled in weight when it got wet. An alternative option was to use a synthetic tent, but these were thin, which allowed moisture to seep through, or so impenetrable that condensation remained on the inside.


title: Fjällräven

text: Believing that like him users would want to carry as little weight as possible, and not want any equipment inside the tent to get wet, Nordin began to design a solution. In 1964, he brought the "Termo" tent to the market which combined an outer waterproof flysheet made of a strong, waterproof polyester fabric and a breathable inner tent made from a thin, breathable "Rutarme" polyamide (nylon). This combination allowed moisture to be expelled from the living area before condensing on the inner surface of the flysheet. The tent weighs 1.4 kg (3 lbs).


title: Fjällräven

text: In 1966, Fjällräven backpacks and Termo condensation-free tents were taken by a number of the members of a research expedition to Greenland to study glaciers. With praises for the Fjällräven equipment, they told Nordin it was unfortunate that the company had not also produced their jackets and trousers, which were made of boiled wool and leather and had proven unsatisfactory. This inspired Nordin to consider entering the clothing segment. He identified that a fabric that had proven too heavy for use in the company's lightweight tents would be durable enough for a jacket, but he needed to find a way of waterproofing it. Remembering that when he was a child at a local ski jump with his friends, they had prevented the snow from soaking through their trousers by rubbing the wax meant for their skis onto the fabric, he began experimenting with different wax solutions. He eventually developed a solution of paraffin and beeswax which he then applied to the fabric with the help of his wife's hairdryer.


title: Fjällräven

text: The finished jacket which entered the market in 1968 was called the Greenland Jacket, while the fabric in time became known as G-1000, and the beeswax and paraffin mixture was sold as Greenland Wax.


title: Fjällräven

text: In 1970, the company introduced the Greenland Trousers using the G-1000 material previously used in the Greenland jacket.


title: Fjällräven

text: The Fjällräven Kånken is Fjällräven's best-selling product. It was originally developed as a reaction to a 1977 study of increasing number of reports that Swedish school children were developing back problems from their more traditional bags. The lightweight and rectangular yet spacious backpack, which was released in 1978, was Fjällräven's attempt to solve this problem.


title: Fjällräven

text: In 1977, Fjällräven made prototypes of the "Kånken" and gave it to some kids in Sweden to test it out.


title: Fjällräven

text: During its first year in production, 400 were sold, increasing to 30,000 the following year. As of April 2018, Fjällräven sells the Kånken in 54 different colours.


title: Fjällräven

text: The range has expanded to include the Mini-Kånken with a capacity of 7 litres released in 2002 for preschoolers. The Kånken Laptop, released in 2006 with a back pocket for a laptop and paddled selves. The Re-Kånken, released in 2016 and made entirely of polyester from recycled plastic bottles and the Tree-Kånken, released in 2021, and it's made from Pine Weave, a unique fabric produced using more sustainable methods from certified Swedish trees grown close to Fjällräven’s hometown of Örnsköldsvik.


title: Fjällräven

text: It is now sold worldwide, and is most popular with females aged 12–25. Kånkens have a different logo to most other Fjällräven products, which are white and pink as opposed to the usual light brown colour. The Kånken was awarded the Guldknappen Accessoar design prize in 2018.


title: Fjällräven

text: In the early 1990s, Åke Nordin met Kenth Fjellborg, one of Sweden's leading dog-sled drivers. Fjellborg had participated in Iditarod, the world's most difficult dog sled competition through the harsh Alaskan wilderness: so Nordin decided to create a Swedish equivalent. In 1997, Fjällräven Polar took place in the Scandinavian Arctic for the first time.


title: Fjällräven

text: The event also provides an opportunity for Fjällräven to test out clothes, tents and other equipment in the environment they were made for: the winter wilderness of northern Scandinavia.


title: Fjällräven

text: Wishing to encourage and enable more people to get out and enjoy trekking, Åke Nordin at the start of the 21st century came up with the concept behind the Fjällräven Classic. It is not a competition or a race, but a chance to socialise with other hikers and enjoy the trek of a lifetime. There were just 152 finishers at the first Swedish Classic in 2005 and by 2015 there were 2,136 finishers. Fjällräven Classic now takes place in six different locations around the world: Sweden, Denmark, the US, the UK, South-Korea and Germany.


title: Fjällräven

text: For many years, Nordin supported his hometown of Örnsköldsvik's Modo Hockey professional ice hockey club. In November 2009, Fjällräven acquired the naming rights to the club's home arena, which from January 2010 until August 2021 was called the Fjällräven Center.


title: Clean and jerk

text: The clean and jerk is a composite of two weightlifting movements, most often performed with a barbell: the clean and the jerk. During the "clean", the lifter moves the barbell from the floor to a racked position across the deltoids, without resting fully on the clavicles. During the "jerk", the lifter raises the barbell to a stationary position above the head, finishing with straight arms and legs, and the feet in the same plane as the torso and barbell.


title: Clean and jerk

text: Of the several variants of the lift, the most common is the Olympic clean and jerk, which, with the snatch, is contested in Olympic weightlifting events.


title: Clean and jerk

text: To execute a "clean", a lifter grasps the barbell just outside the legs, typically using a hook grip. Once the barbell is above the knees, the lifter extends explosively (mainly at torso or genitals), raising the bar as high as possible before quickly dropping into a squat and receiving it in a "racked" position in front of the neck and resting on the shoulders. To complete the clean, the lifter stands, often propelling the bar upward from the shoulders slightly as the erect position is attained and shifting the grip slightly wider and the feet slightly closer together in preparation for the jerk.


