title: David Farragut

text: Farragut's naval career began when he was added to the U.S. Navy's rolls with the rank of "boy" in the spring of 1810. Through the influence of his foster father, Farragut was commissioned a midshipman in the U.S. Navy on December 17, 1810, at the age of nine. A prize master by the age of 11, Farragut fought in the War of 1812, serving under Captain Porter, his foster father. While serving aboard the frigate , Farragut participated in the capture of HMS "Alert" on August 13, 1812, He helped to establish America's first naval base and colony in the Pacific, named Fort Madison, during the ill-fated Nuku Hiva Campaign in the Marquesas Islands. At the same time, the Americans battled the hostile tribes on the islands with the help of their Te I'i allies.


title: David Farragut

text: Farragut was 11 years old when, during the War of 1812, he was given the assignment to bring a ship captured by the "Essex" safely to port. He was wounded and captured while serving on the "Essex" during the engagement at Valparaíso Bay, Chile, against the British on March 28, 1814.


title: David Farragut

text: In 1823, Farragut was placed in command of , which was his first command of a U.S. naval vessel. He served in the Mosquito Fleet, a fleet of ships fitted out to fight pirates in the Caribbean Sea. After learning his old captain, Commodore Porter, would be commander of the fleet, he asked for, and received, orders to serve aboard "Greyhound", one of the smaller vessels, commanded by John Porter, brother of David Porter. On February 14, 1823, the fleet set sail for the West Indies where, for the next six months, they would drive the pirates off the sea, and rout them from their hiding places in among the islands. He was executive officer aboard the "Experiment" during its campaign in the West Indies fighting pirates. Farragut was promoted to lieutenant in 1825.


title: David Farragut

text: In 1847, Farragut, now a commander, took command of the sloop-of-war when she was recommissioned at Norfolk Navy Yard in Norfolk, Virginia. Assigned to the Home Squadron for service in the Mexican–American War, "Saratoga" departed Norfolk on March 29, 1847, bound for the Gulf of Mexico under Farragut's command and upon arriving off Veracruz, Mexico, on April 26, 1847, reported to the squadron's commander, Commodore Matthew C. Perry, for duty. On April 29, Perry ordered Farragut to sail "Saratoga" 150 nautical miles (173 miles; 278 km) to the north to blockade Tuxpan, where she operated from April 30 to July 12 before Farragut returned to Veracruz. About two weeks later, Farragut began a round-trip voyage to carry dispatches to Tabasco, returning to Veracruz on August 11, 1847. On September 1, 1847, Farragut and "Saratoga" returned to blockade duty off Tuxpan, remaining there for two months despite a yellow fever outbreak on board. Farragut then brought the ship back to Veracruz and, after a month there, got underway for the Pensacola Navy Yard in Pensacola, Florida, where "Saratoga" arrived on January 6, 1848, disembarked all of her seriously sick patients at the base hospital, and replenished her stores. On January 31, 1848, Farragut took the ship out of Pensacola bound for New York City, arriving there on February 19. "Saratoga" was decommissioned there on February 26, 1848.


title: David Farragut

text: In 1853, Secretary of the Navy James C. Dobbin selected Commander David G. Farragut to create Mare Island Navy Yard near San Francisco in San Pablo Bay. In August 1854, Farragut was called to Washington from his post as assistant inspector of ordnance at Norfolk, Virginia. President Franklin Pierce congratulated Farragut on his naval career and the task he was to undertake. On September 16, 1854, Commander Farragut arrived to oversee the building of the Mare Island Navy Yard at Vallejo, California, which became the port for ship repairs on the West Coast. Captain Farragut commissioned Mare Island on July 16, 1858. Farragut returned to a hero's welcome at Mare Island on August 11, 1859.


title: David Farragut

text: Though living in Norfolk, Virginia, prior to the American Civil War, Farragut made it clear to all who knew him that he regarded secession as treason. Just before the war's outbreak, Farragut moved with his Virginian-born wife to Hastings-on-Hudson, a small town just outside New York City.


title: David Farragut

text: He offered his services to the Union, and was initially given a seat on the Naval Retirement Board. Offered a command by his foster brother, David Dixon Porter, for a special assignment, he hesitated upon learning the target might be Norfolk. As he had friends and relatives living there, he was relieved to learn the target was changed to his former childhood home of New Orleans. The navy had some doubts about Farragut's loyalty to the Union because of his Southern birth as well as that of his wife. Porter argued on his behalf, and Farragut was accepted for the major role of attacking New Orleans.


title: David Farragut

text: Farragut was appointed under secret instructions on February 3, 1862, to command the Gulf Blockading Squadron, sailing from Hampton Roads on the screw steamer , bearing 25 guns, which he made his flagship, accompanied by a fleet of 17 ships. He reached the mouth of the Mississippi River, near Confederate forts St. Philip and Jackson, situated opposite one another along the banks of the river, with a combined armament of more than 100 heavy guns and a complement of 700 men. Now aware of Farragut's approach, the Confederates had amassed a fleet of 16 gunboats just outside New Orleans.


title: David Farragut

text: On April 18, Farragut ordered the mortar boats, under the command of Porter, to commence bombardment on the two forts, inflicting considerable damage, but not enough to compel the Confederates to surrender. After two days of heavy bombardment, Farragut ran past forts Jackson and St. Philip and the Chalmette batteries to take the city and port of New Orleans on April 29, a decisive event in the war.


title: David Farragut

text: Congress honored him by creating the rank of rear admiral on July 16, 1862, a rank never before used in the U.S. Navy. Before this time, the American Navy had resisted the rank of admiral, preferring the term "flag officer", to distinguish the rank from the traditions of the European navies. Farragut was promoted to rear admiral along with 13 other officers – three others on the active list and ten on the retired list.


title: David Farragut

text: Later that year, Farragut passed the batteries defending Vicksburg, Mississippi, but had no success there. A makeshift Confederate ironclad forced his flotilla of 38 ships to withdraw in July 1862.


title: David Farragut

text: While an aggressive commander, Farragut was not always cooperative. At the siege of Port Hudson, the plan was that Farragut's flotilla would pass by the guns of the Confederate stronghold with the help of a diversionary land attack by the Army of the Gulf, commanded by General Nathaniel Banks, to commence at 8:00 a.m. on March 15, 1863. Farragut unilaterally decided to move the timetable up to 9:00 p.m. on March 14, and initiated his run past the guns before Union ground forces were in position. The consequently uncoordinated attack allowed the Confederates to concentrate on Farragut's flotilla and inflict heavy damage to his warships.


title: David Farragut

text: Farragut's flotilla was forced to retreat with only two ships able to pass the heavy cannon of the Confederate bastion. After surviving the gauntlet, Farragut played no further part in the battle for Port Hudson, and General Banks was left to continue the siege without the advantage of naval support. The Union Army made two major attacks on the fort; both were repulsed with heavy losses. Farragut's flotilla was splintered, yet was able to blockade the mouth of the Red River with the two remaining warships; he could not efficiently patrol the section of the Mississippi between Port Hudson and Vicksburg. Farragut's decision proved costly to the Union Navy and the Union Army, which suffered its highest casualty rate of the war at Port Hudson.


title: David Farragut

text: Vicksburg surrendered on July 4, 1863, leaving Port Hudson as the last remaining Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River. General Banks accepted the surrender of the Confederate garrison at Port Hudson on July 9, ending the longest siege in U.S. military history. Control of the Mississippi River was the centerpiece of the Union strategy to win the war, and, with the surrender of Port Hudson, the Confederacy was now cut in two.


title: David Farragut

text: On August 5, 1864, Farragut won a great victory in the Battle of Mobile Bay. Mobile, Alabama, was then the Confederacy's last major open port on the Gulf of Mexico. The bay was heavily mined (tethered naval mines were then known as "torpedoes"). Farragut ordered his fleet to charge the bay. When the monitor struck a mine and sank, the others began to pull back.


title: David Farragut

text: From his high perch, where he was lashed to the rigging of his flagship, USS "Hartford", Farragut could see the ships pulling back. "What's the trouble?" he shouted through a trumpet to . "Torpedoes", was the shouted reply. "Damn the torpedoes.", said Farragut, "Four bells, Captain Drayton, go ahead. Jouett, full speed." The bulk of the fleet succeeded in entering the bay. Farragut triumphed over the opposition of heavy batteries in Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines to defeat the squadron of Admiral Franklin Buchanan.


title: David Farragut

text: On December 21, 1864, Lincoln promoted Farragut to vice admiral, which made him the senior ranking officer in the United States Navy.


title: David Farragut

text: After the Civil War, Farragut was elected a companion of the first class of the New York Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States on March 18, 1866, and assigned insignia number 231. He served as the commander of the Commandery of New York from May 1866 until his death.


title: David Farragut

text: Farragut was promoted to full admiral on July 25, 1866, becoming the first U.S. Navy officer to hold that rank.


title: David Farragut

text: His last active service was in command of the European Squadron, from 1867 to 1868, with the screw frigate as his flagship. Farragut remained on active duty for life, an honor accorded to only seven other U.S. Navy officers after the Civil War.


title: David Farragut

text: Farragut died from a heart attack at the age of 69 in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, while on vacation in the late summer of 1870. He had served almost sixty years in the navy. He is interred at Woodlawn Cemetery, in The Bronx, New York City. His gravesite is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, as is Woodlawn Cemetery itself.


title: David Farragut

text: After appointment and an initial cruise as acting lieutenant commanding , Farragut married Susan Caroline Marchant on September 2, 1824. After years of ill health, Susan Farragut died on December 27, 1840. Farragut was noted for his kindly treatment of his wife during her illness.


title: David Farragut

text: After the death of his first wife, Farragut married Virginia Dorcas Loyall, on December 26, 1843, with whom he had one surviving son, named Loyall Farragut, born October 12, 1844. Loyall Farragut graduated from West Point in 1868, and served as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army before resigning in 1872. He spent most of the remainder of his career as an executive with the Central Railroad Company of New Jersey. He was a hereditary member of the Military Society of the War of 1812 and a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States. Loyall died on October 1, 1916, as noted on one side of the family monument that he and his mother erected to the memory of his father in Woodlawn Cemetery.


