title: Aston Martin DB7

text: On 1 January 1993, Jac Nasser was appointed the new chairman of Ford Europe. He presented the finished car, which had yet to be named, to the general public at the 1993 Geneva Motor Show. Due to the positive and overwhelming reception, the car was put into production as the Aston Martin DB7.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: The positive response also prompted Jaguar to use the platform for the XJS' successor. The car was redesigned by Geoff Lawson and was launched in the market as the Jaguar XK which uses an evolution of the XJS platform (called the X100 by Jaguar) and the cars share a family resemblance, although the DB7 was more expensive than the XK.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: The DB7 was engineered in Kidlington, Oxfordshire, by TWR on behalf of Aston Martin. The engines continued to be built in Kidlington during the production run of the vehicle.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: With the production of the Virage (soon rechristened "V8" following Vantage styling revisions) continuing at Newport Pagnell, a new factory was acquired at Bloxham, Oxfordshire that had previously been used to manufacture the XJ220, where every DB7 would be built throughout its production run. The DB7 and its variants were the only Aston Martin automobiles produced in Bloxham and the only ones with a steel unit construction inherited from Jaguar (Aston Martin had traditionally used aluminium for construction of the bodies of their cars, and models introduced after the DB7 use aluminium for the chassis as well as for many major body parts).


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: The convertible "Volante" version was unveiled at the North American International Auto Show held in Detroit in 1996. Both versions initially had a supercharged straight-six engine that has a power output of and of torque. In the United States, the Coupé was sold for US$140,000, and the Volante for US$150,000. Works Service provided a special Driving Dynamics package, which greatly enhanced performance and handling for drivers who wanted more than what the standard configuration offered. The straight-6 models were phased out in mid-1999 due to lack of market interest.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: In 1999, the more powerful DB7 V12 Vantage was introduced at the Geneva Motor Show. Its 5.9-litre, 48-valve, Aston Martin V12 engine has a power output of and of torque. It has a compression ratio of 10.3:1. Two transmission choices were available, those being a TREMEC T-56 six-speed manual or a "ZF 5HP30" five-speed automatic. Aston Martin claimed the car had a top speed of either with the manual gearbox or with the automatic gearbox, and could accelerate from 0–97 km/h (60 mph) in 4.9 seconds. The V12 Vantage is long, wide, high, with a weight of . Aesthetic differences from the straight-6 DB7 include different wing mirrors and large fog lamps under the headlamps along with "DB7 Vantage" badging at the rear.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: After the launch of the Vantage, sales of the base DB7 with the supercharged straight-6 engine had reduced considerably so its production ended by mid-1999.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: In 2002, a new variant was launched, named V12 GT or V12 GTA when equipped with an automatic transmission (the A referring to the automatic transmission itself). It was essentially an improved version of the Vantage, with its V12 engine now having a power output of and of torque for the manual GT, although the GTA retained the engine having a power output of and of torque of the standard DB7 Vantage. Additionally, the GT and GTA chassis had substantially updated suspension from the DB7 Vantage models. Aesthetically, compared to the Vantage it has a mesh front grille, vents in the bonnet (hood), a boot (trunk) spoiler, an aluminium gear lever, optional carbon fibre interior trim and new wheels. It also has front and rear vented disc brakes made by Brembo. When being tested by Jeremy Clarkson on "Top Gear" in 2003, he demonstrated the car's ability to pull away in fourth gear and continue until it hit the rev limiter: the speedometer indicated . Production of the GT and GTA was extremely limited, as only 190 GTs and 112 GTAs were produced worldwide and only 64 GTs and 17 GTAs were shipped to the US market, out of a total of 302 cars.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: Two special edition variants were made at the end of the DB7's production run, the "DB7 Zagato" and "DB AR1".


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: The DB7 Zagato was introduced at the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance in August 2002 and later shown at the Paris Motor Show the following October.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: It was only offered for the 2003 model year, with a limited run of 99 cars built (a 100th car was produced for the Aston Martin museum), all of which immediately sold out. The car has a steel body designed in collaboration between Andrea Zagato at Zagato and the then chief designer of Aston Martin Henrik Fisker and features the signature 'double-bubble' Zagato roofline. Other features include a unique Analine leather interior not found on the normal DB7 and Zagato styled five-spoke alloy wheels. The car was only available in the UK, Europe and Southeast Asia.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: Like the DB7 Vantage on which it is based, the DB7 Zagato is powered by a 6.0 L V12 engine that has been tuned to now produce at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 5,000 rpm. Power goes to the rear wheels via a 6-speed manual transmission or an optional 5-speed automatic. It featured upgraded suspension and brakes as well It has a top speed of and a 0–60 mph acceleration time of 4.9 seconds.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: Unlike the later DB AR1, the Zagato is built on a shortened chassis that has a shorter wheelbase and is shorter overall. It is also approximately lighter than the standard DB7.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: The DB AR1 (standing for "American Roadster 1") was introduced at the Los Angeles Auto Show in January 2003. It is based on the DB7 Vantage Volante and features a unique body designed by Zagato in collaboration with Henrik Fisker that is very similar to the previous coupé variant, but retaining a full-length chassis. Only 99 examples were produced for sale, though Aston Martin built one additional example for their own factory collection. They were only offered for the U.S. market. The AR1 was intended for sunny American states and as such had no roof of any kind. Collectors elsewhere in the world have attempted to remedy this, but long-time DB AR1 owner Robert Stockman commissioned Zagato to construct a small folding convertible top. The resulting electrically operated unit is very slight, referred to as a "shelter" rather than a roof by Andrea Zagato, and hides behind the seats when not in use.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: The DB AR1 uses the 5.9 litre, 48-valve, V12 engine from the DB7 producing at 6000 rpm and of torque at 5000 rpm. It has a top speed of and a 0–60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration time of 4.9 seconds.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: Aston Martin planned on a gentleman's racer programme featuring the DB7. For this purpose, Prodrive was commissioned to create a racing DB7 based on the first DB7 production car. This car features a red noseband. A second car, built by Works Service, followed and had a yellow noseband. The plans for the racing series were cancelled.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: In 1998, Works Service was given the task of supplying a DB7 powered by the famous V8. To make things more interesting, Works Service opted to use the 6.3 litre variant as also seen in the Virage 6.3. Unique features to distinguish this car include twin power bulges on the bonnet including brass coloured mesh grilles for additional cooling.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: TWR owner Tom Walkinshaw commissioned a one-off model in 1996 for his ownership based on the Aston Martin DB7. The car was fitted with a 6.4-litre Jaguar-TWR V12 engine based on a 6.0-litre V12 engine. The engine had a revised steel crankshaft and specially designed four-valves per cylinder heads. The twin cam-shafts worked by a unique chain drive mechanism. The engine has a claimed power output of at 6,000 rpm and of torque at 4,500 rpm.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: Power was transferred to the rear wheels by an AP racing twin-plate clutch and the engine was mated to a 6-speed Borg Warner T-56 manual transmission. The car had an estimated top speed of due to a longer final gear ratio. On the exterior, the car had a specially designed body kit and a rear spoiler for improved downforce. The car was fitted with wider Yokohama tyres for enhanced grip and to handle the power of the engine and had specially designed 20-spoke alloy wheels.


title: Aston Martin DB7

text: During the 2001 Geneva Motor Show, Italdesign presented an open-top concept car based on the DB7 mechanicals. The Aston Martin Twenty Twenty was designed in such a way as to overlay the structural extruded aluminium panels and beams over the car's carbon and plastic bodywork. The name 'Twenty Twenty' was meant to invoke a futuristic design intended for the year 2020. Two front seats were protected by a roll-over hoop, behind which two smaller seats were hidden by a tonneau cover. Both Giorgetto Giugiaro and his son Fabrizio were responsible for the design work. The working concept car was powered by a 5.9-litre V12 engine, claimed to be uprated to 500 PS.


title: Sailor

text: A sailor, seaman, mariner, or seafarer is a person who works aboard a watercraft as part of its crew, and may work in any one of a number of different fields that are related to the operation and maintenance of a ship.


title: Sailor

text: The profession of the sailor is old, and the term "sailor" has its etymological roots in a time when sailing ships were the main mode of transport at sea, but it now refers to the personnel of all watercraft regardless of the mode of transport, and encompasses people who operate ships professionally, be it for a military navy or civilian merchant navy, as a sport or recreationally. In a navy, there may be further distinctions: "sailor" may refer to any member of the navy even if they are based on land; while "seaman" may refer to a specific enlisted rank.


title: Sailor

text: Seafarers hold a variety of professions and ranks, each of which carries unique responsibilities which are integral to the successful operation of an ocean-going vessel. A ship's crew can generally be divided into four main categories: the deck department, the engineering department, the steward's department, and others.


title: Sailor

text: Officer positions in the deck department include but are not limited to: master and his chief, second and third officers. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the deck department are able seaman and ordinary seaman. With some variation, the chief mate is most often charged with the duties of cargo mate. Second Mates are charged with being the medical officer in case of a medical emergency. All three mates each do four-hour morning and afternoon shifts on the bridge, when underway at sea.


title: Sailor

text: A ship's engineering department consists of the members of a ship's crew that operates and maintains the propulsion and other systems onboard the vessel. Marine engineering staff also deal with the "hotel" facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning and water systems. Engineering staff manages bulk fuel transfers, from a fuel-supply barge in port. When underway at sea, the second and third engineers will often be occupied with oil transfers from storage tanks, to active working tanks. Cleaning of oil purifiers is another regular task. Engineering staff is required to have training in firefighting and first aid. Additional duties include maintaining the ship's boats and performing other nautical tasks. Engineers play a key role in cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems, though the specific cargo discharge function remains the responsibility of deck officers and deck workers.


title: Sailor

text: American ships also carry a qualified member of the engine department. Other possible positions include motorman, machinist, electrician, refrigeration engineer and tankerman.


title: Sailor

text: A typical steward's department for a cargo ship is a chief steward, a chief cook and a steward's assistant. All three positions are typically filled by unlicensed personnel.