title: Clean and jerk

text: The "jerk" begins from the "front rack" position, which is the finishing position of the "clean". The lifter dips a few inches by bending the knees, keeping the back vertical, and then explosively extends the knees, propelling the barbell upward off the shoulders, and then quickly dropping underneath the bar by pushing upward with the arms and splitting the legs into a lunge position, one forward and one back. The bar is received overhead on straight arms, and, once stable, the lifter recovers from the split position, bringing the feet back into the same plane as the rest of the body.


title: Clean and jerk

text: The power clean, a weight training exercise not used in competition, refers to any variant of the clean in which the lifter does not catch the bar in a full squat position (commonly accepted as thighs parallel to the floor or below).


title: Clean and jerk

text: The hang clean begins with the barbell off the ground, "hanging" from the arms. Both power and hang cleans are considered to be ideal for sports conditioning, as they are both total body exercises that have been known to increase neuromuscular co-ordination and core stability.


title: Clean and jerk

text: The continental clean involves lifting the bar from the floor to the final clean position by any method of the lifter's choosing so long as the bar is not upended and does not touch the ground. The bar may be rested on the legs, stomach, or belt. Hands may be removed and replaced. The continental clean plays a special role in strongman training, where the use of an axle bar makes the additional steps of a continental clean necessary.


title: Clean and jerk

text: In the split jerk, the lifter dips down their hips and propels the barbell upward by performing a short jump. The lifter then 'splits' their legs and catches the bar with straight arms above their head.


title: Clean and jerk

text: In the power jerk, the lifter performs the same dip and jump movement, but unlike the split jerk, the lifter catches the barbell in a partial squat position.


title: Clean and jerk

text: The squat jerk is like the power jerk in how the lifter catches the barbell in a squat position, but unlike the power jerk, the lifter catches the barbell in a full squat position with the barbell locked out above their head.


title: Clean and jerk

text: A single arm is used instead of two. The weight lifted is usually a dumbbell or kettlebell. A barbell can also be used. The movement is broadly similar to the two armed clean and jerk, although there are various changes to the range of movement and posture. As a form of unilateral exercise, a single arm clean and jerk can be beneficial for core strength as the lifter has to work to stabilise the off-centred weight. It can also help to reduce an excessive strength imbalance which has developed between the different sides of the body. For example, in a two armed clean and jerk, there may be a muscle imbalance meaning that the right arm is performing an excessively large amount of the work and the left arm an excessively small amount. By using the single arm style and alternating between each arm, it can be ensured that each arm is performing the same amount of work.


title: The Lost Girls (film)

text: The Lost Girls is a 2022 British fantasy film written and directed by Livia De Paolis, based on the 2003 "Peter Pan"-inspired novel of the same name by Laurie Fox. Set a few generations after the events of J.M. Barrie's original novel, it explores the consequences of Pan's promise to continue returning to the Darlings.


title: The Lost Girls (film)

text: The film was released in theatres and to streaming platforms on June 17, 2022. It received generally mixed to unfavorable reviews.


title: The Lost Girls (film)

text: It was announced in September 2019 that Livia De Paolis would adapt Laurie Anne Fox's novel for film.


title: The Lost Girls (film)

text: Emma Thompson, Ellen Burstyn, and Gaia Wise were originally attached to star in the film alongside De Paolis, but they exited the project at some point with Joely Richardson, Vanessa Redgrave, and Ella-Rae Smith taking their places respectively. Julian Ovenden, Parker Sawyers, Emily Carey, Louis Partridge, and Iain Glen would round out the ensemble cast.


title: The Lost Girls (film)

text: Principal photography took place in England with support from the British Screen Sector Task Forces, wrapping in September 2020.


title: The Lost Girls (film)

text: Myriad Pictures are in charge of international distribution. Altitude bought the UK and Ireland rights to the film.


title: Drew Fuller

text: Andrew Alan "Drew" Fuller (born May 19, 1980) is an American actor and former model. He is best known for his portrayal of Chris Halliwell in the television series "Charmed" and for playing soldier Trevor LeBlanc on Lifetime's "Army Wives".


title: Drew Fuller

text: Fuller was born in Atherton, California and grew up in Newport Beach; he has a younger sister, Hilary.


title: Drew Fuller

text: Deciding to wait a few years, Fuller eventually entered the modeling world at age sixteen and quickly became a top model for such companies as Prada, Club Med, and Tommy Hilfiger. He has appeared in many commercials including J.Crew, Subway, Toyota and Pepsi opposite Britney Spears.


title: Drew Fuller

text: He took part in the music video for The Calling's "Wherever You Will Go", playing the new boyfriend of the betrayed teenage girl whose relationship is the subject of the video. He also featured in Jennifer Love Hewitt's 2002 music video "BareNaked".


title: Drew Fuller

text: Fuller became known for playing Chris Halliwell on "Charmed", a starring and guest star role from seasons 5-8 of the show. In the series, his character is the second son of Piper (Holly Marie Combs) and Leo (Brian Krause) and engages in time travel to save his older brother Wyatt (Wes Ramsey). Fuller's most recent roles are in "The Ultimate Gift", a drama released on March 9, 2007, and in the series "Army Wives" which airs on Lifetime. He also co-starred in ABC Family's television movie "The Circuit".


title: Drew Fuller

text: Other works: TV commercial for Subway (2003), appears in the pro-WGA strike video on YouTube "Writer Boi" (2007), writer - Bowlerman Begins (short) (2010).


