title: Tagalog grammar

text: Tagalog, like many languages, marks the T–V distinction: when addressing a single person in polite/formal/respectful settings, pronouns from either the 2nd person plural or the 3rd person plural group are used instead of the singular 2nd person pronoun. They can be used with, or in lieu of, the "pô/hô" iterations without losing any degree of politeness, formality, or respect:


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Using such pluralized pronouns is quite sufficient for expressing politeness, formality or respect, particularly when an affirmative (or negative) "pô/hô" iteration isn't necessary.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Examples: pulang-pula ("really red"), puting-puti ("really white"), araw-araw ("every day"), gabi-gabi ("every night")


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Examples: ngiting-aso ("literally: "dog smile", meaning: "big smile""), balat-sibuyas ("literally: "onion-skinned", meaning: "crybaby"")


title: Tagalog grammar

text: This states a specific noun. This consists of a common noun and a proper noun. The proper noun (that starts with a capital letter) is modifying the type of common noun.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Examples: wikang Ingles ("English language"), kulturang Espanyol ("Spanish culture"), pagkaing Iloko ("Ilokano food")


title: Tagalog grammar

text: This is the highest degree of comparison. This can be positive or negative. The prefix "pinaka" and the words "sobra", "ubod", "tunay", "talaga", "saksakan", and "hari ng ___" are used, as well as the repetition of the adjective.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: This is when the adjective is accompanied by the words "medyo", "nang kaunti", "nang bahagya" or the repetition of the root word or the first two syllables of the root word.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Examples: medyo mataba ("somewhat fat"), malakas nang bahagya ("slightly strong"), malakas-lakas ("somewhat strong"), matabang nang kaunti ("a little bit insipid")


title: Tagalog grammar

text: This is when the adjective is accompanied by the words "napaka", "ubod ng", "saksakan ng", "talagang", "sobrang", "masyadong" or the repetition of the whole adjective. The description in this degree is intense.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Examples: napakalakas ("so strong"), ubod ng bait ("really kind"), talagang mabango ("truly fragrant"), sobrang makinis ("oversmooth")


title: Tagalog grammar

text: When the adjective is describing two or more noun/pronoun, "ma-" is used and the first syllable or first two letters of the root word is repeated.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Example: Ang "ma"gagandang damit ay kasya kina Erica at Bel. ("The beautiful clothes can fit to Erica and Bel.")


title: Tagalog grammar

text: The Ligature "(pang-angkop)" connects/links modifiers (like adjectives and adverbs) and the words that they are modifying. It has two allomorphs:


title: Tagalog grammar

text: This is used if the preceding word is ending on a consonant except "n". It is not combined with the preceding word but separated, appearing between the modifier and the word it modifies.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: This suffixed allomorph is used if the preceding word is ending on a vowel or "n"; in the latter case, the final "n" is lost and replaced by the suffix:


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Modifiers alter, qualify, clarify, or limit other elements in a sentence structure. They are optional grammatical elements but they change the meaning of the element they are modifying in particular ways. Examples of modifiers are adjectives (modifies nouns), adjectival clauses, adverbs (modifies verbs), and adverbial clauses. Nouns can also modify other nouns. In Tagalog, word categories are fluid: a word can sometimes be an adverb or an adjective depending on the word it modifies. If the word being modified is a noun, then the modifier is an adjective, if the word being modified is a verb, then it is an adverb. For example, the word "'mabilis'" means 'fast' in English. The Tagalog word "'mabilis'" can be used to describe nouns like "'koneho'" ('rabbit') in "'konehong mabilis'" ('quick rabbit'). In that phrase, "'mabilis"' was used as an adjective. The same word can be used to describe verbs, one can say 'tumakbong mabilis' which means 'quickly ran'. In that phrase, 'mabilis' was used as an adverb. The Tagalog word for 'rabbit' is 'koneho' and 'ran' is 'tumakbo' but they showed up in the phrases as 'koneho-ng' and 'tumakbo-ng'. Tagalog uses something called a "linker" that always surfaces in the context of modification. Modification only occurs when a linker is present. Tagalog has the linkers "-ng" and "na." In the examples mentioned, the linker -"ng" was used because the word before the linker ends in a vowel. The second linker, "na "is used everywhere else (the "na" used in modification is not the same as the adverb "na" which means 'now' or 'already'). Seeing the enclitics "-ng "and "na" are good indications that there is modification in the clause. These linkers can appear before or after the modifier.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: The following tables show a possible word order of a noun phrase containing a modifier. Since word order is flexible in Tagalog, there are other possible ways in which one could say these phrases. To read more on Tagalog word order, head to the Word Order section.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Tagalog has enclitic particles that have important information conveying different nuances in meaning. Below is a list of Tagalog's enclitic particles.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: The order listed above is the order in which the particles follow if they are used in conjunction with each other. A more concise list of the orders of monosyllabic particles from Rubino (2002) is given below.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Note for "daw/raw and rin/din": If the preceding letter is a consonant except y and w, the letter d is used in any word, vice versa for r e.g., "pagdárasal", instead of "pagdádasal"


title: Tagalog grammar

text: The words "daw" and "raw", which mean “he said”/“she said”/“they said”, are sometimes joined to the real translations of “he said”/”she said”, which is "sabi niyá", and “they said”, which is "sabi nilá". They are also joined to the Tagalog of “you said”, which is "sabi mo". But this time, both "daw" and "raw" mean “supposedly/reportedly”.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Although the word "kasí" is a native Tagalog word for “because” and not slang, it is still not used in formal writing. The Tagalog word for this is "sapagká’t" or "sapagkát." Thus, the formal form of "Batà pa kasí" is "Sapagká’t batà pa" or "Sapagkát batà pa." This is sometimes shortened to "pagká’t" or "pagkát", so "Sapagká’t batà pa" is also written as "Pagká’t batà pa" or "Pagkát batà pa." In both formal and everyday writing and speech, "dahil sa" (the oblique form of "kasí"; thus, its exact translation is “because of”) is also synonymous to "sapagká’t" ("sapagkát"), so the substitute of "Sapagká’t batà pa" for "Batà pa kasí" is "Dahil sa batà pa." Most of the time in speech and writing (mostly every day and sometimes formal), "dahil sa" as the Tagalog of “because” is reduced to "dahil", so "Dahil sa batà pa" is spoken simply as "Dahil batà pa."


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Tagalog has a flexible word order compared to English. While the verb always remains in the initial position, the order of noun phrase complements that follows is flexible. An example provided by Schacter and Otanes can be seen in (1).


title: Tagalog grammar

text: The flexibility of Tagalog word order can be seen in (2). There are six different ways of saying 'The man gave the woman a book.' in Tagalog. The following five sentences, along with the sentence from (1), include the same grammatical components and are all grammatical and identical in meaning but have different orders.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: The principles in (3) help to determine the ordering of possible noun phrase complements. In a basic clause where the patient takes the nominative case, principles (i) and (ii) requires the actor to precede the patient. In example (4a), the patient, "'liham"' (letter) takes the nominative case and satisfies principles (i) and (ii). The example in (4b) shows that the opposite ordering of the agent and patient does not result in an ungrammatical sentence but rather an unnatural one in Tagalog.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: In example (5), the verb, "'binihag'," (captivated) is marked for active voice and results in the actor ('"Kuya Louis'") to take the nominative case. Example (5) doesn't satisfy principles (i) and (ii). That is, principle (i) requires the Actor ('"Kuya Louis'") to precede all other arguments. However, since the Actor also takes the nominative case, principle (ii) requires the phrase '"Kuya Louis"' to come last. The preferred order of agent and patient in Tagalog active clauses is still being debated. Therefore, we can assume that there are two "unmarked" word orders: VSO or VOS.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: A change in word order and trigger generally corresponds to a change in definiteness ("the" vs "a") in English. Example (6) shows a change in word order, triggered by the indirect, "ng." Example (7) shows a change in word order, triggered by the direct, ""ang.""


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Word order may be inverted (referred to in Tagalog grammar as "Kabalikang Anyo") by way of the inversion marker '"ay" ' (" ’y" after vowels in informal speech, not usually used in writing). Contrary to popular belief, this is not the copula 'to be' as '"ay'" does not behave as an existential marker in an SVO structure and an inverted form VSO does not require "'ay"' since the existentiality is denoted by case marking. A slight, but optional, pause in speech or a comma in writing may replace the inversion marker. This construction is often viewed by native speakers as formal or literary.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: In this construction (ay-inversion), the "'ay"' appears between the fronted constituent and the remainder of the clause. The fronted constituent in the construction includes locations and adverbs. Example (8)- (11) shows the inverted form of the sentences in the previous examples above.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: In (8) and (11), the fronted constituent is the subject. On the other hand, in (9), the fronted constituent is the object. Another example of a fronted constituent in Tagalog is, "wh-phrases." Wh-phrases include interrogative questions that begin with: who, what, where, when, why, and how. In Tagalog, wh-phrases occur to the left of the clause. For example, in the sentence, 'Who are you?'", "which translates to, '"Sino ka?"' occurs to the left of the clause. The syntactic tree of this sentence is found in (12a). As we can see in (12a), the complementizer position is null. However, in the case where an overt complementizer is present, Sabbagh (2014) proposes that the wh-phrase lowers from Spec, CP, and adjoins to TP when C is overt (12b). The operation in (12b) is known as, WhP lowering.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: This operation of lowering can also be applied in sentences to account for the verb-initial word order in Tagalog. The subject-lowering analysis states that "the subject lowers from Spec, TP and adjoins to a projection dominated by TP.". If we use the example from (2),


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Nagbigay ang lalaki ng libro sa babae. and applied subject lowering, we would see the syntax tree in (13a).If we lowered the subject, ang lalaki, to an intermediate position within VP, we would be able to achieve a VOS word order and still satisfy subject lowering. This can be seen in (13b).


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Lowering is motivated by a prosodic constraint called, WeakStart. This constraint is largely based on the phonological hierarchy. This constraint requires the first phonological element within a phonological domain to be lower on the prosodic hierarchy than elements that follow it, within the same domain.


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Huwág is used in expressing negative commands. It can be used for the infinitive and the future aspect. It is contracted as "‘wag".


