title: Australian Survivor: All Stars

text: At the merge, the new Mokuta alliance rallied together to take out the surviving Vakama members. Despite enjoying early success by eliminating physical and social threats, fractures formed in the Mokuta alliance when it was announced six players would compete against one another to remain in the game. Zach was betrayed by Jacqui who opted to flip on the alliance, though she was voted off for her actions shortly thereafter. After losing her Vakama allies, Brooke went on an immunity run to force the majority to cannibalize each other but fell short at the final four. David won the final immunity challenge and sent Moana to the jury in fear of her strategic game, over the ruthless double agent Sharn.


title: Australian Survivor: All Stars

text: At the final Tribal Council, Sharn was criticized for her lying and baiting the Vakama minority for too long, and questioning her jury management compared to her first season. David had been painted as controlling and domineering throughout the entire season. Highlighting his charismatic social game at the original Vakama, including possessing two idols at the same time, and protecting his Mokuta allies where he could, David managed to convince the jury that his social and strategic dominant game was stronger than Sharn's, awarding him the title of Sole Survivor in an 8–1 vote.


title: Australian Survivor: All Stars

text: Ratings data is from OzTAM and represents the viewership from the 5 largest Australian metropolitan centres (Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide).


title: Balkan Mountains

text: The Balkan mountain range (, , known locally also as Stara planina) is a mountain range in the eastern part of the Balkan Peninsula in Southeastern Europe. The range is conventionally taken to begin at the peak of Vrashka Chuka on the border between Bulgaria and Serbia. It then runs for about , first in a south-easterly direction along the border, then eastward across Bulgaria, forming a natural barrier between the northern and southern halves of the country, before finally reaching the Black Sea at Cape Emine. The mountains reach their highest point with Botev Peak at .


title: Balkan Mountains

text: In much of the central and eastern sections, the summit forms the watershed between the drainage basins of the Black Sea and the Aegean. A prominent gap in the mountains is formed by the sometimes narrow Iskar Gorge, a few miles north of the Bulgarian capital, Sofia. The karst relief determines the large number of caves, including Magura, featuring the most important and extended European post-Palaeolithic cave painting, Ledenika, Saeva dupka, Bacho Kiro, etc. The most notable rock formation are the Belogradchik Rocks in the west.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: There are several important protected areas: Central Balkan National Park, Vrachanski Balkan, Bulgarka and Sinite Kamani, as well as a number of nature reserves. The Balkan Mountains are remarkable for their flora and fauna. Edelweiss grows there in the region of "Kozyata stena". Some of the most striking landscapes are included in the Central Balkan National Park with steep cliffs, the highest waterfalls in the Balkan Peninsula and lush vegetation. There are a number of important nature reserves such as Chuprene, Kozyata stena and others. Most of Europe's large mammals inhabit the area including the brown bear, wolf, boar, chamois and deer.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: The mountains are the source of the name of the Balkan Peninsula. In Bulgarian and Serbian the mountains are also known as "" (pronounced in Bulgarian as and in Serbian as ), a term whose literal meaning is 'old mountain'.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: It is believed the name was brought to the region in the 7th century by Bulgars who applied it to the area, as a part of the First Bulgarian Empire. In Bulgarian, the archaic word "balkan" (балкан) was borrowed from Turkic and means "mountain". It may have ultimately derived from the Persian "bālkāneh" or "bālākhāna", meaning "high, above, or proud house." The name is still preserved in Central Asia with the Balkan Daglary (Balkan Mountains) and the Balkan Province of Turkmenistan. In Turkish "" means "a chain of wooded mountains."


title: Balkan Mountains

text: In Antiquity and the Middle Ages the mountains were known by their Thracian name: the Haemus Mons. Scholars consider that the name Haemus (Αἷμος) is derived from a Thracian word "*saimon", 'mountain ridge'. The name of the place where the range meets the Black Sea, Cape Emine, is derived from "Aemon". A folk etymology holds that 'Haemus' derives from the Greek word "haima" () meaning 'blood', and is based on Greek mythology. During a fight between Zeus and the monster/titan Typhon, Zeus injured Typhon with thunder; and Typhon's blood fell on the mountains, which were then named for this battle.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Other names used to refer to the mountains in different time periods include "Aemon", "Haemimons", "Hem", "Emus", the Slavonic "Matorni gori" and the Turkish "Kocabalkan".


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Geologically, the Balkan Mountains are a mountain chain of fold mountains, a "young" part of the Alp-Himalayan chain that stretches across most of Europe and Asia. It can be divided into two parts: the main Balkan Chain and the Pre-Balkans (Fore-Balkan) to the north, which intrude slightly into the Danubian Plain. To the south, the mountains border the Sub-Balkan valleys - a row of 11 valleys running from the Bulgarian border with Serbia east to the Black Sea, separating the Balkan mountains from a chain of other mountains known as "Srednogorie" which includes Vitosha and Sredna Gora.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: The range consists of around 30 distinct mountains. Within Bulgaria the Balkan Mountains can be divided into three sections:


title: Balkan Mountains

text: In their central and eastern sections, the mountains form a water divide between the rivers flowing to the Danube in the north and those flowing to the Aegean Sea in the south. However, they are crossed by Bulgaria's longest river, the Iskar, which forms the Iskar Gorge. Rivers that take their source from the Balkan Mountains and flow northwards to the Danube include the Timok, Archar, Lom, Tsibritsa, Ogosta, Skat, Vit, Osam, Yantra, and Rusenski Lom. The mountains are also the source of the Kamchiya, which flows directly into the Black Sea. Although not so abundant in mineral waters as other parts of Bulgaria, there are several spas such as Varshets, Shipkovo and Voneshta Voda.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: There are a number of waterfalls, especially in the western and central parts of the range, such as Raysko Praskalo which is the highest waterfall in the Balkan Peninsula, Borov Kamak, Babsko Praskalo, Etropole Waterfall, Karlovsko Praskalo, Skaklya and others. Developments in the recent two decades completely changed the geography of Serbia, when it comes to waterfalls. Area of the Stara Planina has always been sparsely populated and inaccessible because of the rugged and forested terrain, but also as a location of the Serbian-Bulgarian border. As armies relinquished the borders giving control to the border police, civilians were allowed to explore the area. As a result, higher and higher waterfalls have been discovered on the Serbian side of the Stara Planina since then: Čungulj in 1996 - ; Pilj in 2002 - ; Kopren in 2011 - ; Kaluđerski Skokovi in 2012 - .


title: Balkan Mountains

text: The mountains are crossed by 20 passes and two gorges. There are paved roads crossing the Balkan Mountains at the following passes (listed from west to east):