title: David Farragut

text: Farragut had a brother named William A. C. Farragut. William was also in the Navy but had a far less distinguished career. He was warranted as a midshipman on January 16, 1809 (a year before David Farragut would begin his career) and was promoted to lieutenant on December 9, 1814. William remained at that rank until he was transferred to the Reserve List on December 15, 1855. He died on December 20, 1859.


title: David Farragut

text: The area formerly known as Campbell's Station, Tennessee, only a few miles from Admiral Farragut's birthplace, was renamed to the town of Farragut in his honor.


title: David Farragut

text: Farragut Square in Washington, D.C. is named in his honor. A statue of him, named "Admiral David G. Farragut", is in the center of Farragut Square. Two Washington Metro stations, Farragut West and Farragut North, also share his name. There is a statue of Admiral Farragut at the South Boston Marine Park adjacent to Castle Island. There is also an outdoor sculpture of him in Madison Square Park in Manhattan, New York City, where the Farragut section of the Borough of Brooklyn, including Farragut Road, is named for him.


title: David Farragut

text: Farragut Naval Training Station, located in Northern Idaho on Lake Pend Oreille, was a World War II naval training center with over 293,000 sailors receiving basic training there. In 1966, the state of Idaho turned the land into Farragut State Park.


title: David Farragut

text: Two separate classes of U.S. Navy destroyers have been named for Farragut: the "Farragut" class of 1934 and the "Farragut" class of 1958. Several individual U.S. Navy ships also have been named in his honor.


title: David Farragut

text: Admiral Farragut Academy, named after Admiral David G. Farragut, was founded in 1933 as an all-boys military boarding high school located in St. Petersburg, Florida. Today, the Academy is a college-prep private school which serves students from PreK-12th grade. The Upper School, which starts in 8th grade, is also known worldwide for its Boarding program and Navy Junior ROTC military structure. Farragut also offers other signature academic programs: Aviation, Scuba, Marine Science, Engineering, Sailing, and more.


title: David Farragut

text: Few naval officers in American history have been honored on a U.S. postage stamp, but David Farragut has been so honored more than once. The first postage stamp (at left) to honor Farragut was the 1-dollar black issue of 1903. The Navy Issue of 1937 includes (among five in a series) a 3-cent purple stamp which depicts Admirals David Farragut (left) and David Porter, with a warship under sail displayed at center. The most recent postage issue honoring Farragut was released from Gettysburg, Pennsylvania on June 29, 1995.


title: David Farragut

text: The Science Fiction Venturer Twelve series features an Admiral Farragut in command of Earth's Space Navy in the far future.


title: David Farragut

text: The Tennessee State Capitol Commission and Historical Commission voted on July 22, 2021, to move a bust of Admiral Farragut, as well as busts of Nathan Bedford Forrest and Admiral Albert Gleaves, from the Tennessee Capitol to the Tennessee State Museum. The process of moving them officially began on July 23, 2021.


title: Darin Brooks

text: Darin Lee Brooks (born May 27, 1984) is an American actor. He is best known for portraying Max Brady on the NBC daytime soap opera "Days of Our Lives", Alex Moran on the Spike TV series "Blue Mountain State", and Wyatt Spencer on the CBS soap opera "The Bold and the Beautiful".


title: Darin Brooks

text: Brooks was born and raised in Honolulu, Hawaii. Brooks graduated from Henry J. Kaiser High School in 2002. He is of Polish descent.


title: Darin Brooks

text: Brooks started his acting career with the theater program at his high school. He played Rapunzel's prince in his high school's production of "Into the Woods". He later enrolled in acting classes, began modeling, and worked as an extra in films. He was discovered by casting director Kathy Henderson.


title: Darin Brooks

text: When Brooks moved to Los Angeles, California, he called Henderson immediately, took acting classes at the renowned Ivana Chubbuck Studios, and got an agent. Two years after the move, he auditioned for the soap operas "One Life to Live" and "The Young and the Restless", and he was cast as Max Brady on the NBC's "Days of Our Lives". He later starred as Alex Moran on the Spike TV series "Blue Mountain State". In 2010, Brooks starred as Mr. Blake Owens on the web series "Miss Behave". In June 2013, Brooks began playing Wyatt Spencer on the CBS soap opera "The Bold and the Beautiful".


title: Darin Brooks

text: Brooks enjoys playing the guitar, bass guitar, and drums. In 2010, he started dating actress Kelly Kruger. In February 2014, they partnered with an organization called Aid Still Required. On March 21, 2016, he and Kruger got married. In April 2019, it was announced that he and Kruger were expecting their first child. The couple's first child was born on September 22, 2019. In August 2021, it was announced that he and Kruger were expecting their second child.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: Laxmi Agarwal (born 1 June 1990) is an Indian acid attack survivor, a campaigner for rights of acid attack victims, and a TV host. She was attacked in 2005 in New Delhi at the age of 15.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: In 2019, she was honored with the International Women Empowerment Award from the Ministry of Women and Child Development, the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation and UNICEF for her campaign of "Stop Acid Sale". In 2014, she received the International Women of Courage award at the hands of First Lady Michelle Obama.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: In 2005, tragedy came when Laxmi was 15 years old and an 11th-grade student, she was approached by a man working in her neighbourhood, Naeem Khan, who was 32 years old. He proposed to Laxmi but she rejected him. She did not inform anyone about this because her family would've blamed her and stopped her studies. Ten months later, Laxmi Agrawal, was returning from Khan market at 10:45 in the morning when she received the same message from Naeem that he loves her and wants to marry her. She did not respond. In no time, she was attacked with acid by Naeem and Kamran (Naeem's older brother). Kamran called Laxmi's name from behind while riding his motorcycle. When Laxmi looked behind as a response to her name, Naeem threw acid directly at her face from the backseat. Laxmi fainted and after regaining consciousness, she tried to walk up and ask for help but met multiple road accidents. A man named Arun Singh called the police, but he saw her skin melting from the acid, he realised it might be too late to wait for assistance. Someone else splashed water on her face hoping to reduce the burns, this caused the acid to move down and burn her neck. Arun, then somehow got her in the back seat of his car. This later caused burn holes in the seat covers. He admitted her to Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital. The police reached the hospital directly. Arun then asked Laxmi about her family and where she lived. He reached her house, informed her family, and took them from their house to the hospital. She underwent multiple operations including eye surgery. Four days after the attack, Naeem Khan was arrested, but was bailed out a month later. He married off immediately. However, after widespread protests and media attention, he was sentenced to prison for life.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: Agarwal, whose face and other body parts were disfigured in the acid attack, had public interest litigation (PIL) in 2006. A minor then, she was attacked with acid by three men near Tughlaq road in New Delhi as she had refused to marry Naeem Khan, known as Gudda, one of the trio. Her PIL sought framing of a new law, or amendment to the existing criminal laws like IPC, Indian Evidence Act and CrPC, for dealing with the offence, besides asking for compensation. She also pleaded for a total ban on the sale of acid, citing an increasing number of incidents of such attacks on women across the country.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: During a hearing in April, the Centre assured the Supreme Court of India that it would work with the state governments to formulate a plan before the next hearing on 9 July. However, it failed to do so, which angered the court. However, when the Centre failed to produce a plan, the Supreme Court warned that it would intervene and pass orders if the government failed to frame a policy to curb the sale of acid in order to prevent chemical attacks. "Seriousness is not seen on the part of the government in handling the issue," the bench headed by Justice RM Lodha said. Earlier, in February, the court had directed the centre to convene in six weeks a meeting of Chief Secretaries of all states and union territories to hold a discussion for enacting a law to regulate the sale of acids and policy for treatment, compensation and care and rehabilitation of such victims.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: Meanwhile, in 2013, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Agarwal and Rupa's plea, thereby creating a fresh set of restrictions on the sale of acid. Under the new regulations, acid could not be sold to any individual below the age of 18 years. One is also required to furnish a photo identity card before buying acid.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: Agarwal claims that not much has changed on the ground, despite all the regulations. "Acid is freely available in shops. Our own volunteers have gone and purchased acid easily. In fact, I have myself purchased acid," she said. "We have launched a new initiative called ‘Shoot Acid’. By means of the Right to Information Act, we are trying to acquire data concerning the sale of acid in every district. We intend to present the information collected through this initiative before the Supreme Court to apprise them of the situation on the ground."


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: Laxmi Agarwal was in a relationship with social activist Alok Dixit. However, she has been separated from her partner since 2015, When they were together, Laxmi decided not to get married and instead opted to be in a live-in relationship. "We have decided to live together until we die. But we are challenging society by not getting married. We don’t want people to come to our wedding and comment on my looks. The looks of a bride are most important for people. So we decided not to have any ceremony," said Laxmi. Their families have accepted the relationship and also their decision not to have a ceremonial wedlock.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: The acid attack survivors started a hunger strike demanding immediate justice and rehabilitation for acid attack survivors. She wrote a poem describing her situation during the incident.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: While she was in the United States to receive the International Women of Courage award, she was praised by the then USA first lady Michelle Obama and others for her campaign against acid violence.


title: Laxmi Agarwal

text: The film "Chhapaak" is based on Agarwal's life story and was released on 10 January 2020. Deepika Padukone played the role of Agarwal.


title: Toni Ribas

text: Toni Ribas (born 13 June 1975 as Antoni G Cabra) is a Spanish pornographic actor and director. In 2010, he was inducted into the AVN Hall of Fame. He became a leading male figure in the porn industry.


title: Toni Ribas

text: Ribas began acting in pornography in 1994. Ribas worked for Brazzers and performed in 78 videos as of 2 November 2018. He performed in about 1,300 videos in his pornographic career.


title: Toni Ribas

text: Ribas was born in Sant Boi de Llobregat, in the Province of Barcelona, Spain. At 13, he was hyperactive, had boundless energy and a tendency to get into trouble. He belonged to the Unió Esportiva Santboiana rugby club. He was also dedicated to helping his father with maintenance services such as injection molds and special tools. During his studies at the Bachillerato Unificado Polivalente (BUP) in Sant Boi in Barcelona, he earned extra money selling calculators. Some time later, he completed his military service.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 1994, at the age of 19, Ribas saw an ad in the newspaper "Segunda Mano" about working for actors in pornographic productions and he entered the casting. At the audition, he was selected to be part of the cast of "Venganza sexual", directed by José María Ponce, who hired Ribas in the Spanish-language video production of "Club Privado", which premiered on TV on 1 December 1995.


title: Toni Ribas

text: For three years, Ribas worked at the Sala de Fiestas Baghdad porn club in Barcelona, where he met Nacho Vidal and his then-girlfriend Jazmine.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 1996, in Madrid, Ribas played Toni Navarro in the International Film Group (IFG) film "Showgirls", directed by José María Ponce and alongside actors Nina Hartley, Hakan Belkiran, Max Cortés and Ramón Nomar.


title: Toni Ribas

text: Riccardo Billi and Luca Damiano cast Ribas in the role of a Roman soldier in the International Film Group (IFG) Spanish-Italian co-production of contemporary porn "Salomé" (1997), a pastiche of the Oscar Wilde tragedy "Salomé", also starring Leslie, Roberto Malone (Herod), Ramón Nomar (John the Baptist), Nacho Vidal (Roman soldier) and Remigio Zampa (Tigelino).