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Tagalog's interrogative words are: "alín", "anó", "bákit", "gaáno", "ilán", "kailán", "kaníno", "kumustá", "magkáno", "nakaníno", "nasaán", "níno", "paáno", "saán", and "síno". With the exceptions of "bakit", "kamustá", and "nasaán", all of the interrogative words have optional plural forms which are formed by reduplication. They are used when the person who is asking the question anticipates a plural answer and can be called wh-phrases. The syntactic position of these types of phrases can be seen in (12a).


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Gaano (from "ga-" + "anó") means "how" but is used in inquiring about the quality of an adjective or an adverb. The rootword of the modifier is prefixed with "ga-" in this construction (16a).Ilán means "how many" (16b). Kumustá is used to inquire how something is (are).(16c) It is frequently used as a greeting meaning "How are you?" It is derived from the Spanish "¿cómo está?". Magkano (from "mag-" + "gaano") means "how much" and is usually used in inquiring the price of something (16d). Paano (from "pa-" + "anó") is used in asking "how" something is done or happened (16e).


title: Tagalog grammar

text: Nino (from "ni" + "anó") means "who", "whose", and "whom" (18a). It is the indirect and genitive form of "sino". Sino (from "si" + "anó") means "who" and "whom" and it is in the direct form (18b). Kanino (from "kay" + "anó") means "whom" or "whose" (18c). It is the oblique form of "sino" (who).


title: Suzie Plakson

text: Born Susan Plaksin in Buffalo, New York, she was raised in Kingston, Pennsylvania and attended Northwestern University.


title: Suzie Plakson

text: Plakson began her career on the stage, and played four characters opposite Anthony Newley in the national revival tour of "Stop the World, I Want to Get Off". She also played Marquise Theresa Du Parc in the Broadway production of "La Bête".


title: Suzie Plakson

text: Plakson was a regular in the sitcom "Love & War", as sportswriter Mary Margaret "Meg" Tynan. She played four characters on various Star Trek series: a Vulcan, Doctor Selar, in "" (""); half-Klingon, half-human Ambassador K'Ehleyr in "" ("Star Trek: The Next Generation") and "" ("Star Trek: The Next Generation"); the Lady Q in "The Q and the Grey" (""); and an Andorian, Tarah, in "" ("").


title: Suzie Plakson

text: Plakson played the blue brontosaurus real estate agent Monica de Vertebrae on "Dinosaurs", as well as many other guest voices. She has had recurring roles in various sitcoms such as "Mad About You", "Everybody Loves Raymond" and "How I Met Your Mother". She has appeared in movies such as "Disclosure", "Red Eye" and "Wag the Dog".


title: Suzie Plakson

text: Plakson wrote and performed an allegorical solo show, "An Evening with Eve". Plakson penned and performed the alternative country rock album "DidnWannaDoIt!" produced by Jay Ferguson, and released the video of the title song on YouTube. She wrote and recorded the audiobook/e-book, "The Return of King Lillian", a mythic allegory.


title: Flevoland

text: Flevoland () is the twelfth and youngest province of the Netherlands, established in 1986, when the southern and eastern Flevopolders, together with the Noordoostpolder, were merged into one provincial entity. It is in the centre of the country in the former Zuiderzee, which was turned into the freshwater IJsselmeer by the closure of the Afsluitdijk in 1932. Almost all of the land belonging to Flevoland was reclaimed in the 1950s and 1960s while splitting the Markermeer and Bordering lakes from the IJsselmeer. As to dry land, it is the smallest province of the Netherlands at , but not gross land as that includes much of the waters of the fresh water lakes (meres) mentioned.


title: Flevoland

text: The province has a population of 423,021 as of January 2020 and consists of six municipalities. Its capital is Lelystad and its most populous city is Almere, which forms part of the Randstad and has grown to become the seventh largest city of the country. Flevoland is bordered in the extreme north by Friesland, in the northeast by Overijssel, and in the northwest by the lakes Markermeer and IJsselmeer. In the southeast, the province borders on Gelderland; in the southwest on Utrecht and North Holland. Outside urban areas, the land in Flevoland is predominantly used for agriculture.


title: Flevoland

text: Flevoland was named after Lacus Flevo, a name recorded in Roman sources for a large inland lake at the southern end of the later-formed Zuiderzee; it was mentioned by the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela in his "De Chorographia" in 44 AD. Due to the slowly rising sea level, a number of lakes gradually developed in the Zuiderzee region, which eventually became contiguous. Pomponius wrote about this: "The northern branch of the Rhine extends to Lake Flevo, which encloses an island of the same name and then flows to the sea like a normal river." Other sources speak of Flevum, which means 'flow'. The process continued and gradually the Zuiderzee arose from this lake. The names "Flevoland" and "Vlieland" have the same origin.


title: Flevoland

text: Between 790 and 1250, Lake Flevo became connected with the North Sea. As a result, a number of villages were swallowed by the sea. The newly created inland sea was called Almere. The city of Almere is named after this lake.


title: Flevoland

text: After a flood in 1916, the decision was made to enclose and reclaim the Zuiderzee, an inland sea within the Netherlands, and thus the Zuiderzee Works started. Other sources indicate other times and reasons, but also agree that in 1932, the Afsluitdijk was completed, which closed off the sea completely. The Zuiderzee was later divided into IJsselmeer (mere at the end of the river IJssel) and Markermeer, planned to be mostly drained to make the Markerwaard. The Markerwaard was never built due to post-War fiscal austerity.


title: Flevoland

text: The first land reclaimed was the northeast polder ("Noordoostpolder") in 1942. This took in the former small islands Urk and Schokland. It was at first added to the Province of Overijssel.


title: Flevoland

text: In the southwest the Flevopolder – larger than the above – was then reclaimed; its southeast half in 1957 and other parts by 1968.


title: Flevoland

text: A key feature of the latter is a narrow body of water, kept at 3 metres below sea level, along the old coastline to stabilise the water table and to prevent coastal towns from losing their waterfront and access to the sea. Thus, the Flevopolder became an artificial island joined to the mainland by bridges. The municipalities on the three parts voted to become a province, shortly before this was effected in 1986.


title: Flevoland

text: Since that time, Flevoland is the youngest of the 12 provinces of the Netherlands. Its sources of revenue to this day depend on the cultivation of flowers, farming and tourism. In recent times, it has built countless rows of wind turbines as a source of renewable energy.


title: Flevoland

text: Eastern Flevoland ("Oostelijk Flevoland" or "Oost-Flevoland") and Southern Flevoland ("Zuidelijk Flevoland" or "Zuid-Flevoland"), unlike the Noordoostpolder, have broad channel between them and the mainland: the Veluwemeer and Gooimeer, respectively, making them, together, the world's largest artificial island.


title: Flevoland

text: They are two polders with a joint hydrological infrastructure, with a dividing dike in the middle, the "Knardijk", that will keep one polder safe if the other is flooded. The two main drainage canals that traverse the dike can be closed by floodgates in such an event. The pumping stations are the "Wortman" (diesel powered) at Lelystad-Haven, the "Lovink" near Harderwijk on the eastern dike and the "Colijn" (both electrically powered) along the northern dike beside the Ketelmeer.


title: Flevoland

text: A new element in the design of Eastern Flevoland is the larger city Lelystad (1966), named after Cornelis Lely, the man who had played a crucial role in designing and realising the Zuiderzee Works. Other more conventional settlements already existed by then; Dronten, the major local town, was founded in 1962, followed by two smaller satellite villages, Swifterbant and Biddinghuizen, in 1963. These three were incorporated in the new municipality of Dronten on 1 January 1972.


title: Flevoland

text: Southern Flevoland has only one pumping station, the diesel-powered "De Blocq van Kuffeler". Because of the hydrological union of the two Flevolands, it simply joins the other three in maintaining the water level of both polders. Almere relieves the housing shortage and increasing overcrowding on the old land. Its name is derived from the early medieval name for Lake Almere. Almere was to be divided into three major settlements initially; the first, "Almere-Haven" (1976) situated along the coast of the Gooimeer (one of the peripheral lakes), the second and largest was to fulfill the role of city centre as "Almere-Stad" (1980), and the third was "Almere-Buiten" (1984) to the northwest towards Lelystad. In 2003, the municipality made a new "Structuurplan" which started development of three new settlements: "Overgooi" in the southeast, "Almere-Hout" in the east, and "Almere-Poort" in the West. In time, "Almere-Pampus" could be developed in the northwest, with possibly a new bridge over the IJmeer towards Amsterdam.


title: Flevoland

text: The Oostvaardersplassen is a landscape of shallow pools, islets, and swamps. Originally, this low part of the new polder was destined to become an industrial area. Spontaneous settlement of interesting flora and fauna turned the area into a nature park, of such importance that the new railway line was diverted. The recent decline in agricultural land use will in time make expanding "natural" land use possible, and connect the Oostvaardersplassen to the Veluwe.


title: Flevoland

text: The centre of the polder most closely resembles the prewar polders in that it is almost exclusively agricultural. In contrast, the southeastern part is dominated by extensive forests. Here is also found the only other settlement of the polder, Zeewolde (1984), again a more conventional town acting as the local centre. Zeewolde became a municipality at the same time as Almere on 1 January 1984, which in the case of Zeewolde meant that the municipality existed before the town itself, with only farms in the surrounding land to be governed until the town started to grow.


title: Flevoland

text: The King's Commissioner of Flevoland is Leen Verbeek, who is a member of the Labour Party (Netherlands) (PvDA). The States of Flevoland have 41 seats. At the provincial elections in March 2019, Forum for Democracy was the big winner of the elections. The party came new in the States with 8 seats, and is with those the biggest party. The People's Party for Freedom and Democracy is second largest with 6 seats, after which the Party for Freedom and GreenLeft both have 4 seats. Christian Democratic Appeal, Labour Party, and ChristianUnion all have 3 seats. Socialist Party, 50PLUS, Democrats 66 and Party for the Animals have 2 seats, where the Reformed Political Party and Denk, another new party in the States, have 1 seat.


title: Flevoland

text: The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 14 billion € in 2018, accounting for 1.8% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 29,500 € or 98% of the EU27 average in the same year.


title: Flevoland

text: The Flevopolder is served by the Flevolijn, running from Weesp to Lelystad, and the Hanzelijn, continuing from Lelystad towards Zwolle. The two railways stations of the province with intercity services are Almere Centrum and Lelystad Centrum.


