title: Democracy in America

text: Tocqueville's message is somewhat beyond the American democracy itself, which was rather an illustration to his philosophical claim that democracy is an effect of industrialization. This explains why Tocqueville does not unambiguously define democracy and even ignores the intents of the Founding Fathers of the United States regarding the American political system:


title: Democracy in America

text: Tocqueville begins his study of the U.S. by explaining the contribution of the Puritans. According to him, the Puritans established the U.S. democratic social state of equality. They arrived equals in education and were all middle class. In addition, Tocqueville observes that they contributed a synthesis of religion and political liberty in America that was uncommon in Europe, particularly in France. He calls the Puritan Founding the "seed" of his entire work.


title: Democracy in America

text: Tocqueville believed that the Puritans established the principle of sovereignty of the people in the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. The American Revolution then popularized this principle, followed by the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which developed institutions to manage popular will. While Tocqueville speaks highly of the U.S. Constitution, he believes that the mores, or "habits of mind" of the American people play a more prominent role in the protection of freedom. These include:


title: Democracy in America

text: Tocqueville was one of the first social critics to examine the situation of U.S. women and to identify the concept of separate spheres. The section "Influence of Democracy on Manners Properly So Called" of the second volume is devoted to his observations of women's status in U.S. society. He writes: "In no country has such constant care been taken as in America to trace two clearly distinct lines of action for the two sexes and to make them keep pace one with the other, but in two pathways that are always different."


title: Democracy in America

text: He argues that the collapse of aristocracy lessened the patriarchal rule in the family where fathers would control daughters' marriages, meaning that women had the option of remaining unmarried and retaining a higher degree of independence. Married women, by contrast, lost all independence "in the bonds of matrimony" as "in America paternal discipline [by the woman's father] is very relaxed and the conjugal tie very strict." Yet despite this lack of independence, He believed America would "raise woman and make her more and more the equal of man" and praised America for having more legal protections for women than in France. Tocqueville believed women would be contributors to America's prosperity and strength despite the limitations of the time, stating:


title: Democracy in America

text: As for myself, I do not hesitate to avow that although the women of the United States are confined within the narrow circle of domestic life, and their situation is in some respects one of extreme dependence, I have nowhere seen women occupying a loftier position; and if I were asked, ... to what the singular prosperity and growing strength of that people ought mainly to be attributed, I should reply,—to the superiority of their women.


title: Democracy in America

text: The primary focus of "Democracy in America" is an analysis of why republican representative democracy has succeeded in the United States while failing in so many other places. Tocqueville seeks to apply the functional aspects of democracy in the United States to what he sees as the failings of democracy in his native France.


title: Democracy in America

text: Tocqueville speculates on the future of democracy in the United States, discussing possible threats "to" democracy and possible dangers "of" democracy. These include his belief that democracy has a tendency to degenerate into "soft despotism" as well as the risk of developing a tyranny of the majority. He observes that the strong role religion played in the United States was due to its separation from the government, a separation all parties found agreeable. He contrasts this to France, where there was what he perceived to be an unhealthy antagonism between democrats and the religious, which he relates to the connection between church and state. Recent scholarship has pointed out that Tocqueville did not speak to or attend to any African American women in the course of his study, though their views on democracy, autonomy, and freedom largely aligned with his, if slavery were abolished.


title: Democracy in America

text: Insightful analysis of political society was supplemented in the second volume by description of civil society as a sphere of private and civilian affairs, mirroring Hegel.


title: Democracy in America

text: Tocqueville observed that social mechanisms have paradoxes, as in what later became known as the Tocqueville effect: "social frustration increases as social conditions improve". He wrote that this growing hatred of social privilege, as social conditions improve, leads to the state concentrating more power to itself.


title: Democracy in America

text: Tocqueville's views on the United States took a darker turn after 1840, however, as made evident in Craiutu and Jennings' "Tocqueville on America after 1840: Letters and Other Writings".


title: Democracy in America

text: "Democracy in America" was published in two volumes, the first in 1835 and the other in 1840. It was immediately popular in both Europe and the United States, while also having a profound impact on the French population. By the twentieth century, it had become a classic work of political science, social science, and history. It is a commonly assigned reading for undergraduates of American universities majoring in the political or social sciences, and part of the introductory political theory syllabus at Cambridge, Oxford, Princeton and other institutions. In the introduction to his translation of the book, Harvard Professor Harvey C. Mansfield calls it "at once the best book ever written on democracy and the best book ever written on America."


title: Democracy in America

text: Tocqueville's work is often acclaimed for making a number of astute predictions. He anticipates the potential acrimony over the abolition of slavery that would tear apart the United States and lead to the American Civil War, as well as the eventual superpower rivalry between the United States and Russia, which exploded after World War II and spawned the Cold War.


title: Democracy in America

text: Noting the rise of the industrial sector in the American economy, Tocqueville, some scholars have argued, also correctly predicted that an industrial aristocracy would rise from the ownership of labor. He warned that 'friends of democracy must keep an anxious eye peeled in this direction at all times', observing that the route of industry was the gate by which a newfound wealthy class might potentially dominate, although he himself believed that an industrial aristocracy would differ from the formal aristocracy of the past.


title: Democracy in America

text: On the other hand, Tocqueville proved shortsighted in noting that a democracy's equality of conditions stifles literary development. In spending several chapters lamenting the state of the arts in America, he fails to envision the literary renaissance that would shortly arrive in the form of such major writers as Edgar Allan Poe, Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Herman Melville, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Walt Whitman. Equally, in dismissing the country's interest in science as limited to pedestrian applications for streamlining the production of material goods, he failed to imagine America's burgeoning appetite for pure scientific research and discovery.


title: Democracy in America

text: According to Tocqueville, democracy had some unfavorable consequences: the tyranny of the majority over thought, a preoccupation with material goods, and isolated individuals.


title: Democracy in America

text: "Democracy in America" was interpreted differently across national contexts. In France and the United States, Tocqueville's work was seen as liberal, whereas both progressives and conservatives in the British Isles interpreted his work as supporting their own positions.


title: Bridget Jones

text: Bridget Rose Jones is a fictional character created by British writer Helen Fielding. Jones first appeared in Fielding's "Bridget Jones's Diary" column in "The Independent" in 1995, which did not carry any byline. Thus, it seemed to be an actual personal diary chronicling the life of Jones as a thirtysomething single woman in London as she tries to make sense of life, love, and relationships with the help of a surrogate "urban family" of friends in the 1990s. The column was, in fact, a lampoon of women's obsession with love, marriage and romance as well as women's magazines such as "Cosmopolitan" and wider social trends in Britain at the time. Fielding published the novelisation of the column in 1996, followed by a sequel in 1999 called "".


title: Bridget Jones

text: Both novels were adapted for film in 2001 and 2004, starring Renée Zellweger as Bridget Jones, and Hugh Grant and Colin Firth as the men in her life: Daniel Cleaver and Mark Darcy, respectively. After Fielding had ceased to work for "The Daily Telegraph" in late 1998, the feature began again in "The Independent" on 4 August 2005 and finished in June 2006. Helen Fielding released a third novel in 2013 ("Bridget Jones: Mad About the Boy", which is set 14 years after the events of the second novel) and a fourth in 2016 ("Bridget Jones's Baby: The Diaries", where Bridget finds herself unexpectedly pregnant without being certain who the father is).


title: Bridget Jones

text: "Bridget Jones" is hailed as a British cultural icon and was named on the 2016 "Woman's Hour" Power List as one of seven women judged to have had the biggest impact on women's lives over the past 70 years.


title: Bridget Jones

text: Bridget Jones is a Bangor University graduate. She is a 34-year-old (32 in the first film adaptation) single woman whose life is a satirized version of the stereotypical single London 30-something in the 1990s and very unlucky in love. She has some bad habits—smoking and drinking—but she annually writes her New Year's resolutions in her diary, determined to stop smoking, drink no more than 14 alcohol units a week, and eat more "pulses" and try her best to lose weight.


title: Bridget Jones

text: In the two novels and screen adaptations, Bridget's mother is bored with her life as a housewife in the country and leaves Bridget's father. Bridget repeatedly flirts with her boss, Daniel Cleaver. A successful barrister named Mark Darcy also keeps popping into Bridget's life, being extremely awkward, and sometimes coming off a bit rude. After Bridget and Mark reach an understanding of each other and find a sort of happiness together, she gains some self-confidence and dramatically cuts down on her alcohol and cigarette consumption. However, Bridget's obsession with self-help books plus several misunderstandings cannot keep the couple together forever.


title: Bridget Jones

text: The new "Independent" column was set in the then-present day of 2005 and 2006, with references being made to events such as River Thames whale, and has dropped some of the motifs of the original diary, particularly the alcohol unit and calorie counts. Despite the time advance, Cleaver and Darcy were still the two men in Jones' life ("I'm not sleeping with them both at once," she explains later to her friend Shazza. "I accidentally slept with each of them separately"), and the plot line launched into a pregnancy. As Fielding said, "she's heading in a different direction."


title: Bridget Jones

text: The column is continued into 2006. In the last entry, Bridget Jones gave birth to a baby boy, fathered by Daniel Cleaver, and moved in with him. However, Mark was not entirely out of the picture, as he previously suggested that he would like to adopt the child. The column finished with the note, "Bridget is giving every attention to the care of her newborn son – and is too busy to keep up her Diary for the time being."


title: Bridget Jones

text: In the mid-'90s, Charles Leadbeater, at the time the features editor of the English newspaper "The Independent", offered Helen Fielding, then a journalist on "The Independent on Sunday", a weekly column about urban life in London designed to appeal to young professional women. Fielding accepted and Bridget Jones was born on 28 February 1995. The instantaneous popularity of the columns led to publication of the first book, "Bridget Jones's Diary", in 1996.