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 1997, Ribas met the American porn director Andrew Blake at the club and shortly after this meeting Ribas went to Paris to work with him. Ribas worked behind the camera with Blake as assistant director.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 1998 in Spain, Ribas attended a film course to learn the basics. He was a photographer in Prague and Budapest.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2000, Ribas made his directorial debut with the group Elegant Angel and filmed "Hardcore Innocence 1" (2001), continuing the series until "Hardcore Innocence 9" (2003-2007). He has also worked with some of the biggest studios including Cineplex, Red Light District and Jules Jordan. He became an expert in gonzo production.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2001, for his performance in "Gothix" (2000), directed by José María Ponce, Ribas was nominated for an award at the Barcelona International Erotic Film Festival in the "Best Spanish Actor" category. In 2002, two films in which Ribas participated were awarded the Ninfa Award. The first film was a full-length porn parody of "Gladiator:" "Private Gold 54: Gladiator 1" (2002), directed by Antonio Adamo and starring Steve Holmes (Senator Falcus), Rita Faltoyano (Domitilla), Mandy Bright (Syria), Frank Gun (Commodus), Karl Ben (Jailer) and David Perry (Marcus). That film won the award in the "Cinematic Value" category, and Toni Ribas as the main lead in Maxximus was nominated in the "Best Spanish Actor" category. The second film awarded in the "Best Spanish Film" category was a pornographic version of Goethe's drama "Faust:" "Private Black Label 26: Faust Power of Sex" (2000), directed by José María Ponce, in which Ribas was Faust, and starred Nacho Vidal (in the role of Mephisto), Belladonna (Walpurga), Rita Faltoyano (slave) and Max Cortés (devil).


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2003, Ribas was nominated for an Adult Video News Award in four categories: "Best Foreign Actor of the Year", "Best Actor" in "Private Gold 54: Gladiator 1" (2002), "Best Director of a Foreign Production" "Exxxplosion" (2002) and “Best Sex Scene in a Foreign Production” in "Exxxplosion" (2002) with Monica Belvedere, Nick Lang and Rita Faltoyano.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2006, Ribas was nominated for the Ninfa Award in the "Most Original Sex Scene" category in "Private Gold 79: Sex Angels 2" (2006), directed by Xavi Domínguez and alongside Sonia Baba.


title: Toni Ribas

text: On 20 December 2008, Ribas won the ranking of "Top 5 most attractive porn actors" according to the Spanish portal "Nosotras".


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2009, Ribas was nominated for the AVN Award in two categories: "Best Foreign Performer of the Year" and "Best Trio Sex Scene - Girl/Boy/Boy" in "Slave Dolls 3" (2008), directed by Mason along with the actors Jandi Lin and Mr. Pete.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2010, Ribas received the AVN Award for "Best Foreign Performer of the Year" and he was inducted into the AVN Hall of Fame and earned three nominations in the categories: "Best Group Sex Scene" in "Rocco Ravishes LA" (2009) alongside Jamie Elle, Rocco Siffredi and Bobbi Starr; "Best Double Penetration Sex Scene" in "Jenna Haze: Nymphomaniac" (2009) opposite Jenna Haze and Mr. Pete; and "Best Group Sex Scene" in "Evil Anal 10" (2009) opposite Andi Anderson, Michael Stefano, Adrianna Nicole, Madison Parker, and Bobbi Starr.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2016, Ribas was nominated for the AVN Award in the "Best Actor" category and participated in a photo shoot with Terry Richardson.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In December 2017, Ribas took sixth place in the "Favorite Porn Actor" ranking ("My Favorite Porn Actors"), announced by the Spanish portal "20minutos.es".


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2018, for the production of Evil Angel "Stepdad Seduction 3" (2017), Ribas was nominated for XBiz Awards in two categories: "Best Taboo Performance" and "Best Taboo Sex Scene" with Gina Valentina. He also earned two 2018 Inked Awards nominations in the "Sex Scene" category in "Evil Squirters 3" (2017) with Riley Reid and "Darker Side of Desire 2" (2018) with Katrina Jade. In 2019, he was nominated for the XBiz Awards for his production of "Stepdad Seduction 4" (2018) in the "Best Taboo Sex Scene" category with Carolina Sweets. Ribas was ranked 6th and was the first European in the Top 30 Hottest and Best Pornstars of 2019.


title: Toni Ribas

text: Toni Ribas was married three times. Firstly in 1998, he was married to pornographic actress Sophie Evans in Cornellà de Llobregat, with whom he appeared in several films, including "Pirate Deluxe 15: Eternal Ecstasy" (2001), "Best By Private 26: Heaven on Earth" (2001) and the pornographic trilogy "Private Gladiator". However, he divorced Evans in mid-2005. They were married for 10 years.


title: Toni Ribas

text: In 2012, Ribas moved to Los Angeles, California. In December 2012, he married pornographic actress Asa Akira. They divorced in 2017.


title: Toni Ribas

text: Ribas also dated Taylor Rain, Nikita Denise (2001), Corina Taylor (2002), Brianna Blaze (2003), Veronica Vanoza (2004), Lanny Barby (2004), and Rachel Roxx (2007).


title: Toni Ribas

text: When Carles Puigdemont assumed the presidency of the Catalan government on 12 January 2016 the Spanish writer Quim Monzó asked Toni Ribas, who was then working in Los Angeles, on Twitter to say Puigdemont's name in the film scene, to which he agreed.


title: Jenny Wright

text: Jennifer G. Wright (born March 23, 1962) is an American former actress who made her film debut portraying the role of Cushie in the comedy-drama "The World According to Garp" in 1982. That same year she made an appearance in the live-action/animated psychological musical drama film "Pink Floyd – The Wall", playing an American groupie.


title: Jenny Wright

text: Wright had roles in both "The Wild Life" (1984) as Eileen and "St. Elmo's Fire" (1985) as Felicia. She also starred with Anthony Michael Hall in the 1986 thriller "Out of Bounds", with Adrian Pasdar as Mae in the 1987 cult horror classic "Near Dark", and alongside Ilan Mitchell-Smith in the 1988 drama "The Chocolate War". Wright had a lead role in 1989's "I, Madman", and small parts in the films "Young Guns II" (1990) and "The Lawnmower Man" (1992).


title: Burcu Özberk

text: Burcu Özberk (born December 11, 1989) is a Turkish actress. She has received a Golden Butterfly Award for Best Actress in a Romantic Comedy in 2020 for her role in "Afili Aşk".


title: Burcu Özberk

text: Her sister is a violinist. Also, Burcu Özberk left to study violin at the State Conservatory's Music Department for elementary school. She graduated from the theater department of Hacettepe University State Conservatory.


title: Burcu Özberk

text: Her television debut in 2013 in the historical series "Muhteşem Yüzyıl" and played the character of Huricihan Sultan. Her breakthrough came with her role as Nazlı Yılmaz in "Güneşin Kızları". She made her cinematic debut with the historical movie "Direniş Karatay" who won Türkiye Gençlik Best Actress Award. She also had parts in several plays at Erdal Beşikçioğlu's Tatbikat Stage, including "Quills" and "Woyzeck".


title: Burcu Özberk

text: She had leading role in romantic comedy series "Şahane Damat". Between 2017 and 2018, she played simultaneous comedy series "Aslan Ailem" and tv films "Badem Şekeri". Five movies were shot, due to "Badem Şekeri" was liked. She later had a leading role in Kanal D's romantic comedy series "Afili Aşk", for which she won a Golden Butterfly Award as the Best Romantic Comedy Actress. She played in drama series "Çocukluk" with Erdal Beşikçioğlu. She was co-starring with İlhan Şen in Fox Turkey's romantic comedy "Aşk Mantık İntikam."