title: Flevoland

text: Furthermore, Lelystad Zuid is a planned railway station between Almere Oostvaarders and Lelystad Centrum. It has been partially constructed preceding the opening of the railway in 1988, but construction has been put on indefinite hold because of slower-than-expected development of the city of Lelystad.


title: Flevoland

text: Amongst the cities with direct train connections to Flevoland are Amsterdam, Utrecht, The Hague, Zwolle, Groningen, Leeuwarden and Schiphol Airport.


title: Flevoland

text: There is one airport in the province: Lelystad Airport. A second airport, Noordoostpolder Airport near Emmeloord, was closed in the late 1990s due to town expansion.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: In statistics, the Kendall rank correlation coefficient, commonly referred to as Kendall's τ coefficient (after the Greek letter τ, tau), is a statistic used to measure the ordinal association between two measured quantities. A τ test is a non-parametric hypothesis test for statistical dependence based on the τ coefficient.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: It is a measure of rank correlation: the similarity of the orderings of the data when ranked by each of the quantities. It is named after Maurice Kendall, who developed it in 1938, though Gustav Fechner had proposed a similar measure in the context of time series in 1897.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Intuitively, the Kendall correlation between two variables will be high when observations have a similar (or identical for a correlation of 1) rank (i.e. relative position label of the observations within the variable: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.) between the two variables, and low when observations have a dissimilar (or fully different for a correlation of −1) rank between the two variables.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Both Kendall's formula_1 and Spearman's formula_2 can be formulated as special cases of a more general correlation coefficient.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Let formula_3 be a set of observations of the joint random variables "X" and "Y", such that all the values of (formula_4) and (formula_5) are unique (ties are neglected for simplicity). Any pair of observations formula_6 and formula_7, where formula_8, are said to be "concordant" if the sort order of formula_9 and "formula_10" agrees: that is, if either both formula_11 and formula_12 holds or both formula_13 and formula_14; otherwise they are said to be "discordant".


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Where formula_16 is the binomial coefficient for the number of ways to choose two items from n items.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: The denominator is the total number of pair combinations, so the coefficient must be in the range −1 ≤ "τ" ≤ 1.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: The Kendall rank coefficient is often used as a test statistic in a statistical hypothesis test to establish whether two variables may be regarded as statistically dependent. This test is non-parametric, as it does not rely on any assumptions on the distributions of "X" or "Y" or the distribution of ("X","Y").


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Under the null hypothesis of independence of "X" and "Y", the sampling distribution of "τ" has an expected value of zero. The precise distribution cannot be characterized in terms of common distributions, but may be calculated exactly for small samples; for larger samples, it is common to use an approximation to the normal distribution, with mean zero and variance


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: A pair formula_19 is said to be "tied" if formula_20 or formula_21; a tied pair is neither concordant nor discordant. When tied pairs arise in the data, the coefficient may be modified in a number of ways to keep it in the range [−1, 1]:


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: The Tau-a statistic tests the strength of association of the cross tabulations. Both variables have to be ordinal. Tau-a will not make any adjustment for ties. It is defined as:


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: The Tau-b statistic, unlike Tau-a, makes adjustments for ties. Values of Tau-b range from −1 (100% negative association, or perfect inversion) to +1 (100% positive association, or perfect agreement). A value of zero indicates the absence of association.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Be aware that some statistical packages, e.g. SPSS, use alternative formulas for computational efficiency, with double the 'usual' number of concordant and discordant pairs.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Tau-c (also called Stuart-Kendall Tau-c) is more suitable than Tau-b for the analysis of data based on non-square (i.e. rectangular) contingency tables. So use Tau-b if the underlying scale of both variables has the same number of possible values (before ranking) and Tau-c if they differ. For instance, one variable might be scored on a 5-point scale (very good, good, average, bad, very bad), whereas the other might be based on a finer 10-point scale.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: When two quantities are statistically independent, the distribution of formula_1 is not easily characterizable in terms of known distributions. However, for formula_28 the following statistic, formula_29, is approximately distributed as a standard normal when the variables are statistically independent:


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Thus, to test whether two variables are statistically dependent, one computes formula_29, and finds the cumulative probability for a standard normal distribution at formula_32. For a 2-tailed test, multiply that number by two to obtain the "p"-value. If the "p"-value is below a given significance level, one rejects the null hypothesis (at that significance level) that the quantities are statistically independent.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Numerous adjustments should be added to formula_29 when accounting for ties. The following statistic, formula_34, has the same distribution as the formula_35 distribution, and is again approximately equal to a standard normal distribution when the quantities are statistically independent:


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: The direct computation of the numerator formula_38, involves two nested iterations, as characterized by the following pseudocode:


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Although quick to implement, this algorithm is formula_39 in complexity and becomes very slow on large samples. A more sophisticated algorithm built upon the Merge Sort algorithm can be used to compute the numerator in formula_40 time.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: Begin by ordering your data points sorting by the first quantity, formula_41, and secondarily (among ties in formula_41) by the second quantity, formula_43. With this initial ordering, formula_43 is not sorted, and the core of the algorithm consists of computing how many steps a Bubble Sort would take to sort this initial formula_43. An enhanced Merge Sort algorithm, with formula_46 complexity, can be applied to compute the number of swaps, formula_47, that would be required by a Bubble Sort to sort formula_5. Then the numerator for formula_1 is computed as:


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: where formula_51 is computed like formula_52 and formula_53, but with respect to the joint ties in formula_41 and formula_43.


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: A Merge Sort partitions the data to be sorted, formula_43 into two roughly equal halves, formula_57 and formula_58, then sorts each half recursive, and then merges the two sorted halves into a fully sorted vector. The number of Bubble Sort swaps is equal to:


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: where formula_60 and formula_61 are the sorted versions of formula_57 and formula_58, and formula_64 characterizes the Bubble Sort swap-equivalent for a merge operation. formula_64 is computed as depicted in the following pseudo-code:


title: Kendall rank correlation coefficient

text: A side effect of the above steps is that you end up with both a sorted version of formula_41 and a sorted version of formula_43. With these, the factors formula_68 and formula_69 used to compute formula_35 are easily obtained in a single linear-time pass through the sorted arrays.


title: High School Prodigies Have It Easy Even in Another World

text: , abbreviated as , is a Japanese light novel series written by Riku Misora and illustrated by Sacraneco. SB Creative published ten volumes between 2015 and 2020 under their GA Bunko imprint. A manga adaptation with art by Kōtarō Yamada was serialized in Square Enix's "seinen" manga magazine "Young Gangan" from May 2016 to October 2021. It has been collected in thirteen "tankōbon" volumes. Both the light novel and manga are licensed in North America by Yen Press. An anime television series adaptation by Project No.9 aired from October 3 to December 19, 2019.


text: The series revolves around seven high school students who are internationally renowned for their exceptional abilities. They include Prime Minister Tsukasa Mikogami, genius inventor Ringo Ohoshi, former ninja and journalist Shinobu Sarutobi, world renowned doctor Keine Kanzaki, swordswoman Aoi Ichijo, skilled magician Prince Akatsuki and multi-millionaire Masato Sanada. One day, they survive a plane crash only to find themselves in a medieval fantasy world called Freyjagard.


text: In this world, two human races live side by side in a somewhat feudal society: the Byuma, who possess animal features and formidable strength, and the Hyuma, who possess limited magical aptitude. After being rescued by a Byuma named Winona and her adopted Elven daughter Lyrule, the group decides to repay the people of Elm Village by using their advanced skills and knowledge to revolutionize the village and its culture.


text: The group also learns of an ancient legend, that narrates how an evil dragon was slain by seven heroes who came from another world. Believing that there is a connection between the legend and their present situation, Tsukasa, who is also the leader of the group, directs the others to learn about this new world and also search for any clues that could lead them back to Earth. However, the group's ideas become a threat to the ruling Freyjagard Empire, who promote state atheism and social Darwinist belief that only the strong nobility shall rule and the weak commoners must obey the nobles or suffer punishment. The conflict with the Empire soon leads the Seven Prodigies to create a new nation with equal rights and democracy for the people.


text: The novels were written by Riku Misora and illustrated by Sacraneco. Ten volumes were published by SB Creative under their GA Bunko imprint between October 2015 and February 2020.


text: An anime television series adaptation was announced by GA Bunko on March 13, 2019. The series is animated by Project No.9 and directed by Shinsuke Yanagi, with Deko Akao handling series composition, and Akane Yano designing the characters. Hiromi Mizutani is composing the series' music. It aired from October 3 to December 19, 2019, on Tokyo MX, AT-X, and BS Fuji. Dialogue+ performed the series' opening theme song "Hajimete no Kakumei", while Akari Kitō performed the series' ending theme song "dear my distance." Crunchyroll has licensed the series with an English dub had been produced.


text: The anime adaptation's first episode garnered poor reviews from Anime News Network's staff during the Fall 2019 season previews. Rebecca Silverman felt the adaptation was indistinguishable compared to previous isekai shows and contained numerous plot holes and fanservice moments. Theron Martin commended the production merits of the episode and was intrigued by what the main cast will bring moving forward but was critical of the overall setup having holes and straining credibility. Nick Creamer felt the setup of the premise was generically explained and lacked organic storytelling, didn't reveal more about its characters, and had "middling animation and art design" throughout its production. Despite giving praise to the visuals and finding some likable characters, Lynzee Loveridge was put off by the various "plot conveniences" that the main savants easily sidestep with their abilities. The fifth reviewer, James Beckett, gave credit to the "technical qualities" for being decent and consistent that displays "genuine care" throughout the show, but criticized it for being "a bargain-bin isekai light novel adaptation" with "blandly competent" and overly perfect protagonists ripped straight from the "Danganronpa" blueprint, concluding that: "There are so many isekai coming out this fall, and even the bad ones we've gotten so far are more interesting and worthwhile than this. I'll take the dumb show about the butthole sniffing pet maniac over whatever this flavorless gruel is any day."