title: Balkan Mountains

text: The Balkan Mountains have had a significant and special place in the history of Bulgaria since its founding in 681. It was a natural fortress of the Bulgarian Empire for centuries and formed an effective barrier to Moesia where most of the medieval capitals were located. The Balkan mountains were the site of numerous battles between the Bulgarian and Byzantine Empires including the Battle of the Rishki Pass (759), Battle of the Varbitsa Pass (811), the Battle of Tryavna (1190) and the Battle of Devina (1279). In the battle of the Varbitsa Pass, Khan Krum decisively defeated an enormous Byzantine army, killing Emperor Nikephoros I. For many centuries the Byzantines feared these mountains, and on several occasions Byzantine armies pulled back on approaching the Balkan Mountains.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: During the Ottoman rule, many "haiduks" found refuge in the Balkan Mountains. Close to the highest summit, Botev Peak, is Kalofer, the birthplace of Hristo Botev, a Bulgarian poet and national hero who died in the western Balkan Mountains near Vratsa in 1876 in the struggle against the Ottoman Empire. Also close to Botev Peak is Shipka Pass, the scene of the four battles in the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78, which ended Turkish rule in the Balkans.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Significant areas of the Balkan mountains are under protection by Bulgarian law, including one national park — Central Balkan National Park; three nature parks — Vrachanski Balkan Nature Park, Bulgarka Nature Park and Sinite Kamani Nature Park, over 20 nature reserves, as well as numerous natural landmarks.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Central Balkan National Park is among the largest and most valuable of the protected areas in Europe. Since 2017, its ancient beech forests have been included in the Primeval Beech Forests UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is the third largest protected territory in Bulgaria, spanning an area of 716.69 km² with total length of 85 km from the west to the east and an average width of 10 km. Within its territory are located the highest summit of the mountain range, Botev Peak (2376 m), as well as the highest waterfall in the Balkan peninsula Raysko Praskalo (124.5 m). The rugged and diverse relief determines the presence numerous gorges, cliffs, waterfalls and caves, including Raychova Dupka, the second deepest cave discovered in Bulgaria and in the mountain range, reaching depth of -377 m.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: The flora of Central Balkan National Park is diverse and consists of 1689 species of vascular plants, 45 species of algae and 238 species of mosses. These include 23 Bulgarian endemic species, such as leafy primrose ("Primula frondosa"), which is only found within the park's boundaries, "Аlchemilla аchtarowii", "Alchemilla jumrukczalica", "Betonica bulgarica", "Centaurea davidovii", as well as another 75 Balkan endemics.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: The vertebrate fauna of Central Balkan National Park consists of 309 species. The number of mammal species is 60, including animals of high conservation value, such as brown bear, gray wolf, wildcat, marbled polecat, European pine marten, Eurasian otter, the only population of chamois within the mountain range, European ground squirrel, lesser mole-rat, European snow vole, etc. The avifauna includes 220 species, of which 123 are nesting. The park is important for the protection of the eastern imperial eagle, saker falcon, Eurasian eagle-owl, Eurasian pygmy owl, Ural owl, boreal owl, white-backed woodpecker, semicollared flycatcher and corn crake. The park's herpetofauna includes 15 reptile and nine amphibian species. It hosts population of national importance of common European adder, viviparous lizard and common frog. Due to the park's high altitude, the ichtyofauna consists of six fish species, with brown trout being the dominant one.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Vrachanski Balkan Nature Park is situated in the western section of the mountain range and spans an area of 301.29 km². Its territory includes some of the most extensive karst areas in Bulgaria with over 600 caves, such as Ledenika, the gorge Vratsata whose 400 m vertical cliffs are the highest in the Balkans, and numerous waterfalls, such as Skaklia (141 m drop but unlike Raysko Praskalo it is seasonal) and Borov Kamak (63 m drop). The flora includes 1082 species of vascular plants and 186 species of mosses.The endemism is lowers when compared to the Central Balkan National Park — 6 Bulgarian and another 36 Balkan endemic species. The vertebrate fauna encompasses 276 species. The recorded mammal species are 58 and include gray wolf, golden jackal, wildcat, marbled polecat, European polecat, European pine marten and 22 bat species. The birds are 181 species, including 124 nesting ones. Typical species are the golden eagle, long-legged buzzard, peregrine falcon, Eurasian eagle-owl, Alpine chough, Alpine swift, Eurasian crag martin, red-rumped swallow, wallcreeper, etc. There are 15 reptile and 11 amphibian species; of them important populations exist of the meadow lizard, European copper skink, Balkan crested newt, as well as the only habitat in Bulgaria of the northern crested newt, which is also its southernmost locality worldwide.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: There have been successful efforts in the reintroduction of two vulture species that went extinct from the mountain range in the past several decades. In 2021 the first cinereous vulture in Bulgaria in nearly 30 years hatched in Kotel mountains in the eastern section of the mountain range, thus establishing the second breeding colony in the Balkans, after the one in north-eastern Greece. In recent years, several breeding pairs of griffon vulture have established themselves in the Vratsa Balkan to the west, as well as in the eastern sections of the Balkan Mountains. The eastern Balkan Mountains are among the priority areas in the reintroduction programme for the bearded vulture. Since the early XXI century there have been several records of the Eurasian lynx, which has been considered extincts in Bulgaria since the 1940s, in a number of localities along the Balkan Mountains.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: First group of trees was protected in 1966, followed by the creation of 7 special nature reserves and 3 natural monuments in the 1980s. Nature park Stara Planina was established in 1997 and since 2009 is in its present borders, covering an area of . The protected area was expanded in 2020.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: The sediments extend from the Paleozoic to the Cenozoic eras. Limestone terrain is known for the short losing streams and tufaceous waterfalls. There are canyons and gorges, like those of the Toplodolska reka and "Rosomačka reka" rivers. The Rosomača canyon ("Rosomački lonci" or "Slavinjsko grlo"), with its tall, cascade limestone walls, is known for its resemblance of the Colorado's Grand Canyon, but on a much smaller scale. The long gorge is a remnant of the former cave which eroded in time. Underground waters on the mountain reach the surface in the forms of common springs, well-springs ("vrelo") and diffused springs ("pištevina"). There are some 500 springs with the flow of over . The strongest spring is the intermittent "Jelovičko vrelo", known for its fluctuations, characterized by the bubbling and foaming.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Montane ecosystems are diverse and include several plant communities: forests, shrubs, meadows, pastures and peatlands. There are six different vegetation zone in the park. Oak, beech, spruce, subalpine zone of the shrub vegetation of common horsetail, blueberry, subalpine spruce and mugo pine. Other plants include shrub alder, steppe pedunculate oak, but also rare and endangered species like European pasqueflower, yellow pheasant's eye, Kosovo peony, common sundew, Heldreich's maple, martagon lily, pygmy iris and marsh orchid. In total, there are 1,190 plant species, including a locally endemic winged bellflower ("Campanula calyciliata") and Pančić's frog grass ("Senecio pancicii"), which can be found only on the mountain. There are also communities of mountainous sphagnum bogs on the localities of Jabučko Ravnište, Babin Zub and Arbinje. Some 350 herb species are considered medicinal or aromatic. In 2022, several independent surveys from various universities and institutes were conducted, in order to list all of them, to enhance their protection, and to check possibilities for potential plantation production. Vast areas south and southeast from the mountain are already transformed into the aromatic herbs plantations, especially the entire slopes of the nearby mountains being planted with lavender.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: In the 1980s, fossils of "Thecodontosaurus" were discovered on the mountain. It is one of the oldest recorded species of dinosaurs, and the remains are estimated to be some 250 million years old.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Some 190 species of butterflies are recorded. The area is a salmonid region, inhabited by the riverine brown trout. Another 25 species of fish live in the rivers and streams, so as the fire salamander and newts. There are 203 species of birds, of which 154 are nesting in the park, 10 are wintering, 30 are passing and 13 are wandering. Important species include golden eagle, Ural owl and hawk. As the park is the most important habitat in Serbia for long-legged buzzard, Eurasian woodcock and an endemic Balkan horned lark, an area of was declared a European Important Bird Area. The griffon vulture disappeared from the region in the late 1940s. In 2017 a program for their reintroduction began within the scope of a wider European program. Among other things, the feeders will be placed along the vultures' migratory route. Over 30 mammalian species are found in the park, including lesser mole-rat, hazel dormouse and the Tertiary relict, European snow vole. Brown bear became extinct in Serbian part, but evidence showing the presence of the bears were found in 2014. The bears have been photographed in 2015, before disappearing again until 2019 when a young brown bear was filmed on camera.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Human heritage spans from the prehistoric remains, Classical antiquity including the Roman period and late mediaeval monastic complexes. Some of those older monuments are fragmentary and relocated from their original locations. There are numerous examples of the ethnic edifices characteristic for the architecture of the region in the late 19th and early 20th century (houses, barns, etc.)


title: Balkan Mountains

text: Serbian section of the mountain is seen as a location for dozens of micro hydros, mini power plants which caused problem with the environmentalists and local population. Even the Ministry for environmental protection halted some of the projects and litigated with the investors. They also announced the change of the Nature protection law, which will permanently forbid the construction of plants in protected areas. In order to prevent further degradation, the Nature Park Stara Planina was nominated for the UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme and for the world list of geoparks, while over tens of thousands of citizens signed petitions against the micro hydros and numerous protests have been organized by the local population. This prompted similar protests in other parts of Serbia and the association "Defend the rivers of Stara Planina" was founded, which expanded its base of operations outside of the Stara Planina region. The activism resulted in various physical altercation between the local citizens on one, and contractors and their security guards on the other side, amidst the police interventions.


title: Balkan Mountains

text: In October 2018, Minister of Environmental Protection Goran Trivan, said that the current law allows for the micro hydros to be built in the protected areas. The government allowed the construction of 800 micro hydros, which has been described as "megalomaniacal" by the ecologists, as they would produce less than 1% of the total electricity. Environmentalists also accused the government of destroying the plant and animal life using the pretext of renewable energy. In September 2019, Pirot city administration announced it is removing from the spatial plan all 43 existing locations for the micro hydros on the protected area of Stara Planina. There are 15 locations remaining in the unprotected sector of the mountain, but city officials announced abolishing of these locations in the future, too.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Ghiyas ud din Balban (1216–1287, reigned: 1266–1287) (); (Hindi: ग़ियास उद-दीन बलबन); (IAST: "Ghiyās ud-Dīn Balban") was the ninth sultan of the Mamluk dynasty of Delhi.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Ghiyas ud Din was the "regent" of the last Shamsi sultan, Nasiruddin Mahmud. He got rid of his predecessor Imaduddin Raihan and also got rid of this rivals in the court.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: His original name was Baha Ud Din. He was an Ilbari Turk. When he was young he was captured by the Mongols, taken to Ghazni and sold to Khawaja Jamal ud-din of Basra, a Sufi. The latter then brought him to Delhi in 1232 along with other slaves, and all of them were purchased by Iltutmish.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Ghiyas made several conquests, some of them as vizier. He routed the Mewatis that harassed Delhi and reconquered Bengal, all while successfully facing the Mongol threat, during which his son died. After his death in 1287, his grandson Qaiqabad was nominated sultan, though his rule undermined the success made under his grandfather's reign.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: In spite of having only a few military achievements, Balban reformed civil and military lines that earned him a stable and prosperous government granting him the position, along with Shams ud-din Iltutmish and the later Alauddin Khalji, one of the most powerful rulers of Delhi Sultanate.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: He was the son of a Central Asian Turkic noble. As a child, he was captured by the Mongols and sold as a slave to Khwaja Jamal ud-din Basri.Khwaja brought him to Delhi where he and the other slaves were bought by Sultan Shams-ud-din Iltutmish, himself a captured Ilbari Turk in origin, in 1232.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Balban was first appointed as a simple water carrier, but quickly rose to the position of Khasdar (king's personal attendant) by the Sultan. He became one of the most notable of the forty Turkic nobles of Delhi, or the Chalissa. During the reign of Razia Sultan, he was the "amir-i-shikar" or lord of the hunt, a position of some importance at the time, having military and political responsibilities. After her overthrow, he made rapid strides in the subsequent reigns, earning the fief of Rewari under Bahram Shah, and later became the Jagir (lord) of Hansi, which was an important fief.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Balban was instrumental in the overthrow of Ala ud din Masud, installing Nasiruddin Mahmud as Sultan and himself as his Vizier from 1246 to 1265. Mahmud married one of Balban's daughters. Balban also installed Kishlu Khan, his younger brother, as lord chamberlain (Amir-i Hajib) and appointed his cousin, Sher Khan, to the Jagir of Lahore and Bathinda.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Balban's position did not go unnoticed by the other nobles and there was some resentment. His main antagonist was Imad ud-din Raihan, who in works written after Balban's time, is characterized as a Hindu Murtad (who revoked Islam), although some claim him to be of Turkic origin as well. Imad ud-din managed to persuade the Sultan that Balban was an usurper. Balban and his kin were dismissed and even challenged in combat. However, negotiations between Balban and the Sultan had brought to the dismission of Imad ud din at 1254, and Balban was reinstalled.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Balban's reign, according to Ziauddin Barani, was to install 'Fear of the governing power, which is the basis of all good government.' Furthermore, he "maintained that the Sultan was the 'shadow of God' and introduced rigorous court discipline." He depended upon Turkic nobility but formed an army of 2 lakh made up of all castes. A portion of this army was made up of commandos and shock troops. Balban had several military achievements during his vizierhood, first raising the Mongol siege of Uch under Masud Shah in 1246.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: When the governor of Bengal, Tughral Tughan Khan, revoked the authority of Delhi in 1275, Balban first sent the governor of Awadh and then a second army, both of which met with failure. Balban then accompanied a third army which reconquered the countryside, killing Tughral and his followers. His son, Nasiruddin Bughra Khan, assisted him in this mission. Balban then placed his second son, Bughra Khan, as governor. However, Bughra declared independence after Balban's death, which he maintained for 40 years.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: One of the famous military campaigns of Balban was against Meo, or Mayo, the people of Mewat who used to plunder the people of Delhi even in the daylight. The distress caused by the Meo is well described in Barani's words: He has killed many Mayos in his military campaign.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Balban took upon himself the exterminating the turbulent tribes of Mewat and Awadh, destroying strongholds and villages. He then built military outposts, gave land to soldiers and Afghans to settle. He garrisoned forts at key locations, cleared forests and ensured safe roads. He also unsuccessfully laid siege to the fortress of Ranthambore, but did recapture Gwalior from the Rajputs.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Balban's military reign also distinguished with his success repelling Mongol army. This could be achieved because his cavalry horses were better suited to Indian climate and naturally bred larger than Mongol's horses. The extreme heat of summer constituted the Mongols' problem in India, as the quotation from Juvaini indicates. Their incursions seem to have been brief, even when not defeated by the forces of Delhi, and to have taken place in winter, because only then was it cool enough for the comfort of the Mongols' horses