title: TransPennine Express

text: TransPennine Express (TPE), legally First TransPennine Express Limited, is a British train operating company owned by FirstGroup that operates the TransPennine Express franchise. It runs regional and inter-city rail services between the major cities and towns of Northern England and Scotland.


title: TransPennine Express

text: The franchise operates almost all its services to and through Manchester covering three main routes. The service provides rail links for major towns and cities such as Edinburgh, Glasgow, Liverpool, Sheffield, Hull, Leeds, York, Scarborough, Middlesbrough and Newcastle. TPE run trains 24 hours a day, including through New Year's Eve night. TPE trains run between , and at least every three hours every night of the week. The franchise operates across the West Coast Main Line, Huddersfield Line, East Coast Main Line and part of the Tees Valley line.


title: TransPennine Express

text: The majority of TPE's rolling stock was procured during the late 2010s under "Project Nova". These consist of the "Nova 1" () BMU trainsets, the "Nova 2" CAF Civity EMUs, and the "Nova 3" Mark 5A fixed-formation carriages paired with Class 68 diesel locomotives. These have replaced older rolling stock, such as the Bombardier Turbostar 170/3s and Siemens Desiro 350/4s, as well as some of their Siemens Desiro 185s, although these are still used on some routes. TPE has facilitated an operational shift towards more inter-city style services, although the commuter market remains important.


title: TransPennine Express

text: The TransPennine Express brand was launched in the early 1990s by British Rail's Regional Railways sector. It became part of Regional Railways North East and, on 2 March 1997, was privatised along with the majority of British Rail. Its first private sector operator, Northern Spirit, as well as its successor, Arriva Trains Northern, opted to maintain the brand.


title: TransPennine Express

text: In 2000, the Strategic Rail Authority announced that it planned to reorganise the North West Regional Railways and Regional Railways North East franchises operated by First North Western and Arriva Trains Northern. A TransPennine Express franchise would be created for the long-distance regional services, the remaining services being operated by a new Northern franchise.


title: TransPennine Express

text: In July 2003, the TransPennine franchise was awarded to a joint venture between FirstGroup and Keolis, and the services operated by Arriva Trains Northern and First North Western were transferred to First TransPennine Express on 1 February 2004. On 11 November 2007, the services from Manchester to and via the West Coast Main Line formerly operated by Virgin CrossCountry were transferred to First TransPennine Express.


title: TransPennine Express

text: In August 2014, the Department for Transport announced FirstGroup, Keolis/Go-Ahead and Stagecoach had been shortlisted to bid for the next franchise. During December 2015, FirstGroup was awarded the franchise of TransPennine Express. The effective date of the new franchise was 1 April 2016 and will run until 31 March 2023, with an option to extend for two years. The company remains First TransPennine Express, but has branded the services as TransPennine Express.


title: TransPennine Express

text: As part of a recasting of the franchise map by the Department for Transport, services from to ; Manchester Airport to ; and to were transferred to the Northern franchise on 1 April 2016.


title: TransPennine Express

text: TransPennine Express was one of several train operators impacted by the 2022 United Kingdom railway strike, which was the first national rail strike in the UK for three decades. Its workers were amongst those who participated in industrial action due to a dispute over pay and working conditions.


title: Edward Highmore

text: Edward Thomas Highmore (born 3 April 1961) is an English actor. He was born in Kingston upon Thames, London.


title: Edward Highmore

text: Best known for playing Leo Howard in the 1980s BBC drama "Howards' Way". He also appeared in "Doctor Who", playing Malkon in the 1984 serial "Planet of Fire". Highmore attended Guildford School of Acting.


title: Edward Highmore

text: He is the father of actor Freddie Highmore, who played Charlie Bucket in the 2005 film version of "Charlie and the Chocolate Factory", and Bertie. Edward and Freddie starred together in "" as father and son. Edward's wife, Sue Latimer, is a talent agent whose clients include Daniel Radcliffe.


title: Sushin Shyam

text: Sushin Shyam is an Indian music composer who works predominantly in the Malayalam film industry. He is also the keyboardist of the Indian folk metal band The Down Troddence. He started gaining popularity in 2018 with the films "Varathan" and "Kumbalangi Nights" in 2019. Thereafter, he worked continually in many Malayalam films. Sushin is a recipient of Kerala State Film Award for Best Music Director in 2019 for "Kumbalangi Nights".


title: Sushin Shyam

text: Sushin attended St.Joseph's Higher Secondary School, Thalassery and Mambaram higher secondary school in Thalassery. His father, being a musician began teaching him to play the keyboard at a very young age. He first performed on stage at age 9. Sushin participated in youth festivals and won a number of state awards during his school years. He went on to study engineering in Sri Sidhartha Institute of technology but dropped out to pursue his career in music. He shifted to Chennai to explore opportunities in the film music. He joined with Music director Deepak Dev and worked with him for over two years.


title: Sushin Shyam

text: Sushin worked as a keyboard programmer under the composer Rasheed for the latter's album song, "Akalukayano," which became popular with kerala audience and was one of the trending songs at the time. Sushin joined with The Down Troddence, which was originally started as a home studio project by musicians Varun and Munz in 2008, on the keyboard. In 2010, The Down Troddence performed live as a six-piece band with Sushin. Their debut album "How Are You? We Are Fine, Thank You" was released in 2014. Sushin was nominated for Best Keyboardist award (critics' choice and popular choice) in Rolling Stone Metal Awards 2015, for the album.