title: Bridget Jones

text: The column appeared regularly every Wednesday on the pages of "The Independent" for almost three years: the last one was published on 10 September 1997. A couple of months later, on 15 November 1997, Helen Fielding resumed her weekly diary in "The Daily Telegraph". Fielding ceased to work for "The Daily Telegraph" on 19 December 1998.


title: Bridget Jones

text: The column was made into a novel in 1996, "Bridget Jones's Diary". The plot is very loosely based on "Pride and Prejudice" by Jane Austen. Critics assert that Fielding's book arguably began the popular fiction movement known as chick lit. The second book, "", was published on 1998, and was based on the plot of another of Austen's novels, "Persuasion".


title: Bridget Jones

text: Fielding named the character of Mark Darcy after the "Pride and Prejudice" character Fitzwilliam Darcy and described him exactly like Colin Firth, who played Mr Darcy in the 1995 BBC adaptation. Mark Darcy was also partly modelled on a friend of Fielding's called Mark Muller, a barrister with chambers in Gray's Inn Square; and the Kurdish revolutionary leader whom Darcy defends in the movie was inspired by a real case of Muller's. The character of Shazzer was reportedly based on Sharon Maguire, who is a friend of Fielding and would become director of the film.


title: Bridget Jones

text: A third book was published in October 2013, titled "Bridget Jones: Mad About the Boy". The novel is set in present-day London; Bridget is 51, still keeping a diary, but is also immersed in texting and experimenting with social media. It is revealed in the book that Mark Darcy had died five years earlier and that they have two children, Billy and Mabel, aged seven and five respectively. Publication of the novel was set for "Super Thursday", in preparation for Christmas. However, a mistake occurred in the early book prints which combined sections of the novel with Sir David Jason's autobiography. Vintage explained the error as "a Bridget moment" and recalled the books.


title: Bridget Jones

text: The feature began again in "The Independent" on 4 August 2005 with a "Sunday 31 July" entry. A book containing the original columns for 1995 was given away with the paper the following Saturday. This relaunch of the column is also printed in the "Irish Independent". The "International Herald Tribune" reviewed the new column rather favourably, commenting that Fielding's satire was in good form.


title: Bridget Jones

text: Helen Fielding (as Bridget Jones) wrote of her love of the 1995 BBC adaptation of "Pride and Prejudice" in her "Bridget Jones's Diary" column during the original British broadcast, mentioning her "simple human need for Darcy to get off with Elizabeth" and regarding the couple as her "chosen representatives in the field of shagging, or rather courtship". Fielding loosely reworked the plot of "Pride and Prejudice" in her 1996 novelization of the column, naming Bridget's uptight love interest "Mark Darcy" and describing him exactly like Colin Firth. Following a first meeting with Firth during his filming of "Fever Pitch" in 1996, Fielding asked him to collaborate in what would become an eight-page interview between Bridget Jones and Firth in her 1999 sequel novel, "Bridget Jones: The Edge of Reason". Conducting the real interview with Firth in Rome, Fielding lapsed into Bridget Jones mode and obsessed over Darcy in his wet shirt. Firth participated in the following editing process of what critics would consider "one of the funniest sequences in the diary's sequel". Both novels make various other references to the BBC serial.


title: Bridget Jones

text: "Pride and Prejudice" screenwriter Andrew Davies collaborated on the screenplays for the 2001 and 2004 "Bridget Jones" films, which would show Crispin Bonham-Carter (Mr Bingley in "Pride and Prejudice") and Lucy Robinson (Mrs Hurst) in minor roles. The self-referential in-joke between the projects intrigued Colin Firth and he accepted the role of Mark Darcy, as it gave him an opportunity to ridicule and liberate himself from his "Pride and Prejudice" character. Film critic James Berardinelli would later state that Firth "plays this part [of Mark Darcy] exactly as he played the earlier role, making it evident that the two Darcys are essentially the same". The producers never found a solution to incorporate the "Jones" Firth interview in the second film but shot a spoof interview with Firth as himself and Renée Zellweger staying in-character as Bridget Jones after a day's wrap. The scene is available as a deleted scene on DVD.


title: Bridget Jones

text: The first novel was turned into a film of the same name in 2001, directed by Sharon Maguire. The movie starred Renée Zellweger as Bridget, Hugh Grant as Daniel Cleaver and Colin Firth as Mark Darcy. Before the film was released, a considerable amount of controversy surrounded the casting of the American Zellweger as what some saw as a quintessentially British heroine: however, her performance is widely considered to be of a high standard, including a perfect English accent, and garnered Zellweger a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. A was released in 2004, directed by Beeban Kidron. There are many differences between the books and the films. A third film, "Bridget Jones's Baby", was released on 16 September 2016. Patrick Dempsey was cast as Jack Qwant. A fourth film, adapting "Mad About the Boy", was confirmed to be in development in October 2022.


title: Bridget Jones

text: Lily Allen wrote a musical based on the novel, which was 'workshopped' in London with a cast including Sheridan Smith in the title role. Although a full production was anticipated for some time, Allen has since said she doubts it will 'see the light of day'.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: The (or an) angel of the ( "mal’āḵ YHWH" "messenger of Yahweh") is an entity appearing repeatedly in the Tanakh (Old Testament) on behalf of the God of Israel.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: The guessed term "YHWH", which occurs 65 times in the text of the Hebrew Bible, can be translated either as "the angel of the Lord" or "an angel of the Lord". The King James Version usually translates it as "the angel of the "; less frequently as "an angel of the ". The Septuagint (LXX) sometimes uses (an angel of the Lord), sometimes (the angel of the Lord): in Genesis 16:7–11, it gives first the sounded word without a Greek article, then, in all the subsequent mentions with the article, as in the anaphoric use of the article.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: A closely related term is "angel of God" (), mentioned 12 times (2 of which are plural). Another related expression, Angel of the Presence, occurs only once (Isaiah 63:9).


title: Angel of the Lord

text: The New Testament uses the term "angel of the Lord" () several times, in one instance (Luke 1:11–19) the angel's name is Gabriel.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: The word Angel found numerous times in the scriptures of the bible refers to a heavenly entity who delivers a message from God to humans on Earth, in other words a messenger of God. There is a difference between an angel and the Angel of the Lord, The Angel of the Lord is the only angel appearing continually throughout the old testament referring to himself as the Lord and God in the first person, while the other angels mentioned in the scripture reference to the Lord God as a hallowed third person always humbling themselves and not accepting any type of glory.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: Examples of use of the Hebrew term are found in the following verses, here given in the King James Version translation:


title: Angel of the Lord

text: The Greek translation of the Old Testament known as the Septuagint translates the Hebrew phrase as , "angel of the Lord" or as , "the angel of the Lord". "Owing to the Hebrew idiom, this may mean no more than 'an angel of God', and the Septuagint renders it with or without the article at will."


title: Angel of the Lord

text: The KJV and NKJV capitalize "Angel" in the Old Testament references to ""the" Angel of the Lord", while using lower-case "angel" in the Old Testament references to ""an" angel of the Lord" (and in the New Testament references). Most versions, including NASB, RSV, ESV, etc., do not capitalize "angel" in the mentions of "angel of the Lord".


title: Angel of the Lord

text: In the New Testament the Greek phrase (—"angel of the Lord") is found in , , , , ; , ; ; , , , and . English translations render the phrase either as "an angel of the Lord" or as "the angel of the Lord". The mentions in and of "his angel" (the Lord's angel) can also be understood as referring either to "the" angel of the Lord or "an" angel of the Lord.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: An angel of the Lord who is mentioned in Luke 1:11 makes himself and his identity known as Gabriel in .


title: Angel of the Lord

text: Appearances of the "angel of the Lord" may leave the reader with the question of whether an angel or YHWH had appeared. Apart from the view that "the angel of the Lord is just that—an angel", there are a variety of interpretations, e.g. that the angel is an earthly manifestation of the God of Israel or of Jesus Christ.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: The Hellenistic Jewish philosopher Philo (2nd century B.C.) identified the angel of the Lord (singular) with Logos.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: In the "Catholic Encyclopedia" (1907) Hugh Pope writes: "The earlier Fathers, going by the letter of the text in the Septuagint, maintained that it was God Himself who appeared as the Giver of the Law to Moses. It was not unnatural then for Tertullian [...] to regard such manifestations in the light of preludes to the Incarnation, and most of the Eastern Fathers followed the same line of thought." Pope quotes the view of Theodoret that the angel was probably Christ, "the Only-begotten Son, the Angel of great Counsel", and contrasts Theodoret's view with the view of the Latin Fathers Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the Great that it was no more than an angel, a view that, he says, "was destined to live in the Church...". Pope quotes Augustine, who declared that "the angel is correctly termed an angel if we consider him himself, but equally correctly is he termed 'the Lord' because God dwells in him." He indicates, however, that within the Catholic Church the opposite view was also upheld.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: Appearances of the "angel of the Lord" are often presented as theophanies, appearances of God himself, rather than a separate entity acting on his behalf. In , "the angel of God" says, "I am the God of Beth-el". In "the angel of YHWH" () appeared to Moses in the flame of fire, and then "YHWH" () says to him: "I am the God of thy father". Compare also ; . At times the angel of the Lord speaks in such a way as to assume authority over previous promises (see Gen. 16:11 and 21:17). According to the New American Bible, the visual form under which God appeared and spoke to men is referred to in some Old Testament texts as God's angel and in other texts as God himself. This would be consistent with the usage of ancient spokesmen: After an introductory phrase, they used the grammatical first person point of view in stating the message of whomever they represented.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: In the late 20th century, Samuel A. Meier's introduced an interpolation theory, suggesting that when there is ambiguity between YHWH and the "angel of YHWH", it is YHWH himself delivering the message. Later, copyists inserted the term before the divine name to modify the narratives, in order to meet the standards of a changing theology which more strongly emphasized a transcendent God. If the term is removed from these passages, the remaining story fits neatly with a "default" format in Near Eastern literature in which the deity appears directly to humans without an intermediary.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: The early Church Fathers, such as Justin Martyr, identify the angel of the Lord as the pre-incarnate Christ whose appearance, i.e. Christophany, is recorded in the Hebrew Bible. On the reason why some early Christians viewed Jesus as the angel of the Lord, Susan Garrett says,


title: Angel of the Lord

text: Some [Jews during the time of Jesus and shortly before] understood the angel of the LORD as a being completely separate from God—a sort of angelic vizier or righthand angel, who served as head of the heavenly host and... as a mediator between God and humans... [Apart] from Christianity there was talk among ancient Jews of God’s "word", God’s "glory", and so forth in terms highly reminiscent of the angel of the LORD. So, when early Christian authors like Justin Martyr connected Jesus with God’s word and that word, in turn, with the angel of the LORD, they were not inventing from scratch... In the time of the early Church, "an essential ingredient of anti-Jewish polemics" was identification of the Angel of the Lord as Jesus Christ.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: In the 17th century, Matthew Henry refers to 1 Corinthians 10:9, where the Israelites are said to have tempted Christ in the desert, as evidence that the angel of God is Christ.