text: Martin reviewed the complete anime series in 2020 and gave it a C+ grade. He praised the overall isekai setup and plot progression to involve each of the seven protagonists (singling out Tsukasa for having an engaging character), but felt it made leaps in logic when explaining its cast's abilities and "situational contrivances" they solve effortlessly, the world setting not being well explained and character development not being shared amongst its ensemble, concluding that: "On the whole, "High School Prodigies Have It Easy Even in Another World" has some legitimate entertainment value and a few interesting aspects, especially if you can just turn your mind off and roll with the premise. However, what variety it offers isn't enough to make it memorable or merit recommendation beyond dedicated isekai fans."


text: "Gadget Tsūshin" listed Mayotarō (a fan nickname for Tsukasa Mikogami referring to the first episode mayonnaise) in their 2019 anime buzzwords list.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Mircea Lucescu (; born 29 July 1945) is a Romanian professional football manager and former player, who is currently in charge of Ukrainian Premier League club Dynamo Kyiv. He is one of the most decorated managers of all time.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Lucescu is also one of the most successful players of the Romanian league championship, having won all of his seven titles with Dinamo București. Apart from the latter club, he had spells at Știința București and Corvinul Hunedoara, and made 70 appearances for the Romania national team, which he captained in the 1970 FIFA World Cup.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Lucescu has coached various sides in Romania, Italy, Turkey, Ukraine and Russia. He is well known for his twelve-year stint in charge of Shakhtar Donetsk, where he became the most successful coach in the team's history by winning eight Ukrainian Premier League titles, six Ukrainian Cups, seven Ukrainian Super Cups and the 2008–09 UEFA Cup. He also won trophies in Ukraine with rival Dynamo Kyiv, as well as Divizia A titles with Dinamo București and Rapid București, and Turkish Süper Lig titles with Galatasaray and Beşiktaş.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Lucescu was named Romania Coach of the Year in 2004, 2010, 2012, 2014 and 2021, and Ukraine Coach of the Year in 2006 and between 2008 and 2014. In 2013, he was awarded the Manager of the Decade award in Romania, and in 2015 became the fifth person to coach in 100 UEFA Champions League matches, joining the likes of Alex Ferguson, Carlo Ancelotti, Arsène Wenger and José Mourinho. He is also ranked second behind Ferguson in terms of official trophies won, with 38.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Mircea Lucescu was born on 29 July 1945 in Bucharest, Romania and started playing football as a junior at Școala Sportivă 2 București. He was brought at Dinamo București by coach Traian Ionescu, where he made his Divizia A debut on 21 June 1964 in a 5–2 victory against Rapid București. In his first two seasons at Dinamo, Lucescu won the title in both of them, playing a total of 3 Divizia A games, being loaned for the following two seasons at Divizia B club, Știința București. After the loan ended, he returned to play for "The Red Dogs" winning another four titles, in the first he contributed with 3 goals scored in 23 matches, in the second he played 28 games and scored 12 goals, in the third he made 31 appearances with 4 goals and in the last one he scored 7 goals in 19 matches. Lucescu has a total of 12 seasons spent at Dinamo, in which he appeared in 250 Divizia A games in which he scored 57 goals, including 9 in the derby against Steaua București, a team against he also scored a double in the 3–1 victory from the 1968 Cupa României Final and he played 15 games in which he scored 3 goals in European competitions (including 3 appearances in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup). In July 1977, he went to play for Corvinul Hunedoara, where in January 1979 he became the team's coach, while still being an active player, but the team relegated at the end of the season to Divizia B and Lucescu stayed with the club, promoting back to the first division after one year and helping the club finish 3rd in the 1981–82 Divizia A, retiring from his playing career after that season. He came out of retirement when he was coach at Dinamo București because many of the team's players were called at a Romania's national team cantonment in order to prepare for the 1990 World Cup, so he registered himself as a player and on 16 May 1990 he entered the field in the 76th minute in order to replace Ionel Fulga in a 1–1 against Sportul Studențesc București, thus becoming champion as a player and a coach in that season and at 44 years, 9 months and 17 days he is the oldest player that appeared in a Divizia A match, a competition in which he has a total of 362 matches and 78 goals scored.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Mircea Lucescu has a total of 64 appearances of which in 23 he was captain and 9 goals scored for Romania, making his debut under coach Ilie Oană while being a player in the second league at Știința București on 2 November 1966 in a 4–2 victory against Switzerland at the Euro 1968 qualifiers in which he gained a total of 6 appearances and two goals scored in the both legs against Cyprus. He played 6 games at the successful 1970 World Cup qualifiers, also being used by coach Angelo Niculescu in all three group matches as captain at the final tournament as Romania did not advance to the next stage and at the last game against Brazil which ended with a 3–2 loss, Lucescu bought the team's blue equipment for that game from his own money, because the Romanian Football Federation provided just one set of equipment which was yellow, same as the ones of the Brazilians. He played 7 matches and scored two goals at the 1972 Euro qualifiers, managing to reach the quarter-finals where Romania was defeated by Hungary, who advanced to the final tournament. Mircea Lucescu also played two games at the 1974 World Cup qualifiers, three games in which he scored a goal in a 3–1 victory against Greece at the 1973–76 Balkan Cup, six games in which he scored a goal in a 6–1 victory against Denmark at the Euro 1976 qualifiers, making his last appearance for the national team on 4 April 1979 in a 2–2 against Spain at the Euro 1980 qualifiers.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: For representing his country at the 1970 World Cup, Lucescu was decorated by President of Romania Traian Băsescu on 25 March 2008 with the Ordinul "Meritul Sportiv" – (The Medal "The Sportive Merit") class III.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Mircea Lucescu was taught and learned many things about coaching from Viorel Mateianu, being very impressed by his working methods, coming to study his training sessions at FC Baia Mare, sometimes asking Mateianu to extend his training sessions so he can see more of his methods, also he went to his home where they would talk all night about football and draw tactical game schemes together. He started coaching while still being an active player at Corvinul Hunedoara in January 1979, when he replaced Ilie Savu, his first match taking place on 28 February 1979 in the sixteenths-finals of the 1978–79 Cupa României, losing with 3–1 after extra time in favor of Divizia B club, Metalul București. Three days later, he made his Divizia A debut in a 2–0 victory against Politehnica Iași in which he scored a goal, however the team relegated at the end of the season to Divizia B, but Lucescu stayed with the club, promoting back to the first division after one year and helping the club finish 3rd in the 1981–82 Divizia A, after which he left the club in order to dedicate on his work at the national team, which he was coaching simultaneously since November 1981. During his period spent at Corvinul, Lucescu showed his availabilty of discovering and promoting young players like Ioan Andone, Mircea Rednic, Michael Klein, Dorin Mateuț or Romulus Gabor.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Mircea Lucescu has a total of 58 matches managed as Romania's coach, making his debut on 11 November 1981 in a 0–0 against Switzerland at the 1982 World Cup qualifiers. He qualified the team at Euro 1984 by winning a qualification group composed of 1982 World Cup winner, Italy with whom he earned a 0–0 on their ground and a 1–0 home victory, Czechoslovakia, Sweden and Cyprus. At the final tournament, which was composed of 8 teams, Romania earned a point after a 1–1 against Spain, but lost the other two games, 2–1 with West Germany and 1–0 with Portugal, leaving the competition without passing the group stage. He was close to win the qualification at the 1986 World Cup, finishing at just one point below second place, Northern Ireland, his last game managed taking place on 10 September 1986 in a 4–0 victory against Austria at the Euro 1988 qualifiers. He is also the coach that gave Gheorghe Hagi his debut at the national team at age 18 in a friendly against Norway which ended 0–0, also giving him the captain armband at the age of 20.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Lucescu was named coach at Dinamo București in November 1985, while still being coach at Romania's national team and at the end of his first season spent at the club, he managed to win a Cupa României with a 1–0 victory in the final against rival and recently European Cup winner, Steaua București. Over the course of almost 5 years, he created a team by promoting players from the club's youth center like Bogdan Stelea, Ionuț Lupescu and Florin Răducioiu, transferred young players like Dănuț Lupu and Ioan Sabău, mixing them with players he coached at Corvinul like Ioan Andone, Mircea Rednic, Michael Klein and Dorin Mateuț, thus creating a team that reached the quarter-finals in the 1988–89 European Cup Winners' Cup where they were eliminated on the away goals rule after 1–1 on aggregate by Sampdoria, and in the following season they won the Divizia A title, the Cupa României and reached the semi-finals in the 1989–90 European Cup Winners' Cup where they were eliminated after 2–0 on aggregate by Anderlecht.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: After the 1989 Romanian Revolution, Lucescu went in July 1990 to coach in Italy at Serie A club, Pisa where after a good start, in round six of the season after a 6–3 loss against Inter Milan he had his first problems with the club's president, Romeo Anconetani, however he managed to stay 24 rounds, being dismissed in March 1991, but the team relegated at the end of the season. During this period he coached 20-year old Diego Simeone and met Adriano Bacconi, a fitness trainer who was put by Lucescu to write statistical data about players during matches, as he previously did that at Corvinul, because he wanted to know more details possible about the players performances. He and Adriano Bacconi also worked together at Brescia where in 1994 they invested each 35.000$ in order to create a software called FARM (Football Athletic Results Manager) which was the first football data monitoring program, afterwards in 1996 Lucescu sold his part of the company which became known as Digital Soccer Project and Bacconi sold it to Panini for 2 million euros.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Mircea Lucescu signed with Serie B club, Brescia in July 1991, promoting after just one season to Serie A. In the following season he relegated after a play-off lost against Udinese, promoting again after one Serie B season in which he also won the 1993–94 Anglo-Italian Cup, but the following season the club relegated once more, Lucescu being dismissed before the end of the season. He was called back shortly, to lead the team again in Serie B, but was dismissed again because of poor results, the club risking to fall in Serie C. During this period, the club was nicknamed "Brescia Romena", because Lucescu brought Romanian players Gheorghe Hagi, Florin Răducioiu, Dorin Mateuț, Ioan Sabău and Dănuț Lupu at the club, also he brought 15-year old Andrea Pirlo to train with the senior team, but could not give him his senior debut because the rules of the federation did not allow players so young to play for senior squads.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: In July 1996, Lucescu signed with Serie A club, Reggiana, bringing Ioan Sabău with him, but his spell lasted until November 1996, being dismissed because of poor results, the team finishing on the last place in the end of the season.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: In July 1997, Mircea Lucescu returned in Romania, coaching at Rapid București where he created a team by promoting young players like Bogdan Lobonț, Răzvan Raț and Daniel Pancu, mixing them with players he coached in the past like Dănuț Lupu, Ioan Sabău and Mircea Rednic, thus creating a team that won the 1997–98 Cupa României and after a short spell at Inter Milan, he returned at Rapid, winning the 1998–99 Divizia A, which was the first championship title won by the club after 32 years, also winning the 1999 Supercupa României.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: In December 1998, Lucescu was named coach at Inter Milan, working with players such as Ronaldo, Roberto Baggio, Andrea Pirlo, Javier Zanetti or Ivan Zamorano and managing to reach the quarter-finals in the 1998–99 Champions League, being eliminated with 3–1 on aggregate by Alex Ferguson's Manchester United which eventually won the competition, leaving the club in March 1999, one of the reasons being a conflict with Ronaldo.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: In June 2000, he replaced Fatih Terim at Turkish club Galatasaray, with whom, alongside Romanian players Gheorghe Hagi and Gheorghe Popescu he won the 2000 UEFA Super Cup after a 2–1 against Real Madrid. Under Lucescu's leadership, Galatasaray reached the quarter-finals on the UEFA Champions League during the 2000–01 season where after a 3–2 victory in the first leg, they lost with 3–0 in the second against Real Madrid. The following year, Galatasaray qualified to the second group phase of the Champions League and won the Turkish League title. Lucescu was sacked at the end of the season, despite winning the league championship, and was replaced by Fatih Terim.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Shortly after his departure from Galatasaray in June 2002, Lucescu signed a contract with rivals Beşiktaş, it was a very important season for Beşiktaş as in 2003, the Turkish club was celebrating its 100th year since its foundation and he managed to win the Turkish title, having only one loss and collecting 85 points – a record points tally in a single Süper Lig season, also reaching the 2002–03 UEFA Cup quarter-finals, losing with 3–1 on aggregate against Lazio Roma.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: In the following season, the team could not progress from a difficult Champions League group, but was able to get a ticket to the 2003–04 UEFA Cup by finishing third in its group – only to be knocked out by Valencia in the third round, who eventually went on to win the competition. On 25 January 2004, Beşiktaş played a home game against Samsunspor in the championship, referee Cem Papila showing five red cards to Beşiktaş players and after this match, the team's performance declined drastically and Lucescu could not stop the decline, blaming the Turkish Football Federation for one-sided decisions by the referees, leaving the club after finishing the championship on the 3rd position, claiming that his championship was stolen. During his period spent at the Beşiktaş, he bought Romanian players Daniel Pancu, Adrian Ilie and Marius Măldărășanu at the club.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: In May 2004, Lucescu joined Ukrainian side Shakhtar Donetsk and led their rise to prominence in Ukraine the following years. His first trophy with the club came in the 2003–04 Ukrainian Cup, defeating Dnipro Dnipropetrovsk 2–0 in the final on 30 May. In his first full season with the club, he secured the 2004–05 Premier League title.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: The following season, he secured both the Premier League and the Super Cup. He failed to win any trophies the following season, however, though he made up for it in the 2007–08 season, winning the Premier League title and the Ukrainian Cup. His only domestic success in the 2008–09 season came in the Super Cup, although he was able to guide Shakhtar to their first ever European trophy, winning the last UEFA Cup before it was renamed the UEFA Europa League. He won the final against Werder Bremen 2–1 after extra time.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: The 2009–10 season saw Shakhtar regain the Premier League title. The 2010–11 season was very successful for Lucescu. He guided Shakhtar to a domestic treble, winning the Premier League, the Ukrainian Cup and the Super Cup. They also had their most successful Champions League campaign, reaching the quarter-final stage before being defeated by eventual winners Barcelona.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: The following season saw Shakhtar retain their Premier League and Ukrainian Cup titles. This gave Lucescu his sixth Premier League and fourth Ukrainian Cup with the club. Shakhtar had a disappointing Champions League campaign, finishing in fourth place in their group. His son, Răzvan Lucescu, is a former goalkeeper who at several points managed Rapid București, a team his father had also previously managed. Coincidentally, Shakhtar and Rapid met in the group stage of the UEFA Cup, the duel was disputed in only one leg at Donetsk in November 2005 ending with 1–0 win for Rapid.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: On 22 May 2009, Lucescu received, from the President of Romania Traian Băsescu, the National Order "Cross of Romania" in the rank of Knight, "as a sign of high appreciation of the entire football activity and the performances obtained as a coach, crowned by winning the UEFA Cup 2009, in the final in Istanbul" and on 29 May 2009 he was granted the title "Honorary citizen of Donetsk" by the city council of Donetsk for "earning the UEFA Cup, development and popularization of the Ukrainian football, improvement of the Donetsk, Donetsk region and Ukraine authority in the world".