title: Sushin Shyam

text: Sushin started his film career at the age of 19 with Deepak Dev as his mentor. Assisting Deepak Dev, he has programmed background scores for over forty-five Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu movies in the span of four years. He composed music for the short film "Oru kutti chodyam" directed by Ganesh Raj in 2012. In 2013, Music director Rex Vijayan invited Sushin to programme the background score for "Neelakasham Pachakadal Chuvanna Bhoomi". Sushin also sang a song, "Thaazhvaram," for the film. Meeting Rex was a turning point for Sushin as Rex encouraged Sushin to compose the background score for his next film "Sapthamashree Thaskaraha" in 2014. It was his first independent project as a composer. He also sang the track "Kayi Ethum Doorathonde" for the film. Thereafter, he composed the background score for "Lord Livingstone 7000 Kandi" in 2015. His next work was "Kismath", directed by debutant Shanavas Bavakkutty. He composed the background score and one song ("Kissa Pathiyil") for the film; both were well received. In 2016, he composed music for the short film "Vicky", directed by Manu Joseph. His next release was "Ezra", in early 2017, a horror mystery film directed by Jay.K. He composed the score and two songs ("Thambiraan" and "Irulu Neelum Raave") for "Ezra". Both the songs and background score were well received. He also did background scores for films "Villain" and "The Great Father" in 2017. In 2018, Sushin composed songs and score for three movies - "Maradona", "Lilli" and "Varathan". The songs and soundtrack from "Varathan" went on to become top hits. "Kumbalangi Nights" and "Virus" were Sushin's 2019 releases. Sushin's compositions for both films were widely acclaimed and appreciated. He co-composed background score with Jackson Vijayan for Anwar Rasheed's "Trance", which was released in February 2020. His next release was "Kappela". He also did background score for "Kilometers and Kilometers", starring Tovino Thomas, in 2020.


title: Sushin Shyam

text: Sushin's 2021 releases were "Malik, Kurup" and "Minnal Murali." The song "Raheemun Aleemun" from "Malik" sung by Hida Chokkad, an eight-year-old girl from Malappuram became an instant hit and went viral on internet. Both Sushin's music and Hida's soulful rendition gained much appreciation. The song "Theerame Theerame" also gained top positions among the year's hit charts. The multilingual crime thriller "Kurup" got a mixed response from critics, but Sushin's music and score were highly appreciated. The soundtrack album for the superhero movie "Minnal Murali" also went on to become very popular. Sajin Srijith of "The New Indian Express" stated the soundtrack as "instantly addictive" and "carries the goodness of western retro hits". He also composed four songs for the movie, which were also well received.


title: Sushin Shyam

text: His first release of 2022 is "Bheeshma Parvam", directed by Amal Neerad starring Mammootty. The soundtrack album for "Bheeshma Parvam" turned to be one of the biggest hits in Sushin's career, especially the track "Parudeesa" receiving highly positive reviews from critics. "The New Indian Express" stated that "Sushin Shyam’s instantly immersive music alternates between various genres, from classical to contemporary and, at one point, evokes one of the spaghetti-western scores of Ennio Morricone." The critic "Veeyen" wrote, "Sushin Shyam’s arresting musical score leaves an extensive impression, and the upbeat track "Parudeesa" stands out from among the lot."


title: Sushin Shyam

text: Sushin has appeared in short or guest roles in movies including" Grandmaster", "Thattathin Marayathu", "Da Thadiya", "Honey Bee", "Guppy" and "Mayaanadhi".


title: Amorphis

text: Amorphis is a Finnish heavy metal band founded by Jan Rechberger, Tomi Koivusaari, and Esa Holopainen in 1990. Initially, the band was a death metal act, but on later albums they evolved into playing other genres, including progressive metal, and folk metal. They frequently use the "Kalevala", the epic poem of Finland, as a source for their lyrics.


title: Amorphis

text: Jan Rechberger played in a thrash metal band called Violent Solution, which Tomi Koivusaari had left in 1990 to form the death metal band Abhorrence, with Koivusaari being replaced by Esa Holopainen. Violent Solution slowly dissolved with Jan Rechberger and Esa Holopainen deciding to continue working with each other to form their own death metal band, Amorphis. With Rechberger having ties with Koivusaari, in early 1990, Koivusaari became the vocalist and the band also got Oppu Laine to become their bassist. During that time, Koivusaari also performed rhythm guitar, leading to the band dumping all original compositions and starting over again. Koivusaari's other band, Abhorrence, split up and he found himself with more time to put into Amorphis.


title: Amorphis

text: A demo tape, "Disment of Soul", was recorded in 1991 by Timo Tolkki at TTT studios. It was meant to be "Dismemberment of soul" but they forgot the word "member" and so it was Disment.


title: Amorphis

text: After the band recorded their first studio demo tape, Relapse Records offered Abhorrence a recording contract. Since Abhorrence was no longer active, they sent their own demo in the return mail and were signed to a worldwide recording deal. Soon after getting signed, they released their death metal debut, "The Karelian Isthmus", under the new name Amorphis and later released the "Privilege of Evil" EP. The EP featured Abhorrence's original vocalist, Jukka Kolehmainen, on vocals on the Abhorrence cover song, "Vulgar Necrolatry".


title: Amorphis

text: In 1994, Amorphis released their second studio album, "Tales from the Thousand Lakes", a concept album based on the Finnish national epic, the "Kalevala". This 1994 release, while still rooted in death metal, was their first step toward a new direction as melodic clean vocals were added, provided by Ville Tuomi. "Tales from the Thousand Lakes" won the band a fan base thanks to its innovative sound and fusion of death metal with traditional folk, psychedelia, and progressive elements. This album went on to influence the signature Amorphis sound.