title: Angel of the Lord

text: In "Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology", Louis Goldberg writes: "The functions of the angel of the Lord in the Old Testament prefigure the reconciling ministry of Jesus. In the New Testament, there is no mention of the angel of the Lord; the Messiah himself is this person." In contrast, Knofel Staton says: "The idea that this angel was Christ is unlikely for many reasons, which include the following: 1) God never said to any angel (including the 'angel of the Lord') 'you are my son' (Heb 1:5) ...". Similarly, Ben Witherington says: "The angel of the Lord is just that – an angel. [... T]he divine son of God [...] was no mere angel of the Lord, nor did he manifest himself in some observable form prior to the Incarnation."


title: Angel of the Lord

text: Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the angel who brought the Israelites into their promised land (and would not pardon transgression because God's name was in him ) was "God's firstborn Son". They sometimes refer to the pre-existent Christ as the archangel Michael. In this way, they link the prince of the people of Israel mentioned in to the firstborn called "the Son of God" because he was created with qualities like those of his Father.


title: Image (mathematics)

text: More generally, evaluating a given function formula_1 at each element of a given subset formula_2 of its domain produces a set, called the "image of formula_2 under (or through) formula_1". Similarly, the inverse image (or preimage) of a given subset formula_5 of the codomain of formula_6 is the set of all elements of the domain that map to the members of formula_7


title: Image (mathematics)

text: The word "image" is used in three related ways. In these definitions, formula_8 is a function from the set formula_9 to the set formula_10


title: Image (mathematics)

text: If formula_11 is a member of formula_12 then the image of formula_11 under formula_6 denoted formula_15 is the value of formula_1 when applied to formula_17 formula_18 is alternatively known as the output of formula_1 for argument formula_17


title: Image (mathematics)

text: Given formula_21 the function formula_1 is said to "" or "" if there exists some formula_11 in the function's domain such that formula_24


title: Image (mathematics)

text: Similarly, given a set formula_25 formula_1 is said to "" if there exists formula_11 in the function's domain such that formula_28


title: Image (mathematics)

text: The under formula_1 of a subset formula_2 of formula_9 is the set of all formula_36 for formula_37 It is denoted by formula_38 or by formula_39 when there is no risk of confusion. Using set-builder notation, this definition can be written as


title: Image (mathematics)

text: This induces a function formula_41 where formula_42 denotes the power set of a set formula_43 that is the set of all subsets of formula_44 See below for more.


title: Image (mathematics)

text: The "image" of a function is the image of its entire domain, also known as the range of the function. This last usage should be avoided because the word "range" is also commonly used to mean the codomain of formula_45


title: Image (mathematics)

text: If formula_46 is an arbitrary binary relation on formula_47 then the set formula_48 is called the image, or the range, of formula_49 Dually, the set formula_50 is called the domain of formula_49


title: Image (mathematics)

text: Let formula_1 be a function from formula_9 to formula_10 The preimage or inverse image of a set formula_55 under formula_6 denoted by formula_57 is the subset of formula_9 defined by


title: Image (mathematics)

text: The inverse image of a singleton set, denoted by formula_62 or by formula_63 is also called the fiber or fiber over formula_64 or the level set of formula_65 The set of all the fibers over the elements of formula_66 is a family of sets indexed by formula_10


title: Image (mathematics)

text: For example, for the function formula_68 the inverse image of formula_69 would be formula_70 Again, if there is no risk of confusion, formula_71 can be denoted by formula_72 and formula_73 can also be thought of as a function from the power set of formula_66 to the power set of formula_75 The notation formula_73 should not be confused with that for inverse function, although it coincides with the usual one for bijections in that the inverse image of formula_5 under formula_1 is the image of formula_5 under formula_80


title: Image (mathematics)

text: The traditional notations used in the previous section do not distinguish the original function formula_8 from the image-of-sets function formula_82; likewise they do not distinguish the inverse function (assuming one exists) from the inverse image function (which again relates the powersets). Given the right context, this keeps the notation light and usually does not cause confusion. But if needed, an alternative is to give explicit names for the image and preimage as functions between power sets:


title: Image (mathematics)

text: For every function formula_8 and all subsets formula_138 and formula_139 the following properties hold:


title: Image (mathematics)

text: For functions formula_8 and formula_142 with subsets formula_138 and formula_144 the following properties hold:


title: Image (mathematics)

text: The results relating images and preimages to the (Boolean) algebra of intersection and union work for any collection of subsets, not just for pairs of subsets:


title: Image (mathematics)

text: With respect to the algebra of subsets described above, the inverse image function is a lattice homomorphism, while the image function is only a semilattice homomorphism (that is, it does not always preserve intersections).


title: Jim Edmonds

text: James Patrick Edmonds (born June 27, 1970) is an American former professional baseball center fielder and a broadcaster for Bally Sports Midwest. He played for the California/Anaheim Angels, St. Louis Cardinals, San Diego Padres, Chicago Cubs, Milwaukee Brewers, and Cincinnati Reds of Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1993 to 2010.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Well known for his defensive abilities, Edmonds also was a prolific hitter, batting .284 with 393 home runs and an on-base plus slugging percentage (OPS) of .903. He is affectionately known by Cardinal fans as "Jimmy Baseball", "Jimmy Ballgame", and "The Jibmaster".