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Since Sultan Nasiruddin did not have a male heir, so after his death, Balban declared himself the Sultan of Delhi. Balban ascended the throne in 1266 at the age of sixty with the title of "Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din-Balban".


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: During his reign, Balban ruled with an iron fist. He broke up the 'Chahalgani', a group of the forty most important nobles in the court. Balban wanted to make sure everyone was loyal to the crown by establishing an efficient espionage system, in the style of the Umayyad Barid. Sultan Balban had a strong and well-organized intelligence system. Balban employed spies, "barids", to inform on his officials. He placed secret reporters and news-writers in every department. The spies were independent authority who were only answerable to Sultan.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Furthermore, Balban had his nobles punished most harshly for any mishap, including severe treatment of their own slaves. One of his nobles, Malik Baqbaq, the governor of Budaun, was punished for ordering one of his slaves to be beaten to death, apparently when being drunk. Another governor, Haibat Khan, was handed over to the slave's widow for punishment. About his justice Dr. Ishwari Prasad remarked "So great was the dread of Sultan's inexorable justice that no one dared to ill-treat his servant and slaves."


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Balban re-organised the military against the threat of the Mongols. He re-organised the revenues of the Iqatadars, which have been passed on to the children of their original holders from the time of Shams ud-din, or maintained their hold of the Iqta even after they ceased to serve in the military. The old Muqta's, who could not serve as military commanders (emirs) for their revenue, were to be dismissed from their fief and settled with a pension of forty to fifty tankas. The younger Muqtas had been taxed for the surplus revenue (which was not taken from them as it should have) and the children and women who took possession of the Iqta of their forebears, were to be deprived of their Iqtas and compensated with the money required to sustain them. However, he was partially dissuaded from this ruling due to the advice of the old Kotwal, Fakhr ud-din, and the old nobles retained their lands.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Balban's steps against the nobility were so extreme as to raise suspicion from his brother, Sher Khan, who is said to have never visited Delhi. It appears that resentment between the brothers had to come to a degree that made the Sultan poison his brother.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: "Balban's court was an austere assembly where zest and laughter were unknown and where wine and gambling were banished." He "introduced rigorous court discipline such as prostration before the king and kissing his feet." Nevertheless, Ghiyasuddin Balban still went on hunting expeditions, though these were more frequently used as a form of military training. There were large scale conversions to Islam in Punjab under his reign. Balban was the first who introduced the famous Persian Festival of Nauroz.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: He started Iranian method Sijda and Paibos to the sultan in India. He also introduced the Persian festival Nowruz (meaning New year). He himself called the Niyabat-i-Khudai.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Ghiyas ud din Balban ruled as the Sultan from 1265 until his death in 1287. Balban's heir was his older son, Prince Muhammad Khan, but he perished in a battle against the Mongols on 9 March 1285. His other son, Bughra Khan, was reluctant to assume the throne, and sought to remain the ruler of Bengal instead. Balban, therefore, chose his grandson, Kaikhasrau, son of Prince Muhammad, as heir apparent. However, after his death his nobles nominated Qaiqubad as Sultan.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Qaiqubad reign (1287–1290), while his father, Bughra Khan, asserted independence in Bengal. Qaiqubad was very weak and incompetent and eventually fell to stroke and had to pass the rule to his three years old son, Shamsuddin Kayumars, who was eventually dethroned by his guardian, Jalal ud din Firuz Khalji in 1290, bringing an end to the Slave dynasty.


title: Ghiyas ud din Balban

text: Today, Tomb of Balban lies within the Mehrauli Archaeological Park in Delhi, adjacent to which stands that of his son Khan Shahid and a walled mosque. The domes of both the tombs have collapsed and the structures were mostly ruined until restored in recent years when the conservation work began in the park.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Respiratory diseases, or lung diseases, are pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange difficult in air-breathing animals. They include conditions of the respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleurae, pleural cavity, the nerves and muscles of respiration. Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, influenza, and pharyngitis to life-threatening diseases such as bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, tuberculosis, acute asthma, lung cancer, and severe acute respiratory syndromes, such as COVID-19. Respiratory diseases can be classified in many different ways, including by the organ or tissue involved, by the type and pattern of associated signs and symptoms, or by the cause of the disease.


title: Respiratory disease

text: The study of respiratory disease is known as pulmonology. A physician who specializes in respiratory disease is known as a pulmonologist, a chest medicine specialist, a respiratory medicine specialist, a respirologist or a thoracic medicine specialist.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Asthma, chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are all obstructive lung diseases characterised by airway obstruction. This limits the amount of air that is able to enter alveoli because of constriction of the bronchial tree, due to inflammation. Obstructive lung diseases are often identified because of symptoms and diagnosed with pulmonary function tests such as spirometry. Many obstructive lung diseases are managed by avoiding triggers (such as dust mites or smoking), with symptom control such as bronchodilators, and with suppression of inflammation (such as through corticosteroids) in severe cases. One common cause of COPD including emphysema, and chronic bronchitis, is tobacco smoking, and common causes of bronchiectasis include severe infections and cystic fibrosis. The definitive cause of asthma is not yet known.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Restrictive lung diseases are a category of respiratory disease characterized by a loss of lung compliance, causing incomplete lung expansion and increased lung stiffness, such as in infants with respiratory distress syndrome. Restrictive lung diseases can be divided into two categories: those caused by intrinsic factors and those caused by extrinsic factors. Restrictive lung diseases yielding from intrinsic factors occur within the lungs themselves, such as tissue death due to inflammation or toxins. Conversely, restrictive lung diseases caused by extrinsic factors result from conditions originating from outside the lungs such as neuromuscular dysfunction and irregular chest wall movements.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) are long-term diseases of the airways and other structures of the lung. They are characterized by a high inflammatory cell recruitment (neutrophil) and/or destructive cycle of infection, (e.g. mediated by "Pseudomonas aeruginosa"). Some of the most common are asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and acute respiratory distress syndrome. CRDs are not curable; however, various forms of treatment that help dilate major air passages and improve shortness of breath can help control symptoms and increase the quality of life.


title: Respiratory disease

text: The latest evidence suggests that primary pulmonary rehabilitation and maintenance rehabilitation delivered through telerehabilitation for people with chronic respiratory disease reaches outcomes similar to centre-based rehabilitation. While there are no safety issues identified, the findings are based on evidence limited by a small number of studies.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Infections can affect any part of the respiratory system. They are traditionally divided into upper respiratory tract infections and lower respiratory tract infections.


title: Respiratory disease

text: The upper airway is defined as all the structures connecting the glottis to the mouth and nose. The most common upper respiratory tract infection is the common cold. However, infections of specific organs of the upper respiratory tract such as sinusitis, tonsillitis, otitis media, pharyngitis and laryngitis are also considered upper respiratory tract infections.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Epiglottitis is a bacterial infection of the larynx which causes life-threatening swelling of the epiglottis with a mortality rate of 7% in adults and 1% in children. "Haemophilus influenzae" is still the primary cause even with vaccinations. Symptoms include drooling, stridor, difficulty breathing and swallowing, and a hoarse voice.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Croup (Laryngotracheobronchitis) is a viral infection of the vocal cords typically lasting five to six days. The main symptom is a barking cough and low-grade fever. On an X-ray, croup can be recognized by the "steeple sign", which is a narrowing of the trachea. It most commonly occurs in winter months in children between the ages of 3 months and 5 years. A severe form caused by bacteria is called bacterial tracheitis.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Tonsillitis is swelling of the tonsils by a bacterial or viral infection. This inflammation can lead to airway obstruction. From tonsillitis can come a peritonsillar abscess which is the most common upper airway infection and occurs primarily in young adults. It causes one swelling of one of tonsils pushing the uvula to the unaffected side. Diagnosis is usually made based on the presentation and examination. Symptoms generally include fever, sore throat, trouble swallowing, and sounding like they have a “hot potato” in their mouth.