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: In December 2009, he turned down an offer to coach the Ukraine national team, his reason being to avoid another potential clash with his son, Răzvan, who then managed the Romania national team and could qualify for UEFA Euro 2012, which Ukraine was to host.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Lucescu has won the Coach of the Year award in Ukraine in 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: He led Shakhtar into the semi-finals of Europa League during his last season in charge, being eliminated by defending champions and eventual winners Sevilla. He announced his resignation in early 2016, ending a 12-year period in charge of Shakhtar and becoming the club's greatest manager. In his last match in charge, he won the 2015–16 Ukrainian Cup after defeating Zorya Luhansk 2–0 in the final.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: In the beginning of his period spent at Shakhtar, Lucescu had Romanians Flavius Stoican, Cosmin Bărcăuan, Daniel Florea, Ciprian Marica and Răzvan Raț under his command, but only the latter stayed with him to win the 2008–09 UEFA Cup, in later years he relied heavily on young Brazilian players such as Willian, Fernandinho, Douglas Costa, Luiz Adriano, Elano, Alex Teixeira, Ilsinho, Jádson, Brandão or Matuzalém.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: On 24 May 2016, Lucescu agreed to a two-year deal with Russian club Zenit Saint Petersburg, with an extension option for another year. He was dismissed roughly one year later, as Zenit failed to qualify for the Champions League after finishing third in the Russian Premier League, but managed to win the 2016 Russian Super Cup after a 1–0 victory against CSKA Moscow.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: On 23 July 2020, Lucescu returned to Ukraine after signing a two-year contract with the main rival of his former club Shakhtar Donetsk, Dynamo Kyiv. His spell started in a controversial way, as he attempted to resign from his position after only a couple of days. The reason behind his actions was that Dynamo Kyiv fans fiercely protested the decision to hire Lucescu because of his long-term spell at Shakhtar. Dynamo president Ihor Surkis initially told press that he knew nothing about the resignation, and later that day both sides confirmed that their cooperation will in fact continue.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: On 20 October, in Dynamo Kyiv's opening Champions League match of the season against Juventus, Lucescu became the oldest manager to take charge of a game in the competition, at the age of 75 years and 83 days; The match ended in a 2–0 home loss. Lucescu secured his first league title with Dynamo Kyiv on 25 April, following a 5–0 victory against Inhulets. In his first season spent at the club, he transferred compatriot Tudor Băluță on a one season loan from Brighton & Hove Albion.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: Lucescu is a polyglot. He speaks English, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, French and Russian in addition to his native Romanian. He is often cited as telling his players that going to the theatre or reading a book is far more beneficial than going to clubs or restaurants. He also pressured his players to go to university. His son, Răzvan Lucescu, was also a footballer, and is currently managing PAOK.


title: Mircea Lucescu

text: On 15 July 2009, Lucescu suffered an attack of pre-infarct angina, and was operated in an emergency hospital in Donetsk.


title: ArmaLite

text: ArmaLite, or Armalite, is an American small arms engineering company, formed in the early 1950s, in Hollywood, California. Many of its products, as conceived by chief designer Eugene Stoner, relied on unique foam-filled fiberglass butt/stock furniture, and a composite barrel using a steel liner inside an aluminum sleeve, including the iconic AR15/M16 family. While the original ArmaLite ceased business in the 1980s, the brand was revived in 1996, by Mark Westrom.


title: ArmaLite

text: Originating as the light firearms division of Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation, ArmaLite was formally incorporated in 1954. Stoner's first design, the AR-1 Parasniper (dating from 1952), was relatively unsuccessful. However, in 1956, when ArmaLite competed in a contest for an aircrew survival rifle, its AR-5 and AR-7 designs were put into production and adopted by elements of the US military. The following year, ArmaLite also competed for the contract for a new main US combat rifle, in the NATO standard 7.62 mm caliber, with its AR-10. While that bid was unsuccessful, the rifle attracted the attention of both Colt and the Dutch company Artillerie-Inrichtingen, both of which acquired licenses to manufacture the AR-10.


title: ArmaLite

text: The AR-15, chambered for the new, lightweight, high velocity 5.56 mm round, included features of Stoner's previous designs. Under financial pressure, ArmaLite sold the entire rights to the AR-15 design to Colt, which quickly secured significant US military and law enforcement contracts for the weapon, beginning with the USAF Security Forces (1962). A variant of the Colt product was adopted as the US Army's main combat rifle, from 1964, as the Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16. By the 1980s, it had also been adopted by the militaries of many US allies, especially within NATO countries. The M16 remained the primary combat rifle of the US military until 2016. (It will reportedly be completely out of service by the mid-2030s.) Furthermore, its replacements have often been derivatives of the M16 (e.g. the M4 carbine), or other ArmaLite and/or Eugene Stoner designs (e.g. M27–IAR).


title: ArmaLite

text: ArmaLite had other brushes with success, especially with the ArmaLite AR-18 (also 5.56 mm). These were not enough to sustain the company, and it ceased operations in the early 1980s. The design rights and name were purchased in 1996 by Mark Westrom, who re-launched the company ArmaLite, Inc., now headquartered in Geneseo, Illinois.


title: ArmaLite

text: In 2013, Westrom sold ArmaLite, Inc. to Strategic Armory Corps, which owns AWC Silencers, Surgeon Rifles, Nexus Ammo, and McMillan Firearms. Strategic Armory Corps was formed to acquire and combine market-leading companies within the firearms industry. In 2014, 3-Gun Champion Tommy Thacker was appointed president. In 2015, ArmaLite introduced 18 new products, including AR-10 and M-15 platform firearms. In mid-2018, ArmaLite relocated to Phoenix, Arizona.