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds was born on June 27, 1970, in Fullerton, California. His parents divorced when he was a child and had joint custody. His father's home was within a few miles of Anaheim Stadium. He attended Diamond Bar High School in Diamond Bar, in eastern Los Angeles County.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds was selected in the seventh round of the 1988 Major League Baseball draft by the California Angels. He had injured his shoulder in his senior year of high school, causing him to fall in the draft.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Following the draft, he was assigned to the Bend Bucks, the Angels' A-Short Season affiliate in the Northwest League. In 1988, he played in 35 games for the Bucks and hit .221 with no home runs and 13 runs batted in. The following year, he was promoted to the Quad Cities Angels, the team's Class-A affiliate in the Midwest League. He played in 31 games and hit .261 with 1 home run and 4 RBIs.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: In 1990, Edmonds advanced to the Palm Springs Angels, the Angels' High-A affiliate in the California League. He played 91 games and hit .293 with 3 home runs and 56 RBIs. He remained with Palm Springs for the 1991 season, playing 60 games while batting .294 with 2 home runs and 27 RBIs. In 1992, he was promoted to Double-A with the Midland Angels in the Texas League. He hit .313 with 8 home runs and 32 RBIs in 70 games for Midland. He was promoted again in 1992, moving up to the Triple-A Edmonton Trappers for 50 games, batting .299 with 6 home runs and 36 RBIs. In 1993, Edmonds played for the new Angels Triple-A affiliate, the Vancouver Canadians. He played 95 games for the team, batting .315 and hitting 9 home runs with 74 RBIs.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On September 7, 1993, the Angels promoted Edmonds to the majors for the first time. He made his MLB debut on September 9, starting in left field against the Detroit Tigers at Tiger Stadium, going 0-for-4 with 2 strikeouts. Edmonds collected his first major league hit on September 10 against the Toronto Blue Jays in the SkyDome, a pinch-hit double in the ninth inning off of Duane Ward. Edmonds collected his first major league RBI on September 14 against Seattle Mariners pitcher Roger Salkeld, driving in Chad Curtis with a single. In his September call-up 1993 season, Edmonds batted .246 in 61 at bats across 18 games.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Despite the signings of outfielders Bo Jackson and Dwight Smith in the offseason, Edmonds made the Angels' 1994 Opening Day roster. Edmonds received sporadic playing time for the first half of the season, often pinch hitting and rarely starting games. He did not hit his first major league home run until May 11, 1994, in a game against the Texas Rangers where he hit a 2-run shot off Rick Helling. Through his first 50 games in 1994, Edmonds was batting .328 with a .405 on-base percentage. By June, Edmonds began to receive more regular playing time, serving as the primary left fielder after Bo Jackson had been benched and Dwight Smith had been traded to Baltimore. Midway through the season, Edmonds was considered by the media to be a prime candidate for the AL Rookie of the Year Award. Although Edmonds's high averages regressed as he played more games, he finished the strike-shortened season batting .273 with 5 home runs and 37 RBIs. He placed eighth in AL Rookie of the Year voting.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: With the departure of Chad Curtis in the offseason, Edmonds became the Angels' everyday center fielder for the 1995 season. In his new role as the team's primary center fielder, Edmonds also emerged as a formidable power hitter; he only had 29 home runs in his 6-year minor league career and 5 in his true rookie season, leading to him being initially recognized as a contact hitter when coupled with his high batting averages. Edmonds did not hit any home runs through the first 17 games of the 1995 season, but hit 6 with an .857 slugging percentage in an 8-game stretch from May 15 to May 23. Edmonds received his first All-Star Game selection in 1995 and was batting .291 with 13 home runs and 52 RBIs at the All-Star break. Edmonds finished the 1995 season batting .290 with 33 home runs and 107 RBIs.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds returned to the Angels in 1996 as one of the team's best all-around hitters. On March 7, he agreed to a 4-year, $9.5 million contract extension with the Angels that included a team option in the fifth year. He suffered groin and stomach injuries on May 25, sidelining him for a month. Edmonds returned to the field on June 10 but sprained his thumb the following day, causing him to be out for another month. He returned to action on July 18, going 2-for-5 with a home run against the Seattle Mariners. Edmonds finished the 1996 season batting .304 with 27 home runs and 66 RBIs.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds, along with Tim Salmon, Garret Anderson, and Darin Erstad, comprised a group of four outfielders that emerged as viable options for the Angels in the mid-1990s. This created a dilemma for the team's front office, who sought to have all four players serve as everyday starters. As a result, the Angels traded designated hitter Chili Davis and first baseman J. T. Snow for pitching in the 1996–97 offseason in order to create playing time for all four outfielders. Amid the positional shakeup, Edmonds was able to stay in center field while Erstad moved to first base. Edmonds received recognition for his defensive prowess in 1997, often making highlight reels. During a June 10, 1997, game against the Kansas City Royals, Edmonds ran straight back towards the center field wall of Kauffman Stadium and dove outstretched for a fly ball over his head, making the catch on the warning track. The catch is widely viewed as one of the greatest defensive plays in baseball history, with Joe Posnanski of "The Athletic" ranking it as the 29th-greatest moment in all of baseball history. In the 1997 season, Edmonds batted .291 and hit 26 home runs with 80 RBIs. Following the season, he received his first career Gold Glove Award.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: In September 1998, the division-leading Angels fell behind the Texas Rangers in the standings, ultimately losing the division and missing out on the playoffs. Edmonds, despite batting .340 that month with 5 home runs and 20 RBIs, was criticized by some teammates for his purported nonchalance towards the Angels' late-season elimination. In an interview, Edmonds said that he wasn't "going to come in the next day and want to kill himself" if the Angels were mathematically eliminated. In 1998, Edmonds played a career-high 154 games, hitting .307 with 25 home runs and 91 RBIs. He received his second career Gold Glove Award.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: During spring training in 1999, Edmonds tore the labrum in his right shoulder while lifting weights, aggravating an injury he had been playing through for several years prior. He underwent surgery to correct the injury, sidelining him for the first half of the season. In addition to the deactivating surgery, tensions were also rising in the clubhouse as some teammates were taking exception to Edmonds's alleged nonchalant, dismissive attitude. These factors created doubt that the Angels would bring back Edmonds after the 1999 season. Team newcomer Mo Vaughn, who had yet to share the field with Edmonds, accused him of not accepting responsibility for team struggles. Edmonds returned to the field as a designated hitter on August 2, 1999, going 2-for-4 against the Texas Rangers with a double. He returned to center field on August 7. He finished his abbreviated 1999 season batting .250 with 5 home runs and 23 RBIs in 55 games.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On March 23, 2000, the Angels traded Edmonds to the St. Louis Cardinals for second baseman Adam Kennedy and pitcher Kent Bottenfield. Five days prior, Angels general manager Bill Stoneman had told Edmonds that he would not be traded, but plans purportedly changed when St. Louis made Kennedy available.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds made his Cardinals debut on April 3, 2000, going 0-for-3 with 2 walks against the Chicago Cubs. He recorded his first hit, home run, and RBI as a Cardinal the following day. Through his first 50 games, Edmonds batted .371 with 16 home runs and 39 RBIs. He received his second career All-Star selection, starting in the game in place of the injured Ken Griffey Jr., going 1-for-2 with a hit off David Wells. Edmonds finished the year batting .295 with 42 home runs and 108 RBIs. He received his third career Gold Glove Award and finished fourth in National League Most Valuable Player Award voting. In the postseason, Edmonds batted .361 with 3 home runs and 12 RBIs in 8 games.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: In 2001, Edmonds batted .304 with 30 home runs and 110 RBIs. He received his second consecutive Gold Glove Award, the fourth of his career. In the 2001 National League Division Series, Edmonds batted .235 with 2 home runs and 3 RBIs.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: In 2002, Edmonds batted a career-high .311 with 28 home runs and 83 RBIs. He was awarded his third consecutive Gold Glove Award, the fifth of his career. In the 2002 postseason, Edmonds batted .355 with 2 home runs and 6 RBIs through 8 games.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: In 2003, Edmonds received his third career All-Star selection. Through the All-Star break, he batted .303 with 28 home runs and 67 RBIs. Edmonds started in center field in the All-Star game and batted second, going 1-for-2 with a first-inning single off AL starter Esteban Loaiza. Edmonds slumped after the All-Star break, batting .214 with 11 home runs and 22 RBIs. He finished the season batting .275 with 39 home runs and 89 RBIs. He received his fourth consecutive Gold Glove Award, the sixth of his career.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: The 2004 season was among the statistically best for Edmonds. He hit .301, had a .643 slugging percentage, 42 home runs, and 111 RBI; all but batting average were career highs. As a result, he earned a Silver Slugger Award, a Gold Glove Award, and was fifth in the voting for the NL Most Valuable Player Award. During a Chicago Cubs-Cardinals game at Wrigley Field on July 19, 2004, pitcher Carlos Zambrano was ejected from the game for throwing at Edmonds. Zambrano screamed at Edmonds as he rounded the bases on a home run, earning Zambrano a five-game suspension. Edmonds, along with Albert Pujols and Scott Rolen, earned the nickname "MV3" for their standout 2004 seasons. Edmonds was on the cover of video game "MLB Slugfest" in 2004. A defining moment of Edmonds' career came in the 2004 National League Championship Series, in which Edmonds hit a twelfth-inning home run to win Game 6. In Game 7, Edmonds made a spectacular defensive play in center, helping the Cardinals win the pennant.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: In 2005, Edmonds hit .263 with 29 home runs and 89 RBIs, earning his fourth career All-Star selection. During Game 4 of the 2005 National League Championship Series, Edmonds was ejected in the eighth inning for arguing a strike call made by home plate umpire Phil Cuzzi. Edmonds later said that he "wasn't trying to show up" Cuzzi and said that Cuzzi responded profanely, a claim that was not contested. In 9 postseason games in 2005, Edmonds batted .267 with a home run, an RBI, and 3 doubles.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On Mother's Day in 2006, Edmonds was one of more than 50 hitters who used a pink bat to benefit the Susan G. Komen for the Cure foundation. Late in the 2006 season, Edmonds began having trouble with fielding that plagued the rest of his tenure with St. Louis. On June 21, he crashed into the wall of U.S. Cellular Field while playing against the Chicago White Sox trying to rob a home run ball. Intermittent bouts of nausea, dizziness, and blurred vision followed in the next few weeks for him, particularly intensifying on diving attempts. Two months after the crash, he was diagnosed with post-concussion syndrome. In the 2006 postseason, Edmonds helped the St. Louis Cardinals win their first World Series title since 1982 while having 13 total hits in the postseason with two home runs while batting in all 16 games.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On December 14, 2007, the Cardinals traded Edmonds to the San Diego Padres in exchange for prospect David Freese. As part of the deal, the Cardinals also agreed to pay part of Edmonds's 2008 salary. Edmonds' 241 home runs with the Cardinals are the fourth-most in franchise history. On May 9, 2008, the Padres released him after hitting only .178 with one home run in 90 at bats.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On May 14, 2008, the Chicago Cubs, in need of a left-handed bat, signed Edmonds to a one-year contract of which the Cubs were only responsible for the league minimum. He started the next day against his former team, the Padres, and went 1-for-4. Edmonds was not well-received initially by the fans in Chicago, but after joining the Cubs, he hit over .300 with 8 home runs in his first six weeks. On June 21, 2008, Edmonds hit two home runs in the fourth inning against the Chicago White Sox.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds did not play in 2009 because he did not receive what he considered a good offer. In January 2010, he announced his intention to return to the majors, saying, "Last year was a mistake. I should have played somewhere."


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On January 28, 2010, Edmonds signed a minor league deal with the Milwaukee Brewers. The Brewers added him to the major league roster on March 25.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On August 9, 2010, Edmonds was traded to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Chris Dickerson. Both Edmonds and Dickerson had to clear waivers because the non-waiver trade deadline had already passed.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On February 4, 2011, Edmonds signed a minor league contract with the St. Louis Cardinals; however, after continuing symptoms from a strained Achilles tendon suffered during the 2010 season, Edmonds officially announced his retirement from baseball on February 18, 2011.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On March 14, 2013, Fox Sports Midwest announced that they had hired Edmonds to join their St. Louis Cardinals broadcasting crew. Edmonds initially served as an analyst during "Cardinals Live" pre-game and post-game broadcasts. He replaced Cal Eldred, a former Cardinal pitcher who had broadcast for FSM for four years and was moving on to become a special assistant in the Cardinals organization. Since 2016, Edmonds has alternated between the "Cardinals Live" studio role and serving as a color commentator in the booth for certain games.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: He has a son and a daughter from his second marriage, to Allison Jayne Raski, which lasted from 2008 to 2014.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds married Meghan O'Toole King on October 24, 2014. She joined the cast of "The Real Housewives of Orange County" in 2015; Edmonds appeared on the show. They welcomed a daughter on Thanksgiving Day 2016 and twin boys on June 5, 2018. On October 25, 2019, the day after their fifth wedding anniversary, Edmonds filed for divorce.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds opened several restaurants with business partner Mark Winfield. The pair opened their first restaurant in 2007, while Edmonds was still playing for the Cardinals. Called Jim Edmonds 15 Steakhouse, it closed in September 2013.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Within a few months, they opened a new restaurant in the space called The Precinct; it would close in May 2015.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: In 2015, they opened a BBQ-style restaurant called Winfield's Gathering Place in Kirkwood, Missouri; it closed on July 2, 2016.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: Edmonds' fielding ability has earned him recognition from Major League coaches and managers, who voted him a Rawlings Gold Glove winner eight times in nine seasons from 1997 to 2005.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: ESPN's Rob Neyer lists Edmonds as No. 12 of the top 100 players of the first decade of the 21st century due to his productivity at the plate and gold-glove skills in center field.