title: Respiratory disease

text: The most common lower respiratory tract infection is pneumonia, an infection of the lungs which is usually caused by bacteria, particularly "Streptococcus pneumoniae" in Western countries. Worldwide, tuberculosis is an important cause of pneumonia. Other pathogens such as viruses and fungi can cause pneumonia, for example severe acute respiratory syndrome, COVID-19 and pneumocystis pneumonia. Pneumonia may develop complications such as a lung abscess, a round cavity in the lung caused by the infection, or may spread to the pleural cavity.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Poor oral care may be a contributing factor to lower respiratory disease, as bacteria from gum disease may travel through airways and into the lungs.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Primary ciliary dyskinesia is a genetic disorder causing the cilia to not move in a coordinated manner. This causes chronic respiratory infections, cough, and nasal congestion. This can lead to bronchiectasis, which can cause life-threatening breathing issues.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Malignant tumors of the respiratory system, particularly primary carcinomas of the lung, are a major health problem responsible for 15% of all cancer diagnoses and 30% of all cancer deaths. The majority of respiratory system cancers are attributable to smoking tobacco.


title: Respiratory disease

text: In addition, since many cancers spread via the bloodstream and the entire cardiac output passes through the lungs, it is common for cancer metastases to occur within the lung. Breast cancer may invade directly through local spread, and through lymph node metastases. After metastasis to the liver, colon cancer frequently metastasizes to the lung. Prostate cancer, germ cell cancer and renal cell carcinoma may also metastasize to the lung.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Treatment of respiratory system cancer depends on the type of cancer. Surgical removal of part of a lung (lobectomy, segmentectomy, or wedge resection) or of an entire lung pneumonectomy), along with chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are all used. The chance of surviving lung cancer depends on the cancer stage at the time the cancer is diagnosed, and to some extent on the histology, and is only about 14–17% overall. In the case of metastases to the lung, treatment can occasionally be curative but only in certain, rare circumstances.


title: Respiratory disease

text: A collection of fluid in the pleural cavity is known as a pleural effusion. This may be due to fluid shifting from the bloodstream into the pleural cavity due to conditions such as congestive heart failure and cirrhosis. It may also be due to inflammation of the pleura itself as can occur with infection, pulmonary embolus, tuberculosis, mesothelioma and other conditions.


title: Respiratory disease

text: A pneumothorax is a hole in the pleura covering the lung allowing air in the lung to escape into the pleural cavity. The affected lung "collapses" like a deflated balloon. A tension pneumothorax is a particularly severe form of this condition where the air in the pleural cavity cannot escape, so the pneumothorax keeps getting bigger until it compresses the heart and blood vessels, leading to a life-threatening situation.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Pulmonary diseases also impact newborns and the disorders are often unique from those that affect adults.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Infant respiratory distress syndrome most commonly occurs in less than six hours after birth in about 1% of all births in the United States. The main risk factor is prematurity with the likelihood of it occurring going up to 71% in infants under 750g. Other risk factors include infant of a diabetic mother (IDM), method of delivery, fetal asphyxia, genetics, prolonged rupture of membranes (PROM), maternal toxemia, chorioamnionitis, and male sex. The widely accepted pathophysiology of respiratory distress syndrome is it caused by insufficient surfactant production and immature lung and vascular development. The lack of surfactant makes the lungs atelectatic causing a ventilation to perfusion mismatch, lowered compliance, and increased air resistance. This causes hypoxia and respiratory acidosis which can lead to pulmonary hypertension. It has a ground glass appearance on an x-ray. Symptoms can include tachypnea, nasal flaring, paradoxical chest movement, grunting, and subcostal retractions.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia is a condition that occurs after birth usually from mechanical ventilation and oxygen use. It happens almost exclusively in pre-mature infants and is characterized by the alveoli, and lung vasculature becoming inflamed and damaged. Complications from BPD can follow a patient into adulthood. As a child they may experience learning disabilities, pulmonary hypertension, and hearing problems. As an adult, there is an increased likelihood for asthma and exercise intolerance.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Meconium Aspiration Syndrome occurs in full term or post-term infants who aspirate meconium. Risk factors include a diabetic mother, fetal hypoxia, precipitous delivery, and maternal high blood pressure. Its diagnosis is based on meconium stained amniotic fluid at delivery and staining on the skin, nails, and umbilical cord. Aspiration can cause airway obstruction, air-trapping, pneumonia, lung inflammation, and inactivated surfactant. It presents as patchy atelectasis and hyperinflation on an x-ray with a pneumothorax of pneumomediastinum also possible.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Persistent Pulmonary Hypertension of the Newborn (PPHN) is a syndrome that occurs from an abnormal transition to extra-uterine life. It is marked by an elevated pulmonary vascular resistance and vasoconstriction causing a right-to-left shunt of the blood through the foramen ovale or ductus arteriosus. There are three main causes of PPHN are parenchymal diseases such as meconium aspiration syndrome, idiopathic, and hypoplastic vasculature like in a diaphragmatic hernia. It will eventually resolve in most infants. This is the only syndrome that inhaled nitric oxide is approved for by the FDA.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Transient Tachypnea of the Newborn is caused by the retention of alveolar fluid in the lungs. It commonly occurs in infants who are delivered via caesarean section without the onset of labor because absorption of amniotic fluid in the lungs has not yet commenced. Other risk factors are male sex, macrosomia, multiple gestations, and maternal asthma. It usually presents with tachypnea and increased work of breathing. On an x-ray diffuse infiltrates, interlobar fissures, and sometimes pleural effusions can be seen. It is a diagnosis of exclusion because of its similarity to other diseases and frequently CPAP is used to help push the lung fluid into the pulmonary vasculature.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Pulmonary interstitial emphysema is the condition of air escaping overdistended alveoli into the pulmonary interstitium. It is a rare disease that occurs most often in premature infants, even though it is possible to appear in adults. It often presents as a slow deterioration with the need for increased ventilatory support. Chest x-ray is the standard for diagnosis where it is seen as linear or cystic translucencies extending to the edges of the lungs.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Bronchiolitis is the swelling and buildup of mucus in the bronchioles. It is usually caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which is spread when an infant touches the nose or throat fluids of someone infected. The virus infects the cells causing ciliary dysfunction and death. The debris, edema, and inflammation eventually leads to the symptoms. It is the most common reason for admission of children under the age of one year. It can present widely from a mild respiratory infection to respiratory failure. Since there is no medication to treat the disease, it is only managed supportively with fluids and oxygen.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Respiratory disease is a common and significant cause of illness and death around the world. In the US, approximately one billion common colds occur each year. A study found that in 2010, there were approximately 6.8 million emergency department visits for respiratory disorders in the U.S. for patients under the age of 18. In 2012, respiratory conditions were the most frequent reasons for hospital stays among children.


title: Respiratory disease

text: In the UK, approximately 1 in 7 individuals are affected by some form of chronic lung disease, most commonly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, which includes asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema.


title: Respiratory disease

text: Respiratory diseases (including lung cancer) are responsible for over 10% of hospitalizations and over 16% of deaths in Canada.


title: Respiratory disease

text: In 2011, respiratory disease with ventilator support accounted for 93.3% of ICU utilization in the United States.


title: Antony Costa

text: Antony Daniel Costa (born 23 June 1981) is an English singer and songwriter. He is best known as a member of the boy band Blue.


title: Antony Costa

text: Costa was born in Edgware, North London, Costa attended Hendon School in nearby Barnet. He is half-Greek, half-Jewish. He attended the American Academy school in Larnaca before moving back to England. He has a sister Natalie and a brother Louis who appeared on The X Factor on 3 September 2011 and who was also in a group called The Chase with former S Club 8 member Jay Asforis.


title: Antony Costa

text: One of Costa's earliest television roles was as a pupil in Steven Moffat's sitcom "Chalk". He then went on to appear in the BBC children's drama "Grange Hill".


title: Antony Costa

text: In early 2000, Costa and Duncan James convinced Lee Ryan and Simon Webbe to form the group Blue. Blue's R&B-influenced pop allowed the group to achieve commercial success in the United Kingdom and many other countries, including Ireland, Portugal, Belgium, Italy, France, Australia and New Zealand. The band released their debut single "All Rise" in May 2001 and it reached number 4 on the UK Singles Chart. Their follow-up single "Too Close" was released in August 2001 peaking at No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart. They went on to achieve a second number one in November with the ballad "If You Come Back". The album "All Rise" was released in time for Christmas and reached number one, eventually selling in excess of 1.8 million albums in the UK. The final single from the album, "Fly By II", reached number six in March 2002. Their second studio album, "One Love" was released in October 2002, entering at No. 1 on the UK Albums Chart and selling more than 150,000 copies. Three singles were released from the album: "One Love", which peaked at No. 3, "Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word", featuring vocals from Elton John, which peaked at No. 1, and "U Make Me Wanna", which peaked at #4. Their third studio album, "Guilty", was released in autumn 2003, entering at No. 1 on the UK Albums Chart and selling 100,000 copies on the week of release. The album spawned four singles, including the title track, "Guilty", which peaked at No. 2, "Signed, Sealed, Delivered, I'm Yours", featuring vocal from Stevie Wonder and Angie Stone, which peaked at No. 11, "Breathe Easy", which peaked at No. 4, and "Bubblin'", which peaked at No. 9.


title: Antony Costa

text: Following the release of "Best of Blue", includes three tracks only previously in Japan: "The Gift", "It's Alright" and "Elements". By the indication of the album booklet, a live version of "Lonely This Christmas" from CD:UK was intended to be track seven on the album, however, was removed from the track listing for unknown reasons. The album was released in July 2005, becoming available in several European countries, as well as Japan, Thailand and China, however, was a commercial failure and failed to chart anywhere. The album was not released in the UK, despite copies being widely available.