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: Dev is a 2019 Indian Tamil-language romantic action-adventure film written and directed by Rajath Ravishankar on his directorial debut. The film stars Karthi and Rakul Preet Singh, with Prakash Raj and Ramya Krishnan playing supportive and pivotal roles in the film. Harris Jayaraj has been roped into score music for the film while cinematography is handled by R. Velraj and editing is done by Anthony L. Ruben. The film marks the first collaboration between Karthi and music director Harris Jayaraj. The film was earlier scheduled to have its theatrical release on the eve of Christmas, and later scheduled to post Thai Pongal but was postponed due to tight race at the box office.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The film was scheduled to have its theatrical release on 14 February 2019 on the eve of Valentine's Day. It was premiered exclusively in USA, a day before the original release. The film received lukewarm reviews upon releasing from critics, due to which it the film's some scenes had trimmed after releasing.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: Dev Ramalingam (Karthi), whose family lives and owns a business in India, is a wealthy, adventure-loving young man who is always in pursuit of new adventures. Dev always takes his best friends Vicky (RJ Vignesh) and Nisha (Amrutha Srinivasan) on adventures around the world. Vicky, however, wants to lead a normal life and always tries to avoid accompanying Dev on their thrill-seeking trips. He has a feeling that once Dev is busy with a full-time job or at least an active love life, he might not be keen on bothering him anymore. Vicky engages in hot pursuit of potential girlfriends for Dev and comes across Meghna Padmavati (Rakul Preet Singh ), who lives in the United States and is the CEO for a San Francisco startup. Dev is intrigued by Meghna, so he obliges to Vicky's pleas and sends her a friend request on Facebook. He is reluctant to stalk a girl in this day and age, but his friends encourage him to do so anyway. As fate would have it, he eventually finds her in India on an official visit. He tries to woo her, but Meghna finds it difficult to trust men due to the childhood trauma she experienced when her parents divorced, leaving her and her mother Padmavati (Ramya Krishnan) to fend for themselves. She is rude to Dev and brushes off his advances but eventually understands that Dev is a very decent man and is mildly interested in him.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: On an impromptu cross-country road trip, the two fall in love, despite Meghna's insecurities. Dev reassures her that he will be there for her no matter what. It so happens that after Dev reaches home, his father Ramalingam (Prakash Raj) gives him control over a new business venture that he is initiating, and Dev agrees to take care of it. While Dev is busy with work, he intentionally avoids communicating with Meghna for a couple of days so as to surprise her. Meghna's insecurities creep up on her, and she is filled with rage and betrayal, and breaks up with Dev immediately. Dev tries to convince Meghna but she ignores him and leaves the country. Dev is shaken by Meghna's actions and meets with an accident, which leaves him critically injured. He recovers from his injuries and, with his father's advice and motivation, tries to come out of his heartbreak. He eventually trains for the Everest summit trekking, which was his lifetime goal. While on the trek, an avalanche hits the basecamp he is headed for. The authorities are unable to find Dev or his location, and he is feared dead. Meghna watches this on the news and realizes that she is still in love with him and tries to reach him. Meanwhile, Dev escapes the avalanche unscathed and continues his climb towards the summit in dangerous conditions. He reaches the summit and becomes unconscious due to exhaustion, but the Indian authorities rescue him on time. When Dev wakes up, he finds that it was Meghna who reached him on time with the authorities. They reconcile, and it is shown that they now have twin babies whom they are taking on their newest adventures. By this movie the authors try to spread the humanity among the peoples regarding the others.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The film titled "Dev" was announced by debutant Rajath Ravishankar who previously served as the assistant of Anurag Kashyap, as his maiden directorial project in March 2018 and it was revealed that Karthi and Rakul Preet Singh would play the lead roles in the film, for the second time, after "Theeran Adhigaram Ondru". The film went on floors from 8 March 2018 with the shooting being commenced at Chennai. The first look poster of the film was unveiled by Karthi's brother Suriya on 25 October 2018. It was evident that Karthi playing the titular role with the lead actor returning to act in a road film after 9 years since "Paiyaa" in 2010 essaying a prominent role and lead actress Rakul Preet Singh as Meghna, an Indian woman entrepreneur.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The film director revealed that the film's plot is inspired from the life of former Indian cricket captain and star all-rounder Kapil Dev. Most of the portions of the film include bike stunt sequences with lead actor Karthi playing the role of a bike lover/enthusiast and they were shot in the roads across India and Nepal especially at the Mount Everest. The scenes of the film were extensively shot in areas such as Chennai, Hyderabad, Bangalore, Mumbai, Pune, Kullu, Manali, Himalayas, Gulmarg, Ukraine and Carpathian Mountains. The shooting was wrapped in around early November 2018 in Ukraine. The climax portions of the film were revealed to have shot in a place called Sisu in the Himalayas mountain range.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The first look poster which was released by Suriya on 25 October 2018, features Karthi with a BMW R1200GS superbike model behind. It was evident that the actor is playing an adventure lover in the film. Director Rajath in his interview stated that "We went around and checked out over 30 different models of various superbikes and finally zeroed in on this superbike’s GS1200 model. It’s an off-roader and we were the first ones to order the bike as soon as it got launched this year. It’s quite an expensive one; we’d got it specially ordered in January and it was delivered to us in April. Several actors have ridden superbikes on screen, and we wanted this one to look different. This model complements Karthi’s height and physique. Since Karthi will be on the bike in major portions of the film, we wanted to make sure everything about it was right."


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The teaser was released on 5 November 2018, a day before Diwali and received positive reviews from the audience. The official trailer for the film was unveiled by actor Suriya on 31 January 2019. Post-release, the makers announced a contest for the film's promotional purposes, titled "Dev Superbike Contest", from 18 to 25 February 2019, in which two winners will get the superbike used in the film, worth 8 lakhs. Naveen Kumar and Abarna from Chennai, were announced as the winners and won the superbike from actor Karthi.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The film was earlier scheduled to have its theatrical release on 21 December 2018 on the eve of Christmas, and later rescheduled to 11 January 2019 post Thai Pongal but it was postponed, due to a tight race at the box office. The film had its theatrical release on 14 February 2019 on the eve of Valentine's Day. Tamil Nadu theatrical rights for the film were sold to Murali Cine Arts. The United States distribution rights were acquired by Atmus Entertainment and was premiere took place on 13 February 2019.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The satellite rights of the film were bagged by Sun TV, and digital rights of the film were sold to Sun NXT. The film's television premiere took place on 7 October 2019.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: Soumya Rajendran from The News Minute rated 1 out of 5 stars, stating that "This is a never-ending love saga that resembles a javvu mittai, but isn't half as pleasant as eating one." Srinivasa Ramanujam from The Hindu reviewed it "A film that thinks colourful clothes and pretty locations can make up for the lack of a solid storyline." M Suganth from The Times of India rated 1.5 out of 5, and stated "If you want to describe Dev, you could very well go ahead and call it a misadventure." Behindwoods rated the film 2.25 out of 5 and stated: "Karthi's Dev is a visual delight with a few good moments, but could have been better with an engaging treatment." Gauthaman Bhaskaran of News18 rated 1.5 out of 5 and stated: "Ravishankar's movie is a breezy effort that gets swept off its feet in a blinding blizzard on the icy Himalayas or in the chaotic roads of Chennai." Sify rated 2 out of 5 and reviewed that ""Dev" is way too predictable to ever surprise you!"


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The film's soundtrack and the score are composed by Harris Jayaraj, who is collaborating with actor Karthi and director Rajath for the first time. The album features five tracks with lyrics for the songs were written by Thamarai, Kabilan, Vivek and Rajath.


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The first single track titled "Anangae Sinungalama" was released on 14 December 2018. It was confirmed by Harris Jayaraj in his Twitter account. The song was rendered Hariharan, Tippu, Bharath Sundar, Arjun Chandy, Krish, Christopher Stanley and Sharanya Gopinath have lent their vocals, and the lyrics were penned by Thamarai. The song, which is well packaged with peppy and trendy music, is heavily inspired by the tune of the 1983 Michael Jackson hit-single "Billie Jean", with the beats and the chorus sounding similar. The framing of the lyric video has been conceptualised and executed by Ranjith Kumar of SFTC Media. Behindwoods in their review stated that "The song is high on energy, and that energy is infectious. This is just another beauty from Harris and just another great writing from Thamarai."


title: Dev (2019 film)