title: Sailor

text: The chief steward directs, instructs, and assigns personnel performing such functions as preparing and serving meals; cleaning and maintaining officers' quarters and steward department areas; and receiving, issuing, and inventorying stores.


title: Sailor

text: The chief steward also plans menus, compiles supply, overtime, and cost control records. The steward may requisition or purchase stores and equipment. Galley's roles may include baking.


title: Sailor

text: A chief steward's duties may overlap with those of the steward's assistant, the chief cook, and other Steward's department crewmembers.


title: Sailor

text: A person in the United States Merchant Marine has to have a Merchant Mariner's Document issued by the United States Coast Guard in order to serve as a chief steward. All chief cooks who sail internationally are similarly documented by their respective countries because of international conventions and agreements.


title: Sailor

text: The only time that steward department staff are charged with duties outside the steward department is during the execution of the fire and boat drill.


title: Sailor

text: Various types of staff officer positions may exist onboard a ship, including junior assistant purser, senior assistant purser, purser, chief purser, medical doctor, professional nurse, marine physician assistant, and hospital corpsman. In the USA these jobs are considered administrative positions and are therefore regulated by Certificates of Registry issued by the United States Coast Guard. Pilots are also merchant marine officers and are licensed by the Coast Guard.


title: Sailor

text: Mariners spend extended periods at sea. Most deep-sea mariners are hired for one or more voyages that last for several months. There is no job security after that. The length of time between voyages varies by job availability and personal preference.


title: Sailor

text: The rate of unionization for these workers in the United States is about 36 percent, much higher than the average for all occupations. Consequently, merchant marine officers and seamen, both veterans and beginners, are hired for voyages through union hiring halls or directly by shipping companies. Hiring halls fill jobs by the length of time the person has been registered at the hall and by their union seniority. Hiring halls typically are found in major seaports.


title: Sailor

text: At sea, on larger vessels members of the deck department usually stand watch for 4 hours and are off for 8 hours, 7 days a week.


title: Sailor

text: Mariners work in all weather conditions. Working in damp and cold conditions often is inevitable, although ships try to avoid severe storms while at sea. It is uncommon for modern vessels to suffer disasters such as fire, explosion, or a sinking. Yet workers face the possibility of having to abandon ship on short notice if it collides with other vessels or runs aground. Mariners also risk injury or death from falling overboard and from hazards associated with working with machinery, heavy loads, and dangerous cargo. However, modern safety management procedures, advanced emergency communications, and effective international rescue systems place modern mariners in a much safer position.


title: Sailor

text: Most newer vessels are air conditioned, soundproofed from noisy machinery, and equipped with comfortable living quarters. These amenities have helped ease the sometimes difficult circumstances of long periods away from home. Also, modern communications such as email, instant messaging and social media platforms link modern mariners to their families. Nevertheless, some mariners dislike the long periods away from home and the confinement aboard ship. They consequently leave the profession.


title: Sailor

text: Professional mariners live on the margins of society, with much of their life spent beyond the reach of land. They face cramped, stark, noisy, and dangerous conditions at sea. Yet men and women still go to sea. For some, the attraction is a life unencumbered with the restraints of life ashore. Seagoing adventure and a chance to see the world also appeal to many seafarers. Whatever the calling, those who live and work at sea invariably confront social isolation.


title: Sailor

text: Findings by the Seafarer's International Research Center indicate a leading cause of mariners leaving the industry is "almost invariably because they want to be with their families". U.S. merchant ships typically do not allow family members to accompany seafarers on voyages. Industry experts increasingly recognize isolation, stress, and fatigue as occupational hazards. Advocacy groups such as International Labor Organization, a United Nations agency, and the Nautical Institute seek improved international standards for mariners.


title: Sailor

text: One's service aboard ships typically extends for months at a time, followed by protracted shore leave. However, some seamen secure jobs on ships they like and stay aboard for years. In rare cases, veteran mariners choose never to go ashore when in port.


title: Sailor

text: Further, the quick turnaround of many modern ships, spending only a matter of hours in port, limits a seafarer's free-time ashore. Moreover, some seafarers entering U.S. ports from a watch list of 25 countries deemed high-risk face restrictions on shore leave due to security concerns in a post 9/11 environment. However, shore leave restrictions while in U.S. ports impact American seamen as well. For example, the International Organization of Masters, Mates & Pilots notes a trend of U.S. shipping terminal operators restricting seamen from traveling from the ship to the terminal gate. Further, in cases where transit is allowed, special "security fees" are at times assessed.


title: Sailor

text: Such restrictions on shore leave coupled with reduced time in port by many ships translate into longer periods at sea. Mariners report that extended periods at sea living and working with shipmates who for the most part are strangers takes getting used to. At the same time, there is an opportunity to meet people from a wide range of ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Recreational opportunities have improved aboard some U.S. ships, which may feature gyms and day rooms for watching movies, swapping sea stories, and other activities. And in some cases, especially tankers, it is made possible for a mariner to be accompanied by members of his family. However, a mariner's off duty time at sea is largely a solitary affair, pursuing hobbies, reading, writing letters, and sleeping.


title: Sailor

text: Internet accessibility is fast coming to the sea with the advent of cheap satellite communication, mainly from Inmarsat. The availability of affordable roaming SIM cards with online top-up facilities have also contributed to improved connection with friends and family at home.


title: Sailor

text: Erik the Red and his son Leif Erikson were the first notable mariners known to sail in a primitive, partly man powered vessel across the Arctic and the North Atlantic Ocean.


title: Sailor

text: Barbarossa Hayrettin Pasha (Turkish: Barbaros Hayrettin Paşa or Hızır Hayrettin Paşa; also Hızır Reis before being promoted to the rank of Pasha and becoming the Kaptan-ı Derya (Fleet Admiral) of the Ottoman Navy) (c. 1478 – 4 July 1546) was an Ottoman admiral who dominated the Mediterranean for decades. He was born on the island of Lesbos/ Mytilini and died in Istanbul, the Ottoman capital.


title: Sailor

text: Merchant seamen have gone on to make their mark on the world in a number of interesting ways. Traian Băsescu, who started his career as a third mate in 1976 was the President of Romania from 2004 to 2014. Arthur Phillip joined the Merchant Navy in 1751 and 37 years later founded the city of Sydney, Australia. Merchant mariner Douglass North went from seaman to navigator to winner of the 1993 Nobel Prize in Economics. Jimmy Carter went on to become the 39th President of the United States after service in the US Navy.


title: Sailor

text: Members of the British Merchant Navy have won the Distinguished Service Cross and have had careers taking them from 'Deck Boy Peter' to Air Marshal Sir Beresford Peter Torrington Horsley KCB, CBE, LVO, AFC. Canadian merchant seamen have won the Victoria Cross and the Medal of Honor. American merchant seamen have won the Medal of Honor in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and one went on to become the "Father of the American Navy." One doesn't have to look far to find merchant seamen who became war heroes in Scotland, France, New Zealand, Peru, or Denmark.


title: Sailor

text: Since World War II, a number of merchant seamen have become notorious criminals. American William Colepaugh was convicted as a Nazi spy in World War II and Fritz Sauckel was convicted as a Nazi war criminal. Briton Duncan Scott-Ford was hanged for treachery in World War II. George Hennard was an American mass murderer who claimed 23 victims on a rampage at Luby's Cafeteria in Killeen, Texas. And Perry Smith's own murderous rampage was made famous in Truman Capote's non-fiction novel "In Cold Blood."


title: Sailor

text: Mariners are well represented in the visual arts. French pilot's assistant Paul Gauguin later became a leading post-impressionist painter and pioneered modern art's synthetist style. American seaman Haskell Wexler later won two Academy Awards, the latter for a biography of his shipmate Woody Guthrie. British Merchant Navy member Ken Russell later directed films such as "Tommy", "Altered States" and "The Lair of the White Worm". Merchant seaman Johnny Craig was already a working comic book artist before he joined up, but Ernie Schroeder wouldn't start drawing comics until after returning home from World War II.


title: Sailor

text: Merchant sailors have also made a splash in the world of sport. In football, with Fred Blackburn in England and the likes of Dan Devine and Heisman Trophy winner Frank Sinkwich in the U.S. In track and field, American seamen Cornelius Johnson and Jim Thorpe both won Olympic medals, though Thorpe didn't get his until 30 years after his death. Seamen Jim Bagby, Jr. and Charlie Keller went on to Major League Baseball. Drew Bundini Brown was Muhammad Ali's assistant trainer and cornerman, and Joe Gold went on to make his fortune as the bodybuilding and fitness guru of Gold's Gym.


title: Sailor

text: Other sporting notables include Dutchman Henk de Velde known for sailing solo around the world, and Briton Matthew Webb who was the first person to swim the English Channel without the use of artificial aid.


title: Sailor

text: Irish Merchant Navy member Kevin McClory spent 14 days in a lifeboat and later went on to write the James Bond movies "Never Say Never Again" and "Thunderball". Members of the American Beat Movement Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, Bob Kaufman, and Herbert Huncke were all Merchant Mariners.


title: Sailor

text: It is perhaps not surprising that the writers of "Moby Dick", "The American Practical Navigator", and "Two Years Before the Mast" were Merchant Mariners. It might be surprising that the writers of "Borat", "A Hard Day's Night", and "Cool Hand Luke" were.


title: Sailor

text: A number of U.S. Merchant Mariners from World War II later played well known television characters. The list includes Milburn Drysdale on "The Beverly Hillbillies", Archie Bunker on "All in the Family", Peter Falk on "Columbo", Jim Rockford on "The Rockford Files", Steve McGarret on "Hawaii Five-O", Uncle Jesse Duke on "The Dukes of Hazzard" and Cheyenne Bodie on "Cheyenne".