title: Antony Costa

text: Costa was a contestant on the 2005 series of "I'm a Celebrity... Get Me Out of Here!" and was evicted from the programme on 3 December 2005 after fourteen days. He released his debut solo single called "Do You Ever Think of Me" in February 2006. The single made its debut and peaked at number nineteen on the UK Singles Chart. Costa worked on the song with Songwriter John McLaughlin and performed live with Scottish session musician Paul Boyd. He went on to compete in the 2006 "" programme to find a competitor to represent the UK in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006, but did not win the honour, with "It's a Beautiful Thing". In June 2006 Costa posed naked for "Cosmopolitan" magazine's 10 Years of Naked Male Centrefolds, alongside other stars including singer Ronan Keating, actor Danny Dyer, Labour MP Jim Devine, and TV presenter Craig Doyle. Costa's debut album, "Heart Full of Soul" was released on 3 July 2006 only in Japan by his record label, Globe Records.


title: Antony Costa

text: From 10 April 2006, Costa played the lead role of Mickey Johnstone in the London production of the long-running musical "Blood Brothers", directed and produced by Bill Kenwright; his contract ran to February 2007. From March, Costa toured the UK in the tenth anniversary tour of "Boogie Nights". Costa had his first solo UK tour in February and March 2008, performing songs from his debut album. His UK tour had eighteen dates, which started on 16 February 2008 at The Brindley, in Runcorn and finished on 26 March 2008 in Barrow in Furness. He modelled for Giorgio Armani in late 2008. Costa has appeared twice on the BBC pop quiz "Never Mind the Buzzcocks" in 2006 and 2008 Costa played Jack in the 2009/2010 pantomime, "Jack and the Beanstalk", in Ipswich. Costa toured with the production "Popstar: The Musical", playing the part of Cal between April and July 2010, at a series of theatres, across the UK. Costa took part in a celebrity version of TV show Total Wipeout which aired on 18 September 2010.


title: Antony Costa

text: The group represented the United Kingdom at the 2011 Eurovision Song Contest in Düsseldorf, Germany with the song "I Can" coming in 11th place with 100 points. Blue released their fourth studio album, "Roulette" on 25 January 2013 with "Hurt Lovers" as the lead single. On 21 February 2013, it was confirmed that the group would be joining "The Big Reunion" in which six groups from the past reform for a one-off gig including Liberty X, Atomic Kitten and 5ive. From May 2013, the group will be touring the UK and Ireland with the other groups in The Big Reunion concert series. On 27 March 2013, the group announced they would embark on their first headlining tour later on in the year, their first tour in nearly ten years. In April 2016, Antony will join the cast of the musical Save The Last Dance For Me, playing the part of Milton, touring the UK until October 2016.


title: Antony Costa

text: On 30 November 2021 Blue confirmed they would be going on an arena tour to celebrate their 20th anniversary, it was also confirmed that Atomic Kitten would be supporting them on the tour. When interviewed on "This Morning" the group also confirmed that they were back in the studio recording, a new album is expected to follow along with the tour.


title: Antony Costa

text: On 11 April 2022 the group announced that their sixth studio album "Heart & Soul" which would be released on 9 September 2022. On 20 May the group unveiled the track listing for the album on their social media accounts, following with first single "Haven't Found You Yet". On 29 June 2022, the group released the single "Dance with Me", a cover of the 2001 112 single.


title: Schaeffler Group

text: Schaeffler Technologies AG & Co. KG, also known as Schaeffler Group ("Schaeffler-Gruppe" in German), is a German manufacturer of rolling element bearings for automotive, aerospace and industrial uses. It was founded in 1946 by brothers Dr. Wilhelm and Dr.-Ing. E. h. Georg Schaeffler.


title: Schaeffler Group

text: In August 2008, the firm agreed to a staggered €12 billion acquisition of larger rival Continental AG, whereby Schaeffler would defer taking a majority stake until at least 2012. However, in 2011 Schaeffler sold off €1.8 billion worth of shares of Continental, reducing its stake from 75.1% to 60.3%. Currently, the company owns 46% of Continental shares. Schaeffler Group also owns the brands INA, FAG and LuK.


title: Schaeffler Group

text: In Germany, the main brands of the Schaeffler Group – INA, FAG and LuK – are marketed by Schaeffler Technologies AG & Co. KG and LuK GmbH & Co. oHG.


title: Schaeffler Group

text: Schaeffler has an Indian subsidiary, Schaeffler India, which is publicly listed on the National Stock Exchange of India and the Bombay Stock Exchange.


title: Schaeffler Group

text: During the 2008 merger, the company revealed that in World War II it had exploited thousands of slave labourers in its plants in German-occupied Poland. Around this time the director of the museum now standing at the site of the Auschwitz concentration camp claimed that after the war of human hair had been found at Schaeffler factories, and had been used in upholstery in its automotive products. The historian at Schaeffler denied this particular allegation.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone, also known as chlorthalidone, is a thiazide-like diuretic drug used to treat high blood pressure, swelling including that due to heart failure, liver failure, and nephrotic syndrome, diabetes insipidus, and renal tubular acidosis. Because chlortalidone is reliably effective in most patients with high blood pressure, it is considered a preferred initial treatment. It is also used to prevent calcium-based kidney stones. It is taken by mouth. Effects generally begin within three hours and last for up to three days. Chlortalidone is more effective than hydrochlorothiazide for prevention of heart attack or stroke.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Common adverse effects include low blood potassium, low blood sodium, high blood sugar, dizziness, and erectile dysfunction. Other adverse effects may include gout, low blood magnesium, high blood calcium, allergic reactions, and low blood pressure. Some reviews have found chlortalidone and hydrochlorothiazide to have a similar risk of adverse effects, while other reviews have found chlortalidone to have a higher risk. While it may be used in pregnancy it is a less preferred option. How it works is not completely clear but is believed to involve increasing the amount of sodium and water lost by the kidneys.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone was patented in 1957 and came into medical use in 1960. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 133rd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 4million prescriptions.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone is considered a first-line medication for treatment high blood pressure. Some recommend chlortalidone over hydrochlorothiazide. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials found that chlortalidone is more effective than hydrochlorothiazide for lowering blood pressure, while the two drugs have similar toxicity.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Trials of chlortalidone for high blood pressure found that lower doses of chlortalidone (e.g., 12.5 mg daily in ALLHAT study) had maximal blood pressure lowering effect and that higher doses did not lower it more. Chlortalidone and other thiazide diuretics are effective for lowering high blood pressure in persons with chronic kidney disease, although the risk of adverse effects is higher in these persons.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone is used to treat left ventricular hypertrophy in the heart; it works chiefly by lowering blood pressure, and thereby reducing systemic vascular resistance. There is evidence that chlortalidone is superior to hydrochlorothiazide for reducing the mass of the left ventricle of the heart in persons with enlargement of the left ventricle of the heart. Chlortalidone is superior to angiotensin converting enzyme Inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers for inducing regression of enlargement of the left ventricle, which is the main pumping chamber of the heart.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone reduces edema (swelling) by increasing urinary salt and water excretion, lowering intravascular hydrostatic pressure and thereby lowering transcapillary pressure (see Starling Equation). Edema may be caused by either increased hydrostatic pressure or reduced oncotic pressure in the blood vessels. Edema due to increased hydrostatic pressure may be a result of serious cardiopulmonary disease (which reduces glomerular perfusion in the kidney) or to kidney injury or disease (which may reduce glomerular excretion of salt and water by the kidney) or due to relatively benign conditions such as menstrual-related fluid retention, or as an adverse effect of dihydropyridine calcium channel blockers, which commonly cause swelling of the feet and lower legs. Edema due to decreased oncotic pressure may be a result of leaking of blood proteins through the glomeruli of an injured kidney or a result of diminished synthesis of blood proteins by a damaged liver. Regardless of cause, chlortalidone may reduce the severity of edema by reducing intravascular volume and thereby reducing intravascular hydrostatic pressure.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone decreases mineral bone loss by promoting calcium retention by the kidney, and by directly stimulating osteoblast differentiation and bone mineral formation. A Cochrane review found tentative evidence that thiazide exposure was associated with a reduced risk of hip fracture. A secondary analysis of data from the ALLHAT study found that chlortalidone reduced risk of hip and pelvis fracture.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone reduces the amount of calcium excreted in urine, reducing the risk of calcium oxalate kidney stones. In people who have had multiple episodes of calcium oxalate kidney stones, chlortalidone lowers the risk of having another episode of kidney stones. Chlortalidone is more effective than hydrochlorothiazide for lowering urine calcium levels and is therefore probably more effective.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone reduces the volume and thereby reduces the pressure in the inner ear chambers; elevated endolymph pressure in the inner ear is thought to be the cause of Ménière's disease or ’Endolymphatic hydrops.’ Synthesis of evidence from multiple small, low-quality studies indicates that chlortalidone or other thiazide diuretics are effective for Ménière's Disease.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone (or other thiazide medication) is a key component of treatment of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus occurs when the kidney is unable to produce concentrated urine because it has an inadequate response to vasopressin-dependent removal of free water from the renal tubular filtrate. By blocking sodium ion resorption in the distal convoluted tubule, chlortalidone induces an increase in excretion of sodium ion in urine (natriuresis). Giving chlortalidone while simultaneously restricting dietary sodium intake causes mild hypovolemia (low intravascular volume), which induces isotonic reabsorption of solute from the proximal renal tubule, reducing solute delivery in the renal collecting tubule and renal medullary collecting duct. This reduced delivery of solute to the collecting tubule and medullary collecting duct allows increased water resorption and higher concentration of urine, which leads to reversal of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus by a means that is independent of vasopressin.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Some reviews have found a similar risk as hydrochlorothiazide, while other reviews found a higher risk of side effects.


title: Chlortalidone

text: The frequency and severity of these adverse effects is much reduced when chlortalidone is used at lower doses (e.g., 12.5 mg per day).