title: ArmaLite

text: ArmaLite began as a small arms engineering concern founded by George Sullivan, the patent counsel for Lockheed Corporation, and funded by Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation. After leasing a small machine shop at 6567 Santa Monica Boulevard in Hollywood, California, Sullivan hired several employees and began work on a prototype for a lightweight survival rifle for use by downed aircrew. On October 1, 1954, the company was incorporated as the ArmaLite Corporation, becoming a subdivision of Fairchild. With its limited capital and tiny machine shop, ArmaLite was never intended to be an arms manufacturer but was instead focused on producing small arms concepts and designs to be sold or licensed to other manufacturers. While testing the prototype of ArmaLite's survival rifle design at a local shooting range, Sullivan met Eugene Stoner, a talented small arms inventor, whom Sullivan immediately hired to be ArmaLite's chief design engineer. Stoner was a Marine in World War II and an expert with small arms. Since the early 1950s, he had worked various jobs while building gun prototypes in his spare time. At the time, ArmaLite Inc. was a small organization. As late as 1956, it had only nine employees, including Stoner.


title: ArmaLite

text: With Stoner as the chief design engineer, ArmaLite quickly released several innovative rifle ideas. The first ArmaLite concept to be adopted for production was the AR-5, a survival rifle chambered for the .22 Hornet cartridge. The AR-5 was adopted by the U.S. Air Force as the MA-1 Survival Rifle.


title: ArmaLite

text: A civilian survival weapon, the AR-7, was later introduced, chambered in .22 Long Rifle. The semi-automatic AR-7, like the AR-5, could be disassembled, and the components stored in the buttstock. Primarily made of alloys, the AR-7 would float, whether assembled or stored, due to the design of the buttstock, filled with plastic foam. Several companies have produced the AR-7 and derivative models since their introduction in the late 1950s, including Henry Repeating Arms, of Bayonne, New Jersey.


title: ArmaLite

text: ArmaLite spent most of its time and engineering effort in 1955 and 1956 developing the prototypes for what would become the ArmaLite AR-10. Based on Stoner's fourth prototype, Springfield Armory tested two hand-built production AR-10s in late 1956 and again in 1957 as a possible replacement to the venerable yet outdated M1 Garand. The untested AR-10 faced competition from the two other significant rifle designs, the Springfield Armory T-44, an updated M1 Garand design that became the M14, and the T-48, a version of the famous Belgian FN FAL rifle. The T-44 and the T-48 were several years more advanced than the AR-10 in development and trial testing; the T-44 had the additional advantage of being an in-house Springfield Armory design. The Army eventually selected the T-44 over both the AR-10 and the T-48.


title: ArmaLite

text: ArmaLite continued to market the AR-10 based on a limited production of rifles at its Hollywood facility. These limited-production, virtually hand-built rifles are "Hollywood" model AR-10s. In 1957, Fairchild/ArmaLite sold a five-year manufacturing license for the AR-10 to the Dutch arms manufacturer Artillerie-Inrichtingen (AI). Converting the AR-10 engineering drawings to metric, AI found the Hollywood version of the AR-10 deficient in many respects and made many significant design and engineering changes in the AR-10 that continued throughout the production run in the Netherlands. Firearms historians have separated AR-10 production under the AI license into three identifiable versions of the AR-10: the "Sudanese" model, the "Transitional", and the "Portuguese" model AR-10. The Sudanese version derives its name from its sale to the government of Sudan, which purchased approximately 2,500 AR-10 rifles, while the Transitional model incorporated additional design changes based on experience with the Sudanese model in the field. The final AI-produced AR-10, the Portuguese, was a product-improved variant sold to the Portuguese Air Force for use by paratroopers. While AR-10 production at AI dwarfed that of ArmaLite's Hollywood shop, it was still limited, as sales to foreign armies proved elusive. Guatemala, Burma, Italy, Cuba, Sudan and Portugal all purchased AR-10 rifles for limited issue to their military forces, resulting in a total production of less than 10,000 AR-10 rifles in four years. ArmaLite never adopted AI's suggested design changes and product improvements.


title: ArmaLite

text: Disappointed with AR-10 sales, Fairchild ArmaLite decided to terminate its association with AI and instead concentrate on producing a small-caliber version of the AR-10 to meet a requirement for the U.S. Air Force. Using the Hollywood-produced AR-10, the prototype was downsized in dimensions to accept the .223 Remington (5.56 mm) cartridge. This resulted in the ArmaLite AR-15, designed by Eugene Stoner, Jim Sullivan, and Bob Fremont, and chambered in 5.56 mm caliber. ArmaLite also re-introduced the AR-10, this time using a design derived from the original Hollywood prototypes of 1956, and designated the AR-10A. Unable to produce either rifle in quantity, ArmaLite licensed both designs to Colt in early 1959. That same year, ArmaLite moved its corporate offices and engineering and production shop to new premises at 118 East 16th Street in Costa Mesa, California.


title: ArmaLite

text: Frustrated by what it perceived as unnecessary production delays at AI and poor AR-10 sales, Fairchild decided not to renew Artillerie-Inrichtingen's license to produce the AR-10. In 1962, disappointed with ArmaLite's meager profits, primarily derived from licensing fees, Fairchild dissolved its association with ArmaLite.


title: ArmaLite

text: With the AR-10 and AR-15 designs sold to Colt, ArmaLite was left without a viable major infantry arm to market to potential manufacturers and end users. ArmaLite developed a series of less expensive new rifle designs in 7.62 mm and 5.56 mm. The 7.62 mm NATO rifle was designated the AR-16. The AR-16 and the other newly designed ArmaLites utilized a more traditional gas piston design with stamped and welded steel construction in place of aluminum forgings. Due to the success of the FN FAL, H&K G3, and the US M14, the 7.62 mm AR-16 (not to be confused with the M16) was produced only in prototype quantities. ArmaLite also developed the AR-17, a 5.5-pound, two-shot autoloading shotgun based on the short-recoil principle with aluminum and plastic construction; ArmaLite only produced about 1,200.


title: ArmaLite

text: In 1963, development began on the AR-18 rifle, a "downsized" 5.56 mm AR-16 with a new gas system utilizing a short stroke gas piston instead of the Stoner direct gas impingement system used on the AR-10 and AR-15. Designed by Art Miller, ArmaLite accompanied the AR-18 with a semi-automatic version, the AR-180. However, the sales success of the AR-15 worldwide to the U.S. military and other nations proved the undoing of the AR-18, and the latter failed to garner substantial orders. In response to criticism of the rifle's performance in trials by the military in the United States and Great Britain, ArmaLite made a few minor improvements to the original design but did little else. ArmaLite manufactured some AR-18 and AR-180 rifles at its Costa Mesa facility and later licensed production to Howa Machinery Co. in Japan. However, Japan prohibited the sale of military-style arms to combative nations. With the United States involved in the Vietnam War, production at the Howa plant was limited. ArmaLite then licensed production to Sterling Armaments in Dagenham, Great Britain. Sales remained modest. Today, the AR-180 is best known for its use by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in Ireland, who received small quantities of the rifle from black market sources. The AR-18 gas system and rotating bolt mechanism did serve as the basis for the current British small arms family, the SA80, which came from the XL65, essentially an AR-18 in bullpup configuration. Other designs, such as the Singapore SAR-80 and German G36, are based upon the AR-18.


title: ArmaLite

text: A derivative of the AR-18 was the AR-100 series. It came in four variants: the closed-bolt AR-101 assault rifle and AR-102 carbine, and the open-bolt fired AR-103 carbine and AR-104 light machine gun with ejecting magazines. ArmaLite intended the weapon to increase a squad's firepower and mobility. It was never adopted but led to the Ultimax 100.


title: ArmaLite

text: By the 1970s, ArmaLite had essentially stopped all new rifle development, and the company effectively ceased operations. In 1983, ArmaLite was sold to the Elisco Tool Manufacturing Company of the Philippines. The AR-18 tooling at the Costa Mesa shop went to the Philippines. At the same time, some of the remaining ArmaLite employees acquired the remaining inventory of parts for the AR-17 and AR-18. Elisco had planned to pitch the AR-18 as a replacement for the license-produced M16A1 then in service with the Armed Forces of the Philippines and such made several modifications to the design. Twenty (20) prototypes of four types (AR 101, AR 102, AR 103, AR 104) were built and underwent testing and evaluation. About 3,500 of these rifles, collectively designated the "AR Series 100" were approved for production. Production plans for the AR Series 100 would fail to push through as Elisco would dissolve and liquidate its assets in the late 1980s.


title: ArmaLite

text: After passing through a series of owners, Mark Westrom, a former U.S. Army ordnance officer and inventor of a 7.62 NATO sniper rifle based on Eugene Stoner's design concepts, purchased the ArmaLite brand name and rampant lion logo in 1996. The company resumed business as ArmaLite Inc. ArmaLite produced some AR-15 and AR-10-based rifles, as well as .50 BMG rifles (the AR-50), and a modified AR-180 named the AR-180B (discontinued in 2009). In the mid-2000s, ArmaLite announced that it was introducing a handgun line including the AR-24 and AR-26 (both pistols also discontinued).


