title: Jean-Baptiste Lully

text: Intermèdes became part of a new genre, the "comédie-ballet", in 1661, when Molière described them as "ornaments which have been mixed with the comedy" in his preface to '. "Also, to avoid breaking the thread of the piece by these interludes, it was deemed advisable to weave the ballet in the best manner one could into the subject, and make but one thing of it and the play." The music for the premiere of "Les Fâcheux" was composed by Pierre Beauchamp, but Lully later provided a sung courante for act 1, scene 3. With ' and "" (1664), intermèdes by Lully began to appear regularly in Molière's plays: for those performances there were six intermèdes, two at the beginning and two at the end, and one between each of the three acts. Lully's intermèdes reached their apogee in 1670–1671, with the elaborate incidental music he composed for "Le Bourgeois gentilhomme" and "Psyché". After his break with Molière, Lully turned to opera; but he collaborated with Jean Racine for a fete at Sceaux in 1685, and with Campistron for an entertainment at Anet in 1686.


title: Jean-Baptiste Lully

text: With five exceptions, each of Lully's operas was described as a "tragédie mise en musique", or tragedy set to music. The exceptions were: "Bellérophon", "Cadmus et Hermione", and "Psyché", each called simply a "tragédie"; and "Les fêtes de l'Amour et de Bacchus", described as a "pastorale", and "Acis et Galathée", which is a "pastorale héroïque". (The term "tragédie lyrique" came later.)


title: Jean-Baptiste Lully

text: Always with Lully, the point of departure was a verse libretto, in most cases by the verse dramatist Philippe Quinault. For the dance pieces, Lully would hammer out rough chords and a melody on the keyboard, and Quinault would invent words. For the recitative, Lully imitated the speech melodies and dramatic emphasis used by the best actors in the spoken theater. His attentiveness to transferring theatrical recitation to sung music shaped French opera and song for a century.


title: Jean-Baptiste Lully

text: Unlike Italian opera of the day, which was rapidly moving toward "opera seria" with its alternating recitative and "da capo" airs, in Lully's operas the focus was on drama, expressed by a variety of vocal forms: monologs, airs for two or three voices, rondeaux and French-style "da capo" airs where the chorus alternates with singers, sung dances, and "vaudeville" songs for a few secondary characters. In like manner the chorus performed in several combinations: the entire chorus, the chorus singing as duos, trios or quartets, the dramatic chorus, the dancing chorus.


title: Jean-Baptiste Lully

text: The intrigue of the plot culminated in a vast tableau, for example, the sleep scene in "Atys", the village wedding in "Roland", or the funeral in "Alceste". Soloists, chorus and dancers participated in this display, producing astonishing effects thanks to machinery. In contrast to Italian opera, the various instrumental genres were present to enrich the overall effect: French overture, dance airs, "rondeaux", marches, ""simphonies"" that painted pictures, preludes, "ritournelles". Collected into instrumental suites or transformed into trios, these pieces had enormous influence and affected instrumental music across Europe.