text: The full album was launched on 12 January 2019 at a launch event held at Sathyam Cinemas in Chennai, where the film's cast and crew and other celebrities attended the event. The songs were released on all digital platforms the same day, and the lyrical videos were released in YouTube. Behindwoods rated the album three stars out of five, and stated that "Harris Jayaraj's touch makes the album sound refreshingly youth and romantic." V Lakshmi from "The Times of India" reviewed the album, stating that "The overall vibe of the album is upbeat, though he hasn’t experimented much in terms of the soundscape, the songs are foot-tappingly enjoyable." Moviecrow rated the album 3 out of 5, stating that it is an autograph from Harris Jayaraj for his fans.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Liquid–liquid extraction (LLE), also known as solvent extraction and partitioning, is a method to separate compounds or metal complexes, based on their relative solubilities in two different immiscible liquids, usually water (polar) and an organic solvent (non-polar). There is a net transfer of one or more species from one liquid into another liquid phase, generally from aqueous to organic. The transfer is driven by chemical potential, i.e. once the transfer is complete, the overall system of chemical components that make up the solutes and the solvents are in a more stable configuration (lower free energy). The solvent that is enriched in solute(s) is called extract. The feed solution that is depleted in solute(s) is called the raffinate. LLE is a basic technique in chemical laboratories, where it is performed using a variety of apparatus, from separatory funnels to countercurrent distribution equipment called as mixer settlers. This type of process is commonly performed after a chemical reaction as part of the work-up, often including an acidic work-up.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: The term "partitioning" is commonly used to refer to the underlying chemical and physical processes involved in "liquid–liquid extraction", but on another reading may be fully synonymous with it. The term "solvent extraction" can also refer to the separation of a substance from a mixture by preferentially dissolving that substance in a suitable solvent. In that case, a soluble compound is separated from an insoluble compound or a complex matrix.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: From a hydrometallurgical perspective, solvent extraction is exclusively used in separation and purification of uranium and plutonium, zirconium and hafnium, separation of cobalt and nickel, separation and purification of rare earth elements etc., its greatest advantage being its ability to selectively separate out even very similar metals. One obtains high-purity single metal streams on 'stripping' out the metal value from the 'loaded' organic wherein one can precipitate or deposit the metal value. Stripping is the opposite of extraction: Transfer of mass from organic to aqueous phase.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: LLE is also widely used in the production of fine organic compounds, the processing of perfumes, the production of vegetable oils and biodiesel, and other industries. It is among the most common initial separation techniques, though some difficulties result in extracting out closely related functional groups.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Liquid–liquid extraction is possible in non-aqueous systems: In a system consisting of a molten metal in contact with molten salts, metals can be extracted from one phase to the other. This is related to a mercury electrode where a metal can be reduced, the metal will often then dissolve in the mercury to form an amalgam that modifies its electrochemistry greatly. For example, it is possible for sodium cations to be reduced at a mercury cathode to form sodium amalgam, while at an inert electrode (such as platinum) the sodium cations are not reduced. Instead, water is reduced to hydrogen. A detergent or fine solid can be used to stabilize an emulsion, or third phase.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: In solvent extraction, a distribution ratio is often quoted as a measure of how well-extracted a species is. The distribution ratio ("Kd") is equal to the concentration of a solute in the organic phase divided by its concentration in the aqueous phase. Depending on the system, the distribution ratio can be a function of temperature, the concentration of chemical species in the system, and a large number of other parameters. Note that "D" is related to the Δ"G" of the extraction process.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Sometimes, the distribution ratio is referred to as the partition coefficient, which is often expressed as the logarithm. Note that a distribution ratio for uranium and neptunium between two inorganic solids (zirconolite and perovskite) has been reported.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: In solvent extraction, two immiscible liquids are shaken together. The more polar solutes dissolve preferentially in the more polar solvent, and the less polar solutes in the less polar solvent. In this experiment, the nonpolar halogens preferentially dissolve in the non-polar mineral oil.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Although the distribution ratio and partition coefficient are often used synonymously, they are not necessarily so. Solutes may exist in more than one form in any particular phase, which would mean that the partition coefficient (Kd) and distribution ratio (D) will have different values. This is an important distinction to make as whilst the partition coefficient has a fixed value for the partitioning of a solute between two phases, the distribution ratio changes with differing conditions in the solvent.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: After performing liquid–liquid extraction, a quantitative measure must be taken to determine the ratio of the solution's total concentration in each phase of the extraction. This quantitative measure is known as the distribution ratio or distribution coefficient.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: The separation factor is one distribution ratio divided by another; it is a measure of the ability of the system to separate two solutes. For instance, if the distribution ratio for nickel (D) is 10 and the distribution ratio for silver (D) is 100, then the silver/nickel separation factor (SF) is equal to D/D = SF = 10.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: This is used to express the ability of a process to remove a contaminant from a product. For instance, if a process is fed with a mixture of 1:9 cadmium to indium, and the product is a 1:99 mixture of cadmium and indium, then the decontamination factor (for the removal of cadmium) of the process is 0.11 / 0.01 = 11.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: The easy way to work out the extraction mechanism is to draw graphs and measure the slopes. If for an extraction system the "D" value is proportional to the square of the concentration of a reagent ("Z") then the slope of the graph of log("D") against log(<nowiki></nowiki>"Z"<nowiki></nowiki>) will be two.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Success of liquid–liquid extraction is measured through separation factors and decontamination factors. The best way to understand the success of an extraction column is through the liquid–liquid equilibrium (LLE) data set. The data set can then be converted into a curve to determine the steady state partitioning behavior of the solute between the two phases. The y-axis is the concentration of solute in the extract (solvent) phase, and the x-axis is the concentration of the solute in the raffinate phase. From here, one can determine steps for optimization of the process.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: This is commonly used on the small scale in chemical labs. It is normal to use a separating funnel. Processes include DLLME and direct organic extraction.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: After equilibration, the extract phase containing the desired solute is separated out for further processing.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: A process used to extract small amounts of organic compounds from water samples. This process is done by injecting small amounts of an appropriate extraction solvent (CCl) and a disperser solvent (acetone) into the aqueous solution. The resulting solution is then centrifuged to separate the organic and aqueous layers. This process is useful in extraction organic compounds such as organochloride and organophsophorus pesticides, as well as substituted benzene compounds from water samples.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: By mixing partially organic soluble samples in organic solvent (toluene, benzene, xylene), the organic soluble compounds will dissolve into the solvent and can be separated using a separatory funnel. This process is valuable in the extraction of proteins and specifically phosphoprotein and phosphopeptide phosphatases.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Another example of this application is extracting anisole from a mixture of water and 5% acetic acid using ether, then the anisole will enter the organic phase. The two phases would then be separated. The acetic acid can then be scrubbed (removed) from the organic phase by shaking the organic extract with sodium bicarbonate. The acetic acid reacts with the sodium bicarbonate to form sodium acetate, carbon dioxide, and water.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Caffeine can also be extracted from coffee beans and tea leaves using a direct organic extraction. The beans or leaves can be soaked in ethyl acetate which favorably dissolves the caffeine, leaving a majority of the coffee or tea flavor remaining in the initial sample.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: These are commonly used in industry for the processing of metals such as the lanthanides; because the separation factors between the lanthanides are so small many extraction stages are needed. In the multistage processes, the aqueous raffinate from one extraction unit is fed to the next unit as the aqueous feed, while the organic phase is moved in the opposite direction. Hence, in this way, even if the separation between two metals in each stage is small, the overall system can have a higher decontamination factor.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Multistage countercurrent arrays have been used for the separation of lanthanides. For the design of a good process, the distribution ratio should be not too high (>100) or too low (<0.1) in the extraction portion of the process. It is often the case that the process will have a section for scrubbing unwanted metals from the organic phase, and finally a stripping section to obtain the metal back from the organic phase.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Battery of mixer-settlers counter currently interconnected. Each mixer-settler unit provides a single stage of extraction. A mixer settler consists of a first stage that mixes the phases together followed by a quiescent settling stage that allows the phases to separate by gravity.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: A novel settling device, Sudhin BioSettler, canseparate an oil-water emulsion continuously at a much faster rate than simple gravity settlers. In this photo, an oil-water emulsion, stirred by an impeller in an external reservoir and pumped continuously into the two bottom side ports of BioSettler, is separated very quickly into a clear organic (mineral oil) layer exiting via the top of BioSettler and an aqueous (coloured with a red food dye) layer being pumped out continuously from the bottom of BioSettler.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: In the multistage countercurrent process, multiple mixer settlers are installed with mixing and settling chambers located at alternating ends for each stage (since the outlet of the settling sections feed the inlets of the adjacent stage's mixing sections). Mixer-settlers are used when a process requires longer residence times and when the solutions are easily separated by gravity. They require a large facility footprint, but do not require much headspace, and need limited remote maintenance capability for occasional replacement of mixing motors. (Colven, 1956; Davidson, 1957)


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Centrifugal extractors mix and separate in one unit. Two liquids will be intensively mixed between the spinning rotor and the stationary housing at speeds up to 6000 RPM. This develops great surfaces for an ideal mass transfer from the aqueous phase into the organic phase. At 200–2000 g, both phases will be separated again. Centrifugal extractors minimize the solvent in the process, optimize the product load in the solvent and extract the aqueous phase completely. Counter current and cross current extractions are easily established.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Some solutes such as noble gases can be extracted from one phase to another without the need for a chemical reaction (see absorption). This is the simplest type of solvent extraction. When a solvent is extracted, two immiscible liquids are shaken together. The more polar solutes dissolve preferentially in the more polar solvent, and the less polar solutes in the less polar solvent. Some solutes that do not at first sight appear to undergo a reaction during the extraction process do not have distribution ratio that is independent of concentration. A classic example is the extraction of carboxylic acids (HA) into nonpolar media such as benzene. Here, it is often the case that the carboxylic acid will form a dimer in the organic layer so the distribution ratio will change as a function of the acid concentration (measured in either phase).


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Using solvent extraction it is possible to extract uranium, plutonium, thorium and many rare earth elements from acid solutions in a selective way by using the right choice of organic extracting solvent and diluent. One solvent used for this purpose is the organophosphate tributyl phosphate (TBP). The PUREX process that is commonly used in nuclear reprocessing uses a mixture of tri-n-butyl phosphate and an inert hydrocarbon (kerosene), the uranium(VI) are extracted from strong nitric acid and are back-extracted (stripped) using weak nitric acid. An organic soluble uranium complex [UO(TBP)(NO)] is formed, then the organic layer bearing the uranium is brought into contact with a dilute nitric acid solution; the equilibrium is shifted away from the organic soluble uranium complex and towards the free TBP and uranyl nitrate in dilute nitric acid. The plutonium(IV) forms a similar complex to the uranium(VI), but it is possible to strip the plutonium in more than one way; a reducing agent that converts the plutonium to the trivalent oxidation state can be added. This oxidation state does not form a stable complex with TBP and nitrate unless the nitrate concentration is very high (circa 10 mol/L nitrate is required in the aqueous phase). Another method is to simply use dilute nitric acid as a stripping agent for the plutonium. This PUREX chemistry is a classic example of a solvation extraction.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Another extraction mechanism is known as the ion exchange mechanism. Here, when an ion is transferred from the aqueous phase to the organic phase, another ion is transferred in the other direction to maintain the charge balance. This additional ion is often a hydrogen ion; for ion exchange mechanisms, the distribution ratio is often a function of pH. An example of an ion exchange extraction would be the extraction of americium by a combination of terpyridine and a carboxylic acid in "tert"-butyl benzene. In this case