title: Amorphis

text: During the subsequent tours, Martenson (keyboards) left the band, to be replaced by Kim Rantala. Rechberger was replaced by Pekka Kasari (ex-Stone), and a sixth member was recruited, singer Pasi Koskinen. The third album, "Elegy", was released in 1996. Lyrics were again adapted from Finnish mythology, in this case, the "Kanteletar", a collection of ancient folk poetry. Pasi and Tomi shared the vocals on an equal basis, with Pasi providing only clean parts. After a year and a half of touring following the release of "Elegy", the band members took a hiatus.


title: Amorphis

text: Their next offering, 1999's "Tuonela", was a mellow guitar album, although toward the end of the studio sessions, Santeri Kallio of Kyyria was brought in to add some keyboard tracks to the songs. New instruments were introduced (Tomi playing sitar in the song "Greed", Sakari Kukko on saxophone and flute providing a foreign accent) and the death growls were reduced, as all vocals were performed by Pasi.


title: Amorphis

text: The band experienced another line-up change. Following the breakup of Kyyria, Santeri joined Amorphis as a full-time member. Bassist Oppu was replaced by another ex-Kyyria member, Niclas Etelävuori, to tour with Amorphis on their third United States tour.


title: Amorphis

text: "Am Universum" was released in 2001, and included more emphasis on keyboards and saxophone work, the latter contributed by Sakari Kukko. It was an experimental album and Amorphis' most psychedelic to date.


title: Amorphis

text: In 2002, the band contributed to the soundtrack for the movie "Menolippu Mombasaan". The commissioned piece was a cover version of a 1976 Finnish pop hit "Kuusamo", and is currently the band's only song in their native language. The same year they started to record the band's last album with Relapse Records, "Far from the Sun". In 2003, Relapse released the retrospective "Chapters", which included a DVD featuring the band's videos from "Black Winter Day" to "Alone". "Far from the Sun" was produced by the band itself, which had been rejoined by original drummer Jan Rechberger after Pekka Kasari had quit to concentrate on family duties. Pasi left the band in 2004 after nine years.


title: Amorphis

text: While searching for a new vocalist Amorphis received over a hundred demo tapes from prospective vocalists but none of them became the new frontman of the band. Eventually Tomi Joutsen got an audition through word of mouth and he became their next singer in 2005. Joutsen, best known for his work with metal band Sinisthra, urged Amorphis to return to the use of contrasting vocal styles for their next album. His first album with the band, "Eclipse", was released in 2006. It was a critical and commercial success, hailed as a return to form by some critics, and achieving gold certification in Finland for the first time in their history.


title: Amorphis

text: Just after Joutsen joined, Amorphis performed under name Amorjens ("aHello" in Finnish) to perform at least one gig in Finland.


title: Amorphis

text: Amorphis followed "Eclipse" with gigs and festival appearances throughout Europe, all the while writing new material for the follow-up. They released their next album, "Silent Waters", on 3 September 2007, achieving gold certification in Finland for the second time. The album marked the first time in the history of the band that an album was recorded with the same personnel as the previous one. In support of "Silent Waters", Amorphis launched their third headlining tour in North America alongside supporting acts Samael and Virgin Black.


title: Amorphis

text: In November 2008, Amorphis entered Sonic Pump Studios to begin recording their 9th album. The result of those studio sessions, "Skyforger", was released in Finland on 27 May 2009, throughout Europe two days later, and in the United States on 16 June. Initial presses of the album had mastering errors, which prompted Nuclear Blast to issue replacement CDs. The album was certified gold in Finland on 7 July 2011, making it the third Amorphis album in a row to do so.


title: Amorphis

text: On 20 November 2009, while touring in support of "Skyforger", Amorphis filmed a show at Club Teatria in Oulu, Finland for their first-ever live DVD. The show was released alongside another show from Summer Breeze Open Air 2009 and a documentary, titled "Tales from the 20 Years", as a part of the CD/DVD set "Forging the Land of Thousand Lakes" on 25 June 2010.


title: Amorphis

text: On 15 September 2010, Amorphis released "Magic & Mayhem – Tales from the Early Years", a re-working of a dozen tracks from their first three albums with slightly different arrangements, better audio quality and featuring the band's current lineup, plus a cover of "Light my Fire" as a bonus track. During the tour that followed, the band briefly reunited with Pasi Koskinen and other past members (such as keyboard player Kim Rantala) on stage, to perform some of the older songs.


title: Amorphis

text: On 30 September 2010, Nuclear Blast announced that Amorphis had started work on a new album. On 24 January 2011, the band revealed that recording was almost finished, except for vocals which would be completed at the home of producer Marko Hietala. The album "The Beginning of Times" was released on 27 May 2011 in Europe and 7 June 2011 in the United States, and features cover art by longtime collaborator Travis Smith.


title: Amorphis

text: On 21 August 2012, Amorphis announced on their website that a new album was in the works. On 17 January 2013, the band announced the title and release date for their next record. "Circle" was released on 19 April in Europe and 30 April in North America. Tomi Joutsen said about the new album, "Circle represents integrity. Back in the days, when there was something special to talk about, wise men used to sit in circle. Not everyone was invited to join them. But in this story, the protagonist was invited among the wise men's circle."


title: Amorphis

text: On 16 September 2013, "Circle" won Metal Hammer's "Album of the Year" award. Esa Holopainen said about the award, "For us, Album of the Year award is a great recognition for the work done so far. Especially when we got it from our 11th studio album."