title: Jean-Baptiste Lully

text: The earliest operas were performed at the indoor Bel Air tennis court (on the grounds of the Luxembourg Palace) that Lully had converted into a theater. The first performance of later operas either took place at court, or in the theater at the Palais-Royal, which had been made available to Lully's Academy. Once premiered at court, operas were performed for the public at the Palais-Royal.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: Greek Cypriots or Cypriot Greeks (, ) are the ethnic Greek population of Cyprus, forming the island's largest ethnolinguistic community. According to the 2011 census, 659,115 respondents recorded their ethnicity as Greek, forming almost 99% of the 667,398 Cypriot citizens and over 78% of the 840,407 total residents of the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus. These figures do not include the 29,321 citizens of Greece residing in Cyprus, ethnic Greeks recorded as citizens of other countries, or the population of the Turkish-occupied Northern Cyprus.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: The majority of Greek Cypriots are members of the Church of Cyprus, an autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church within the wider communion of Orthodox Christianity. In regard to the 1960 Constitution of Cyprus, the term also includes Maronites, Armenians, and Catholics of the Latin Church ("Latins"), who were given the option of being included in either the Greek or Turkish communities and voted to join the former due to a shared religion.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: Cyprus was part of the Mycenaean civilization with local production of Mycenaean vases dating to the Late Helladic III (1400–1050 BC). The quantity of this pottery concludes that there were numerous Mycenaean settlers, if not settlements, on the island. Archaeological evidence shows that Greek settlement began unsystematically in c. 1400 BC, then steadied (possibly due to Dorian invaders on the mainland) with definite settlements established in c. 1200 BC. The close connection between the Arcadian dialect and those of Pamphylia and Cyprus indicates that the migration came from Achaea. The Achaean tribe may have been an original population of the Peloponnese, Pamphylia, and Cyprus, living in the latter prior to the Dorian invasion, and not a subsequent immigrant group; the Doric elements in Arcadian are lacking in Cypriot. Achaeans settled among the old population, and founded Salamis. The epic "Cypria", dating to the 7th century BC, may have originated in Cyprus.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: The Byzantine era profoundly molded Greek Cypriot culture. The Greek Orthodox Christian legacy bestowed on Greek Cypriots in this period would live on during the succeeding centuries of foreign domination. Because Cyprus was never the final goal of any external ambition, but simply fell under the domination of whichever power was dominant in the eastern Mediterranean, destroying its civilization was never a military objective or necessity.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: The Cypriots did however endure the oppressive rule of first the Lusignans and then the Venetians from the 1190s through to 1570. King Amaury, who succeeded his brother Guy de Lusignan in 1194, was particularly intolerant of the Orthodox Church. Greek Cypriot land was appropriated for the Latin churches after they were established in the major towns on the island. In addition, tax collection was also part of the heavy oppressive attitude of the occupiers to the locals of the island, in that it was now being conducted by the Latin churches themselves.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: The Ottoman conquest of Cyprus in 1571 replaced Venetian rule. Despite the inherent oppression of foreign subjugation, the period of Ottoman rule (1570–1878) had a limited impact on Greek Cypriot culture. The Ottomans tended to administer their multicultural empire with the help of their subject "millets", or religious communities. The "millet" system allowed the Greek Cypriot community to survive, administered on behalf of Constantinople by the Archbishop of the Church of Cyprus. Cypriot Greeks were now able to take control of the land they had been working on for centuries. Although religiously tolerant, Ottoman rule was generally harsh and inefficient. The patriarch serving the Ottoman sultan acted as "ethnarch", or leader of the Greek nation, and gained secular powers as a result of the gradual dysfunction of Ottoman rule, for instance in adjudicating justice and in the collection of taxes. Turkish settlers suffered alongside their Greek Cypriot neighbors, and the two groups together endured centuries of oppressive governance from Constantinople. A minority of Greek Cypriots converted to Islam during this period, and are sometimes referred to as "neo-Muslims" by historians.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: Politically, the concept of "enosis" – unification with the Greek "motherland" – became important to literate Greek Cypriots after Greece declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. A movement for the realization of "enosis" gradually formed, in which the Church of Cyprus played a dominant role during the Cyprus dispute.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: During the period of British colonial rule (1878–1960), an efficient colonial administration was established, but government and education were administered along ethnic lines, accentuating differences. For example, the education system was organized with two Boards of Education, one Greek and one Turkish, controlled by Athens and Istanbul, respectively. The resulting Greco-Turkish educational systems emphasized linguistic, religious, cultural, and ethnic differences and downplayed traditional ties between the two Cypriot communities. The two groups were encouraged to view themselves as extensions of their respective motherlands, leading to the development of two distinct nationalities with antagonistic loyalties.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: The importance of religion within the Greek Cypriot community was reinforced when the Archbishop of the Church of Cyprus, Makarios III, was elected the first president of the Republic of Cyprus in 1960. For the next decade and a half, "enosis" was a key issue for Greek Cypriots, and a key cause of events leading up to the 1974 coup, which prompted the Turkish invasion and occupation of the northern part of the island. Cyprus remains divided today, with the two communities almost completely separated. Many of those whom lost their homes, lands and possessions during the Turkish invasion, emigrated mainly to the UK, USA, Australia, South Africa and Europe, although most left Cyprus before 1974. There are today estimated to be 335,000 Greek Cypriot emigrants living in Great Britain. The majority of the Greek Cypriots in Great Britain currently live in England; there is an estimate of around 3,000 in Wales and 1,000 in Scotland.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: By the early 1990s, Greek Cypriot society enjoyed a high standard of living. Economic modernization created a more flexible and open society and caused Greek Cypriots to share the concerns and hopes of other secularized West European societies. The Republic of Cyprus joined the European Union in 2004, officially representing the entire island, but suspended for the time being in Turkish-occupied northern Cyprus.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: Greeks in Cyprus number 659,115, according to the 2011 Cypriot census. There is a notable community of Cypriots and people of Cypriot descent in Greece. In Athens, the Greek Cypriot community numbers ca. 55,000 people. There is also a large Greek Cypriot diaspora, particularly in the United Kingdom.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: Cypriot cuisine, as with other Greek cuisine, was imprinted with the spices and herbs made common as a result of extensive trade links within the Ottoman Empire. Names of many dishes came to reflect the sources of the ingredients from the many lands . Coffee houses pervasively spread throughout the island into all major towns and countless villages.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: The everyday language of Greek Cypriots is Cypriot Greek, a dialect of Modern Greek. It shares certain characteristics with varieties of Crete, the Dodecanese and Chios, as well as those of Asia Minor.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: Greek Cypriots are generally educated in Standard Modern Greek, though they tend to speak it with an accent and preserve some Cypriot Greek grammar.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: A 2017 study, found that Cypriots belong to a wide and homogeneous genetic domain, along with the people of the Aegean Islands (including Crete), Sicily, and southern Italy (including the Greek-speaking minorities of Apulia and Calabria), while the continental part of Greece, including Peloponnesus, appears as slightly differentiated, by clustering with the other Southern Balkan populations of Albania and Kosovo. The study calls this distinct genetic domain, the "Mediterranean genetic continuum".