title: ArmaLite

text: In 2013, Westrom sold ArmaLite, Inc. to Strategic Armory Corps, owner of AWC Silencers, Surgeon Rifles, Nexus Ammo, and McMillan Firearms. Strategic Armory Corps was formed to acquire and combine firearm companies.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: German Bohemians (, i.e. German Bohemians and German Moravians), later known as Sudeten Germans, were ethnic Germans living in the Czech lands of the Bohemian Crown, which later became an integral part of Czechoslovakia. Before 1945, over three million German Bohemians constituted about 23% of the population of the whole country and about 29.5% of the population of Bohemia and Moravia. Ethnic Germans migrated into the Kingdom of Bohemia, an electoral territory of the Holy Roman Empire, from the 11th century, mostly in the border regions of what was later called the "Sudetenland", which was named after the Sudeten Mountains.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The process of German expansion was known as "Ostsiedlung" ("Settling of the East"). The name "Sudeten Germans" was adopted during rising nationalism after the fall of Austria-Hungary after the First World War. After the Munich Agreement, the so-called Sudetenland became part of Germany.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: After the Second World War, most of the German-speaking population (mostly Roman Catholic with relatively few Protestants) was expelled from Czechoslovakia to Germany and Austria.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The area that became known as the Sudetenland possessed chemical works and lignite mines as well as textile, china, and glass factories. The Bohemian border with Bavaria was inhabited primarily by Germans. The Upper Palatine Forest, which extends along the Bavarian frontier and into the agricultural areas of southern Bohemia, was an area of German settlement. Moravia contained patches of "locked" German territory to the north and south. More characteristic were the German language islands, which were towns inhabited by German minorities and surrounded by Czechs. Sudeten Germans were mostly Roman Catholics, a legacy of centuries of Austrian Habsburg rule.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: Not all ethnic Germans lived in isolated and well-defined areas; for historical reasons, Czechs and Germans mixed in many places, and Czech-German bilingualism and code-switching was quite common. Nevertheless, during the second half of the 19th century, Czechs and Germans began to create separate cultural, educational, political and economic institutions, which kept both groups semi-isolated from each other, which continued until the end of the Second World War, when almost all the ethnic Germans were expelled.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: In the English language, ethnic Germans who originated in the Kingdom of Bohemia were traditionally referred to as "German Bohemians". This appellation utilizes the broad definition of Bohemia, which includes all of the three Bohemian crown lands: Bohemia, Moravia and (Austrian) Silesia. In the German language, it is more common to distinguish among the three lands, hence the prominent terms "Deutschböhmen" (German Bohemians), "Deutschmährer" (German Moravians) and "Deutschschlesier" (German Silesians). Even in German the broader use of "Bohemian" is also found.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The term "Sudeten Germans" ("Sudetendeutsche") came about during rising ethnic nationalism in the early 20th century, after the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in the First World War. It coincided with the rise of another new term, "the Sudetenland", which referred only to the parts of the former Kingdom of Bohemia that were inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans. These names were derived from the Sudeten Mountains, which form the northern border of the Bohemian lands. As these terms were heavily used by the Nazi German regime to push forward the creation of a Greater Germanic Reich, many contemporary Germans avoid them in favour of the traditional names.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: There have been ethnic Germans living in the Bohemian crown lands since the Middle Ages. In the late 12th and in the 13th century the Přemyslid rulers promoted the colonisation of certain areas of their lands by German settlers from the adjacent lands of Bavaria, Franconia, Upper Saxony and Austria during the "Ostsiedlung" migration.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: In 1348, the Luxembourg king Charles I, also King of the Romans and Holy Roman Emperor (as Charles IV) from 1355, founded the Charles University in Prague ("Alma Mater Carolina"), the first in Central Europe, attended by large German student nations, and its language of education was Latin. Czechs made up about 20 percent of the students at the time of its founding, and the rest was primarily German. A culturally-significant example of German Bohemian prose from the Middle Ages is the story "Der Ackermann aus Böhmen" ("The Ploughman from Bohemia"), written in Early New High German by Johannes von Tepl (c. 1350 – 1414) in Žatec ("Saaz"), who probably had studied liberal arts in Prague.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: For centuries, German Bohemians played important roles in the economy and politics of the Bohemian lands. For example, forest glass production was a common industry for German Bohemians. Though they were living beyond the medieval Kingdom of Germany, an independent German Bohemian awareness, however, was not widespread, and for a long time, it played no decisive role in everyday life. Individuals were usually seen as Bohemians, Moravians or Silesians. Defining events later in German Bohemian history were the Hussite Wars, the occupation of Bohemia by the Czech Brethren, the Thirty Years' War, when the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were severely affected, which caused the immigration of further German settlers.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: After the death of King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in the 1526 Battle of Mohács, the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria became King of Bohemia, which became a constituent state of the Habsburg monarchy. With the rise of the Habsburgs in Bohemia after the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, the old Bohemian nobility became virtually meaningless. Increasingly, the Bohemian crown lands were ruled from the Austrian capital, Vienna, which favoured the dominance of the German language and German culture. On the other hand, the 18th-century Silesian Wars started by Prussian King Frederick II of Prussia against Austria resulted in the loss of the traditionally-Bohemian crown land and weakened Germans in the remaining parts of Bohemia. As the 19th century arrived, resistance to the German domination began to develop among the Czechs.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: After the revolutions of 1848 and the rise of ethnic nationalism, nervousness about ethnic tensions in Austria-Hungary resulted in a prevailing equality between Czechs and German Bohemians. Each ethnicity tried to retain, in regions in which it was the majority, sovereignty over its own affairs. Czechs and Germans generally maintained separate schools, churches and public institutions. Nevertheless, despite the separation, Germans often understood some Czech, and Czechs often spoke some German. Cities like Prague, however, saw more mixing between the ethnicities and also had large populations of Jews; Germans living with Czechs fluently spoke Czech and code-switched between German and Czech when talking to Czechs and other Germans. Jews in Bohemia often spoke German and sometimes Yiddish. The famed writer Franz Kafka exemplifies the diversity of Bohemia since he was a Prague-based German-speaking Jew, but his surname was of Czech origin.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: In 1867, the equality of Austrian citizens of all ethnicities was guaranteed by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, which enshrined the principles of constitutional monarchy. The agreement established the Dual Monarchy and gave the Hungarians sovereignty over their own affairs. The preservation of German cultural dominance throughout Cisleithania had proved to be difficult and now seemed to be was utterly impossible.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: With the agreement, the desire for an autonomous Czech subdivision was mounting. Both German Bohemians and Czechs were hoping for a constitutional solution to the demands, but Czech nationalist views remained a constant part of the Bohemian political sphere. The Czechs had feared Germanization, but the Germans now worried about Czechization.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: A symbol of the rising tensions was the fate of Charles University, then called Charles-Ferdinand University. Its Czech students had become increasingly perturbed by the sole use of German for instruction. During the 1848 revolution, both Germans and Czechs fought to make Czech one of the university's official languages. They achieved that right, and the university became bilingual. By 1863, out of 187 lecture courses, 22 were held in Czech, the remainder being in German. In 1864, some Germans suggested the creation of a separate Czech university. Czech professors rejected that because they did not wish to lose the continuity of university traditions.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The Czechs, however, were still not satisfied with bilingual status and proposed creating two separate constituent colleges, one for the Germans and one for the Czechs. The Germans vetoed the proposal and called for a full division of the university. After long negotiations, it was divided into the German Charles-Ferdinand University and the Czech Charles-Ferdinand University. The Cisleithanian Imperial Council prepared an act of parliament, and the emperor granted royal assent on 28 February 1882.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: In 1907, the Cisleithanian Imperial Council was for the first time elected by universal male suffrage. As part of the process, new constituency boundaries had to be drawn throughout the empire. Electoral officials were very careful to demarcate areas as clearly either German or Czech and to assure that there would be no conflict as to which ethnicity had a majority in any constituency. Nevertheless, that did not settle tensions among Czechs, who wanted to govern themselves from Prague.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: Archduke Franz Ferdinand came up with a plan, known as the United States of Greater Austria, in 1909. German Bohemia, as it was to be called, was going to be separated from the Czech areas around it in the plan. That would create ethnically homogenous self-governing provinces that would hopefully end the ethnic conflict. However, Franz Ferdinand was assassinated, and the First World War destroyed all hopes for a redrawn Cisleithania.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The end of the war in 1918 brought about the partition of the multiethnic Austria-Hungary into its historical components, one of them, the Bohemian Kingdom, forming the west of the newly created Czechoslovakia. Czech politicians insisted on the traditional boundaries of the Bohemian Crown according to the principle of "uti possidetis juris". The new Czech state would thus have defensible mountain boundaries with Germany, but the highly industrialised settlement areas of three million Germans would now be separated from Austria and come under Czech control.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The Austrian head of government, Ernst Seidler von Feuchtenegg, wanted to divide Bohemia by setting up administrative counties ("Verwaltungskreisen"), which would be based on the nationalities of the population. On 26 September 1918, his successor, Max Hussarek von Heinlein, offered the Czechs wide-ranging autonomy within Imperial and Royal Austria. However, because exiled Czechs had already achieved the entrance of the United States in the war as an associate power of the Triple Entente. Also, Austria was no longer considered to be a major power by the victors of the war.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: On 14 October, Raphael Pacher succeeded, together with the social democrat, Josef Seliger, in uniting all German parties and members of parliament in Bohemia and Moravia into a coalition. In preparation for the foundation of the Republic of German Bohemia, the coalition, chaired by Pacher, appointed a committee of twelve members. One day after the proclamation of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, on 29 October 1918, the Province of German Bohemia was formed with its capital in Reichenberg. Its first governor was Raphael Pacher, who transferred his office on 5 November to Rudolf Lodgman von Auen.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The Province of German Bohemia comprised a contiguous region in North and West Bohemia stretching from the Egerland to the Braunau region along the border with the German Empire. In South Bohemia the administrative unit of Böhmerwaldgau emerged, which was to be part of Upper Austria. German Bohemia in the Eagle Mountains and in the area of Landskron merged with the so-called "Province of the Sudetenland", which had radically different borders than the later understanding of the term. The Bohemian district of Neubistritz was incorporated into Znaim and was supposed to be administered by Lower Austria. The judiciary for German Bohemia was based in Reichenberg, and Vienna was responsible for the other German regions.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: On 22 November 1918, the Province of German Bohemia proclaimed itself part of the state of German Austria. On the same day, the territory of German Austria was defined by the Act of the "Provisional National Assembly" ("Provisorische Nationalversammlung"), which included German Bohemian and German Moravian members of the former Cisleithanian Imperial Council.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: In addition to the establishment of the state's governmental organisation, higher authorities were also created, such as the Finance Ministry, the Department of Agriculture and the Higher Regional Court of Reichenberg as well as a general post office and railway administration.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: For geographical reasons, however, a territorial solution would have been impossible unless those regions, together with Austria, had been incorporated into Germany.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: After the Czechoslovak Republic was proclaimed on 28 October 1918, the German Bohemians, claiming the right to self-determination according to the tenth of US President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points, demanded that their homeland areas remain with Austria, which by then had been reduced to the Republic of German Austria. The German Bohemians relied mostly on peaceful opposition to the occupation of their homeland by the Czech military, which started on 31 October 1918 and was completed on 28 January 1919. Fighting took place sporadically, resulting in the deaths of a few dozen Germans and Czechs.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: On 4 March 1919, almost the entire ethnic German population peacefully demonstrated for its right to self-determination. The demonstrations were accompanied by a one-day general strike. The German Social Democratic Workers Party in the Czechoslovak Republic, then the largest party, was responsible for the demonstration initiative, but it was also supported by other bourgeois German parties. The mass demonstrations were put down by the Czech military, involving 54 deaths and 84 wounded.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: American diplomat Archibald Coolidge insisted on respecting the Germans' right to self-determination and uniting all German-speaking areas with either Germany or Austria, with the exception of northern Bohemia. However, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, on 10 September 1919, made it clear that German Bohemia would not become part of the new Austrian Republic. Instead, it would become part of Czechoslovakia. The new state regarded ethnic Germans as an ethnic minority. Nevertheless, some 90 percent lived in territories in which they represented 90 percent or more of the population.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: In 1921, the population of multi-ethnic Czechoslovakia comprised 6.6 million Czechs, 3.2 million Germans, two million Slovaks, 0.7 million Hungarians, half a million Ruthenians (Rusyns), 300,000 Jews, and 100,000 Poles, as well as Gypsies, Croats and other ethnic groups. German-speakers represented a third of the population of the Bohemian lands and about 23.4 percent of the population of the whole republic (13.6 million).