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone reduces reabsorption of sodium and chloride primarily through inhibition of the Na/Cl symporter in the apical membrane of distal convoluted tubule cells in the kidney. Although chlortalidone is often referred to as a "thiazide-like" diuretic, it is unlike thiazide diuretics in that, in addition to its inhibition of the Na/Cl symporter, it also strongly inhibits multiple isoforms of carbonic anhydrase. Some of chlortalidone's diuretic effect is also due to this inhibition of carbonic anhydrase in the proximal tubule. Chronic exposure to chlortalidone decreases the glomerular filtration rate. Chlortalidone's diuretic effect is diminished in persons with kidney impairment. By increasing the delivery of sodium to the distal renal tubule, chlortalidone indirectly increases potassium excretion via the sodium-potassium exchange mechanism (i.e. apical ROMK/Na channels coupled with basolateral Na+/K ATPases). This can result in a low blood concentration of potassium and chloride as well as a mild metabolic alkalosis; however, the diuretic effect of chlortalidone is not affected by the acid-base balance of the person being treated.


title: Chlortalidone

text: There is uncertainty about the mechanism of the blood pressure-lowering effect that occurs during chronic exposure to chlortalidone. Initially, diuretics lower blood pressure by decreasing cardiac output and reducing plasma and extracellular fluid volume. Eventually, cardiac output returns to normal, and plasma and extracellular fluid volume return to slightly less than normal, but a reduction in peripheral vascular resistance is maintained, thus resulting in an overall lower blood pressure. The reduction in intravascular volume induces an elevation in plasma renin activity and aldosterone secretion, further contributing to the potassium loss associated with thiazide diuretic therapy.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone is slowly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract after oral ingestion. It has a long half-life and therefore a prolonged diuretic action, which results in continued diuretic effects despite a skipped dose. This prolonged action of chlortalidone despite missing doses may account for the higher efficacy of chlortalidone compared to the shorter half-life medication, hydrochlorothiazide. Chlortalidone is eliminated from the body mostly by the kidney, as unchanged drug. Thus, in persons with diminished kidney function, the clearance of chlortalidone is reduced and the elimination half-life is increased.


title: Chlortalidone

text: As with other thiazide diuretics, chlortalidone crosses the placenta and is excreted in breast milk. Chlortalidone may suppress lactation, and has been used for this indication. Due to its long half-life, chlortalidone may accumulate in newborns via breast milk, despite receiving only about 6% of the maternal weight-adjusted dose.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone is in the sulfamoylbenzamide class. As it lacks the benzothiadiazine structure of the thiazide-type diuretics, it is called a thiazide-like diuretic. Chlortalidone is freely soluble in dimethylacetamide (DMA), dimethylformamide (DMF), dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), and methanol; it is also soluble in warm ethanol.


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone is the official name of the medication according to the (INN/BAN), which is the medication naming system coordinated by the World Health Organization. Chlorthalidone is the official name of the medication according to the (USAN), which is the medication naming system coordinated by the USAN Council, which is co-sponsored by the American Medical Association (AMA), the United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USP), and the American Pharmacists Association (APhA).


title: Chlortalidone

text: Chlortalidone is banned for some sports (including cricket) because it is a diuretic, and can be used to reduce body weight or to mask the concomitant use of performance-enhancing drugs. Sports such as wrestling or boxing categorize athletes according to body weight; taking a diuretic such as chlortalidone may lower body weight, and thereby permit an athlete to compete in a lighter weight class, which would provide an advantage. Diuretics such as chlortalidone also reduce the urine concentration of concomitantly-taken performance-enhancing drugs or of their metabolites, thus making it more difficult to detect these drugs using urine testing.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: The Gulf of Aqaba () or Gulf of Eilat () is a large gulf at the northern tip of the Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian Peninsula. Its coastline is divided among four countries: Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: The gulf is east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian Peninsula. With the Gulf of Suez to the west, it extends from the northern portion of the Red Sea. It reaches a maximum depth of 1,850 m in its central area: the Gulf of Suez is significantly wider but less than 100 m deep.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: The gulf measures at its widest point and stretches some north from the Straits of Tiran to where Israel meets Egypt and Jordan.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: Like the coastal waters of the Red Sea, the gulf is one of the world's premier sites for diving. The area is especially rich in coral and other marine biodiversity and has accidental shipwrecks and vessels deliberately sunk in an effort to provide a habitat for marine organisms and bolster the local dive tourism industry.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: At this northern end of the gulf are three important cities: Taba in Egypt, Eilat in Israel, and Aqaba in Jordan. They are strategically important commercial ports and popular resorts for tourists seeking to enjoy the warm climate. Further south, Haql is the largest Saudi Arabian city on the gulf. On Sinai, Sharm el-Sheikh and Dahab are the major centres.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: The largest population center is Aqaba, with a population of 148,398 (2015), followed by Eilat with a population of 50,724 (2020).


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: The International Hydrographic Organization defines the southern limit of the gulf as "A line running from Ràs al Fasma Southwesterly to Requin Island () through Tiran Island to the Southwest point thereof and thence Westward on a parallel (27°54'N) to the coast of the Sinaï Peninsula".


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: The gulf is one of two gulfs created by the Sinai Peninsula's bifurcation of the northern Red Sea, the Gulf of Suez lying to the west of the peninsula and the Gulf of Aqaba to its east. Geologically, the gulf forms the southern end of the Dead Sea Transform. It contains three small pull-apart basins, the Elat Deep, Aragonese Deep and Dakar Deep, formed between four left lateral strike-slip fault segments. Movement on one of these faults caused the 1995 Gulf of Aqaba earthquake.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: Trade across the Red Sea between Thebes port of Elim and Elat at the head of the gulf is documented as early as the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt. Expeditions crossing the Red Sea and heading south to Punt are mentioned in the fifth, the sixth, the eleventh, the twelfth and the eighteenth dynasties of Egypt, when Hatshepsut built a fleet to support the trade and journeyed south to Punt in a six-month voyage.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: Thebes used Nubian gold or Nub from her conquests south into Kush to facilitate the purchase of frankincense, myrrh, bitumen, natron, juniper oil, linen, and copper amulets for the mummification industry at Karnak. Egyptian settlements near Timna at the head of the gulf date to the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: At the northern edge, the ancient city of Ayla (in present-day Aqaba) was a commercial hub for the Nabateans. The Romans built the Via Traiana Nova, which joined the King's Highway at Aqaba and connected Africa to Asia and the Levant and Red Sea shipping.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: Aqaba was a major Ottoman port, connected to Damascus and Medina by the Hejaz railway. During World War I, the Battle of Aqaba was the key battle that ended a 500-year Ottoman rule over Greater Syria.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: The gulf is one of the most popular diving destinations in the world. About 250,000 dives are performed annually in Eilat's 11 km coastline, and diving represents 10% of the tourism income of this area.


title: Gulf of Aqaba

text: The Landscape of Wadi Rum to the east of the northern edge of the gulf is a popular destination. Other destinations are the ruins of the iron-age civilization of Ayla in the city of Aqaba, the site of the World War I Battle of Aqaba, led by Lawrence of Arabia.


title: Polyol

text: In organic chemistry, a polyol is an organic compound containing multiple hydroxyl groups (). The term "polyol" can have slightly different meanings depending on whether it is used in food science or polymer chemistry. Polyols containing two, three and four hydroxyl groups are diols, triols, and tetrols, respectively.


title: Polyol

text: Polyols may be classified according to their chemistry. Some of these chemistries are polyether, polyester, polycarbonate and also acrylic polyols. Polyether polyols may be further subdivided and classified as polyethylene oxide or polyethylene glycol (PEG), polypropylene glycol (PPG) and Polytetrahydrofuran or PTMEG. These have 2, 3 and 4 carbons respectively per oxygen atom in the repeat unit. Polycaprolactone polyols are also commercially available. There is also an increasing trend to use biobased (and hence renewable) polyols.


title: Polyol

text: Polyether polyols have numerous uses. As an example, polyurethane foam is a big user of polyether polyols.


title: Polyol

text: Polyester polyols can be used to produce rigid foam. They are available in both aromatic and aliphatic versions. In addition they are also available in mixed aliphatic-aromatic versions often made from recycled raw materials, typically polyethylene terephthalate (PET).


title: Polyol

text: Acrylic polyols are generally used in higher performance applications where stability to Ultraviolet light is required and also lower VOC coatings. Other uses include direct to metal coatings. As they are used where good UV resistance is required, such as automotive coatings, the isocyanate component also tends to be UV resistant and hence isocyanate oligomers or prepolymers based on Isophorone diisocyanate are generally used.


title: Polyol

text: Polycarbonate polyols are more expensive than other polyols and are thus used in more demanding applications. They have been used to make an isophorone diisocyanate based prepolymer which is then used in glass coatings. They maybe used in reactive hotmelt adhesives.


title: Polyol

text: All polyols maybe used to produce polyurethane prepolymers. These then find use in coatings, adhesives, sealants and elastomers.


title: Polyol

text: Low molecular weight polyols are widely used in polymer chemistry where they function as crosslinking agents and chain extenders. Alkyd resins for example, use polyols in their synthesis and are used in paints and in molds for casting. They are the dominant resin or "binder" in most commercial "oil-based" coatings. Approximately 200,000 tons of alkyd resins are produced each year. They are based on linking reactive monomers through ester formation. Polyols used in the production of commercial alkyd resins are glycerol, trimethylolpropane, and pentaerythritol. In polyurethane prepolymer production, a low molecular weight polyol-diol such as 1,4-Butanediol maybe used as a chain extender to further increase molecular weight though it does increase viscosity because more hydrogen bonding is introduced.


title: Polyol

text: Sugar alcohols, a class of low molecular weight polyols, are commonly obtained by hydrogenation of sugars. They have the formula (CHOH)H, where n = 4–6.


title: Polyol

text: Sugar alcohols are added to foods because of their lower caloric content than sugars; however, they are also, in general, less sweet, and are often combined with high-intensity sweeteners. They are also added to chewing gum because they are not broken down by bacteria in the mouth or metabolized to acids, and thus do not contribute to tooth decay. Maltitol, sorbitol, xylitol, erythritol, and isomalt are common sugar alcohols.