title: Greek Cypriots

text: A 2017 study, found that both Greek Cypriots' and Turkish Cypriots' patrilineal ancestry derives primarily from a single pre-Ottoman local gene pool. The frequency of total haplotypes shared between Greek and Turkish Cypriots is 7-8%, with analysis showing that none of these being found in Turkey, thus not supporting a Turkish origin for the shared haplotypes. No shared haplotypes were observed between Greek Cypriots and mainland Turkish populations, while total haplotypes shared between Turkish Cypriots and mainland Turks was 3%. Both Cypriot groups show close genetic affinity to Calabrian (southern Italy) and Lebanese patrilineages. The study states that the genetic affinity between Calabrians and Cypriots can be explained as a result of a common ancient Greek (Achaean) genetic contribution, while Lebanese affinity can be explained through several migrations that took place from coastal Levant to Cyprus from the Neolithic (early farmers), the Iron Age (Phoenicians), and the Middle Ages (Maronites and other Levantine settlers during the Frankish era). The authors note however that the Calabrian samples used in the analysis were relatively small (n = 30 comparative dataset, n = 74 YHRD) and thus these results should be interpreted with caution. Furthermore, from the Greek sub-populations, Cretan Greeks were found to be the closest to Cypriots. In terms of Rst pairwise genetic differences, which indicate deeper shared paternal ancestry than shared haplotypes, Greeks appear genetically close to Cypriots, and equidistant from Greek and Turkish Cypriots. Both Greek and Turkish Cypriots have similar frequencies for their major patrilineal haplogroups, with the main subclades for both being J2a-M410 (23.8% and 20.3% resp.), E-M78 (12.8% and 13.9% resp.) and G2-P287 (12.5% and 13.7% resp.). The biggest differentiating characteristic between Greek Cypriots and mainland Greeks is the low frequency of haplogroups I, R1a, and R1b among the former, while the biggest differentiating characteristic between Greek Cypriots and Middle Easterners is the much lower frequency of haplogroup J1 among the former. Greek Cypriots are also differentiated by Turkish Cypriots in some aspects; namely Turkish Cypriots have 5.6% Eastern Eurasian (likely Central Asian/Turkic) and 2.1% North African patrilineal ancestry, while Greek Cypriots have 0.6% Eastern Eurasian and no North African patrilineal ancestry.


title: Greek Cypriots

text: A 2017 archaeogenetics study, concluded that both the Mycenaean Greeks and the Minoans were genetically closely related, and that both are closely related, but not identical, to modern Greek populations. The F between the sampled Bronze Age populations and present-day West Eurasians was estimated, finding that Mycenaeans are least differentiated from the populations of Greece, Cyprus, Albania, and Italy.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: Animax is the pay television channel in Asia owned by KC Global Media Asia which broadcasts Japanese language anime and Simulcast anime, anime programming through English-language feeds in Southeast Asia (formerly including Brunei), South Asia (except India), and East Asia. It is the first television channel in Asia dedicated to anime, and was initially launched in Hong Kong, and Southeast Asia in January 2004,