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (; – 19 September 1935) was a Russian and Soviet rocket scientist who pioneered astronautic theory. Along with the Frenchman Robert Esnault-Pelterie, the Germans Hermann Oberth and Fritz von Opel, and the American Robert H. Goddard, he is one of the founding fathers of modern rocketry and astronautics. His works later inspired leading Soviet rocket-engineers Sergei Korolev and Valentin Glushko, who contributed to the success of the Soviet space program.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of Kaluga, about southwest of Moscow. A recluse by nature, his unusual habits made him seem bizarre to his fellow townsfolk.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky was born in Izhevskoye (now in Spassky District, Ryazan Oblast), in the Russian Empire, to a middle-class family. His father, Makary Edward Erazm Ciołkowski, was a Polish forester of Roman Catholic faith who relocated to Russia; his Russian Orthodox mother was of mixed Volga Tatar and Russian origin. His father was successively a forester, teacher, and minor government official. At the age of 10, Konstantin caught scarlet fever and lost his hearing. When he was 13, his mother died. He was not admitted to elementary schools because of his hearing problem, so he was self-taught. As a reclusive home-schooled child, he passed much of his time by reading books and became interested in mathematics and physics. As a teenager, he began to contemplate the possibility of space travel.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky spent three years attending a Moscow library, where Russian cosmism proponent Nikolai Fyodorov worked. He later came to believe that colonizing space would lead to the perfection of the human species, with immortality and a carefree existence.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Additionally, inspired by the fiction of Jules Verne, Tsiolkovsky theorized many aspects of space travel and rocket propulsion. He is considered the father of spaceflight and the first person to conceive the space elevator, becoming inspired in 1895 by the newly constructed Eiffel Tower in Paris.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Despite the youth's growing knowledge of physics, his father was concerned that he would not be able to provide for himself financially as an adult and brought him back home at the age of 19 after learning that he was overworking himself and going hungry. Afterwards, Tsiolkovsky passed the teacher's exam and went to work at a school in Borovsk near Moscow. He also met and married his wife Varvara Sokolova during this time. Despite being stuck in Kaluga, a small town far from major learning centers, Tsiolkovsky managed to make scientific discoveries on his own.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: The first two decades of the 20th century were marred by personal tragedy. Tsiolkovsky's son Ignaty committed suicide in 1902, and in 1908 many of his accumulated papers were lost in a flood. In 1911, his daughter Lyubov was arrested for engaging in revolutionary activities.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky stated that he developed the theory of rocketry only as a supplement to philosophical research on the subject. He wrote more than 400 works including approximately 90 published pieces on space travel and related subjects. Among his works are designs for rockets with steering thrusters, multistage boosters, space stations, airlocks for exiting a spaceship into the vacuum of space, and closed-cycle biological systems to provide food and oxygen for space colonies.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky's first scientific study dates back to 1880–1881. He wrote a paper called "Theory of Gases," in which he outlined the basis of the kinetic theory of gases, but after submitting it to the Russian Physico-Chemical Society (RPCS), he was informed that his discoveries had already been made 25 years earlier. Undaunted, he pressed ahead with his second work, "The Mechanics of the Animal Organism". It received favorable feedback, and Tsiolkovsky was made a member of the Society. Tsiolkovsky's main works after 1884 dealt with four major areas: the scientific rationale for the all-metal balloon (airship), streamlined airplanes and trains, hovercraft, and rockets for interplanetary travel.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: In 1892, he was transferred to a new teaching post in Kaluga where he continued to experiment. During this period, Tsiolkovsky began working on a problem that would occupy much of his time during the coming years: an attempt to build an all-metal dirigible that could be expanded or shrunk in size.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky developed the first aerodynamics laboratory in Russia in his apartment. In 1897, he built the first Russian wind tunnel with an open test section and developed a method of experimentation using it. In 1900, with a grant from the Academy of Sciences, he made a survey using models of the simplest shapes and determined the drag coefficients of the sphere, flat plates, cylinders, cones, and other bodies. Tsiolkovsky's work in the field of aerodynamics was a source of ideas for Russian scientist Nikolay Zhukovsky, the father of modern aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Tsiolkovsky described the airflow around bodies of different geometric shapes, but because the RPCS did not provide any financial support for this project, he was forced to pay for it largely out of his own pocket.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky studied the mechanics of lighter-than-air powered flying machines. He first proposed the idea of an all-metal dirigible and built a model of it. The first printed work on the airship was "A Controllable Metallic Balloon" (1892), in which he gave the scientific and technical rationale for the design of an airship with a metal sheath. Tsiolkovsky was not supported on the airship project, and the author was refused a grant to build the model. An appeal to the General Aviation Staff of the Russian army also had no success. In 1892, he turned to the new and unexplored field of heavier-than-air aircraft. Tsiolkovsky's idea was to build an airplane with a metal frame. In the article "An Airplane or a Birdlike (Aircraft) Flying Machine" (1894) are descriptions and drawings of a monoplane, which in its appearance and aerodynamics anticipated the design of aircraft that would be constructed 15 to 18 years later. In an Aviation Airplane, the wings have a thick profile with a rounded front edge and the fuselage is faired. But work on the airplane, as well as on the airship, did not receive recognition from the official representatives of Russian science, and Tsiolkovsky's further research had neither monetary nor moral support. In 1914, he displayed his models of all-metal dirigibles at the Aeronautics Congress in St. Petersburg but met with a lukewarm response.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Disappointed at this, Tsiolkovsky gave up on space and aeronautical problems with the onset of World War I and instead turned his attention to the problem of alleviating poverty. This occupied his time during the war years until the Russian Revolution in 1917.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Starting in 1896, Tsiolkovsky systematically studied the theory of motion of rocket apparatus. Thoughts on the use of the rocket principle in the cosmos were expressed by him as early as 1883, and a rigorous theory of rocket propulsion was developed in 1896. Tsiolkovsky derived the formula, which he called the "formula of aviation", now known as Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, establishing the relationship between:


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: After writing out this equation, Tsiolkovsky recorded the date: 10 May 1897. In the same year, the formula for the motion of a body of variable mass was published in the thesis of the Russian mathematician I. V. Meshchersky ("Dynamics of a Point of Variable Mass," I. V. Meshchersky, St. Petersburg, 1897).


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: His most important work, published in May 1903, was "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices" (). Tsiolkovsky calculated, using the Tsiolkovsky equation, that the horizontal speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth is 8,000 m/s (5 miles per second) and that this could be achieved by means of a multistage rocket fueled by liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. In the article "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices", it was suggested for the first time that a rocket could perform space flight. In this article and its sequels (1911 and 1914), he developed some ideas of missiles and considered the use of liquid rocket engines.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: The outward appearance of Tsiolkovsky's spacecraft design, published in 1903, was a basis for modern spaceship design. The design had a hull divided into three main sections. The pilot and copilot were in the first section, the second and third sections held the liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen needed to fuel the spacecraft.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: However, the result of the first publication was not what Tsiolkovsky expected. No foreign scientists appreciated his research, which today is a major scientific discipline. In 1911, he published the second part of the work "Exploration of Outer Space by Means of Rocket Devices". Here Tsiolkovsky evaluated the work needed to overcome the force of gravity, determined the speed needed to propel the device into the solar system ("escape velocity"), and examined calculation of flight time. The publication of this article made a splash in the scientific world, Tsiolkovsky found many friends among his fellow scientists.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: In 1926–1929, roughly at the same time when Fritz von Opel's rocket-powered Opel RAK land vehicles and aircraft were demonstrated to the public, Tsiolkovsky solved the practical problem regarding the role played by rocket fuel in getting to escape velocity and leaving the Earth. He showed that the final speed of the rocket depends on the rate of gas flowing from it and on how the weight of the fuel relates to the weight of the empty rocket.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky conceived a number of ideas that have been later used in rockets. They include: gas rudders (graphite) for controlling a rocket's flight and changing the trajectory of its center of mass, the use of components of the fuel to cool the outer shell of the spacecraft (during re-entry to Earth) and the walls of the combustion chamber and nozzle, a pump system for feeding the fuel components, the optimal descent trajectory of the spacecraft while returning from space, etc. In the field of rocket propellants, Tsiolkovsky studied a large number of different oxidizers and combustible fuels and recommended specific pairings: liquid oxygen and hydrogen, and oxygen with hydrocarbons. Tsiolkovsky did much fruitful work on the creation of the theory of jet aircraft, and invented his chart Gas Turbine Engine. In 1927, he published the theory and design of a train on an air cushion. He first proposed a "bottom of the retractable body" chassis. However, space flight and the airship were the main problems to which he devoted his life. Tsiolkovsky had been developing the idea of the hovercraft since 1921, publishing a fundamental paper on it in 1927, entitled "Air Resistance and the Express Train" (). In 1929, Tsiolkovsky proposed the construction of multistage rockets in his book "Space Rocket Trains" ().


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky championed the idea of the diversity of life in the universe and was the first theorist and advocate of human spaceflight.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky never built a rocket; he apparently did not expect many of his theories to ever be implemented.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Hearing problems did not prevent the scientist from having a good understanding of music, as outlined in his work "The Origin of Music and Its Essence."