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Another example is the extraction of zinc, cadmium, or lead by a dialkyl phosphinic acid (RPOH) into a nonpolar diluent such as an alkane. A non-polar diluent favours the formation of uncharged non-polar metal complexes.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Some extraction systems are able to extract metals by both the solvation and ion exchange mechanisms; an example of such a system is the americium (and lanthanide) extraction from nitric acid by a combination of 6,6'-"bis"-(5,6-dipentyl-1,2,4-triazin-3-yl)-2,2'-bipyridine and 2-bromohexanoic acid in "tert"-butyl benzene. At both high- and low-nitric acid concentrations, the metal distribution ratio is higher than it is for an intermediate nitric acid concentration.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: It is possible by careful choice of counterion to extract a metal. For instance, if the nitrate concentration is high, it is possible to extract americium as an anionic nitrate complex if the mixture contains a lipophilic quaternary ammonium salt.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: An example that is more likely to be encountered by the " 'average' " chemist is the use of a phase transfer catalyst. This is a charged species that transfers another ion to the organic phase. The ion reacts and then forms another ion, which is then transferred back to the aqueous phase.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: For instance, the 31.1 kJ mol is required to transfer an acetate anion into nitrobenzene, while the energy required to transfer a chloride anion from an aqueous phase to nitrobenzene is 43.8 kJ mol. Hence, if the aqueous phase in a reaction is a solution of sodium acetate while the organic phase is a nitrobenzene solution of benzyl chloride, then, when a phase transfer catalyst, the acetate anions can be transferred from the aqueous layer where they react with the benzyl chloride to form benzyl acetate and a chloride anion. The chloride anion is then transferred to the aqueous phase. The transfer energies of the anions contribute to that given out by the reaction.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: A 43.8 to 31.1 kJ mol = 12.7 kJ mol of additional energy is given out by the reaction when compared with energy if the reaction had been done in nitrobenzene using one equivalent weight of a tetraalkylammonium acetate.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Polymer–polymer systems. In a Polymer–polymer system, both phases are generated by a dissolved polymer. The heavy phase will generally be a polysaccharide, and the light phase is generally Polyethylene glycol (PEG). Traditionally, the polysaccharide used is dextran. However, dextran is relatively expensive, and research has been exploring using less expensive polysaccharides to generate the heavy phase. If the target compound being separated is a protein or enzyme, it is possible to incorporate a ligand to the target into one of the polymer phases. This improves the target's affinity to that phase, and improves its ability to partition from one phase into the other. This, as well as the absence of solvents or other denaturing agents, makes polymer–polymer extractions an attractive option for purifying proteins. The two phases of a polymer–polymer system often have very similar densities, and very low surface tension between them. Because of this, demixing a polymer–polymer system is often much more difficult than demixing a solvent extraction. Methods to improve the demixing include centrifugation, and application of an electric field.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Polymer–salt systems. Aqueous two-phase systems can also be generated by generating the heavy phase with a concentrated salt solution. The polymer phase used is generally still PEG. Generally, a kosmotropic salt, such as NaPO is used, however PEG–NaCl systems have been documented when the salt concentration is high enough. Since polymer–salt systems demix readily they are easier to use. However, at high salt concentrations, proteins generally either denature, or precipitate from solution. Thus, polymer–salt systems are not as useful for purifying proteins.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Ionic liquids systems. Ionic liquids are ionic compounds with low melting points. While they are not technically aqueous, recent research has experimented with using them in an extraction that does not use organic solvents.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: The ability to purify DNA from a sample is important for many modern biotechnology processes. However, samples often contain nucleases that degrade the target DNA before it can be purified. It has been shown that DNA fragments will partition into the light phase of a polymer–salt separation system. If ligands known to bind and deactivate nucleases are incorporated into the polymer phase, the nucleases will then partition into the heavy phase and be deactivated. Thus, this polymer–salt system is a useful tool for purifying DNA from a sample while simultaneously protecting it from nucleases.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: The PEG–NaCl system has been shown to be effective at partitioning small molecules, such as peptides and nucleic acids. These compounds are often flavorants or odorants. The system could then be used by the food industry to isolate or eliminate particular flavors. Caffeine extraction used to be done using liquid–liquid extraction, specifically direct and indirect liquid–liquid extraction (Swiss Water Method), but has since moved towards super-critical CO as it is cheaper and can be done on a commercial scale.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Often there are chemical species present or necessary at one stage of sample processing that will interfere with the analysis. For example, some air monitoring is performed by drawing air through a small glass tube filled with sorbent particles that have been coated with a chemical to stabilize or derivatize the analyte of interest. The coating may be of such a concentration or characteristics that it would damage the instrumentation or interfere with the analysis. If the sample can be extracted from the sorbent using a nonpolar solvent (such as toluene or carbon disulfide), and the coating is polar (such as HBr or phosphoric acid) the dissolved coating will partition into the aqueous phase. Clearly the reverse is true as well, using polar extraction solvent and a nonpolar solvent to partition a nonpolar interferent. A small aliquot of the organic phase (or in the latter case, polar phase) can then be injected into the instrument for analysis.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Amines (analogously to ammonia) have a lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen atom that can form a relatively weak bond to a hydrogen atom. It is therefore the case that under acidic conditions amines are typically protonated, carrying a positive charge and under basic conditions they are typically deprotonated and neutral. Amines of sufficiently low molecular weight are rather polar and can form hydrogen bonds with water and therefore will readily dissolve in aqueous solutions. Deprotonated amines on the other hand, are neutral and have "greasy", nonpolar organic substituents, and therefore have a higher affinity for nonpolar inorganic solvents. As such purification steps can be carried out where an aqueous solution of an amine is neutralized with a base such as sodium hydroxide, then shaken in a separatory funnel with a nonpolar solvent that is immiscible with water. The organic phase is then drained off. Subsequent processing can recover the amine by techniques such as recrystallization, evaporation or distillation; subsequent extraction back to a polar phase can be performed by adding HCl and shaking again in a separatory funnel (at which point the ammonium ion could be recovered by adding an insoluble counterion), or in either phase, reactions could be performed as part of a chemical synthesis.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Temperature swing solvent extraction is an experimental technique for the desalination of drinking water. It has been used to remove up to 98.4% of the salt content in water, and is able to process hypersaline brines that cannot be desalinated using reverse osmosis.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: It is important to investigate the rate at which the solute is transferred between the two phases, in some cases by an alteration of the contact time it is possible to alter the selectivity of the extraction. For instance, the extraction of palladium or nickel can be very slow because the rate of ligand exchange at these metal centers is much lower than the rates for iron or silver complexes.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: If a complexing agent is present in the aqueous phase then it can lower the distribution ratio. For instance, in the case of iodine being distributed between water and an inert organic solvent such as carbon tetrachloride then the presence of iodide in the aqueous phase can alter the extraction chemistry.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: This is because the iodine reacts with the iodide to form I. The I anion is an example of a polyhalide anion that is quite common.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: In a typical scenario, an industrial process will use an extraction step in which solutes are transferred from the aqueous phase to the organic phase; this is often followed by a scrubbing stage in which unwanted solutes are removed from the organic phase, then a stripping stage in which the wanted solutes are removed from the organic phase. The organic phase may then be treated to make it ready for use again.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: After use, the organic phase may be subjected to a cleaning step to remove any degradation products; for instance, in PUREX plants, the used organic phase is washed with sodium carbonate solution to remove any dibutyl hydrogen phosphate or butyl dihydrogen phosphate that might be present.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: In order to calculate the phase equilibrium, it is necessary to use a thermodynamic model such as NRTL, UNIQUAC, etc. The corresponding parameters of these models can be obtained from literature (e.g. Dechema Chemistry Data Series, Dortmund Data Bank, etc.) or by a correlation process of experimental data.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: While solvent extraction is often done on a small scale by synthetic lab chemists using a separatory funnel, Craig apparatus or membrane-based techniques, it is normally done on the industrial scale using machines that bring the two liquid phases into contact with each other. Such machines include centrifugal contactors, Thin Layer Extraction, spray columns, pulsed columns, and mixer-settlers.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: The extraction of cobalt from hydrochloric acid using Alamine 336 (tri-octyl/decyl amine) in "meta"-xylene. Cobalt can be extracted also using Cyanex 272 {"bis"-(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphinic acid}.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Copper can be extracted using hydroxyoximes as extractants, a recent paper describes an extractant that has a good selectivity for copper over cobalt and nickel.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: The rare earth element Neodymium is extracted by di(2-ethyl-hexyl)phosphoric acid into hexane by an ion exchange mechanism.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Nickel can be extracted using di(2-ethyl-hexyl)phosphoric acid and tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon diluent (Shellsol).


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Dialkyl sulfides, tributyl phosphate and alkyl amines have been used for extracting palladium and platinum.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Polonium is produced in reactors from natural Bi, bombarded with neutrons, creating Bi, which then decays to Po via beta-minus decay. The final purification is done pyrochemically followed by liquid-liquid extraction vs sodium hydroxide at 500 deg C.


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Zinc and cadmium are both extracted by an ion exchange process, the "N,N,N′,N′"-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)ethylenediamine (TPEN) acts as a masking agent for the zinc and an extractant for the cadmium. In the modified Zincex process, zinc is separated from most divalent ions by solvent extraction. D2EHPA (Di (2) ethyl hexyl phosphoric acid) is used for this. A zinc ion replaces the proton from two D2EHPA molecules. To strip the zinc from the D2EHPA, sulfuric acid is used, at a concentration of above 170g/L (typically 240-265g/L).


title: Liquid–liquid extraction

text: Lithium extraction is more popular due to the high demand of lithium-ion batteries. TBP (Tri-butyl phosphate) and FeCl3 are mostly used to extract lithium from brine (with high Li/Mg ratio). Alternatively, Cyanex 272 was also used to extract lithium. The mechanism of lithium extraction was found differently from other metals, such as cobalt, due to the weak coordinating bonding between lithium ions and extractants.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: The Wasp Factory is the first novel by Scottish writer Iain Banks, published in 1984. Before the publication of "The Wasp Factory," Banks had written several science fiction novels that had not been accepted for publication. Banks decided to try a more mainstream novel in the hopes that it would be more readily accepted, and wrote about a psychopathic teenager living on a remote Scottish island. According to Banks, this allowed him to treat the story as something resembling science fiction – the island could be envisaged as a planet, and Frank, the protagonist, almost as an alien. Following the success of "The Wasp Factory", Banks began to write full-time.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: "The Wasp Factory" is written from a first person perspective, told by 16-year-old Francis Cauldhame ("Frank"), describing his childhood and all that remains of it. Frank observes many shamanistic rituals of his own invention, and it is soon revealed that Frank killed three children before he reached the age of ten himself.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: The book sold well, but was greeted with a mixture of acclaim and criticism, due to its gruesome depiction of violence. "The Irish Times" called it "a work of unparalleled depravity."