title: Polyol

text: The term polyol is used for various chemistries of the molecular backbone. Polyols may be reacted with diisocyanates or polyisocyanates to produce polyurethanes. MDI finds considerable use in PU foam production. Polyurethanes are used to make flexible foam for mattresses and seating, rigid foam insulation for refrigerators and freezers, elastomeric shoe soles, fibers (e.g. Spandex), coatings, sealants and adhesives.


title: Polyol

text: The term "polyol" is also attributed to other molecules containing hydroxyl groups. For instance, polyvinyl alcohol is (CHCHOH) with "n" hydroxyl groups where "n" can be in the thousands. Cellulose is a polymer with many hydroxyl groups, but it is not referred to as a polyol.


title: Polyol

text: There are polyols based on renewable sources such as plant-based materials including castor oil. Vegetable oils and biomass are also potential renewable polyol raw materials.


title: Polyol

text: Since the generic term polyol is only derived from chemical nomenclature and just indicates the presence of several hydroxyl groups, no common properties can be assigned to all polyols. However, polyols are usually highly viscous (when polymeric) to solid (when low-molecular weight) at room temperature due to hydrogen bonding.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: John Anthony Brooks Jr. (born January 28, 1993) is a professional soccer player who plays as a defender for Primeira Liga club Benfica. Born in Germany, he represents the United States national team.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Born in Berlin, Germany, he began his career at hometown club Hertha BSC, making his professional debut in 2012 and totaling 130 games and nine goals for the club. The team won the 2. Bundesliga in 2012–13. In 2017, he transferred to VfL Wolfsburg for €20 million, a record at the time for an American player.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Brooks represented both Germany and the United States at youth international level, qualifying for the latter through his father. He made his senior international debut in 2013 and represented the nation at three tournaments, including the 2014 FIFA World Cup.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Brooks is the son of an American serviceman from Chicago, Illinois, and was born and raised in Berlin, Germany. He has a map of Illinois tattooed on his left elbow and one of Berlin on his right. He has never lived in the United States.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Brooks came through the ranks of his hometown club, Hertha BSC. He reached Hertha's reserve team halfway through the 2010–11 season, although he still had a year and a half of remaining eligibility for the U-19 team. Brooks signed a four-year professional contract with Hertha after the season, turning down interest from Bayern Munich. Brooks spent nearly all of the 2011–12 season with Hertha II, taking a brief foray back to the U-19 team. Brooks continued to grow during this time, reaching 6'4".


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Hertha suffered relegation from the Bundesliga in 2012. After the departure of some players and his form in preseason, Brooks made his professional debut as a starter in Hertha's 2. Bundesliga opener on August 3, 2012, a 2–2 draw with SC Paderborn 07 at the Olympiastadion. He played 29 matches over the season as the team won the league title and promotion, and scored once in the last game of the season on May 19, 2013, a late equalizer in a 1–1 home draw with Energie Cottbus.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Brooks scored in his Bundesliga debut on August 10, 2013, in Hertha BSC's 6–1 victory against Eintracht Frankfurt. His appearances over the season were limited by injury and poor form, and he also missed time in April 2014 while recovering from the application of a large back tattoo, a decision that did not please manager Jos Luhukay.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: On December 17, 2014, Brooks opened the scoring for Hertha in a 4–4 draw with Eintracht Frankfurt that saw Berlin throw away a two-goal lead in the final minute. During the 2014–15 Bundesliga season, Brooks won 68% of his direct duels in a total of 27 league appearances for the club, ranking third best among Bundesliga players making at least 17 appearances. Brooks also had a pass accuracy of 75% while finishing top 12 in the Bundesliga in clearances per match.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: In the 2015–16 season, Brooks played four matches in Hertha's run to the semi-finals of the DFB-Pokal. On December 15, he headed the second goal of a 2–0 win at 1. FC Nürnberg in the last 16 of the tournament.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: On May 31, 2017, Brooks signed with fellow Bundesliga club VfL Wolfsburg. The reported €20 million transfer fee was a record for an American soccer player at the time, later broken by Christian Pulisic's €64 million transfer to Chelsea in 2019. He made his debut on August 13 in the first round of the DFB-Pokal away to fourth-tier Eintracht Norderstedt, but suffered a torn thigh tendon and was substituted in the first half of the 1–0 win, being ruled out for the next three months. On October 28, he returned to the team to start on his league debut for the club, a 1–1 draw at Schalke 04. Affected by injury all through his first season at the Volkswagen Arena, Brooks totaled just ten appearances before playing the full 180 minutes of the 4–1 playoff win over Holstein Kiel that kept his team in the Bundesliga for the following season.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: On September 1, 2022, Brooks signed a one-year contract with Primeira Liga side Benfica on a free transfer. He made his Primeira Liga debut on September 18, replacing António Silva in the 89th minute in the 5–0 home win over Marítimo.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Brooks, who holds both German and American citizenship, participated in several camps for both the U.S. U-20 and U-23 team and in one for the Germany U20 team. He made his international debut for the U.S. Under-20 team in a 5–0 loss against Paraguay in September 2010.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: In July 2013, German magazine "kicker" indicated that Brooks had received a call-up from the U.S. senior national team to feature in a friendly against Bosnia and Herzegovina. Brooks made his senior international debut in the 4–3 victory over Bosnia.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Brooks was named in the United States's final 23-man roster for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In the opening group match against Ghana, he came on as a halftime injury substitute for Matt Besler and scored the winning goal in the 2–1 victory, a header off Graham Zusi's corner kick. He became the first American to score as a substitute at the World Cup.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: On June 5, 2015, Brooks scored in a friendly against the Netherlands in Amsterdam as the United States fought back from a 1–3 deficit to win 4–3, their first victory against the Dutch. Later that month, he was named in coach Jürgen Klinsmann's squad for the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup, playing four matches as the team finished fourth.


title: John Brooks (soccer, born 1993)

text: Klinsmann also called Brooks up for the Copa América Centenario, the centenary edition of the Copa América held in the United States in 2016. He played all five matches as the nation lost 4–0 to Argentina in the semi-finals, but did not take part in the bronze medal match loss to Colombia.


title: Contour integration

text: In the mathematical field of complex analysis, contour integration is a method of evaluating certain integrals along paths in the complex plane.


title: Contour integration

text: One use for contour integrals is the evaluation of integrals along the real line that are not readily found by using only real variable methods.


title: Contour integration

text: One method can be used, or a combination of these methods, or various limiting processes, for the purpose of finding these integrals or sums.


title: Contour integration

text: In complex analysis a contour is a type of curve in the complex plane. In contour integration, contours provide a precise definition of the curves on which an integral may be suitably defined. A curve in the complex plane is defined as a continuous function from a closed interval of the real line to the complex plane: .


title: Contour integration

text: This definition of a curve coincides with the intuitive notion of a curve, but includes a parametrization by a continuous function from a closed interval. This more precise definition allows us to consider what properties a curve must have for it to be useful for integration. In the following subsections we narrow down the set of curves that we can integrate to include only those that can be built up out of a finite number of continuous curves that can be given a direction. Moreover, we will restrict the "pieces" from crossing over themselves, and we require that each piece have a finite (non-vanishing) continuous derivative. These requirements correspond to requiring that we consider only curves that can be traced, such as by a pen, in a sequence of even, steady strokes, which stop only to start a new piece of the curve, all without picking up the pen.


title: Contour integration

text: Contours are often defined in terms of directed smooth curves. These provide a precise definition of a "piece" of a smooth curve, of which a contour is made.


title: Contour integration

text: A smooth curve is a curve with a non-vanishing, continuous derivative such that each point is traversed only once ( is one-to-one), with the possible exception of a curve such that the endpoints match (). In the case where the endpoints match the curve is called closed, and the function is required to be one-to-one everywhere else and the derivative must be continuous at the identified point (). A smooth curve that is not closed is often referred to as a smooth arc.


title: Contour integration

text: The parametrization of a curve provides a natural ordering of points on the curve: comes before if . This leads to the notion of a directed smooth curve. It is most useful to consider curves independent of the specific parametrization. This can be done by considering equivalence classes of smooth curves with the same direction. A directed smooth curve can then be defined as an ordered set of points in the complex plane that is the image of some smooth curve in their natural order (according to the parametrization). Note that not all orderings of the points are the natural ordering of a smooth curve. In fact, a given smooth curve has only two such orderings. Also, a single closed curve can have any point as its endpoint, while a smooth arc has only two choices for its endpoints.


title: Contour integration

text: Contours are the class of curves on which we define contour integration. A contour is a directed curve which is made up of a finite sequence of directed smooth curves whose endpoints are matched to give a single direction. This requires that the sequence of curves be such that the terminal point of coincides with the initial point of , . This includes all directed smooth curves. Also, a single point in the complex plane is considered a contour. The symbol + is often used to denote the piecing of curves together to form a new curve. Thus we could write a contour that is made up of curves as


title: Contour integration

text: The contour integral of a complex function is a generalization of the integral for real-valued functions. For continuous functions in the complex plane, the contour integral can be defined in analogy to the line integral by first defining the integral along a directed smooth curve in terms of an integral over a real valued parameter. A more general definition can be given in terms of partitions of the contour in analogy with the partition of an interval and the Riemann integral. In both cases the integral over a contour is defined as the sum of the integrals over the directed smooth curves that make up the contour.


title: Contour integration

text: To define the contour integral in this way one must first consider the integral, over a real variable, of a complex-valued function. Let be a complex-valued function of a real variable, . The real and imaginary parts of are often denoted as and , respectively, so that


title: Contour integration

text: Let be a continuous function on the directed smooth curve . Let be any parametrization of that is consistent with its order (direction). Then the integral along is denoted


title: Contour integration

text: This definition is well defined. That is, the result is independent of the parametrization chosen. In the case where the real integral on the right side does not exist the integral along is said not to exist.