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky supported the Bolshevik Revolution, and eager to promote science and technology, the new Soviet government elected him a member of the Socialist Academy in 1918. He worked as a high school mathematics teacher until retiring in 1920 at the age of 63. In 1921, he received a lifetime pension.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: In his late lifetime Tsiolkovsky was honored for his pioneering work. However, from the mid 1920s onwards the importance of his other work was acknowledged, and he was honoured for it and the Soviet state provided financial backing for his research. He was initially popularized in Soviet Russia in 1931–1932 mainly by two writers: Yakov Perelman and Nikolai Rynin. Tsiolkovsky died in Kaluga on 19 September 1935 after undergoing an operation for stomach cancer. He bequeathed his life's work to the Soviet state.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky influenced later rocket scientists throughout Europe, like Wernher von Braun. Soviet search teams at Peenemünde found a German translation of a book by Tsiolkovsky of which "almost every page...was embellished by von Braun's comments and notes." Leading Soviet rocket-engine designer Valentin Glushko and rocket designer Sergey Korolev studied Tsiolkovsky's works as youths, and both sought to turn Tsiolkovsky's theories into reality. In particular, Korolev saw traveling to Mars as the more important priority, until in 1964 he decided to compete with the American Project Apollo for the Moon.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: In 1989, Tsiolkovsky was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.


title: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

text: Tsiolkovsky wrote a book called "The Will of the Universe: The Unknown Intelligence" in 1928 in which he propounded a philosophy of panpsychism. He believed humans would eventually colonize the Milky Way galaxy. His thought preceded the Space Age by several decades, and some of what he foresaw in his imagination has come into being since his death. Tsiolkovsky also did not believe in traditional religious cosmology, but instead (and to the chagrin of the Soviet authorities) he believed in a cosmic being that governed humans as "marionettes, mechanical puppets, machines, movie characters", thereby adhering to a mechanical view of the universe, which he believed would be controlled in the millennia to come through the power of human science and industry. In a short article in 1933, he explicitly formulated what was later to be known as the Fermi paradox.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Elite is a space trading video game. It was written and developed by David Braben and Ian Bell and originally published by Acornsoft for the BBC Micro and Acorn Electron computers in September 1984. "Elite"s open-ended game model, and revolutionary 3D graphics led to it being ported to virtually every contemporary home computer system and earned it a place as a classic and a genre maker in gaming history. The game's title derives from one of the player's goals of raising their combat rating to the exalted heights of "Elite".


title: Elite (video game)

text: "Elite" was one of the first home computer games to use wire-frame 3D graphics with hidden-line removal. It added graphics and twitch gameplay aspects to the genre established by the 1974 game "Star Trader". Another novelty was the inclusion of "The Dark Wheel", a novella by Robert Holdstock which gave players insight into the moral and legal codes to which they might aspire.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The "Elite" series is among the longest-running video game franchises. The first game was followed by the sequels "" in 1993, and "" in 1995, which introduced Newtonian physics, realistic star systems and seamless freeform planetary landings. A third sequel, "Elite Dangerous", began crowdfunding in 2012 and was launched on 16 December 2014, following a period of semi-open testing; it received a paid-for expansion season, "", on 15 December 2015.


title: Elite (video game)

text: "Elite" proved hugely influential, serving as a model for other games including "", "Grand Theft Auto", "EVE Online", "Freelancer", the "X" series and "No Man's Sky".


title: Elite (video game)

text: Non-Acorn versions were each first published by Firebird and Imagineer. Subsequently, Frontier Developments has claimed the game to be a "Game by Frontier" to be part of its own back catalogue and all the rights to the game to have been owned by David Braben.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The player initially controls the character "Commander Jameson", though the name can be changed each time the game is saved. The player starts at Lave Station with 100 credits and a lightly armed trading ship, a Cobra Mark III. Most of the ships that the player encounters are similarly named after snakes or other reptiles. Credits can be accumulated through a number of means. These include piracy, trade, military missions, bounty hunting and asteroid mining. The money generated by these enterprises allows the player to upgrade their ship with enhancements such as better weapons, increased cargo capacity, an automated docking system, an extra energy bank and more.


title: Elite (video game)

text: In the game universe, stars have single planets, each with a space station in its orbit. Stars are always separated by interstellar distances which cannot be crossed using the ship's sublight engines. Travel between stars is accomplished by hyperspace jumps, and is constrained to those within range of the limited fuel capacity (a maximum of 7 light years) of the ship's hyperdrive. Sublight travel uses no fuel.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Fuel can be replenished after docking with a space station, which requires matching the ship's rotation to that of the station before entering the docking bay - a task that can be avoided by purchasing a docking computer. Equipment upgrades include a fuel scoop, which allows "sun skimming" - collecting energy from the stars' corona - described by the manual as "a dangerous and difficult activity", but in practice a fairly simple process far easier than manually docking at a space station—and collecting free-floating cargo canisters and escape capsules liberated after the destruction of other ships.


title: Elite (video game)

text: While making a hyperspace jump between star systems, the antagonistic Thargoid insect race may intercept the player half way, forcing the player's ship to remain in "witch-space" and do battle with their smaller invasion ships. As the interrupted jump uses the full journey's fuel, the player may have insufficient fuel to subsequently jump to a nearby planet, trapping them in witch-space and they must use an escape capsule if owned, or abort the game and reload.


title: Elite (video game)

text: An extremely expensive one-shot galactic hyperspace upgrade permits travel between the eight galaxies of the game universe. There is little practical difference between the different galaxies. However, in some versions it is necessary to travel to at least the second galaxy to access the game's missions. The planetary layout of the galaxies is different, and many players discovered trade runs between closely positioned planets with fortuitous economic combinations.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Most versions of Elite included several optional missions for the Galactic Navy. One requires tracking down and destroying a stolen experimental ship; another involves transporting classified information on the Thargoids' home planet, with Thargoid invasion ships doing their best to see that you do not succeed throughout the duration of the mission involving multiple interplanetary jumps. Rewards differed depending on the mission - from cash, gems to esoteric hardware such as a cloaking device.


title: Elite (video game)

text: According to Braben and Bell, "Elite" was inspired by a range of sources. The developers refer to "", "Star Wars", "Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" and the original "Battlestar Galactica" as influences. Braben also cites the works of Larry Niven, Jerry Pournelle, Arthur C. Clarke, Robert L. Forward, Isaac Asimov and Orson Scott Card. While Bell has confirmed that some of the game's content was derived from the "Traveller" tabletop role-playing game, including the default commander name Jameson, Braben has denied this several times.


title: Elite (video game)

text: When the developers met at Jesus College, Cambridge, Bell was already working on a game for Acornsoft called "Freefall". Braben had started writing a game called "Fighter", but he had not yet completed it. The two projects were sufficiently similar that Braben and Bell compared notes, and after seeing "Star Raiders" on the Atari 800 they decided to collaborate to produce what eventually became "Elite". They first approached Thorn EMI; the company's rejection letter stated that the game was too complicated and needed to be finishable in 10 minutes with three lives. Braben and Bell then met with Acornsoft; their demo of the "Elite"s combat and docking sequences impressed managing director David Johnson-Davies and other Acornsoft executives. The company agreed to publish the finished game, although the company feared that it was too ambitious for Braben and Bell, and was uncertain about the merits of two developers instead of one on a single game. The programmers were given a £1,000 advance from the company and a royalty rate of 7.5% was agreed.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The game took two years to write and started out as a 3D arcade game without the trading element. It was written in machine code using assembly language, giving much care to maximum compactness of code. The last part added was the 3D radar display fitted into the last few unused bytes in their computer.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The original BBC version used a novel split screen approach to show four colours onscreen simultaneously; the upper two thirds of the screen were displayed in Mode 4 while the lower part was in Mode 5. The subsequent Electron version ran entirely in Mode 4, because the video chips were not 100% compatible and therefore was in black and white only.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The "Elite" universe contains eight galaxies, each with 256 planets to explore. Due to the limited capabilities of 8-bit computers, these worlds are procedurally generated. A single seed number is run through a fixed algorithm the appropriate number of times and creates a sequence of numbers determining each planet's complete composition (position in the galaxy, prices of commodities, and name and local details; text strings are chosen numerically from a lookup table and assembled to produce unique descriptions, such as a planet with "carnivorous arts graduates"). This means that no extra memory is needed to store the characteristics of each planet, yet each is unique and has fixed properties. Each galaxy is also procedurally generated from the first. Braben and Bell at first intended to have 2 galaxies, but Acornsoft insisted on a smaller universe to hide the galaxies' mathematical origins.


title: Elite (video game)

text: However, the use of procedural generation created a few problems. There are a number of poorly located systems that can be reached only by galactic hyperspace— these are more than 7 light years from their nearest neighbour and being low-tech are unable to replace the galactic Hyperdrive, thus trapping the traveller. Braben and Bell also checked that none of the system names were profane - removing an entire galaxy after finding a planet named "Arse".


title: Elite (video game)

text: The developers did not spend much time playing their creation and the quality testing was mostly performed by Acornsoft's managing director, David Johnson-Davies, who also planned the packaging and marketing campaign at the time.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The original BBC Micro disk version uses a non-standard disk-format for copy protection. This relied on specific OSWORD &7F DFS opcodes in the Intel 8271 floppy-disk controller to directly access the disk, and produce a non-standard sector/track-layout. This causes issues for legitimate customers that use the Western Digital 1770 disk-controller (DFS) ROMs from third-party manufacturers such as Watford Electronics. Acorn subsequently released alternative versions of the BBC disks that are compatible with the WD1770. In addition to this, self-modifying code was used as part of the protection system, created by Rob Northen. This BBC disk-copy-protection was also used by Superior Software in its "Exile" game.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Acornsoft set in motion a large-scale publicity campaign and commissioned a presentational package for the game that was far more elaborate than normal. Acornsoft packaged "Elite" in a box larger than its usual releases, complete with a novella by Robert Holdstock called "The Dark Wheel", a 64-page Space Trader's Flight Training Manual, reference card and a ship identification poster. The flight training manual was written in a style that took the rookie trader through the controls and various aspects of play.


title: Elite (video game)

text: "The Dark Wheel" was the first novella to be included for distribution with a video game. The original Acornsoft version promised on its back cover that "[a] sequel to the novella is planned for publication in 1985", but no direct sequel was ever written. A second novella, "Imprint" by Andy Redman, was included with the IBM PC release of "Elite Plus", but apart from being set in the same universe it is in no way connected to the original story.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Marketing activities included a £50,000 promotional budget from Acornsoft, including television advertising and a launch party at the Thorpe Park theme park (holding such an event for a video game was almost unheard of at the time) and a competition to be among the first to achieve the status of "Elite".