title: Amorphis

text: On 4 August 2014, Amorphis announced on their website and through social media that they would be playing a number of special "Tales from the Thousand Lakes" 20th anniversary shows where their 1994 album would be performed in its entirety. The shows included festivals such as Wacken Open Air, Maryland Deathfest, and 70000 Tons of Metal, with many other tour dates and festivals included.


title: Amorphis

text: The band began demoing new songs at the start of 2015, and on 4 March, it was announced that Amorphis would begin to record a new album in April, at Fascination Street Studio, Örebro, Sweden with Jens Bogren, and with an album release date sometime in September 2015.


title: Amorphis

text: The lyrics would be written once again by Pekka Kainulainen, who says, "Like 'Kalevala', they are descriptions of natural phenomena, seasons and the human mind. Reoccurring situations where hope and uncertainty alternate. Attempting to gain advice from higher powers. The poems do not form a complete story per se, but they are drawn together by a certain theme. We live under a red cloud and once again, time weighs us."


title: Amorphis

text: The release of the new album was to be followed by a world tour, starting with shows in the band's home country of Finland, then other parts of Europe with Nightwish and Arch Enemy in November 2015.


title: Amorphis

text: On 15 June 2015, the band announced the upcoming twelfth album titled "Under the Red Cloud", with the artwork and track list revealed and with a release date of 4 September 2015.


title: Amorphis

text: On 22 February 2018, Amorphis announced they had finished recording their thirteenth studio album "Queen of Time", which was released on 18 May 2018 via Nuclear Blast Records. The album recording process featured the band's former bass player Olli-Pekka 'Oppu' Laine replacing Amorphis' longtime bassist Niclas Etelävuori, who left in April 2017 after their North American tour due to disagreements with the band's management, making this the first time since "Tales from the Thousand Lakes" that all the original band members had played on an album together. On 23 March 2018, the band released the first single, "The Bee", off the record.


title: Amorphis

text: On 24 February 2022, Amorphis released its 14th studio album, "Halo", marking the band's 30th anniversary since the release of its 1992 debut record, "The Karelian Isthmus". The band struggled with various complications related to the Covid-19 pandemic while recording the album. This album is also more guitar-driven and "heavier" than "Queen of Time". The album has been received well by both fans and critics, landing on top of the charts in Finland and in top-10 charts in many other countries. As of March 2022, two songs from the album have been released with full music videos ("The Moon" and "On the Dark Waters"). The album continues to draw heavily on Finnish folklore, with references to Tuonela, the underworld realm of Finnish and Estonian mythology.


title: Amorphis

text: Amorphis began as a death metal and death-doom band, and later incorporated other styles, such as progressive metal, melodic death metal, folk metal, and power metal.


title: Fulgurite

text: Fulgurites (), commonly known as "fossilized lightning", are natural tubes, clumps, or masses of sintered, vitrified, and/or fused soil, sand, rock, organic debris and other sediments that sometimes form when lightning discharges into ground. When composed of silica, fulgurites are classified as a variety of the mineraloid lechatelierite.


title: Fulgurite

text: When ordinary negative polarity cloud-ground lightning discharges into a grounding substrate, greater than 100 million volts (100 MV) of potential difference may be bridged. Such current may propagate into silica-rich quartzose sand, mixed soil, clay, or other sediments, rapidly vaporizing and melting resistant materials within such a common dissipation regime. This results in the formation of generally hollow and/or vesicular, branching assemblages of glassy tubes, crusts, and clumped masses. Fulgurites have no fixed composition because their chemical composition is determined by the physical and chemical properties of whatever material is being struck by lightning.


title: Fulgurite

text: Fulgurites are structurally similar to Lichtenberg figures, which are the branching patterns produced on surfaces of insulators during dielectric breakdown by high-voltage discharges, such as lightning.


title: Fulgurite

text: Fulgurites are formed when lightning strikes the ground, fusing and vitrifying mineral grains. The primary SiO phase in common tube fulgurites is lechatelierite, an amorphous silica glass. Many fulgurites show some evidence of crystallization: in addition to glasses, many are partially protocrystalline or microcrystalline. Because fulgurites are generally amorphous in structure, fulgurites are classified as mineraloids.


title: Fulgurite

text: Material properties (size, color, texture) of fulgurites vary widely, depending on the size of the lightning bolt and composition and moisture content of the surface struck by lightning. Most natural fulgurites fall on a spectrum from white to black. Iron is a common impurity that can result in a deep brownish-green coloration. Lechatelierite similar to fulgurites can also be produced via controlled (or uncontrolled) arcing of artificial electricity into a medium. Downed high voltage power lines have produced brightly-colored lechatelierites, due to the incorporation of copper or other materials from the power lines themselves. Brightly-colored lechatelierites resembling fulgurites are usually synthetic and reflect the incorporation of synthetic materials. However, lightning can strike man-made objects, resulting in colored fulgurites.


title: Fulgurite

text: The interior of Type I (sand) fulgurites normally is smooth or lined with fine bubbles, while their exteriors are coated with rough sedimentary particles or small rocks. Other types of fulgurites are usually vesicular, and may lack an open central tube; their exteriors can be porous or smooth. Branching fulgurites display fractal-like self-similarity and structural scale invariance as a macroscopic or microscopic network of root-like branches, and can display this texture without central channels or obvious divergence from morphology of context or target (e.g. sheet-like melt, rock fulgurites). Fulgurites are usually fragile, making the field collection of large specimens difficult.