title: Jim Edmonds

text: On August 8, 2014, Edmonds was inducted into the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame. He was announced as a candidate for the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum on November 9, 2015, but was removed from the ballot on January 6, 2016, after only receiving 2.5% of the vote in his first year of eligibility.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: In nuclear physics, a nuclear chain reaction occurs when one single nuclear reaction causes an average of one or more subsequent nuclear reactions, thus leading to the possibility of a self-propagating series of these reactions. The specific nuclear reaction may be the fission of heavy isotopes (e.g., uranium-235, U). A nuclear chain reaction releases several million times more energy per reaction than any chemical reaction.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Chemical chain reactions were first proposed by German chemist Max Bodenstein in 1913, and were reasonably well understood before nuclear chain reactions were proposed. It was understood that chemical chain reactions were responsible for exponentially increasing rates in reactions, such as produced in chemical explosions.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: The concept of a nuclear chain reaction was reportedly first hypothesized by Hungarian scientist Leó Szilárd on September 12, 1933. Szilárd that morning had been reading in a London paper of an experiment in which protons from an accelerator had been used to split lithium-7 into alpha particles, and the fact that much greater amounts of energy were produced by the reaction than the proton supplied. Ernest Rutherford commented in the article that inefficiencies in the process precluded use of it for power generation. However, the neutron had been discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, shortly before, as the product of a nuclear reaction. Szilárd, who had been trained as an engineer and physicist, put the two nuclear experimental results together in his mind and realized that if a nuclear reaction produced neutrons, which then caused further similar nuclear reactions, the process might be a self-perpetuating nuclear chain-reaction, spontaneously producing new isotopes and power without the need for protons or an accelerator. Szilárd, however, did not propose fission as the mechanism for his chain reaction, since the fission reaction was not yet discovered, or even suspected. Instead, Szilárd proposed using mixtures of lighter known isotopes which produced neutrons in copious amounts. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: In 1936, Szilárd attempted to create a chain reaction using beryllium and indium, but was unsuccessful. Nuclear fission was discovered by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in December 1938 and explained theoretically in January 1939 by Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch. In their second publication on nuclear fission in February of 1939, Hahn and Strassmann used the term "Uranspaltung" (uranium fission) for the first time, and predicted the existence and liberation of additional neutrons during the fission process, opening up the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: A few months later, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, H. Von Halban and L. Kowarski in Paris searched for, and discovered, neutron multiplication in uranium, proving that a nuclear chain reaction by this mechanism was indeed possible.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: On May 4, 1939, Joliot-Curie, Halban, and Kowarski filed three patents. The first two described power production from a nuclear chain reaction, the last one called "Perfectionnement aux charges explosives" was the first patent for the atomic bomb and is filed as patent No. 445686 by the Caisse nationale de Recherche Scientifique.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: In parallel, Szilárd and Enrico Fermi in New York made the same analysis. This discovery prompted the letter from Szilárd and signed by Albert Einstein to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, warning of the possibility that Nazi Germany might be attempting to build an atomic bomb.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: On December 2, 1942, a team led by Fermi (and including Szilárd) produced the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction with the Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1) experimental reactor in a racquets court below the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago. Fermi's experiments at the University of Chicago were part of Arthur H. Compton's Metallurgical Laboratory of the Manhattan Project; the lab was later renamed Argonne National Laboratory, and tasked with conducting research in harnessing fission for nuclear energy.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: In 1956, Paul Kuroda of the University of Arkansas postulated that a natural fission reactor may have once existed. Since nuclear chain reactions may only require natural materials (such as water and uranium, if the uranium has sufficient amounts of U), it was possible to have these chain reactions occur in the distant past when uranium-235 concentrations were higher than today, and where there was the right combination of materials within the Earth's crust. made up a larger share of uranium on earth in the geological past due to the different half life of the isotopes and , the former decaying almost an order of magnitude faster than the latter. Kuroda's prediction was verified with the discovery of evidence of natural self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions in the past at Oklo in Gabon in September 1972. To sustain a nuclear fission chain reaction at present isotope ratios in natural uranium on earth would require the presence of a neutron moderator like heavy water or high purity carbon (e.g. graphite) in the absence of neutron poisons, which is even more unlikely to arise by natural geological processes than the conditions at Oklo some two billion years ago.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Fission chain reactions occur because of interactions between neutrons and fissile isotopes (such as U). The chain reaction requires both the release of neutrons from fissile isotopes undergoing nuclear fission and the subsequent absorption of some of these neutrons in fissile isotopes. When an atom undergoes nuclear fission, a few neutrons (the exact number depends on uncontrollable and unmeasurable factors; the expected number depends on several factors, usually between 2.5 and 3.0) are ejected from the reaction. These free neutrons will then interact with the surrounding medium, and if more fissile fuel is present, some may be absorbed and cause more fissions. Thus, the cycle repeats to give a reaction that is self-sustaining.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Nuclear power plants operate by precisely controlling the rate at which nuclear reactions occur. Nuclear weapons, on the other hand, are specifically engineered to produce a reaction that is so fast and intense it cannot be controlled after it has started. When properly designed, this uncontrolled reaction will lead to an explosive energy release.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Nuclear weapons employ high quality, highly enriched fuel exceeding the critical size and geometry (critical mass) necessary in order to obtain an explosive chain reaction. The fuel for energy purposes, such as in a nuclear fission reactor, is very different, usually consisting of a low-enriched oxide material (e.g. UO). There are two primary isotopes used for fission reactions inside of nuclear reactors. The first and most common is U-235 or uranium-235. This is the fissile isotope of uranium and it makes up approximately 0.7% of all naturally occurring uranium. Because of the small amount of uranium-235 that exists, it is considered a non-renewable energy source despite being found in rock formations around the world. U-235 cannot be used as fuel in its base form for energy production. It must undergo a process known as refinement to produce the compound UO or uranium dioxide. The uranium dioxide is then pressed and formed into ceramic pellets, which can subsequently be placed into fuel rods. This is when the compound uranium dioxide can be used for nuclear power production. The second most common isotope used in nuclear fission is Pu-239 or plutonium-239. This is due to its ability to become fissile with slow neutron interaction. This isotope is formed inside nuclear reactors through exposing U-238 to the neutrons released by the radioactive U-235 isotope. This neutron capture causes beta particle decay that enables U-238 to transform into Pu-239. Plutonium was once found naturally in the earth's crust but only trace amounts remain. The only way it is accessible in large quantities for energy production is through the neutron capture method. Another proposed fuel for nuclear reactors, which however plays no commercial role as of 2021, is which is "bred" by neutron capture and subsequent beta decays from natural thorium, which is almost 100% composed of the isotope Thorium-232. This is called the Thorium fuel cycle.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: The fissile isotope uranium-235 in its natural concentration is unfit for the vast majority nuclear reactors. In order to be prepared for use as fuel in energy production, it must be enriched. The enrichment process does not apply to plutonium. Reactor-grade plutonium is created as a byproduct of neutron interaction between two different isotopes of uranium. The first step to enriching uranium begins by converting uranium oxide (created through the uranium milling process) into a gaseous form. This gas is known as uranium hexafluoride, which is created by combining hydrogen fluoride, fluorine gas, and uranium oxide. Uranium dioxide is also present in this process and it is sent off to be used in reactors not requiring enriched fuel. The remaining uranium hexafluoride compound is drained into strong metal cylinders where it solidifies. The next step is separating the uranium hexafluoride from the depleted U-235 left over. This is typically done with centrifuges that spin fast enough to allow for the 1% mass difference in uranium isotopes to separate themselves. A laser is then used to enrich the hexafluoride compound. The final step involves reconverting the now enriched compound back into uranium oxide, leaving the final product: enriched uranium oxide. This form of UO can now be used in fission reactors inside power plants to produce energy.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: When a fissile atom undergoes nuclear fission, it breaks into two or more fission fragments. Also, several free neutrons, gamma rays, and neutrinos are emitted, and a large amount of energy is released. The sum of the rest masses of the fission fragments and ejected neutrons is less than the sum of the rest masses of the original atom and incident neutron (of course the fission fragments are not at rest). The mass difference is accounted for in the release of energy according to the equation "E=Δmc":


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Due to the extremely large value of the speed of light, "c", a small decrease in mass is associated with a tremendous release of active energy (for example, the kinetic energy of the fission fragments). This energy (in the form of radiation and heat) carries the missing mass, when it leaves the reaction system (total mass, like total energy, is always conserved). While typical chemical reactions release energies on the order of a few eVs (e.g. the binding energy of the electron to hydrogen is 13.6 eV), nuclear fission reactions typically release energies on the order of hundreds of millions of eVs.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Two typical fission reactions are shown below with average values of energy released and number of neutrons ejected:


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Note that these equations are for fissions caused by slow-moving (thermal) neutrons. The average energy released and number of neutrons ejected is a function of the incident neutron speed. Also, note that these equations exclude energy from neutrinos since these subatomic particles are extremely non-reactive and, therefore, rarely deposit their energy in the system.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: The prompt neutron lifetime, "l", is the average time between the emission of neutrons and either their absorption in the system or their escape from the system. The neutrons that occur directly from fission are called "prompt neutrons", and the ones that are a result of radioactive decay of fission fragments are called "delayed neutrons". The term lifetime is used because the emission of a neutron is often considered its "birth", and the subsequent absorption is considered its "death". For thermal (slow-neutron) fission reactors, the typical prompt neutron lifetime is on the order of 10 seconds, and for fast fission reactors, the prompt neutron lifetime is on the order of 10 seconds. These extremely short lifetimes mean that in 1 second, 10,000 to 10,000,000 neutron lifetimes can pass. The "average" (also referred to as the "adjoint unweighted") prompt neutron lifetime takes into account all prompt neutrons regardless of their importance in the reactor core; the "effective" prompt neutron lifetime (referred to as the "adjoint weighted" over space, energy, and angle) refers to a neutron with average importance.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: The mean generation time, Λ, is the average time from a neutron emission to a capture that results in fission. The mean generation time is different from the prompt neutron lifetime because the mean generation time only includes neutron absorptions that lead to fission reactions (not other absorption reactions). The two times are related by the following formula:


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: The six factor formula effective neutron multiplication factor, "k", is the average number of neutrons from one fission that cause another fission. The remaining neutrons either are absorbed in non-fission reactions or leave the system without being absorbed. The value of "k" determines how a nuclear chain reaction proceeds:


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: When describing kinetics and dynamics of nuclear reactors, and also in the practice of reactor operation, the concept of reactivity is used, which characterizes the deflection of reactor from the critical state: ρ = ("k" − 1)/"k". InHour (from "inverse of an hour", sometimes abbreviated ih or inhr) is a unit of reactivity of a nuclear reactor.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: In a nuclear reactor, "k" will actually oscillate from slightly less than 1 to slightly more than 1, due primarily to thermal effects (as more power is produced, the fuel rods warm and thus expand, lowering their capture ratio, and thus driving "k" lower). This leaves the average value of "k" at exactly 1. Delayed neutrons play an important role in the timing of these oscillations.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: In an infinite medium, the multiplication factor may be described by the four factor formula; in a non-infinite medium, the multiplication factor may be described by the six factor formula.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Not all neutrons are emitted as a direct product of fission; some are instead due to the radioactive decay of some of the fission fragments. The neutrons that occur directly from fission are called "prompt neutrons", and the ones that are a result of radioactive decay of fission fragments are called "delayed neutrons". The fraction of neutrons that are delayed is called β, and this fraction is typically less than 1% of all the neutrons in the chain reaction.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: The delayed neutrons allow a nuclear reactor to respond several orders of magnitude more slowly than just prompt neutrons would alone. Without delayed neutrons, changes in reaction rates in nuclear reactors would occur at speeds that are too fast for humans to control.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: The region of supercriticality between "k" = 1 and "k" = 1/(1 − β) is known as delayed supercriticality (or delayed criticality). It is in this region that all nuclear power reactors operate. The region of supercriticality for "k" > 1/(1 − β) is known as prompt supercriticality (or prompt criticality), which is the region in which nuclear weapons operate.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: For a given mass of fissile material the value of "k" can be increased by increasing the density. Since the probability per distance travelled for a neutron to collide with a nucleus is proportional to the material density, increasing the density of a fissile material can increase "k". This concept is utilized in the implosion method for nuclear weapons. In these devices, the nuclear chain reaction begins after increasing the density of the fissile material with a conventional explosive.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: In the gun-type fission weapon, two subcritical pieces of fuel are rapidly brought together. The value of "k" for a combination of two masses is always greater than that of its components. The magnitude of the difference depends on distance, as well as the physical orientation.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Once the mass of fuel is prompt supercritical, the power increases exponentially. However, the exponential power increase cannot continue for long since k decreases when the amount of fission material that is left decreases (i.e. it is consumed by fissions). Also, the geometry and density are expected to change during detonation since the remaining fission material is torn apart from the explosion.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Detonation of a nuclear weapon involves bringing fissile material into its optimal supercritical state very rapidly. During part of this process, the assembly is supercritical, but not yet in an optimal state for a chain reaction. Free neutrons, in particular from spontaneous fissions, can cause the device to undergo a preliminary chain reaction that destroys the fissile material before it is ready to produce a large explosion, which is known as predetonation.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: To keep the probability of predetonation low, the duration of the non-optimal assembly period is minimized and fissile and other materials are used that have low spontaneous fission rates. In fact, the combination of materials has to be such that it is unlikely that there is even a single spontaneous fission during the period of supercritical assembly. In particular, the gun method cannot be used with plutonium (see nuclear weapon design).


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: Chain reactions naturally give rise to reaction rates that grow (or shrink) exponentially, whereas a nuclear power reactor needs to be able to hold the reaction rate reasonably constant. To maintain this control, the chain reaction criticality must have a slow enough time scale to permit intervention by additional effects (e.g., mechanical control rods or thermal expansion). Consequently, all nuclear power reactors (even fast-neutron reactors) rely on delayed neutrons for their criticality. An operating nuclear power reactor fluctuates between being slightly subcritical and slightly delayed-supercritical, but must always remain below prompt-critical.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: It is impossible for a nuclear power plant to undergo a nuclear chain reaction that results in an explosion of power comparable with a nuclear weapon, but even low-powered explosions due to uncontrolled chain reactions (that would be considered "fizzles" in a bomb) may still cause considerable damage and meltdown in a reactor. For example, the Chernobyl disaster involved a runaway chain reaction but the result was a low-powered steam explosion from the relatively small release of heat, as compared with a bomb. However, the reactor complex was destroyed by the heat, as well as by ordinary burning of the graphite exposed to air. Such steam explosions would be typical of the very diffuse assembly of materials in a nuclear reactor, even under the worst conditions.


title: Nuclear chain reaction

text: In addition, other steps can be taken for safety. For example, power plants licensed in the United States require a negative void coefficient of reactivity (this means that if coolant is removed from the reactor core, the nuclear reaction will tend to shut down, not increase). This eliminates the possibility of the type of accident that occurred at Chernobyl (which was due to a positive void coefficient). However, nuclear reactors are still capable of causing smaller explosions even after complete shutdown, such as was the case of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. In such cases, residual decay heat from the core may cause high temperatures if there is loss of coolant flow, even a day after the chain reaction has been shut down (see SCRAM). This may cause a chemical reaction between water and fuel that produces hydrogen gas, which can explode after mixing with air, with severe contamination consequences, since fuel rod material may still be exposed to the atmosphere from this process. However, such explosions do not happen during a chain reaction, but rather as a result of energy from radioactive beta decay, after the fission chain reaction has been stopped.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: The Republic F-84F Thunderstreak was an American swept-wing turbojet fighter-bomber. While an evolutionary development of the straight-wing F-84 Thunderjet, the F-84F was a new design. The RF-84F Thunderflash was a photo reconnaissance version.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: In 1948, a swept wing version of the F-84 was created with the hope of bringing performance to the level of the F-86. The last production F-84E was fitted with a swept tail, a new wing with 38.5 degrees of leading edge sweep and 3.5 degrees of anhedral, and a J35-A-25 engine producing 5,300 pound-force (23.58 kN) of thrust. The aircraft was designated XF-96A. It flew on 3 June 1950 with Oscar P. Haas at the controls. Although the airplane was capable of 602 knots (693 mph, 1,115 km/h), the performance gain over the F-84E was considered minor. Nonetheless, it was ordered into production in July 1950 as the F-84F Thunderstreak. The F-84 designation was retained because the fighter was expected to be a low-cost improvement of the straight-wing Thunderjet with over 55 percent commonality in tooling.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: In the meantime, the USAF, hoping for improved high-altitude performance from a more powerful engine, arranged for the British Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire turbojet engine to be built in the United States as the Wright J65. To accommodate the larger engine, YF-84Fs with a British-built Sapphire as well as production F-84Fs with the J65 had a vertically stretched fuselage, with the air intake attaining an oval cross-section. Production delays with the F-84F forced the USAF to order a number of straight-wing F-84Gs as an interim measure.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: Production quickly ran into problems. Although tooling commonality with the Thunderjet was supposed to be 55 percent, in reality only fifteen percent of tools could be reused. To make matters worse, the F-84F utilized press-forged wing spars and ribs. At the time, only three presses in the United States could manufacture these, and priority was given to the Boeing B-47 Stratojet bomber over the F-84. The YJ65-W-1 engine was considered obsolete and the improved J65-W-3 did not become available until 1954. When the first production F-84F finally flew on 22 November 1952, it differed from the service test aircraft. It had a different canopy which opened up and back instead of sliding to the rear (a unique design, the canopy was mounted on a pair of hydraulic rams and a pivoted lever arm that allowed it to lift up and backwards while remaining almost level with the fuselage, instead of the more common simple hinged canopy), as well as airbrakes on the sides of the fuselage instead of the bottom of the aircraft. The aircraft was considered not ready for operational deployment due to control and stability problems. The first 275 aircraft, equipped with conventional stabilizer-elevator tailplanes, suffered from accelerated stall pitch-up and poor turning ability at combat speeds. Beginning with Block 25, the problem was improved upon by the introduction of a hydraulically powered one-piece stabilator. A number of aircraft were also retrofitted with spoilers for improved high-speed control. As a result, the F-84F was not declared operational until 12 May 1954.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: The second YF-84F prototype was completed with wing-root air intakes. These were not adopted for the fighter due to loss of thrust. However, this arrangement permitted placement of cameras in the nose and the design was adopted for the RF-84F Thunderflash reconnaissance version. The first YRF-84F was completed in February 1952. The aircraft retained an armament of four machine guns and could carry up to fifteen cameras. Innovations included computerized controls which adjusted camera settings for light, speed, and altitude, a periscope to give the pilot better visualization of the target, and a voice recorder to let the pilot narrate his observations. Being largely identical to the F-84F, the Thunderflash suffered from the same production delays and engine problems, delaying operational service until March 1954. The aircraft was retired from active duty in 1957, only to be reactivated in 1961, and finally retired from the ANG in 1972.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: The Thunderstreak suffered from the same poor takeoff performance as the straight-wing Thunderjet despite having a more powerful engine. In reality, almost 700 pounds-force (3.11 kN) or ten percent of total thrust was lost because the J65 was installed at an angle and its jet pipe was not perfectly straight (in addition to the usual thrust losses from the long jet pipe). On a hot day, 7,500 feet (2,285 m) of runway were required for takeoff roll. A typical takeoff speed was 160 knots (185 mph, 300 km/h). Like the Thunderjet, the Thunderstreak excelled at cruise and had predictable handling characteristics within its performance envelope. Like its predecessor, it also suffered from accelerated stall pitch-up and potential resulting separation of wings from the airplane. In addition, spins in the F-84F were practically unrecoverable and ejection was the only recourse below 10,000 feet (3,000 m).