title: Elite (video game)

text: The story tells of a young starship pilot named Alex Ryder, whose father Jason is killed when their merchant ship is attacked by a notorious pirate. In trying to understand and avenge his father's death and achieve an "iron ass" (a space-trader's term for a well-armed- and armoured spaceship), Alex encounters the basics of the Elite universe—including combat, hyperdrive and hyperspace and the deadly aliens called Thargoids. Finally Alex discovers the truth about his father and his combat rank. He also acts as an acceptable face of trading as his female co-pilot, Elyssia Fields, is an alien and wanted in several systems. Alex wants to avenge his father's death, but must exercise caution in tracking down the assassin. By trading commodities, he slowly improves the arms and armour of his ship. When he is competent at using the spaceship for combat, but before he feels ready, he makes a trade that is sure to bring his father's killer to him.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The first version of the game was released for the BBC Micro, model B on tape and disk and "about a month or two later" the Acorn Electron tape version was released. The Electron's limitations meant several game features were cut including Thargoids and suns. Neither the BBC nor the Electron tape versions featured missions. Additionally, the original tape version for the Electron contained a bug that stopped Galactic Hyperspace from working. Acorn provided a mail-in tape-replacement service to upgrade to v1.1 (marked as such on the tape label) that fixed this bug.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The great commercial success of the BBC Micro version prompted a bidding war for the rights to publish "Elite" in other formats, which British Telecom's software arm, Telecomsoft, eventually won.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Contemporary versions for home computers based on the 6502 microprocessor were ported by either Bell or Bell and Braben. The Commodore 64 conversion introduced Trumbles (creatures based on the tribbles in ""). When the docking computer is activated in the Commodore 64 version and some other versions, a musical rendition of "The Blue Danube" Waltz is played, as a nod to a space docking sequence in Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film "".


title: Elite (video game)

text: The ZX Spectrum version, programmed by "Torus" included a Supernova mission not found in the original.


title: Elite (video game)

text: The Amstrad CPC conversion has fewer ships than other platforms, lacking the Anaconda and Transport, along with some minor differences in missions and titles. Ricardo Pinto, the programmer for the Amstrad version, explained that his team was given a 6502 hex dump by Braben and Bell, which did not help development: "In the end we wrote our version by playing "Elite" on a [BBC Micro] and making ours look the same." This version included the "supernova rescue" and "cloaking device" missions, and refinements to the launch tube and jump drive animations.


title: Elite (video game)

text: According to the lead programmer of the 16 bit Amiga/Atari ST and the MSX conversions Rob Nicholson, he did not have access to the source code because of contractual issues and had to write them "blind". All he had were the ship shapes and the procedural generation code for the galaxies.


title: Elite (video game)

text: "Elite Plus" was released for DOS in 1991. Whereas the original "Elite" (1987) for the PC used CGA graphics, "Elite Plus" was upgraded to take advantage of EGA, VGA and MCGA. It was coded entirely in assembly language by Chris Sawyer, who later wrote "RollerCoaster Tycoon".


title: Elite (video game)

text: The Acorn Archimedes version, "ArcElite" (1991), written by Warren Burch & Clive Gringras and regarded by "Stuff" magazine as the best conversion of the original game, added intelligent opponents who engage in their own private battles and police who take an active interest in protecting the law. As well as such gameplay enhancements, the version also exploited the more modern hardware by using polygon mesh graphics in place of the wire-frames. The game world no longer seems to be centred around the player; freighter fleets with escorts go about their own business, pirate formations patrol lawless systems looking for cargo to loot and mining ships can often be found breaking up asteroids for their mineral content. Unlike the mythical Generation Ships of the original, rare occurrences of other non-pirate entities mentioned in the manual really can be found in the Archimedes version: geometric formations of space beacons; hermits living among the asteroids; abandoned ships towed by police (although Dredgers and Generation Ships are confirmed "not" to exist in Archimedes "Elite"). The Archimedes version of "Elite" was originally written to be a space trading game called "Trojan" - however the obvious similarities eventually meant that to avoid a potential lawsuit "Trojan" had to become an official "Elite" conversion. ArcElite was one of a number of games released for free by The Icon Bar website in 2006.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Some versions feature a new title, "Archangel", for the player to earn that substitutes the rank of Commander. Archangel is reached by undertaking a special mission to destroy a space station in a system invaded by the Thargoids. The player's reward for completing the mission is to receive the title Archangel and obtain a device that is capable of emulating anti-ECM broadcast.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Versions for 32X and Sega Mega Drive were in development but cancelled due to Sony backing out of the project and lack of publisher. However, a ROM image of the Mega Drive demo was released online by co-designer Ian Bell.


title: Elite (video game)

text: "Elite" received very positive reviews on its launch and the BBC Micro version eventually sold 107,898 copies. The game's popularity became a national phenomenon in the UK, with reports airing on Channel 4 and elsewhere. "Elite" was Firebird's best-selling Commodore game as of late 1987. Bell estimates that approximately 600,000 copies were eventually sold for all platforms combined, while Frontier Developments' Elite page states that the numbers are around a million units.


title: Elite (video game)

text: "Elite"s technical breakthroughs reportedly amazed the BBC Micro's developers, with Sophie Wilson calling it "the game that couldn't have been written". However, many players found gameplay difficult and unfamiliar; the game was so controversial that "The Micro User" devoted its April 1985 letter column to readers debating it.


title: Elite (video game)

text: In his review of the game for "Beebug Magazine" in 1984, David Fell called "Elite" "the best game ever" for the BBC Micro. In "Personal Computer Games" Shingo Sugiura said ""Elite" is vast, complex and very, very absorbing. I've got bulging, red eyeballs from staying up into the early hours but I don't care. I'm going to continue playing until I am ranked Elite ... or at least Competent ... or even Average ... Buy it!". John Cook wrote in the December 1984 issue of "Micro Adventurer" "A masterpiece such as this is difficult to describe within existing parameters" and "By any standards, "Elite" is an excellent game, certainly in the Top Three this year. By BBC standards, it is simply the best game that has ever been written for the machine". "Crash" magazine said about the Spectrum version ""Elite" is one of the most imaginative ever to be designed to run on a home computer" and gave it a score of 92%, while at the same time it was a best-seller in the Gallup charts. The game was number 16 in the "Your Sinclair" "Top 100 Speccy Games" in 1992, was voted number 7 in the "Your Sinclair" "Readers' Top 100 Games of All Time" in 1993 and was voted the 9th best game of all time by the readers of "Retro Gamer" Magazine for an article that was scheduled to be in a special "Your Sinclair" tribute issue. Similarly "Zzap!64" gave the Commodore 64 version 97%, stating that it was "a brilliant game of blasting and trading and is certainly the best game I've seen this year" in 1985 and the Amiga version 98% in 1989.


title: Elite (video game)

text: In 1984, "Elite" received the Golden Joystick Award for "Best Original Game". In 1985 the game was awarded the "Best Game Overall" for that year by readers of "Crash" magazine, and "Game of the Year" by "Computer Gamer". In a 1992 survey of science fiction games, "Computer Gaming World" gave the title two of five stars, stating that its "popularity was largely a result of being one of the first space games with a 'large' universe to explore". The magazine gave "Elite Plus" two-plus stars, describing it as "More detailed and complex, it is also more tedious than the original". A 1994 survey of strategic space games set in the year 2000 and later gave "Elite" and "Elite Plus" three stars and two-plus stars, respectively.


title: Elite (video game)

text: "Elite" was ranked #14 top game of all time by "Next Generation" in 1996, #12 on IGN's 2000 "Top 25 PC Games of All Time" list, the #3 most influential video game ever by the "Times" Online in 2007, #6 "Greatest Game" by "Stuff" magazine in 2008, #1 "Top Retro Game" by "Retro Gamer" in 2004, and #1 "best game of the 1980s" by "Next Generation" in 2008. In 1996, GamesMaster ranked Elite 11th on their "Top 100 Games of All Time." The game was retrospectively awarded 10/10 by the multi-format magazine "Edge"—together with only 2 other games— and is being exhibited at such places as the London Science Museum in the "Game On" exhibition organised and toured by the Barbican Art Gallery. "Elite" is also featured in "Game On! From Pong to Oblivion: The 50 Greatest Video Games of All Time" by authors Simon Byron, Ste Curran and David McCarthy.


title: Elite (video game)

text: In 1991, "PC Format" placed "Elite Plus" on its list of the 50 best computer games of all time. The editors called it "a classic game that mixes solid 3D space combat with trading to create a universe in which you can spend many a happy half-hour bushwhacking the dastardly Thargoids."


title: Elite (video game)

text: "Elite" has often been regarded as defining the genre for space trading games. Since its release "Elite" has been credited as being the title that defined the modern space flight simulation genre, a significant source of inspiration for later games in the genre as well as being influential upon gaming as a whole. In interviews, senior producers of CCP Games have cited "Elite" as one of the inspirations for their acclaimed MMORPG, "EVE Online". The developers of "Jumpgate Evolution", "Battlecruiser 3000AD", "Infinity: The Quest for Earth", "Hard Truck: Apocalyptic Wars" and "Flatspace" have likewise all credited "Elite" as a source of inspiration. Similar praise has been bestowed elsewhere in the media over the years.


title: Elite (video game)

text: It has been named as one of the most influential games in history, and has been credited as being the first truly open-ended open world game and opening the door for future online persistent worlds such as "Second Life", "World of Warcraft" and "EVE Online". "Elite" is one of the most popularly requested games to be remade, with some arguing that it is still the best example of the genre to date, with more recent titles—including its immediate sequel—not rising up to the same level.


title: Elite (video game)

text: In November 1999, on the game's 15th birthday, Ian Bell released many binaries and source code of several versions of the original game on his website. A dispute arose between Bell and David Braben regarding Bell's decision to make available all versions of the original "Elite". The dispute has since ended and the various versions became available again on Bell's site.


title: Elite (video game)

text: In the late 1980s a variant of the commercial BBC Micro "Elite" release was created by Angus Duggan by disassembling and modifying the 6502 code from the existing with many extra features, originally titled "Elite III" but now known as "Elite A" to minimise confusion. It includes many more ship types, more ship types flyable by the player (who begins in the less capable Adder), cargo delivery missions, some extra equipment items and numerous gameplay improvements. "Elite A" was released publicly in 1997. Like the original game, it can be downloaded free from Ian Bell's web site and played under emulation.


title: Elite (video game)

text: Many attempts to develop clones of "Elite" have been made, but most have been abandoned before completion or have otherwise failed to come to fruition. The open source "Oolite" is a notable exception. Another successful adaptation is "1337" (meaning "Elite" in Leetspeak) developed by Jose Maria Enguita for the Oric machines, that won the "2010 Oldschool Gaming Game Of The Year Award". Contrasting with these conversions, around 1999 Christian Pinder developed "Elite: The New Kind" as a modern PC port of the original BBC Micro version. He achieved a faithful port by reverse-engineering the original assembly written BBC Micro version and recreating a platform neutral C code variant from it, but at David Braben's request this version was withdrawn from distribution in 2003. In September 2014, on "Elite"s 30th birthday, Ian Bell blessed "Elite: The New Kind" and re-released it for free on his website. Since then, "Elite: The New Kind" is also distributed again in version 1.1 by Christian Pinder; a source code mirror is hosted on GitHub.


title: Elite (video game)

text: On 20 October 2013, the Internet Archive started to offer Elite in the ZX Spectrum version for online playing in the browser via MESS emulation.