title: Contour integration

text: The generalization of the Riemann integral to functions of a complex variable is done in complete analogy to its definition for functions from the real numbers. The partition of a directed smooth curve is defined as a finite, ordered set of points on . The integral over the curve is the limit of finite sums of function values, taken at the points on the partition, in the limit that the maximum distance between any two successive points on the partition (in the two-dimensional complex plane), also known as the mesh, goes to zero.


title: Contour integration

text: Direct methods involve the calculation of the integral by means of methods similar to those in calculating line integrals in multivariate calculus. This means that we use the following method:


title: Contour integration

text: A fundamental result in complex analysis is that the contour integral of is , where the path of the contour is taken to be the unit circle traversed counterclockwise (or any positively oriented Jordan curve about 0). In the case of the unit circle there is a direct method to evaluate the integral


title: Contour integration

text: Applications of integral theorems are also often used to evaluate the contour integral along a contour, which means that the real-valued integral is calculated simultaneously along with calculating the contour integral.


title: Contour integration

text: Integral theorems such as the Cauchy integral formula or residue theorem are generally used in the following method:


title: Contour integration

text: which has singularities at and . We choose a contour that will enclose the real-valued integral, here a semicircle with boundary diameter on the real line (going from, say, to ) will be convenient. Call this contour .


title: Contour integration

text: which puts the function in the form for direct application of the formula. Then, by using Cauchy's integral formula,


title: Contour integration

text: We take the first derivative, in the above steps, because the pole is a second-order pole. That is, is taken to the second power, so we employ the first derivative of . If it were taken to the third power, we would use the second derivative and divide by 2!, etc. The case of to the first power corresponds to a zero order derivative—just itself.


title: Contour integration

text: We need to show that the integral over the arc of the semicircle tends to zero as , using the estimation lemma


title: Contour integration

text: As an aside, a question can arise whether we do not take the semicircle to include the "other" singularity, enclosing . To have the integral along the real axis moving in the correct direction, the contour must travel clockwise, i.e., in a negative direction, reversing the sign of the integral overall.


title: Contour integration

text: (which arises in probability theory as a scalar multiple of the characteristic function of the Cauchy distribution) resists the techniques of elementary calculus. We will evaluate it by expressing it as a limit of contour integrals along the contour that goes along the real line from to and then counterclockwise along a semicircle centered at 0 from to . Take to be greater than 1, so that the imaginary unit is enclosed within the curve. The contour integral is


title: Contour integration

text: Since is an entire function (having no singularities at any point in the complex plane), this function has singularities only where the denominator is zero. Since , that happens only where or . Only one of those points is in the region bounded by this contour. The residue of at is


title: Contour integration

text: Certain substitutions can be made to integrals involving trigonometric functions, so the integral is transformed into a rational function of a complex variable and then the above methods can be used in order to evaluate the integral.


title: Contour integration

text: The singularities to be considered are at formula_34 Let be a small circle about formula_35 and be a small circle about formula_36 Then we arrive at the following:


title: Contour integration

text: where and are polynomials, i.e. a rational function in trigonometric terms is being integrated. Note that the bounds of integration may as well be and −, as in the previous example, or any other pair of endpoints 2 apart.


title: Contour integration

text: By using the residue theorem or the Cauchy integral formula (first employing the partial fractions method to derive a sum of two simple contour integrals) one obtains


title: Contour integration

text: We will calculate the integral of along the keyhole contour shown at right. As it turns out this integral is a multiple of the initial integral that we wish to calculate and by the Cauchy residue theorem we have


title: Contour integration

text: Let be the radius of the large circle, and the radius of the small one. We will denote the upper line by , and the lower line by . As before we take the limit when and . The contributions from the two circles vanish. For example, one has the following upper bound with the lemma:


title: Contour integration

text: We will construct so that it has a branch cut on , shown in red in the diagram. To do this, we choose two branches of the logarithm, setting


title: Contour integration

text: The cut of is therefore and the cut of is . It is easy to see that the cut of the product of the two, i.e. , is , because is actually continuous across . This is because when and we approach the cut from above, has the value


title: Contour integration

text: so that we have continuity across the cut. This is illustrated in the diagram, where the two black oriented circles are labelled with the corresponding value of the argument of the logarithm used in and .


title: Contour integration

text: We will use the contour shown in green in the diagram. To do this we must compute the value of along the line segments just above and just below the cut.


title: Contour integration

text: Let (in the limit, i.e. as the two green circles shrink to radius zero), where . Along the upper segment, we find that has the value


title: Contour integration

text: It follows that the integral of along the upper segment is in the limit, and along the lower segment, .


title: Contour integration

text: If we can show that the integrals along the two green circles vanish in the limit, then we also have the value of , by the Cauchy residue theorem. Let the radius of the green circles be , where and , and apply the inequality. For the circle on the left, we find


title: Contour integration

text: where the minus sign is due to the clockwise direction around the residues. Using the branch of the logarithm from before, clearly


title: Contour integration

text: where we have used the fact that for the second branch of the logarithm. Next we apply the binomial expansion, obtaining


title: Contour integration

text: Using the residue theorem, we can evaluate closed contour integrals. The following are examples on evaluating contour integrals with the residue theorem.


title: Contour integration

text: formula_75 has only one pole, formula_77. From that, we can determine the residue of formula_75 to be formula_79


title: Contour integration

text: To solve multivariable contour integrals (i.e. surface integrals, complex volume integrals, and higher order integrals), we must use the divergence theorem. For right now, let formula_82 be interchangeable with formula_83. These will both serve as the divergence of the vector field denoted as formula_84. This theorem states:


title: Contour integration

text: In addition, we also need to evaluate formula_86 where formula_87 is an alternate notation of formula_88. The divergence of any dimension can be described as


title: Contour integration

text: Let the vector field formula_94, and remark that there are 4 parameters in this case. Let this vector field be bounded by the following:


title: Contour integration

text: To evaluate this, we must utilize the divergence theorem as stated before, and we must evaluate formula_92. Let formula_97


title: Contour integration

text: Thus, we can evaluate a contour integral with formula_99. We can use the same method to evaluate contour integrals for any vector field with formula_100 as well.


title: Contour integration

text: An integral representation of a function is an expression of the function involving a contour integral. Various integral representations are known for many special functions. Integral representations can be important for theoretical reasons, e.g. giving analytic continuation or functional equations, or sometimes for numerical evaluations.


title: Sperm theft

text: Sperm theft, also known as unauthorized use of sperm, forced fatherhood, spermjacking or (a portmanteau of sperm and burgling), occurs when a man's semen is used, against his will or without his knowledge or consent, to inseminate a woman. It can also include deception by a partner about their ability to get pregnant or use of contraceptives, birth control sabotage, and sexual assaults of males that result in pregnancy. Although the term uses the word "theft", it more closely falls under a state of fraud or breach of contract. Sperm theft is not illegal and is difficult to prove. It usually has no bearing on issues like child support. It is considered an issue in the men's rights movement.


title: Sperm theft

text: In most jurisdictions, sperm theft is not explicitly illegal. Cases are usually reported in connection with disputes over child support. When the obligation to provide child support is challenged by men who allege that their sperm had been stolen or otherwise used to inseminate a woman without their consent, courts will typically enforce the doctrine of strict liability: namely, that a man is liable to support a child conceived with his sperm, irrespective of the circumstances of conception, including any criminal conduct on the part of the mother. Plaintiff arguments of tort liability for fraud or misrepresentation typically do not hold up. Courts are also thought to be reluctant to remedy such grievances as it would mean ruling that a child was born as a result of deception. In some cases, a victim of sperm theft can sue the perpetrator for emotional trauma inflicted.


title: Sperm theft

text: Myrisha S. Lewis has written that male victims of contraceptive fraud, sexual assault, and statutory rape (sperm theft) should not be "punished with child support liability, but instead receive compensation for the unauthorized use of their biological products." She argues that the policy of strict liability unjustly penalises male victims of sexual assault. She contrasts their status with that of voluntary sperm donors, who are exempt from child support liability.


title: Sperm theft

text: In a "landmark ruling" establishing the legal principle that a man's semen is his own property, Lord Chief Justice, Lord Judge, the most senior judge in England and Wales, ruled in favor of six unnamed men who sued the NHS for damages after their sperm samples were lost. The men were all cancer patients who had been advised to freeze their sperm due to the risk of chemotherapy damaging their fertility. Lord Judge, Master of the Rolls Sir Anthony Clarke, and Lord Justice Wilson ruled that the sperm samples were legally the property of the men, and dismissed the argument made by the NHS that the samples should be given the same status as discarded toenails or hair.


title: Sperm theft

text: Steve Moxon has written, "it must only be a matter of time before the absurdity of 'sperm theft' is stamped upon. The position at the moment is that of a dam held back by 'the best interests of the child' concept, which is proxy for 'the best interests of the state' in not paying child support. It only takes one case to successfully assert the rights of the deceived man for the dam wall to break."


title: Sperm theft

text: In her article, "It's ten o'clock: do you know where your sperm are?", Laura Wish Morgan highlights the strict liability theory of parentage. She notes cases where the father has been held liable for child support even if he was underage at the time of conception, and thus a victim of statutory rape ("The sexual intercourse in these cases is "factually voluntary" and thus intentional, even if it is nonconsensual in the criminal sense"). Morgan also documents a "somewhat troubling" case where a woman had sex with a man after he had gotten drunk at a party and passed out, and thus he did not knowingly or willingly have intercourse with her. The mother also admitted that she had done this. Nevertheless, the court held him liable for child support ("the wrongful conduct of the mother in causing conception did not obviate the father's support obligation"). Morgan concludes: "to all men who complain about paying child support for children they did not want, the simple advice is, "Shut up and put on a condom. And dispose of it yourself."


title: Sperm theft

text: In 2009, a London-based attorney launched a campaign for a new law against misappropriating sperm. This would allow men who are victims of sperm-jacking and forced fatherhood to receive a full indemnity from the mother for child support payments. He described the current situation as "an outrageous flaw in the legal system that allows women not only to "steal" semen, but also to demand money from unwilling fathers".