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The Sudetenland possessed huge chemical works and lignite mines as well as textile, china, and glass factories. To the west, a triangle of historic ethnic German settlement surrounding Eger was the most active area for pan-German nationalism.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The Upper Palatinate Forest, an area that was primarily populated by Germans, extended along the Bavarian frontier to the poor agricultural areas of southern Bohemia.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: Moravia contained many patches of ethnic German settlement in the north and the south. Most typical in those areas were German "language islands", towns inhabited by ethnic Germans but surrounded by rural Czechs. Extreme German nationalism was never prevalent in those areas. German nationalism in the coal-mining region of southern Silesia, which was 40.5% German, was restrained by fear of competition from industry in the Weimar Republic.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: Many Germans felt that the new constitution failed to fulfil what the Czechs had promised in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) because there were too few minority rights. However, they gradually accepted remaining in Czechoslovakia and took part in the first elections in 1920. In 1926, the first Germans became minister (Robert Mayr-Harting and Franz Spina), and the first German political party became part of the government (German Christian Social People's Party and Farmers' League).


title: Sudeten Germans

text: German nationalist sentiment ran high during the early years of the republic. Sudeten representatives tried to join Austria or Germany or at least to obtain as much autonomy. The constitution of 1920 was drafted without Sudeten German representation, and Sudetens declined to participate in the election of the president. Sudeten political parties pursued an "obstructionist" (or negativist) policy in the Czechoslovak parliament. In 1926, however, German Chancellor Gustav Stresemann, adopting a policy of rapprochement with the West, advised the Sudeten Germans to co-operate actively with the Czechoslovak government. In consequence, most Sudeten German parties (including the German Agrarian Party, the German Social Democratic Party and the German Christian Socialist People's Party) changed their policy from negativism to activism, and several Sudeten politicians even accepted cabinet posts.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: At a party conference in Teplitz in 1919, the provincial Social Democratic Parties of Bohemia, Moravia and Sudeten-Silesia united to form the "Deutsche Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei" (DSAP) and elected Josef Seliger as chairman. After Seliger's untimely death in 1920, Ludwig Czech became party chairman, who was succeeded in 1938 by Wenzel Jaksch.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: Already in 1936, Jaksch, together with Hans Schütz of the German Christian Social People's Party ("Deutsche Christlich-Soziale Volkspartei") and Gustav Hacker of the Farmers' Association ("Bund der Landwirte", formed the "Jungaktivisten" (Young Activists). They sought agreement with the Czechoslovak government on a policy that could withstand the Nazi onslaught from within and from outside Czechoslovakia. At simultaneous mass rallies in Tetschen-Bodenbach/Děčín, Saaz/Žatec and Olešnice v Orlických horách/Gießhübl im Adlergebirge on April 26, 1936, they demanded equal opportunities in civil service for Germans, financial assistance for German businesses, official acceptance of the German language for public servants in the Sudetenland and measures to reduce unemployment in the Sudetenland. (At the time, one in three was unemployed in the Sudetenland, compared to one in five in the rest of the country.) Improving the quality of life of the Sudeten Germans was not the only motivation of the Jungaktivists. For Jaksch and his social democratic compatriots, it was a question of survival after a possible Nazi takeover. Of some 80,000 social democrats in Czechoslovakia, only about 5,000 would manage to flee the Nazis. The rest were incarcerated, and many of them were executed. Many of those who survived the Nazi persecution were later expelled, together with other Sudeten Germans, on the basis of Beneš decrees.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: By 1929, only a small number of Sudeten German deputies, most of them members of the German National Party, supported by the propertied classes, and the German National Socialist Workers' Party, remained opposed to the Czechoslovak government. Nationalist sentiment flourished, however, among Sudeten German youths, who had a variety of organizations, such as the older "Deutsche Turnverband" and "Schutzvereine", the "Kameradschaftsbund", the Nazi "Volkssport" (1929) and the "Bereitschaft".


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The Sudeten German nationalists, particularly the Nazis, expanded their activities after the Depression started. On 30 January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany. The Czechoslovak government prepared to suppress the Sudeten Nazi Party. In the autumn of 1933, the Sudeten Nazis dissolved their organization, and the German Nationals were pressured to do likewise. The government expelled German Nationals and Sudeten Nazis from local government positions. The Sudeten German population was indignant, especially in nationalist strongholds like Egerland.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: On 1 October 1933, Konrad Henlein with his deputy, Karl Hermann Frank, aided by other members of the "Kameradschaftsbund", a youth organization of mystical orientation, created a new political organisation. The Sudeten German Home Front ("Sudetendeutsche Heimatfront") professed loyalty to Czechoslovakia but championed decentralization. It absorbed most former German Nationals and Sudeten Nazis.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: In 1935, the Sudeten German Home Front became the Sudeten German Party ("Sudetendeutsche Partei") (SdP) and embarked on an active propaganda campaign. In the May election, the SdP won more than 60% of the Sudeten German vote. The German Agrarians, Christian Socialists and Social Democrats each lost approximately half of their followers. The SdP became the centre of German nationalist forces. The party represented itself as striving for a just settlement of Sudeten German claims within the framework of Czechoslovak democracy. Henlein, however, maintained secret contact with Nazi Germany and received material aid from Berlin, which told him to refuse every concession offered by Czechoslovakia. The SdP endorsed the idea of a "Führer" and mimicked Nazi methods with banners, slogans and uniformed troops. Concessions offered by the Czechoslovak government, including the installation of exclusively Sudeten German officials in Sudeten German areas and the possible participation of the SdP in the cabinet, were rejected. By 1937, most SdP leaders supported Hitler's pan-German objectives.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: On 13 March 1938, the Third Reich annexed Austria during the "Anschluss". Immediately, many Sudeten Germans supported Henlein. On 22 March, the German Agrarian Party, led by Gustav Hacker, merged with the SdP. German Christian Socialists in Czechoslovakia suspended their activities on 24 March; their deputies and senators entered the SdP parliamentary club. Although the Social Democrats continued to champion democratic freedoms, the masses supported the SdP.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The table below shows the number of seats German parties and German–Hungarian lists gained in the Czechoslovak Chamber of Deputies between 1920 and 1935.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: Konrad Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938 and was told to raise demands that would be unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government. In the Carlsbad Decrees, issued on 24 April at the Carlsbad convention, the SdP demanded complete autonomy for the Sudetenland and freedom to profess Nazi ideology. If Henlein's demands had been granted, the Sudetenland would have been in a position to align itself with Nazi Germany.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: As the political situation worsened, the security in Sudetenland deteriorated. The region became the site of small-scale clashes between young SdP followers, equipped with arms smuggled from Germany, and police and border forces. In some places, the regular army was called in to pacify the situation. Nazi propaganda accused the Czech government and Czechs of atrocities on innocent Germans. The Czechoslovaki public started to prepare for an inevitable war, such as by training with gas masks.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: On 20 May, Czechoslovakia initiated a so-called "partial mobilization" (literally "special military precaution") in response to rumours of German troop movements. The army moved into position on the border. Western powers tried to calm down the situation and forced Czechoslovakia to comply with most of the Carlsbad Decrees. However the SdP, instructed to continue to push towards war, escalated the situation with more protests and violence.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: With the help of special Nazi forces, the "Sudetendeutsche Freikorps" (paramilitary groups trained in Germany by SS-instructors) took over some border areas and committed many crimes: they killed more than 110 Czechoslovaks (mostly soldiers and policemen) and kidnapped over 2,020 Czechoslovak citizens (including German antifascists), taking them to Nazi Germany.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: In August, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain sent Lord Runciman, a faithful appeaser, to Czechoslovakia to see if he could obtain a settlement between the Czechoslovak government and the Sudeten Germans. His mission failed because Henlein refused all conciliating proposals under secret orders by Hitler.


title: Sudeten Germans

text: The Runciman Report to the British government stated this on Czechoslovakia's policy towards the German minority during the preceding decades:


title: Sudeten Germans

text: Czech officials and Czech police, speaking little or no German, were appointed in large numbers to purely German districts; Czech agricultural colonists were encouraged to settle on land confiscated under the Land Reform in the middle of German populations; for the children of these Czech invaders Czech schools were built on a large scale; there is a very general belief that Czech firms were favoured as against German firms in the allocation of State contracts and that the State provided work and relief for Czechs more readily than for Germans. I believe these complaints to be in the main justified. Even as late as the time of my Mission, I could find no readiness on the part of the Czechoslovak Government to remedy them on anything like an adequate scale... the feeling among the Sudeten Germans until about three or four years ago was one of hopelessness. But the rise of Nazi Germany gave them new hope. I regard their turning for help towards their kinsmen and their eventual desire to join the Reich as a natural development in the circumstances.