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: Madhurima Tuli (born 19 August 1986) is an Indian actress and model. Her works in Hindi television include the fiction dramas "Kasturi", "Parichay", "Kumkum Bhagya", "Chandrakanta" and "Qayamat Ki Raat" and the reality shows "Nach Baliye 9" and "Bigg Boss 13". She also starred in big Hindi films such as "Baby" (2015), "Hamari Adhuri Kahani" (2015) and "Naam Shabana" (2017).


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: Tuli was born in Odisha on 19 August 1986. She hails from Dehradun, Uttarakhand. She won the Miss Uttraranchal Contest when in college. Her father works for Tata Steel, her mother works for an NGO, and she has a younger brother Shrikant Tuli. who owns a Music Label SVMT Music.


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: Tuli made an early debut in the Telugu film "Saththaa" (2004) opposite Sai Kiran. She moved to Mumbai and studied acting at the Kishore Namit Kapoor Acting School, worked as a model doing advertisements for brands like Godrej, Fiama Di Wills, Airtel, Lenovo, UltraTech Cement, Domino's Pizza and Karbonn Mobiles.


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: In 2008, she played a supporting role as the pretty girl Satya in "Homam", an Indian thriller written and directed by J. D. Chakravarthy, and to some extent inspired by the 2006 Hollywood movie "The Departed", directed by Martin Scorsese.


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: "Toss" (2009) was her next film in the role of Sherry, and after the small role as Bindiya in Zee TV's supernatural soap opera "Shree" (2008-2009), Tuli played the aspiring model Kushi in STAR One's TV series "Rang Badalti Odhani" (2010-2011).


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: Tuli had a lead as newly married Rukmini in "Kaalo" (2010). It was screened at the 6th Annual South African Halloween Horror Festival in Cape Town, where it won the best feature film and best cinematography award. Together with Dino Morea as her partner, she took part in the third season of "", a reality show filmed in Brazil and broadcast by Aapka Colors


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: Tuli had a leading role in "Cigarette Ki Tarah" (2012) along with Prashant Narayanan, and as the female lead Natasha in Anik Singal's English language short film "Lethal Commission" (2012).


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: She starred in the film "Maaricha" (2012), directed by K. Sivasurya. The film was simultaneously made in Kannada and Tamil and had Mithun Tejasvi playing the lead actor opposite Tuli.


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: Tuli played Gunjan Dutta in the Hindi thriller 3D film "Warning" (2013). She was seen playing the lead role in the film "Nimbe Huli", directed by Hemanth Hegde and produced by Subhash Ghai. The film had Hegde playing the lead role along with Tuli, Komal Jha and Nivedhitha. She also played the role of Anjali Singh Rajput (wife of Akshay Kumar) in the 2015 action film "Baby". Tuli participated in Zee TV's reality show "I Can Do That. She" also played the antagonist role of Tanu in "Kumkum Bhagya on Zee TV. Later she reprised" her role of Anjali Singh Rajput in Naam Shabana—a spin-off of Baby (2015)—with Akshay Kumar, Anupam Kher, Taapsee Pannu, and Manoj Bajpayee. Her first Hollywood venture came in 2017 where she played the younger version of Shabana Azmi (Maharaja Duleep Singh's mother) in the film The Black Prince, which is based on the last king of the Sikh Empire Maharaja Duleep.


title: Madhurima Tuli

text: Tuli met actor Vishal Aditya Singh on the sets of her show Chandrakanta in 2017 and later dated him. They broke up after a year of dating in 2018.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: Darkness Falls is a 2003 supernatural horror film written by Joe Harris, James Vanderbilt and John Fasano, and directed by Jonathan Liebesman, in his feature directorial debut. The film stars Chaney Kley and Emma Caulfield, and follows Kyle Walsh (Kley), who witnesses his mother's murder at the hands of a vengeful spirit lynched by an angry mob more than 150 years ago. Twelve years later, Kyle returns to his childhood home because Michael Greene (Lee Cormie), the young brother of his romantic interest Caitlin (Caulfield), is being stalked by the same spirit. Kyle must protect them from this powerful enemy and put an end to its killing spree. Released on January 24, 2003, and, whilst achieving moderate success at the box office, it was critically panned for its derivative plot and scares.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: In the middle of the 19th century, in the town of Darkness Falls, elderly widow Matilda Dixon was adored by the town's children. She would give them a gold coin whenever they lost a tooth, earning her the nickname Tooth Fairy. One night, a fire broke out in her house and left her face disfigured and severely sensitive to light. She wore a white porcelain mask and would only leave her house at night. However, the town's adults were suspicious of Matilda, believing her to be a witch. When two children went missing, the town quickly turned on Matilda. They exposed her face to light and hanged her. Before her death, Matilda placed a curse on the town and swore revenge. When the two missing children returned home unharmed, the town realized their mistake and quickly buried Matilda's body, keeping their deed a secret. Over the next 150 years, the story of Matilda became the legend of the Tooth Fairy; her spirit visits children on the night they lose their last tooth. If anyone lays eyes upon her, they will forever be marked for her vengeance.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: In 1990, Kyle Walsh, an antisocial teenager befriended by Caitlin Greene, loses his last baby tooth. That night, he wakes after a horrific nightmare and senses Matilda's presence, discovering that the story is true. Knowing she cannot bear the light, he shines a flashlight into her face and flees, hiding in the brightly lit bathroom. His mother tries to reassure him that there is nobody else in the house, but is killed after seeing Matilda in Kyle's room. The next morning, police arrive and Kyle is removed to a psychiatric institution after mistaken speculations that he killed his mother.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: Twelve years later, Caitlin telephones Kyle to ask for his help with her younger brother Michael, who refuses to sleep in the dark. Kyle still suffers extreme paranoia from his encounter with Matilda; he has dozens of flashlights and numerous medications for anxiety, depression and sleep disorders. Kyle visits Michael at the hospital but denies any relation to his condition and walks away from Caitlin, who still believes that the legend of Matilda Dixon is just a story, one which they were all told as children, but a story nonetheless.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: Kyle tries to warn others of Matilda but faces ridicule and skepticism, which leads to the death of many townspeople. A lightning storm blacks out the whole town, and realizing that Michael and Caitlin are in danger, Kyle rushes to the hospital. He rescues them and gains allies along the way, as others see Matilda and realize the story is true. Kyle, Michael and Caitlin flee and hide in the lighthouse. They are helped by several medical personnel, all of whom are killed by Matilda.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: During his final confrontation with Matilda, power is restored and the lighthouse beacon is activated. The sudden exposure to light causes Matilda excruciating pain, and Kyle tears off her mask. Seeing her grotesque, disfigured face, he realizes she is now vulnerable. Enraged, she resumes her attack. Kyle sets his right sleeve on fire and he strikes her face with it. As her spirit is engulfed in flame, Matilda is destroyed and her curse is finally brought to an end.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: In a final scene, a young boy is being tucked into bed by his parents, having just lost his last baby tooth. As he sleeps, his mother replaces the tooth under his pillow with a gold coin, indicating that Matilda is gone and her curse is lifted.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: The film's closing credits feature the song "Gunboat" by Vixtrola. Other songs featured in the film include "Look Out Below" by Closure, "Hand of Emptiness" by Brian Tichy, and "Rock Nation" by Scott Nickoley and Jamie Dunlap.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: "Darkness Falls" debuted at number one its opening weekend. Grossing $32,551,396 domestically and $47,488,536 worldwide, "Darkness Falls" was considered a commercial success at the U.S. box office, recouping its $11 million budget.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: According to review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, 9% of critics out of 129 reviews gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 3.2/10; the critical consensus is: "A derivative movie where the scares are few and things don't make much sense". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 23 out of 100, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews", based on reviews from 27 critics. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: In his review for "The New York Times", Stephen Holden called the film "an efficient little horror movie that doesn't waste its time getting down to business." Although the film had a "deliberate sparseness of gore," Holden noted the "demonization of a benign childhood phantom" as the film's "cleverest notion." Jamie Russell of the BBC gave it 3/5 stars, writing: "This is a self-consciously silly, completely disposable multiplex movie that does its best to deliver its fair share of chills while struggling to keep a straight face."


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" said that although "the filmmakers and their cast strive mightily to work up some thrills and chills," the film ultimately was "not all that scary." Philip French of "The Observer" called it "a mish mash of horror-movie clichés". Alexander Walker of the "Evening Standard" wrote: "Bogey-fanciers may enjoy it; others may want to check out long before they all take refuge in the lighthouse."


title: Darkness Falls (2003 film)

text: Joe Harris wrote "Darkness Falls: The Tragic Life of Matilda Dixon", a prequel comic, which was published by Dark Horse Comics. Keith R. A. DeCandido wrote a novelization of the film, which was published by Pocket Books in December 2002.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Swedish cuisine () is the traditional food of Sweden. Due to Sweden's large north-to-south expanse, there are regional differences between the cuisine of North and South Sweden.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Historically, in the far north, meats such as reindeer, and other (semi-)game dishes were eaten, some of which have their roots in the Sami culture, while fresh vegetables have played a larger role in the South. Many traditional dishes employ simple, contrasting flavours, such as the traditional dish of meatballs and brown cream sauce with tart, pungent lingonberry jam (slightly similar in taste to cranberry sauce).