title: Fulgurite

text: Fulgurites can exceed 20 centimeters in diameter and can penetrate deep into the subsoil, sometimes occurring as far as below the surface that was struck. Or they may form directly on sedimentary surfaces. One of the longest fulgurites to have been found in modern times was a little over in length, and was found in northern Florida. The Yale University Peabody Museum of Natural History displays one of the longest known preserved fulgurites, approximately in length. Charles Darwin in "The Voyage of the Beagle" recorded that tubes such as these found in Drigg, Cumberland, UK reached a length of . The Winans Lake fulgurite[s] (Winans Lake, Livingston County, Michigan), extended discontinuously throughout a 30 m range, and arguably includes the largest reported fulgurite mass ever recovered and described: its largest section extending approximately 16 ft (4.88 m) in length by 1 ft in diameter (30 cm).


title: Fulgurite

text: Peak temperatures within a lightning channel exceed 30,000 K, with sufficient pressure to produce planar deformation features in SiO, a kind of polymorphism. This is also known colloquially as shocked quartz.


title: Fulgurite

text: Fulgurites have been classified by Pasek et al. (2012) into five types related to the type of sediment in which the fulgurite formed, as follows:


title: Fulgurite

text: The presence of fulgurites in an area can be used to estimate the frequency of lightning over a period of time, which can help to understand past regional climates. Paleolightning is the study of various indicators of past lightning strikes, primarily in the form of fulgurites and lightning-induced remanent magnetization (LIRM) signatures.


title: Fulgurite

text: Many high-pressure, high-temperature materials have been observed in fulgurites. Many of these minerals and compounds are also known to be formed in extreme environments such as nuclear weapon tests, hypervelocity impacts, and interstellar space. Shocked quartz was first described in fulgurites in 1980. Other materials, including highly reduced silicon-metal alloys (silicides), the fullerene allotropes C (buckminsterfullerenes) and C, as well as high-pressure polymorphs of SiO, have since been identified in fulgurites.


title: Fulgurite

text: Reduced phosphides have been identified in fulgurites, in the form of schreibersite ( and ), and titanium(III) phosphide. These reduced compounds are otherwise rare on Earth due to the presence of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere, which creates oxidizing surface conditions.


title: Fulgurite

text: In 2008, An object later classified as a fulgurite, but initially believed by archaeologists to be an igneous cinder, was found within the contents of the ritual ash altar at the temple of Lykaian Zeus at Mount Lykaion in Greece. The object was identified and studied by geologist George H. Davis (past president of the Geological Society of America). It may be contemporaneous with ancient site use, and as such potentially associated with ritual activity performed there.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: Georgetown is a historic neighborhood, and commercial and entertainment district located in Northwest Washington, D.C., situated along the Potomac River. Founded in 1751 in the Province of Maryland, the port of Georgetown predated the establishment of the federal district and the City of Washington by 40 years. Georgetown remained a separate municipality until 1871 when the United States Congress created a new consolidated government for the whole District of Columbia. A separate act, passed in 1895, specifically repealed Georgetown's remaining local ordinances and renamed Georgetown's streets to conform with those in the City of Washington.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: The primary commercial corridors of Georgetown are the intersection of Wisconsin Avenue and M Street, which contain high-end shops, bars, restaurants, and the Georgetown Park enclosed shopping mall. The Washington Harbour waterfront restaurants are located to the south on K Street, between 30th and 31st Streets.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: Georgetown is home to the main campus of Georgetown University and numerous other landmarks, such as the Volta Bureau and the Old Stone House, the oldest house in Washington. The embassies of Cameroon, France, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Mongolia, Sweden, Thailand, Ukraine and Venezuela are located in Georgetown.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: Situated on the Fall Line, Georgetown was the farthest point upstream that oceangoing boats could navigate the Potomac River. In 1632, English fur trader Henry Fleet documented an American Indian village of the Nacotchtank people called Tohoga on the site of present-day Georgetown and established trade there. The area was then part of the Province of Maryland, an English colony.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: George Gordon constructed a tobacco inspection house along the Potomac in approximately 1745. The site was already a tobacco trading post when the inspection house was built. Warehouses, wharves, and other buildings were then constructed around the inspection house, and it quickly became a small community. It did not take long before Georgetown grew into a thriving port, facilitating trade and shipments of goods from colonial Maryland.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: In 1751, the legislature of the Province of Maryland authorized the purchase of of land from Gordon and George Beall at the price of £280. A survey of the town was completed in February 1752. Since Georgetown was founded during the reign of George II of Great Britain, some speculate that the town was named after him. Another theory is that the town was named after its founders, George Gordon and George Beall. The Maryland Legislature formally issued a charter and incorporated the town in 1789. (Although Georgetown was never officially made a city, it was later referred to as the "City of Georgetown" in several 19th-century acts of Congress.) Robert Peter, an early area merchant in the tobacco trade, became Georgetown's first mayor in 1790.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: Col. John Beatty established the first church in Georgetown, a Lutheran church on High Street. Stephen Bloomer Balch established a Presbyterian church in 1784. In 1795, the Trinity Catholic Church was built, along with a parish school-house. Construction of St. John's Episcopal Church began in 1797 but paused for financial reasons until 1803, and the church was finally consecrated in 1809. Banks in Georgetown included the Farmers and Mechanics Bank, which was established in 1814. Other banks included the Bank of Washington, Patriotic Bank, Bank of the Metropolis, and the Union and Central Banks of Georgetown.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: Newspapers in Georgetown included the "Republican Weekly Ledger", which was the first paper, started in 1790. "The Sentinel" was first published in 1796 by Green, English & Co. Charles C. Fulton began publishing the "Potomac Advocate", which was started by Thomas Turner. Other newspapers in Georgetown included the "Georgetown Courier" and the "Federal Republican". William B. Magruder, the first postmaster, was appointed on February 16, 1790, and in 1795, a custom house was established on Water Street. General James M. Lingan served as the first collector of the port.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: In the 1790s, City Tavern, the Union Tavern, and the Columbian Inn opened and were popular throughout the 19th century. Of these taverns, only the City Tavern remains today, as a private social club (the City Tavern Club) located near the corner of Wisconsin Avenue and M Street.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: George Washington frequented Georgetown, including Suter's Tavern, where he worked out many deals to acquire land for the new Federal City. A key figure in the land deals was a local merchant named Benjamin Stoddert, who arrived in Georgetown in 1783. He had previously served as Secretary to the Board of War under the Articles of Confederation. Stoddert partnered with General Uriah Forrest to become an original proprietor of the Potomac Company.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: Stoddert and other Potomac landowners agreed to a land transfer deal to the federal government at a dinner at Forrest's home in Georgetown on March 28, 1791. Stoddert bought land within the boundaries of the federal district, some of it at the request of Washington for the government, and some on speculation. He also purchased stock in the federal government under Hamilton's assumption-of-debt plan. The speculative purchases were not, however, profitable and caused Stoddert much difficulty before his appointment as Secretary of the Navy by the second President, John Adams. Stoddert was rescued from his debts with the help of William Marbury, later of "Marbury v. Madison" fame, and also a Georgetown resident. He ultimately owned Halcyon House, at the corner of 34th and Prospect Streets. The Forrest-Marbury House on M Street is currently the embassy of Ukraine.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: After the establishment of the federal capital, Georgetown became an independent municipal government within the District of Columbia, of which there were three: Alexandria, D.C., Georgetown, D.C., and Washington, D.C. Georgetown, D.C., was in the new Washington County, D.C.; the District's other county was Alexandria County, D.C. (now Arlington County, Virginia and the independent city of Alexandria, Virginia).