title: The Wasp Factory

text: The story is told from the perspective of 16-year-old Frank Cauldhame. Frank lives with his father on a small island in rural Scotland, and he has not seen his mother in many years. There is no official record of his birth, meaning his existence is largely unknown.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: Frank occupies his time with rituals, building dams, and maintaining an array of weapons (a small catapult, pipe bombs, and a crude flamethrower) for killing small animals around the island. He takes long walks to patrol the island and occasionally gets drunk with his only friend, a dwarf. Otherwise, Frank has almost no contact with the outside world. He's haunted by the memory of a dog attack during his youth, which resulted in the loss of his genitalia. He resents others for his impotence, particularly women. This is in part due to the mauling coinciding with the last time he saw his mother, who had come back to give birth to his younger brother, leaving immediately after.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: Frank's older brother, Eric, escapes from a psychiatric institution, having been arrested some years prior for arson and terrorizing the local children by force-feeding them live maggots. Eric often calls him from a pay-phone to inform Frank of his progress back to the island. Eric is extremely erratic; their conversations end badly, with Eric exploding in fits of rage. However, it's clear Frank loves his brother.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: The Wasp Factory is a mechanism invented by Frank, consisting of a huge clock face, salvaged from the local dump, encased in a glass box. Behind each of the 12 numerals is a trap that leads to a different ritual death (such as burning, crushing, or drowning in Frank's urine) for the wasp that Frank puts into it via the hole at the centre. Frank believes the death "chosen" by the wasp predicts something about the future. The Factory is in the house's loft, which Frank's father cannot access because of a leg injury. There are also “Sacrifice Poles” constructed by Frank. The corpses of animals, such as mice that he has killed, are placed onto the poles for the purpose of attracting birds which will fly away and alert Frank of anybody approaching the island.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: It's revealed that when Frank was much younger, he killed three of his relatives: two cousins and his younger brother. He also exhumed the skull of the dog that castrated him, and uses it as part of his rituals. Eric is described as having been extremely sensitive before the incident that drove him mad: a tragic case of neglect at the hospital where Eric was a volunteer when studying to become a doctor. While attempting to feed a brain-damaged newborn with acalvaria, Eric notes how the child is unresponsive and smiling, despite usually appearing expressionless. The child's skull is held together by a metal plate over his head. Eric checks underneath the plate to find the child's exposed brain tissue infested and being consumed by day-old maggots.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: Frank's father is distant and spends most of his time in his study, which he keeps locked at all times. Frank longs to know what is inside. He is used to being lied to by his father, who seemingly does it purely for his own amusement. At the end of the novel, Frank is alerted of Eric's return when he sees a dog that has been burned alive and discovers Eric's campsite. This knowledge incites Frank's father to get drunk before forgetting to conceal the keys to his study, where Frank discovers male hormone drugs, tampons, and what appears to be the remains of his own genitals in a jar. He assumes that his findings mean that his father is actually female.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: During the ensuing confrontation, Eric attempts to destroy the island with explosives and fire but is not successful.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: Frank's father explains that it was Frank who was born a female; the hormones had been fed to him by his father since the dog attack in an experiment to see whether Frank would transition from female to male. The remains of his genitals were fake and it is suggested that his father's reasoning for doing this was to distance himself from the women he felt had ruined his life. In the end, Frank finds Eric, half asleep. He sits with him and considers his life up to this point and whether he should leave the island.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: The book was initially greeted with a mixture of acclaim and criticism, due to its gruesome depiction of violence. While this is mostly against animals, Frank also recollects killing three younger children. The murders are described in an honest and matter-of-fact way, often with grotesque humour. "The Irish Times" called it "a work of unparalleled depravity." Banks' response to this criticism is that readers understood the humour of these scenes in a way that many critics did not in their reviews.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: Neil Gaiman reviewed "The Wasp Factory" for "Imagine" magazine, and stated that "will delight horror fans with its mixture of black humour and horrible, imaginative, beautiful deaths."


title: The Wasp Factory

text: A 1997 poll of over 25,000 readers of "The Independent" listed "The Wasp Factory" as one of the top 100 books of the 20th century.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: In 1992 Malcolm Sutherland adapted the novel for the stage. The production was performed at the Glasgow Citizen's Theatre. It was revived in 1997 and shown in Yorkshire and London.


title: The Wasp Factory

text: In 2013, the Australian producer and composer Ben Frost directed an opera adaptation of the Iain Banks novel, in which all characters are represented by three female singers.


title: History of the papacy

text: The history of the papacy, the office held by the pope as head of the Catholic Church, spans from the time of Peter, to the present day. Moreover, many of the bishops of Rome in the first three centuries of the Christian era are obscure figures. Most of Peter's successors in the first three centuries following his life suffered martyrdom along with members of their flock in periods of persecution.


title: History of the papacy

text: During the Early Church, the bishops of Rome enjoyed no temporal power until the time of Constantine. After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire (the "Middle Ages", about 476), the papacy was influenced by the temporal rulers of the surrounding Italian Peninsula; these periods are known as the Ostrogothic Papacy, Byzantine Papacy, and Frankish Papacy. Over time, the papacy consolidated its territorial claims to a portion of the peninsula known as the Papal States. Thereafter, the role of neighboring sovereigns was replaced by powerful Roman families during the "saeculum obscurum", the Crescentii era, and the Tusculan Papacy.


title: History of the papacy

text: From 1048 to 1257, the papacy experienced increasing conflict with the leaders and churches of the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire). Conflict with the latter culminated in the East–West Schism, dividing the Western Church and Eastern Church. From 1257–1377, the pope, though the bishop of Rome, resided in Viterbo, Orvieto, and Perugia, and lastly Avignon. The return of the popes to Rome after the Avignon Papacy was followed by the Western Schism: the division of the Western Church between two and, for a time, three competing papal claimants.


title: History of the papacy

text: The Renaissance Papacy is known for its artistic and architectural patronage, forays into European power politics, and theological challenges to papal authority. After the start of the Protestant Reformation, the Reformation Papacy and Baroque Papacy led the Catholic Church through the Counter-Reformation. The popes during the Age of Revolution witnessed the largest expropriation of wealth in the church's history, during the French Revolution and those that followed throughout Europe. The Roman Question, arising from Italian unification, resulted in the loss of the Papal States and the creation of Vatican City.


title: History of the papacy

text: Roman-Catholics recognize the pope as both the successor to Peter and the first bishop of Rome. Official declarations of the church speak of the popes as holding within the college of the bishops a position analogous to that held by Peter within the "college" of the Apostles, namely Prince of the Apostles, of which the college of the Bishops, a distinct entity, is viewed by some to be the successor.


title: History of the papacy

text: Pope Clement I, the earliest of the Church Fathers, is identified with Clement of Philippians 4:3. His letter to the Corinthians is the "first known example of the exercise and acceptance" of the ecclesiastical authority of the papacy. Written while John the Apostle was still alive, Clement commanded that the Corinthians maintain unity with each other and bring to an end the schism that had divided the church in that region. This papal letter from Clement was held in such esteem that it was considered by some as part of the New Testament canon, as the Ethiopian Orthodox Church still does. Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, writing to Pope Soter ("as a father to his children") references Pope Clement's letter:


title: History of the papacy

text: Many deny that Peter and those claimed to be his immediate successors had universally-recognized supreme authority over all the early churches, citing instead that the bishop of Rome was, and is, "first among equals" as stated by the patriarch of the Orthodox Church in the 2nd century A.D. and again in the 21st century. However, what form that should take remains a matter of contention between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, which formed one church for at least the first seven ecumenical councils, and until the formal split over papal primacy in 1054 AD.


title: History of the papacy

text: Many of the bishops of Rome in the first three centuries of the Christian era are obscure figures. Most of Peter's successors in the first three centuries following his life suffered martyrdom along with members of their flock in periods of persecution.


title: History of the papacy

text: The legend surrounding the victory of Constantine I in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312) relates his vision of the Chi Rho and the text in hoc signo vinces in the sky, and reproducing this symbol on the shields of his troops. The following year, Constantine and Licinius proclaimed the toleration of the Christian faith with the Edict of Milan, and in 325, Constantine convened and presided over the First Council of Nicaea, the first ecumenical council. None of this, however, has particularly much to do with the pope, who did not even attend the Council; in fact, the first bishop of Rome to be contemporaneously referred to as Pope is Damasus I (366–84). Moreover, between 324 and 330, Constantine moved the capital of the Roman empire from Rome to Byzantium, a former Greek city on the Bosporus. The power of Rome was transferred to Byzantium which later, in 330 became Constantinople and today is Istanbul.


title: History of the papacy

text: The "Donation of Constantine", an 8th-century forgery used to enhance the prestige and authority of popes, places the pope more centrally in the narrative of Constantinian Christianity. The legend of the Donation claims that Constantine offered his crown to Sylvester I (314–35), and even that Sylvester baptized Constantine. In reality, Constantine was baptized (nearing his death in May 337) by Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop.


title: History of the papacy

text: Although the "Donation" never occurred, Constantine did hand over the Lateran Palace to the bishop of Rome, and around 310 AD began the construction of Basilica of Constantine in Germany, called Aula Palatina.


title: History of the papacy

text: Emperor Constantine also erected the Old St. Peter's Basilica, or Constantinian Basilica, the current location of the current, Renaissance era, St. Peter's Basilica within the Vatican, on the place of St. Peter's burial, as held by the Catholic community of Rome, after his conversion to Catholicism.


title: History of the papacy

text: Pope Leo I (440–461), also called Leo the Great, was so influential that he was later named a Doctor of the Church, a distinction he shares with only one other pope (Gregory I). During his papacy, the term Pope (which previously meant any bishop) came to exclusively mean the Bishop of Rome.


title: History of the papacy

text: The Ostrogothic Papacy period ran from 493 to 537. The papal election of March 483 was the first to take place without the existence of a Western Roman emperor. The papacy was strongly influenced by the Ostrogothic Kingdom, though the pope was not outright appointed by the Ostrogothic King. The selection and administration of popes during this period was strongly influenced by Theodoric the Great and his successors Athalaric and Theodahad. This period ended with Justinian I's reconquest of Italy and City of Rome itself during the Gothic War, inaugurating the Byzantine Papacy (537–752).


title: History of the papacy

text: The role of the Ostrogoths became clear in the first schism, when, on November 22, 498, two men were elected pope. The subsequent triumph of Pope Symmachus (498–514) over Antipope Laurentius is the first recorded example of simony in papal history. Symmachus also instituted the practice of popes naming their own successors, which held until an unpopular choice was made in 530, and discord continued until the selection in 532 of John II, the first to rename himself upon succession.