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Swedes have traditionally been very open to foreign influences, ranging from French cuisine during the 17th and 18th centuries, to the sushi and caffé latte of today.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Swedish cuisine could be described as centered around cultured dairy products, crisp and soft (often sugared) breads, berries and stone fruits, beef, chicken, lamb, pork, eggs, and seafood. Potatoes are often served as a side dish, often boiled. Swedish cuisine has a wide variety of breads of different shapes and sizes, made of rye, wheat, oat, white, dark, sourdough, and whole grain, and including flatbreads and crispbreads. There are many sweetened bread types and some use spices. Many meat dishes, especially meatballs, are served with lingonberry jam. Fruit soups with high viscosity, like rose hip soup and blueberry soup ("blåbärssoppa") served hot or cold, are typical of Swedish cuisine. Butter and margarine are the primary fat sources, although olive oil is becoming more popular. Sweden's pastry tradition features a variety of yeast buns, cookies, biscuits and cakes; many of them are in a very sugary style and often eaten with coffee ("fika").


title: Swedish cuisine

text: The importance of fish has governed Swedish population and trade patterns far back in history. For preservation, fish were salted and cured. Salt became a major trade item at the dawn of the Scandinavian middle ages, which began 1000 AD. Cabbage preserved as sauerkraut and various kinds of preserved berries, apples, and other fruit were used once as a source of vitamin C during the winter (today sauerkraut is very seldom used in Swedish cuisine). Lingonberry jam, still a favourite, may be the most traditional and typical Swedish way to add freshness to sometimes rather heavy food, such as steaks and stews.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Sweden's long winters explain the lack of fresh vegetables in many traditional recipes. In older times, plants that would sustain the population through the winters were cornerstones; various turnips such as the "kålrot" (rutabaga) (aptly named "swede" in British English) were gradually supplanted or complemented by the potato in the 18th century. A lack of distinct spices made everyday food rather bland by today's standards, although a number of local herbs and plants have been used since ancient times. This tradition is still present in today's Swedish dishes, which are still rather sparingly spiced.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Both before and after this period, some new Germanic dishes were also brought in by immigrants, such as people related to the Hanseatic League, settling in Stockholm, Visby, and Kalmar. Swedish traders and aristocrats naturally also picked up some food traditions in foreign countries; cabbage rolls ("kåldolmar") being one example. An of "kåldolmar" was first published in 1765 in the fourth edition of "Hjelpreda i Hushållningen för Unga Fruentimber" by Cajsa Warg, though it was closer to the Turkish "dolma" than later dishes.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Swedish "husmanskost" denotes traditional Swedish dishes with local ingredients, the classical everyday Swedish cuisine. The word "husmanskost" stems from "husman", meaning 'house owner', and the term was originally used for most kinds of simple countryside food outside of towns. Genuine Swedish "husmanskost" used predominantly local ingredients such as pork in all forms, fish, cereals, milk, potato, root vegetables, cabbage, onions, apples, berries etc.; beef and lamb were used more sparingly. Beside berries, apples are the most used traditional fruit, eaten fresh or served as apple pie, apple sauce, or apple cake. Time-consuming cooking methods such as "redningar" (roux) and "långkok" (literally 'long boil') are commonly employed and spices are sparingly used. Examples of Swedish husmanskost are pea soup ("ärtsoppa"), boiled and mashed carrots, potato and rutabaga served with pork ("rotmos med fläsk"), many varieties of salmon (such as "gravlax", "inkokt lax", fried, pickled), varieties of herring (most commonly pickled, but also fried, "au gratin", etc.), fishballs ("fiskbullar"), meatballs ("köttbullar"), potato dumplings with meat or other ingredients ("palt"), potato pancake ("raggmunk"), varieties of porridge ("gröt"), a fried mix of pieces of potato, different kind of meats, sausages, bacon and onion ("pytt i panna"), meat stew with onion ("kalops"), and potato dumplings with a filling of onions and pork ("kroppkakor"). Many of the dishes would be considered comfort food for the nostalgic value.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Dishes akin to Swedish "husmanskost" and food traditions are found also in other Scandinavian countries; details may vary.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Sweden is part of the vodka belt and historically distilled beverages, such as "brännvin" and snaps, have been a traditional daily complement to food.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Consumption of wine in Sweden has increased during the last fifty years, partly at the expense of beer and stronger alcoholic beverages.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: "Husmanskost" has undergone a renaissance during the last decades as well known (or famous) Swedish chefs, such as Tore Wretman, have presented modernised variants of classical Swedish dishes. In this "nouvel husman" the amount of fat (which was needed to sustain hard manual labour in the old days) is reduced and some new ingredients are introduced. The cooking methods are tinkered with as well, in order to speed up the cooking process or enhance the nutritional value or flavour of the dishes. Many Swedish restaurateurs mix traditional "husmanskost" with a modern, gourmet approach.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Swedish traditional dishes, some of which are many hundreds of years old, others perhaps a century or less, are still a very important part of Swedish everyday meals, in spite of the fact that modern Swedish cuisine adopts many international dishes.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Internationally, the most renowned Swedish culinary tradition is the "smörgåsbord" and, at Christmas, the "julbord", including well-known Swedish dishes such as "gravlax" and meatballs.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: In Sweden, traditionally, Thursday has been "soup day" because the maids had half the day off and soup was easy to prepare in advance. One of the most traditional Swedish soups, "ärtsoppa", is still served in many restaurants and households every Thursday, a tradition since the Middle Ages. "Ärtsoppa" is a yellow pea soup, commonly served with pancakes as dessert. This is a simple meal, a very thick soup, basically consisting of boiled yellow peas, a little onion, salt and small pieces of pork. It is often served with mustard and followed by a dessert of thin pancakes ("pannkakor"). The Swedish Armed Forces also serve their conscripts pea soup and pancakes every Thursday.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Potatoes are eaten year-round as the main source of carbohydrates, and are a staple in many traditional dishes. Not until the last 50 years have pasta or rice become common on the dinner table.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: There are several different kinds of potatoes; the most appreciated is the "new potato", a potato which ripens in early summer and is enjoyed at the traditional midsummer feast. New potatoes at midsummer are served with pickled herring, chives, and sour cream, and the first strawberries of the year are traditionally served as dessert.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: The most highly regarded mushroom in Sweden is the chanterelle, which is considered a delicacy. The chanterelle is usually served as a side dish together with steaks, or fried with onions and sauce served on an open sandwich. Second to the chanterelle, and considered almost as delicious, is the porcini mushroom, or "karljohansvamp", named after Charles XIV John (Karl XIV Johan) who introduced its use as food.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: In August, at the traditional feast known as "kräftskiva", crayfish party, Swedes eat large amounts of crayfish, boiled and then marinated in a broth with salt, a little bit of sugar, and a large amount of dill weed.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Meals consists of breakfast in the early morning ("frukost"), a light lunch before noon ("lunch"), and a heavy dinner ("middag") around six or seven in the evening. It is also common to have a snack, often a sandwich or fruit, in between meals ("mellanmål"). Most Swedes also have a coffee break in the afternoon, often together with a pastry ("fika"). In all primary schools, and most, but not all secondary schools, a hot meal is served at lunch as part of Sweden's welfare state. According to Swedish school law, this meal has to be nutrient-dense.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Breakfast usually consists of open sandwiches ("smörgås"), possibly on crisp bread ("knäckebröd"). The sandwich is most often buttered, with toppings such as hard cheese, cold cuts, caviar, "messmör" (a Norwegian sweet spread made from butter and whey), ham ("skinka"), and tomatoes or cucumber. "Filmjölk" (fermented milk/buttermilk), or sometimes yogurt, is also traditional breakfast food, usually served in a bowl with cereals such as cornflakes. Muesli, or porridge ("gröt") is sometimes eaten at breakfast, made of oatmeal or cream of wheat, eaten with milk and jam or cinnamon with sugar. Common drinks for breakfast are milk, juice, tea, or coffee. Swedes are among the most avid milk and coffee drinkers in the world.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Swedes sometimes have sweet toppings on their breads, such as jam (like the French and Americans), or chocolate (like the Danes), although many older Swedes chose not to use these sweet toppings. However, orange marmalade on white bread is common, usually with morning coffee or tea.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Many traditional kinds of Swedish bread, such as "sirapslimpa" (less fashionable today, but still very popular) are somewhat sweetened in themselves, baked with small amounts of syrup. Like in many other European countries, there are also many non-sweetened breads, often made with sourdough ("surdeg"). Swedish breads may be made from wholegrain, fine grain, or anything in between, and there are white, brown, and very dark (like in Finland) varieties which are all common. "Barkis" or "bergis" is a localised version of "challah" usually made without eggs and at first only available in Stockholm and Göteborg where Jews first settled but now available elsewhere.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Fish and other seafood are an important part of Swedish cuisine. Farmed salmon from Norway has become increasingly popular. Pickled, sweetened herring, "inlagd sill", is a traditional Swedish appetizer. Shrimp and lobster are specialties of the Skagerrak coast. "Surströmming" is a fermented Baltic herring famous for its pungent aroma, both loved and hated.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: "Bakelser" and other types of "kaffebröd" (or more colloquially "fikabröd") are various forms of pastries, cake, cookies, and buns that are usually consumed with coffee (see "fika"). Popular kinds of "kaffebröd" available in a traditional Swedish "konditori" (coffee shop / pâtisserie) include:


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Sweden is in second place among the heaviest coffee-drinking countries in the world. Milk consumption in Sweden is also very high, second only to Finland. Milk is bought in milk cartons; Tetra Pak, the world's largest maker of milk cartons, was founded in Sweden. Milk is considered the standard drink to have with meals during weekdays in many families, for both children and adults.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: The production of liquor has a tradition dating back to the 18th century and was at a high in the 1840s. Since the 1880s, the state-owned Systembolaget has a monopoly on selling spirits with more than 3.5% ABV, limiting access. "Hembränt" (moonshine) used to be made in rural Sweden, but production has lessened in recent years due to more liberal rules for the import of alcohol as well as increased smuggling.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: "Punsch" is a traditional liqueur in Sweden that was immensely popular during the 19th century. It was adopted as the drink of choice by university students, and many traditional songs from that time are about the consumption of "punsch" or are meant to be sung during the collective festivities that were part of the cultural life in the universities' student associations at the time and still is.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Beer is also widely consumed in Sweden and the typical Swedish beer is lager of a bright and malty kind. The brands Pripps Blå and Norrlands Guld are common examples. In the last few decades, many small breweries ("microbreweries") have emerged all over Sweden offering a wide range of styles and brands. Nils Oscar Brewery, Dugges Ale och Porterbryggeri and Närke Kulturbryggeri are examples of these young Swedish microbreweries. Many microbreweries in Sweden are inspired by the US craft beer movement, brewing American styles or styles commonly associated with American craft breweries, e.g. American Pale Ale and American IPA.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Brödinstitutet ('The Bread Institute') once campaigned with a quotation from the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare, recommending eating six to eight slices of bread daily. Drinking milk has also been recommended and campaigned for by the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare; it is often recommended to drink two to three glasses of milk per day. A survey conducted on behalf of Mjölkfrämjandet, an organisation promoting consumption of Swedish milk, concluded that 52% of Swedes surveyed drink milk at least once a day, usually one glass with lunch and another glass or two in the evening or morning.


title: Swedish cuisine

text: Low-fat products, wholemeal bread and other alternatives are common; grocery stores usually sell milk in four or five different fat levels, from 3% to 0.1%.


title: Veerapandiya Kattabomman

text: Veerapandiya Kattabomman was an 18th-century Tamil Palayakarrar and king of Panchalankurichi in Tamil Nadu, India. He refused to accept the sovereignty of the British East India Company and waged a war against them. He was captured by the British with the help of the ruler of the kingdom of Pudukottai, Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman, and at the age of 39 he was hanged at Kayathar on 16 October 1799.


title: Veerapandiya Kattabomman

text: He was a Vatuka (northerner), a loose term for a group of Telugu-speaking castes which includes families who claim to have moved south to settle in the arid Tirunelveli region after the collapse of the Nayaka-controlled Vijayanagara Empire in 1565. They had previously had some prominence in the imperial court and may have been adept at farming in dry conditions, although it is also possible that they had no choice but to settle where they did because the other significant community of Tirunelveli – the Maravars – had already occupied the more favourable areas. Kattabomman was a member of the Rajakambalam Nayakkar caste who are shepherds, with the other two Vadugan communities being the Kammavars and the Reddies.


title: Veerapandiya Kattabomman

text: The historian Susan Bayly says that Kattabomman is considered a Robin Hood-like figure in local folklore and is the subject of several traditional narrative ballads in the kummi verse form. The site of his execution at Kayathar has become a "powerful local shrine" and at one time sheep were sacrificed there. The Government of Tamil Nadu maintains a memorial at Kayathar and the remnants of the old fort at Panchalankurichi is protected by the Archaeological Survey of India. In 2006, the Tirunelveli district administration organised a festival at Panchalankurichi on his birth anniversary.


title: Veerapandiya Kattabomman

text: To commemorate the bicentenary of Kattabomman's hanging, the Government of India released a postal stamp in his honour on 16 October 1999. The Indian Navy communications centre at Vijayanarayanam is named "INS Kattabomman".


title: Eight Men Out

text: Eight Men Out is a 1988 American sports drama film based on Eliot Asinof's 1963 book "Eight Men Out: The Black Sox and the 1919 World Series". It was written and directed by John Sayles. The film is a dramatization of Major League Baseball's Black Sox Scandal, in which eight members of the Chicago White Sox conspired with gamblers to intentionally lose the 1919 World Series. Much of the movie was filmed at the old Bush Stadium in Indianapolis, Indiana.


title: Eight Men Out

text: In 1919, the Chicago White Sox are considered among the greatest baseball teams ever assembled; however, the team's stingy owner, Charles Comiskey, gives little inclination to reward his players for a spectacular season.


title: Eight Men Out

text: Gamblers "Sleepy Bill" Burns and Billy Maharg get wind of the players' discontent, asking shady player Chick Gandil to convince a select group of Sox—including star knuckleball pitcher Eddie Cicotte, who led the majors with a 29–7 win–loss record and an earned run average of 1.82—that they could earn more money by playing badly and throwing the series than they could earn by winning the World Series against the Cincinnati Reds. Cicotte was motivated because Comiskey refused him a promised $10,000 should he win 30 games for the season. Cicotte was nearing the milestone when Comiskey ordered team manager Kid Gleason to bench him for two weeks (missing five starts) with the excuse that the 35-year-old veteran's arm needed a rest before the series.


title: Eight Men Out

text: A number of players, including Gandil, Swede Risberg, and Lefty Williams, go along with the scheme. "Shoeless Joe" Jackson, the team's illiterate superstar, is also invited, but is depicted as not bright nor entirely sure of what is going on. Buck Weaver, meanwhile, insists that he is a winner and wants nothing to do with the fix.


title: Eight Men Out

text: When the best-of-nine series begins, Cicotte (pitching in Game 1) deliberately hits Reds leadoff hitter Morrie Rath in the back with his second pitch in a prearranged signal to gangster Arnold Rothstein that the fix was on. Cicotte then pitches poorly and gives up five runs in four innings—four of them in the fourth, highlighted by a triple from Reds pitcher Walter "Dutch" Ruether. He is then relieved by Gleason, though the Sox lose the first game, 9–1. Williams also pitched poorly in Game 2, while Gandil, Risberg and Hap Felsch made glaring mistakes on the field. Several of the players become upset, however, when the various gamblers involved fail to pay their promised money up front.


title: Eight Men Out

text: Chicago journalists Ring Lardner and Hugh Fullerton grow increasingly suspicious, while Gleason continues to hear rumors of a fix, but he remains confident that his boys will come through in the end.


title: Eight Men Out

text: A third pitcher not in on the scam, rookie Dickie Kerr, wins Game 3 for the Sox, making both gamblers and teammates uncomfortable. Other teammates such as catcher Ray Schalk continue to play hard, while Weaver and Jackson show no visible signs of taking a dive with Weaver continuing to deny participation in the fix. Cicotte loses, again, in Game 4 and the Sox lose Game 5, as well, putting them one loss away from losing the series. With the championship now in jeopardy, the Sox manage to win Game 6 in extra innings. Gleason intends to bench Cicotte from his next start, but Cicotte, feeling guilty over throwing his previous games, begs for another chance. The manager reluctantly agrees and is given an easy Game 7 win. Unpaid by the gamblers, Williams also intends to win, but when his wife's life is threatened, he purposely pitches so badly that he is quickly relieved by "Big Bill" James in the first inning. Jackson hits a home run off Reds pitcher Hod Eller in the third inning, but the team still lose the final game.


title: Eight Men Out

text: Cincinnati wins the Series (five games to three). Fullerton writes an article condemning the White Sox. An investigation begins into the possible fixing of the Series. In 1920, Cicotte and Jackson admit that a fix existed (though the illiterate Jackson is implied as having been coerced into making his confession). As a result of the revelations, Cicotte, Williams, Gandil, Felsch, Risberg, McMullin, Jackson, and Weaver are tried. The eight men are acquitted of any wrongdoing. However, newly appointed commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis bans the eight men for life because they either intentionally lost games or (as Weaver did) knew about the fix and didn't report it to team officials.


title: Eight Men Out

text: In 1925, Weaver watches Jackson play a semi-pro game in New Jersey under the assumed name "Brown". Hearing other fans suspecting his true identity, Weaver tells them that Jackson was the best player he ever saw. When asked point-blank if the player is indeed Jackson, Weaver denies it, protecting his former teammate by telling the fans "those guys are gone now", solemnly reminiscing on the 1919 World Series. A title card reveals that the eight players banned from the scandal never returned to the majors. Weaver unsuccessfully attempted to have his ban overturned on several occasions until his death in 1956.


title: Eight Men Out

text: In a 2013 interview, Sayles told MLB Network's Bob Costas, "People said, 'Oh, you’ll never get this made. There’s a curse on it. People have been trying to make it for years.'" Talking about his thoughts for the cast when he first wrote the script, Sayles said "my original dream team had Martin Sheen at third base, and I ended up with Charlie in center field."


title: Eight Men Out

text: During the late summer and early fall of 1987, news media in Indianapolis reported sightings of the film's actors, including Sheen and Cusack. Sayles told the "Chicago Tribune" that he hired them not because they were rising stars, but because of their ball-playing talent.


title: Eight Men Out

text: Sweeney remarked on the chilly Indiana temperatures in an interview with "Elle". "It got down to 30, 40 degrees, but John [Sayles] would stand there in running shorts, tank tops, sneakers—sometimes without socks—and never look cold." The young actor said Sayles appeared to be focused on an "agenda, and that's all he cared about. Looking at him we thought, 'Well, if he's not cold, then we certainly shouldn't be.'"


title: Eight Men Out

text: Reports from the set location at Bush Stadium indicated that cast members were letting off steam between scenes. "Actors kidded around, rubbing dirt on each other", the "Tribune" reported. "... Actors trade jokes, smokes and candy" in the dugout. "'Some of them chewed tobacco at first, but,' noted Bill Irwin, 'Even the guys who were really into it started to chew apricots after a while.'" Sheen made his reasons for taking the role clear. "I'm not in this for cash or my career or my performance", Sheen said. "I wanted to take part in this film because I love baseball."


title: Eight Men Out

text: When cloud cover would suddenly change the light during the shooting of a particular baseball scene, Sayles showed "inspirational decisiveness", according to "Elle", by changing the scripted game they would be shooting—switching from Game Two of the series to Game Four, for example. "The second assistant director knew nothing about baseball", Sayles said, "and she had to keep track of who was on base. Suddenly we'd change from Game Two to Game Four, and she'd have to shuffle through her papers to learn who was on second, then track the right guys down all over the ballpark."


title: Eight Men Out

text: Right-handed Sweeney told Elle that producers considered using an old Hollywood trick to create the illusion that he was hitting lefty. "We could have done it from the right side, then run to third and switched the negative, like they did in "The Pride of the Yankees", but we didn't really have enough money for that", Sweeney said.