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: By the 1820s, the Potomac River had become silted up and was not navigable up to Georgetown. Construction of the Chesapeake & Ohio Canal began in July 1828, to link Georgetown to Harper's Ferry, Virginia (West Virginia after 1863). But the canal was soon in a race with the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and got to Cumberland eight years after the railroad, a faster mode of transport, and at the cost of $77,041,586. It was never profitable. From its beginning to December 1876, the canal earned $35,659,055 in revenue, while expending $35,746,301.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: The Canal nonetheless provided an economic boost for Georgetown. In the 1820s and 1830s, Georgetown was an important shipping center. Tobacco and other goods were transferred between the canal and shipping on the Potomac River; salt was imported from Europe, and sugar and molasses were imported from the West Indies. These shipping industries were later superseded by coal and flour industries, which flourished with the C & O Canal providing cheap power for mills and other industry. In 1862, the Washington and Georgetown Railroad Company began a horsecar line running along M Street in Georgetown and Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, easing travel between the two cities.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: The municipal governments of Georgetown and the City and County of Washington were formally revoked by Congress effective June 1, 1871, at which point its governmental powers were vested within the District of Columbia. The streets in Georgetown were renamed in 1895 to conform to the street names in use in Washington.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: By the late 19th century, flour milling and other industries in Georgetown were declining, in part due to the fact that the canals and other waterways continually silted up. Nathaniel Michler and S.T. Abert led efforts to dredge the channels and remove rocks around the Georgetown harbor, though these were temporary solutions and Congress showed little interest in the issue. An 1890 flood and expansion of the railroads brought destitution to the C&O Canal, and Georgetown's waterfront became more industrialized, with narrow alleys, warehouses, and apartment dwellings which lacked plumbing or electricity. Shipping trade vanished between the Civil War and World War I. As a result, many older homes were preserved relatively unchanged.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: Georgetown in the 1850s had a large African-American population, including both slaves and free blacks. Slave labor was widely used in construction of new buildings in Washington, in addition, to provide labor on tobacco plantations in Maryland and Virginia. Slave trading in Georgetown began in 1760 when John Beattie established his business on O Street and conducted business at other locations around Wisconsin Avenue. Other slave markets ("pens") were located in Georgetown, including one at McCandless' Tavern near M Street and Wisconsin Avenue. Slave trading continued until 1850, when it was banned in the District as one element of the Compromise of 1850. Congress abolished ownership of slaves in the entire District on April 16, 1862, annually observed today as Emancipation Day. Many African Americans moved to Georgetown following the Civil War, establishing a thriving community.


title: Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)

text: In the late 18th century and 19th century, African Americans comprised a substantial portion of Georgetown's population, with a large number centered around Herring Hill in the far eastern section near Rock Creek Park. The 1800 census reported the population in Georgetown at 5,120, which included 1,449 slaves and 227 free blacks. A testament to the African-American history that remains today is the Mount Zion United Methodist Church, which is the oldest African-American congregation in Washington. Prior to establishing the church, free blacks and slaves went to the Dumbarton Methodist Church where they were restricted to a hot, overcrowded balcony. The church was originally located in a small brick meetinghouse on 27th Street, but it was destroyed by fire in the 1880s. The church was rebuilt on the present site. Mount Zion Cemetery offered free burials for Washington's earlier African-American population. "From a pre-Civil War population of 6,798 whites, 1,358 free Negroes, and 577 slaves, Georgetown's population had grown to 17,300 but half these residents were poverty-stricken Negroes." Other black churches in Georgetown included Alexander Memorial Baptist Church, First Baptist Church, Jerusalem Baptist Church, and Epiphany Catholic Church.