title: History of the papacy

text: Theodoric was tolerant towards the Catholic Church and did not interfere in dogmatic matters. He remained as neutral as possible towards the pope, though he exercised a preponderant influence in the affairs of the papacy. Ostrogothic influence ended with the reconquest of Rome by Justinian, who had had pro-Gothic Pope Silverius (536–537) deposed and replaced with his own choice, Pope Vigilius (537–555).


title: History of the papacy

text: The Byzantine Papacy was a period of return to Imperial domination of the papacy from 537 to 752, when popes required the approval of the Byzantine Emperors for episcopal consecration, and many popes were chosen from the "apocrisiarii" (liaisons from the pope to the emperor) or the inhabitants of Byzantine Greece, Syria, or Sicily. Justinian I restored the Roman imperial rule in the Italian peninsula after the Gothic War (535–54) and appointed the next three popes, a practice that would be continued by his successors and later be delegated to the Exarchate of Ravenna.


title: History of the papacy

text: With the exception of Pope Martin I, no pope during this period questioned the authority of the Byzantine monarch to confirm the election of the bishop of Rome before consecration could occur; however, theological conflicts were common between pope and emperor in the areas such as monotheletism and iconoclasm. Greek speakers from Greece, Syria, and Byzantine Sicily replaced members of the powerful Roman nobles from Italian descent in the papal chair during this period. Rome under the Greek popes constituted a "melting pot" of Western and Eastern Christian traditions, reflected in art as well as liturgy.


title: History of the papacy

text: Pope Gregory I (590–604) was a major figure in asserting papal primacy and gave the impetus to missionary activity in northern Europe, including England.


title: History of the papacy

text: The Duchy of Rome was a Byzantine district in the Exarchate of Ravenna, ruled by an imperial functionary with the title dux. Within the exarchate, the two chief districts were the country about Ravenna where the exarch was the centre of Byzantine opposition to the Lombards, and the Duchy of Rome, which embraced the lands of Latium north of the Tiber and of Campania to the south as far as the Garigliano. There the pope himself was the soul of the opposition.


title: History of the papacy

text: The pains were taken, as long as possible, to retain control of the intervening districts and with them communication over the Apennine mountains. In 728, the Lombard King Liutprand took the Castle of Sutri, on the road to Perugia, but restored it to Pope Gregory II "as a gift to the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul". The popes continued to acknowledge the imperial Government.


title: History of the papacy

text: In 738, the Lombard duke Transamund of Spoleto captured the Castle of Gallese, which protected the road to Perugia. By a large payment, Pope Gregory III induced the duke to restore the castle to him.


title: History of the papacy

text: In 751, Aistulf took Ravenna and threatened Rome. In response to this threat, Pope Stephen II made an unusual journey north of the Alps to visit the Frankish king, Pepin III, to seek his help against the invading Lombards. The papal elections were marked by battles between various secular and ecclesiastical factions frequently entangled in the power politics of Italy.


title: History of the papacy

text: The pope anointed Pepin at the abbey of St Denis, near Paris, together with Pepin's two young sons Charles and Carloman. Pepin duly invaded northern Italy in 754, and again in 756. Pepin was able to drive the Lombards from the territory belonging to Ravenna but he did not restore it to its rightful owner, the Byzantine emperor. Instead, he handed over large areas of central Italy to the pope and his successors.


title: History of the papacy

text: The land given to pope Stephen in 756, in the so-called Donation of Pepin, made the papacy a temporal power and for the first time created an incentive for secular leaders to interfere with papal succession. This territory would become the basis for the Papal States, over which the popes ruled until the Papal States were incorporated into the new Kingdom of Italy in 1870. For the next eleven centuries, the story of Rome would be almost synonymous with the story of the papacy.


title: History of the papacy

text: After being physically attacked by his enemies in the streets of Rome, Pope Leo III made his way in 799 through the Alps to visit Charlemagne at Paderborn.


title: History of the papacy

text: It is not known what was agreed between the two, but Charlemagne traveled to Rome in 800 to support the pope. In a ceremony in St Peter's Basilica, on Christmas Day, Leo was supposed to anoint Charlemagne's son as his heir. But unexpectedly (it is maintained), as Charlemagne rose from prayer, the pope placed a crown on his head and acclaimed him emperor. It is reported that Charlemagne expressed displeasure but nevertheless accepted the honour.


title: History of the papacy

text: Charlemagne's successor, "Louis the Pious", intervened in the papal election by supporting the claim of Pope Eugene II; the popes henceforth were required to swear loyalty to the Frankish Emperor. Papal subjects were made to swear loyalty to the Frankish Emperor and the consecration of the pope could be performed only in the presence of the Emperor's representatives. The consecration of Pope Gregory IV (827-844), chosen by the Roman nobles, was delayed for six months to attain the assent of Louis. Pope Sergius II (844-847), choice of the Roman nobility, was consecrated without reference to Emperor Lothaire, the latter sent his son Louis with an army, and only when "Sergius succeeded in pacifying Louis, whom he crowned king" did Lothair I side with Sergius II.


title: History of the papacy

text: The period beginning with the installation of Pope Sergius III in 904 and lasting for sixty years until the death of Pope John XII in 964 is sometimes referred to as Saeculum obscurum or the "dark age." Historian Will Durant refers to the period from 867 to 1049 as the "nadir of the papacy".


title: History of the papacy

text: During this period, the popes were controlled by a powerful and corrupt aristocratic family, the Theophylacti, and their relatives.


title: History of the papacy

text: The Imperial crown once held by the Carolingian emperors was disputed between their fractured heirs and local overlords; none emerged victorious until Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor invaded Italy. Italy became a constituent kingdom of the Holy Roman Empire in 962, from which point the emperors were German. As emperors consolidated their position, northern Italian city-states would become divided by Guelphs and Ghibellines. Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor found three rival popes when he visited Rome in 1048 because of the unprecedented actions of Pope Benedict IX. He deposed all three and installed his own preferred candidate: Pope Clement II.


title: History of the papacy

text: The history of the papacy from 1048 to 1257 would continue to be marked by conflict between popes and the Holy Roman Emperor, most prominently the Investiture Controversy, a dispute over who—pope or emperor—could appoint bishops within the Empire. Henry IV's Walk to Canossa in 1077 to meet Pope Gregory VII (1073–85), although not dispositive within the context of the larger dispute, has become legendary. Although the emperor renounced any right to lay investiture in the Concordat of Worms (1122), the issue would flare up again.


title: History of the papacy

text: Long-standing divisions between East and West also came to a head in the East–West Schism and the Crusades. The first seven Ecumenical Councils had been attended by both Western and Eastern prelates, but growing doctrinal, theological, linguistic, political and geographic differences finally resulted in mutual denunciations and excommunications. Pope Urban II (1088–99) convened a council at Clermont, November 1096 with the hopes of reunion and lending support to the Byzantines who wanted to reclaim their lands lost to the Seljuk Turks. After the 10 day Council Pope Urban II gave a rousing speech to a massive crowd when he, "emphasized the duty of the Christian West to march to the rescue of the Christian East." Nine months later, Pope Urban II (1088–99) speech at the Council of Clermont in August 1096 became the rallying cry of the First Crusade.


title: History of the papacy

text: Unlike the previous millennium, the process for papal selection became somewhat fixed during this period. Pope Nicholas II promulgated "In nomine Domini" in 1059, which limited suffrage in papal elections to the College of Cardinals. The rules and procedures of papal elections evolved during this period, laying the groundwork for the modern papal conclave. The driving force behind these reforms was Cardinal Hildebrand, who later became Gregory VII.


title: History of the papacy

text: The pope is the bishop of Rome, but nowhere is it written that he has to stay there (in fact, only 200 years prior, cardinals would have been required to reside in Rome). Political instability in thirteenth-century Italy forced the papal court to move to several different locations, including Viterbo, Orvieto, and Perugia. The popes brought the Roman Curia with them, and the College of Cardinals met in the city where the last pope had died to hold papal elections. Host cities enjoyed a boost to their prestige and certain economic advantages, but the municipal authorities risked being subsumed into the administration of the Papal States if they allowed the pope to overstay his welcome.


title: History of the papacy

text: According to Eamon Duffy, "aristocratic factions within the city of Rome once again made it an insecure base for a stable papal government. Innocent IV was exiled from Rome and even from Italy for six years, and all but two of the papal elections of the thirteenth century had to take place outside Rome. The skyline of Rome itself was now dominated by the fortified war-towers of the aristocracy (a hundred were built in Innocent IV's pontificate alone) and the popes increasingly spent their time in the papal palaces at Viterbo and Orvieto."


title: History of the papacy

text: During this period, seven popes, all French, resided in Avignon starting in 1309: Pope Clement V (1305–14), Pope John XXII (1316–34), Pope Benedict XII (1334–42), Pope Clement VI (1342–52), Pope Innocent VI (1352–62), Pope Urban V (1362–70), Pope Gregory XI (1370–78). The papacy was controlled by the French King in this time. In 1378, Gregory XI moved the papal residence back to Rome and died there.


title: History of the papacy

text: The French cardinals withdrew to a conclave of their own, where they elected one of their number, Robert of Geneva. He took the name Clement VII. This was the beginning of the period of difficulty from 1378 to 1417 which Catholic scholars refer to as the "Western Schism" or, "the great controversy of the antipopes" (also called "the second great schism" by some secular and Protestant historians), when parties within the Catholic Church were divided in their allegiances among the various claimants to the office of pope. The Council of Constance, in 1417, finally resolved the controversy.


title: History of the papacy

text: Another council was convened in 1414 at Constance. In March 1415, the Pisan antipope, John XXIII, fled from Constance in disguise; he was brought back a prisoner and deposed in May. The Roman pope, Gregory XII, resigned voluntarily in July.


title: History of the papacy

text: The council in Constance, having finally cleared the field of popes and antipopes, elected Pope Martin V as pope in November.


title: History of the papacy

text: From the election of Pope Martin V of the Council of Constance in 1417 to the Reformation, Western Christianity was largely free from schism as well as significant disputed papal claimants. Martin V returned the papacy to Rome in 1420. Although there were important divisions over the direction of the religion, these were resolved through the then-settled procedures of the papal conclave.