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: Project Run In completed operational tests in November 1954 and found the aircraft to be to USAF satisfaction and considerably better than the F-84G. However, ongoing engine failures resulted in the entire fleet being grounded in early 1955. Also, the J65 engine continued to suffer from flameouts when flying through heavy rain or snow. As the result of the problems, the active duty phaseout began almost as soon as the F-84F entered service in 1954, and was completed by 1958. Increased tensions in Germany associated with construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 resulted in reactivation of the F-84F fleet. In 1962, the fleet was grounded due to the corrosion of control rods. A total of 1,800 man hours were expended to bring each aircraft to full operational capacity. Stress corrosion eventually forced the retirement of ANG F-84Fs in 1971.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: On 9 March 1955, Lt. Col. Robert R. Scott, in a F-84F Thunderstreak, set a three-hour, 44-minute and 53-second record for the flight from Los Angeles to New York.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: With the appearance of the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, which used wing-root mounted air intakes of a similar design to those fitted on the RF-84F, the photorecon variant Thunderflash became known as the "Thud's Mother". The earlier F-84A had been nicknamed the "Hog" and the F-84F "Super Hog," the F-105 becoming the "Ultra Hog".


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: In what is probably one of the very few air-to-air engagements involving the F-84F, two Turkish Air Force F-84F Thunderstreaks shot down two Iraqi Il-28 Beagle bombers that crossed the Turkish border by mistake during a bombing operation against Iraqi Kurdish insurgents. This engagement took place on 16 August 1962.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: The F-84F was retired from active service with the USAF in 1964, and replaced by the North American F-100 Super Sabre. The RF-84F was replaced by the RF-101 Voodoo in USAF units, and relegated to duty in the Air National Guard. The last F-84F Thunderflash retired from the ANG in 1971. Three Hellenic Air Force RF-84Fs that were retired in 1991 were the last operational F-84s.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: Richard Bach, who later wrote the bestseller "Jonathan Livingston Seagull", was an ANG F-84F pilot who was once activated for duty in Europe. His first book, "Stranger to the Ground", described in detail what it was like to fly the Thunderstreak in the course of an operational flight at night from England to France in adverse weather.


title: Republic F-84F Thunderstreak

text: F-84Fs were also used to represent North Korean MiG-15 fighters in the 1958 film version of James Salters' novel "The Hunters", because none of the Soviet fighters were available during the ongoing Cold War for filming. They were painted a flat gray with red star insignia.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The Croatian Democratic Union (, HDZ) is the major conservative, centre-right political party in Croatia. It is one of the two major contemporary political parties in Croatia, along with the centre-left Social Democratic Party (SDP). It is currently the largest party in the Sabor with 61 seats. The HDZ governed Croatia from 1990 before the country gained independence from Yugoslavia until 2000 and, in coalition with junior partners, from 2003 to 2011, and since 2016. The party is a member of the European People's Party (EPP). The HDZ's leader, Andrej Plenković, is the current Prime Minister of Croatia, having taken office following the 2016 parliamentary election.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The HDZ was founded on 17 June 1989 by Croatian dissidents led by Franjo Tuđman. It was officially registered on 25 January 1990. The HDZ held its first convention on 24–25 February 1990, when Franjo Tuđman was elected its president. When the party was founded, the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia had just introduced a multi-party system in Croatia and scheduled elections for the Croatian Parliament.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The HDZ began as a nationalist party but also included former partisans and members of the Communist establishment, such as Josip Manolić and Josip Boljkovac. President Tuđman and other HDZ officials traveled abroad and gathered large financial contributions from Croatian expatriates. On the eve of the 1990 parliamentary elections, the ruling League of Communists of Croatia saw such tendencies within the HDZ as an opportunity to remain in power. At the beginning of democracy the communists called HDZ "the party of dangerous intentions". The HDZ won a majority in the Croatian Parliament, and Croatia (then part of Yugoslavia) became one of the few socialist countries where Communist single party rule was replaced by anti-Communist single party rule. 30 May 1990, the day the HDZ formally took power, is now celebrated as Statehood Day.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: A presidential election was held in 1992, and Tuđman, who would remain as undisputed party leader until his death in 1999, was elected president.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The party governed Croatia throughout the 1990s and under its leadership, Croatia became independent (1991), was internationally recognized (1992), and consolidated all of its pre-war territory (by 1998). During that period, the HDZ won both the 1992 and 1995 parliamentary elections.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: As it strongly advocated Croatian independence, the HDZ was quite unpopular with the Serb minority and others who preferred to see Croatia remain inside the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. This was one of the factors contributing to the creation of the Republic of Serbian Krajina and the subsequent armed conflict in neighboring Bosnia-Herzegovina. The role of the HDZ in those events is matter of controversy, even in Croatia, where some tend to view HDZ policy in the early stages of the conflict as extremist and a contributing factor in the escalation of violence while others (such as Marko Veselica's Croatian Democratic Party) see the HDZ as having appeased Serbia and the Yugoslav People's Army, therefore being responsible for Croatia's unpreparedness for defense. However, the policies of Tuđman and the HDZ shifted according to the circumstances.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The HDZ also began to lead Croatia toward political and economic transition from communism to capitalism. Notably, HDZ governments implemented privatization in the country in a manner that critics consider sub-optimal, and at times possibly illegal, due to the selective nature of the privatizations (see Croatian privatization controversy). According to the HDZ, this process proved a useful distraction from dealing with the baggage of post World War II communist nationalizations. In fact it was the HDZ in 1992 which enacted into law the right of corporations (the vast majority of which were under state ownership) the right to finally formally register themselves as the owners of nationalized property, thus completing their own version of a process of quasi-nationalization started by the communist regime after WWII, in different targeted areas for their own gain. Property returned included possessions nationalized from the Catholic Church or from widely known individuals such as Gavrilović, the owner of a major meat-producing factory in Petrinja, south of Zagreb.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The 2000 parliamentary elections were held January 3, weeks after Tuđman's death. The HDZ was defeated by a centre-left coalition of six opposition parties, led by Ivica Račan's Social Democratic Party (SDP) and Dražen Budiša's Croatian Social Liberal Party (HSLS). The election was seen as a referendum on the HDZ with a poor economy, corruption and crony capitalism being major factors in their ouster.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: At the subsequent presidential election, HDZ candidate Mate Granić who was favored to win in the weeks prior to the parliamentary elections, finished third and therefore failed to enter the second round of voting, won by Stipe Mesić.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: In the period from 2000 and 2003, several businessmen who became tycoons under the initial HDZ rule were tried and convicted for abuses, though in general the privatization process implemented by the HDZ remained unaltered. This period proved to be a low point for the HDZ; many thought the party could not recover. These people included Mate Granić, who, together with Vesna Škare-Ožbolt, left to form the centre-right Democratic Centre (DC).


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: When the International Criminal Tribunal (ICTY) began to prosecute Croatian Army commanders, this provoked a major backlash among the Croatian public. As the opposition party, the HDZ supported this popular discontent and actively resisted the transfers of generals to the ICTY. This gradually changed as the HDZ and its new leader Ivo Sanader began to distance themselves from the more extreme rhetoric, becoming perceived as moderates. This tendency continued when the HSLS shifted rightwards, making Sanader's HDZ and HSLS appear as like-oriented parties. This process was completed in 2002 when Ivić Pašalić, leader of the HDZ hardliners and perceived to be associated with the worst excesses of Tuđman's era, challenged Sanader for the party leadership, accusing him of betraying Tuđman's nationalist legacy. At first it looked that Sanader would lose, but with the help of Branimir Glavaš and the tacit support of liberal sections of Croatian public opinion, he won at the party convention. Pašalić then left the HDZ to form the Croatian Bloc party.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: At the 2003 Croatian parliamentary election, the party won 33.9% of the popular vote and 66 out of 152 seats. Although it failed to win a clear majority in the Croatian Parliament, even with the help of the allied DC and HSLS, it formed a government with the nominally left-wing Independent Democratic Serb Party and the Croatian Party of Pensioners.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: With such a broad and diverse mandate, the Sanader-led government vigorously pursued policies that amounted to the implementation of the basic criteria for joining the European Union, such as the return of refugees to their homes, rebuilding houses damaged in the war, improving minority rights, cooperating with the ICTY, and continuing to consolidate the Croatian economy. Despite this, the EU's Council of Ministers postponed Croatia's membership negotiations with the union on the grounds of its non-cooperation with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia over the case of indicted general Ante Gotovina.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: This setback brought an increase in Eurosceptic views among the Croatian public, which also affected support for the HDZ. Since accession to the EU was a key part of Sanader's reformist course, opposition to his leadership within and outside the HDZ was on the rise. This opposition manifested itself at the 2005 local elections and the defection of Glavaš, who not only successfully challenged Sanader's authority but also managed to nominally deprive Sanader of his parliamentary majority.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: Despite this defeat, the first Sanader-led government was able to survive until the end of the legislature. The subsequent parliamentary election in late November 2007 saw the HDZ hard-pressed both by the SDP-led leftist coalition and by the extreme right-wing Croatian Party of Rights and Croatian Democratic Assembly of Slavonia and Baranja.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: During the electoral campaign a vigorous and sometimes ruthless reaction from the party and Sanader himself, together with some capital errors from SDP, convinced part of the far-right electorate to support the HDZ in order to prevent what they perceived as the heirs of the former communist party to return to power. The party won a majority of both seats and votes in the election, and the first session of the newly elected parliament was called for 11 January 2008. However, the SDP repeatedly refused to acknowledge defeat, claiming that they had the most votes if the diaspora ballot was not taken into account. The HDZ gained the support of the "yellow–green coalition" (HSS-HSLS) and of the HSU and national minorities representatives; Sanader formed a second government.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: Although that government had a larger majority than the former one, its existence remained troubled because of the worsening of the previously good economic situation and a weariness of Croatian public opinion about what was felt to be an overly long HDZ rule. Another major drawback was the Slovenian blocking of several chapters of Croatia's EU accession terms until border disputes between the two countries had been settled. Although this ultimately led to an indefinite suspension of the Croatian EU accession negotiations, it did not affect the government's popularity. In this case, as would be expected, considering Croatian staunch patriotism and national self-consciousness, all parties and nearly every Croatian citizen were absolutely adamant in refusing at any cost any concessions over matters of national interest.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: In the local elections held in May 2009, the HDZ, against all expectations, managed to grow again, coming ahead of the SDP. However, HDZ support did weaken in the larger cities.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: On 1 July 2009, Ivo Sanader abruptly announced his resignation from politics and appointed Jadranka Kosor as his successor. She was confirmed as the new leader of the party on 4 July and was appointed by president Stipe Mesić as the prime minister-designate. Two days later the Sabor confirmed Kosor as the new prime minister, the first woman to hold the position.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: In the same resignation speech, Sanader also appointed Andrija Hebrang, who had formerly held the posts of defence minister and health minister, as HDZ candidate for the incoming presidential election, decreasing any speculation about his own ambitions for that position.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The "Fimi media" was a corruption scandal which resulted from former Prime Minister Ivo Sanader stealing money from the state budget. USKOK has charged former Prime Minister Ivo Sanader, Fimi media CEO Nevenka Jurak, former treasurer of the Croatian Democratic Union Mladen Barišić, former spokesperson of the Croatian Democratic Union Ratko Maček and former chief accountant Branka Pavošević with damaging the state budget by 70 million kuna or approximately 9 million euros.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The HDZ was faced with bad poll ratings and a large clean-up task that was still underway when Sanader left. The officials used the 2009 convention to elect Jadranka Kosor party president by acclamation, and proceeded to make various unpopular measures to tackle the economic crisis. Andrija Hebrang accepted his designation as the presidential candidate only at the end of July, after he underwent a thorough medical examination, to exclude any remaining trace of a previous carcinoma.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The Kosor government remained mostly unchanged from the previous Sanader government, but the HDZ suffered some internal turmoil as ministers Berislav Rončević and Damir Polančec left their posts after allegations of corruption.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: In the next presidential elections, Croatia was looking for a replacement for Stipe Mesić who had held the position for ten years. But Hebrang finished third, failing to reach the second stage in which SDP candidate Ivo Josipović overwhelmingly defeated former SDP member Milan Bandić.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: However, many Croatian people were dissatisfied with the government and protested on the streets against the HDZ government, demanding that new elections be held as soon as possible. The police placed a guard on St. Mark's Square to prevent civilians from entering.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: From 26 October 2011 USKOK expanded its investigation about "Slush Funds" on the HDZ as a legal entity. Previously, the investigation had included only Ivo Sanader, treasurers Milan Barišić and Branka Pavošević, general secretaries Branko Vukelić and Ivan Jarnjak and spokesman Ratko Maček. Party president Jadranka Kosor stated that this was one of the most critical moments of the HDZ. The HDZ became the first political party in Croatia to be charged with corruption.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: After the 2011 parliamentary elections, the HDZ become the opposition after 8 years in government. The HDZ won its smallest number of votes since its founding, 563,215.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: On 20 May 2012, HDZ held a presidential election in which, a day later, Tomislav Karamarko become the winner and thus replaced Kosor as leader of the opposition. Karamarko announced that he would reestablish connections between Croatia and the Croatian diaspora.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: Karamarko earlier announced that, after a process of the detudjmanization of the HDZ, he would return to the policies of Franjo Tuđman. He also stated that he could be "neither for Ante Pavelić nor Josip Broz Tito", as both of them represented totalitarian systems. On 1 July 2013, HDZ received full member status of the European People's Party (EPP). On 11 March 2014, the HDZ and Ivo Sanader were found guilty of corruption.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: Following the collapse of the Tihomir Orešković government in June 2016, Tomislav Karamarko resigned as HDZ leader. The party elected former diplomat and member of the European Parliament Andrej Plenković as the new president, who won on a policy platform "devoid of extremes and populism". Plenković won the 2016 parliamentary election, in which he campaigned on a pro-European and moderate agenda. Plenković was appointed prime minister in October.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: In terms of ideology, the HDZ statute, as well as its President Andrej Plenković and Secretary Gordan Jandroković, define the political position of the party as centre-right. However, there have significant shifts in HDZ's ideological and political positions, and there are both moderate and right-wing factions within the party with different interpretations of its basic positions.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The HDZ leaders during the 1990s described their party as centrist and Christian-democratic, although in practice they pursued ultranationalistic policies. However, the party was at the time mostly characterized as conservative and nationalist with an extreme right-wing faction.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: At its beginning, the HDZ was an ethnically exclusive party that emphasized Croatian identity. Slogans such as "God and Croats" and "Croats get together" were common, which were incidentally also by the leaders of the Ustaše-led Independent State of Croatia. Its discourse had a strong emotional appeal, evoking "fears, desires, material and symbolic benefits" to win over those who sought Croatian sovereignty over communism and drawing upon Croatian nationalist traditions. It did not recognize the plurality of identities when addressing its citizens, viewing them as "Catholic Croats" with anti-Serbian sentiments regularly appearing during its assemblies.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The HDZ's position regarding the European Union was soft Eurosceptic: there was no explicit opposition to the accession of Croatia to the EU, but the HDZ opposed some EU policies. Following the election of Ivo Sanader as the party president in 2000, the HDZ adopted a moderate centre-right position. Under Sanader, the party strongly pursued a pro-European policy, which continued under the leadership of Jadranka Kosor. Many observers considered the leadership of Tomislav Karamarko from 2012 to 2016 as a return of nationalism in the party. After Andrej Plenković, viewed as a moderate, came to power in 2016, the party moved back to a centre-right position. The HDZ has been described as Christian-democratic and pro-European.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: In economic terms, the party advocates for a social market economy and expressed its opposition to economic liberalism in the 2002 programme.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The following is a summary of the party's results in legislative elections for the Croatian Parliament. The "Total votes" and "Percentage" columns include sums of votes won by pre-election coalitions HDZ had been part of. After the preferential votes were included in the election system, the votes column also includes the sum of votes for HDZ's candidates on the coalition lists. The "Total seats" column includes sums of seats won by HDZ in election constituencies plus representatives of ethnic minorities affiliated with HDZ.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The following is a list of presidential candidates endorsed by HDZ in elections for President of Croatia.


title: Croatian Democratic Union

text: The chart below shows a timeline of the Croatian Democratic Union presidents and the Prime Ministers of Croatia. The left bar shows all the president of the HDZ, and the right bar shows the corresponding make-up of the Croatian government at that time. The blue (HDZ) and red (SDP) colours correspond to which party led the government. The last names of the respective prime ministers are shown, the Roman numeral stands for the cabinets.


title: Scalp

text: The scalp is the anatomical area bordered by the human face at the front, and by the neck at the sides and back.


title: Scalp

text: The scalp is usually described as having five layers, which can conveniently be remembered as a mnemonic:


title: Scalp

text: The clinically important layer is the aponeurosis. Scalp lacerations through this layer mean that the "anchoring" of the superficial layers is lost and gaping of the wound occurs which would require suturing. This can be achieved with simple or vertical mattress sutures using a non-absorbable material, which are subsequently removed at around days 7–10.


title: Scalp

text: The blood supply of the scalp is via five pairs of arteries, three from the external carotid and two from the internal carotid:


title: Scalp

text: Because the walls of the blood vessels are firmly attached to the fibrous tissue of the superficial fascial layer, cut ends of vessels here do not readily retract; even a small scalp wound may bleed profusely.


title: Scalp

text: The veins of the scalp accompany the arteries and thus have similar names, e.g. Supratrochlear and supraorbital veins, which unite at the medial angle of the eye, and form the angular vein, which further continues as the facial vein.


title: Scalp

text: The superficial temporal vein descends in front of the tragus, enters the parotid gland, and then joins the maxillary vein to form the retromandibular vein. The anterior part of it unites with the facial vein to form the common facial vein, which drains into jugular vein, and ultimately to the subclavian vein. The occipital vein terminates to the sub-occipital plexus.


title: Scalp

text: There are other veins, like the emissary vein and frontal diploic vein, which also contribute to the venous drainage.


title: Scalp

text: Innervation is the connection of nerves to the scalp: the sensory and motor nerves innervating the scalp. The scalp is innervated by the following:


title: Scalp

text: The innervation of scalp can be remembered using the mnemonic "Z-GLASS" for Zygomaticotemporal nerve, Greater occipital nerve, Lesser occipital nerve, Auriculotemporal nerve, Supratrochlear nerve, and Supraorbital nerve.