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: Animax cooperate the distributors to acquire content popular anime series such as Muse Communication, Medialink, Mighty Media and Crunchyroll.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: The channel was formerly owned by Sony Pictures Entertainment, but was sold to KC Global Media Entertainment on January 1, 2020.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: On December 17, 2015, Animax Asia announced that it will begin broadcasting in high definition (HD), with high definition channel will be a simulcast with its standard definition (SD) channel, carrying the same content.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: Animax first launched in Hong Kong on 11 January 2004. It broadcasts a variety of anime programming, from old to modern television series. Animax also airs anime series that premiered in Hong Kong prior to their release in Southeast Asian networks, some of them are "Death Note", "Blood+", "Trinity Blood" and "Mushishi". After the TV premiere of "Gurren Lagann", Animax's TV ratings recorded a huge increase and moved 80% more TRP than its closest competitor, Cartoon Network Hong Kong.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: A week after its launch in Hong Kong, Animax was launched in Southeast Asia on 19 January 2004, initially featuring its anime programming exclusively in the original Japanese audio with English subtitling, becoming the company's first English language network. It also later incorporated an English audio dub feed.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: Programming blocks seen include ""Ani-Chan"", which is aired on weekdays at 4:00 pm to 6:00 pm (featuring shows such as "Naruto", "Danball Senki" (a.k.a. "Little Battlers eXperience") and "Tsubasa Chronicle"); ""Animania"", which is aired on weekdays from 6:00 pm and 6:30 pm (featuring the "Dragon Ball" franchise and "Law of Ueki"); ""Mega Zone"", its prime time programming block is aired on weekdays from 7:00 pm; and its weekend programming block aired every Sunday at 9:00 pm and 10:00 pm.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: On July 5, 2013, Animax was forced to close down in Vietnam due to government content restrictions, but after 7 years, on 1 April 2020, it was relaunched on VTVCab.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: Astro had been broadcasting the channel since 31 August 2006. The channel ceased transmission on January 1, 2022; however selected anime series broadcast by Animax is still made available on Astro's Video-on-Demand platform and Astro GO.


title: Animax (Asian TV channel)

text: Unifi TV has rebroadcast Animax since 1 June 2017 along with Sony Channel. They initially ceased its transmission of the channel on 1 July 2020, but would resume on 1 October 2021 along with introduction of AXN & GEM, two other channels owned by KC Global Media Asia.


title: The Power of One (film)

text: The Power of One is a 1992 drama film loosely based on Bryce Courtenay's 1989 novel of the same title. Set in South Africa during World War II, the film centers on the life of Peter Philip Kenneth Keith, an English South African boy raised under apartheid, and his conflicted relationships with a German pianist, a Coloured boxing coach and an Afrikaner romantic interest. Directed and edited by John G. Avildsen, the film stars Stephen Dorff, John Gielgud, Morgan Freeman, Armin Mueller-Stahl, and Daniel Craig in his feature film debut.


title: The Power of One (film)

text: Born in 1930 to a recently widowed Englishwoman on a homestead in South Africa, little Peter Philip Kennith Keith (nicknamed 'PK') is schooled in the ways of England by his mother and the ways of Africa by a Zulu nanny, whose son Tonderai is also his best friend. However, their peaceful life is soon shattered when the farm's cattle are claimed by "rinderpest". PK's mother succumbs to a nervous breakdown, and he is sent away to a conservative Afrikaans boarding school while she recovers.


title: The Power of One (film)

text: Being the only English student at the boarding school, PK earns universal contempt from his Afrikaner fellows—particularly from Jaapie Botha, the oldest student. The extreme bullying strikes PK with a severe case of bed wetting, a habit which he eventually overcomes with local sangoma Dabula Manzi. In conquering his nightmares, PK is given a chicken, whom he names Mother Courage, and which becomes his closest companion.


title: The Power of One (film)

text: When war suddenly breaks out in Europe, the Afrikaner students kidnap PK and Mother Courage and has them tried before a mock Nazi court where Botha elaborates on the depth of his hatred for the British—a people he holds responsible for atrocities committed during the Second Boer War. The Afrikaner boys hang Mother Courage and kill her with a rock. When PK physically retaliates against Botha, they attempt to execute him in a similar manner, but are interrupted by a teacher who later oversees Botha's expulsion.


title: The Power of One (film)

text: With his mother dying, PK finds himself living with his grandfather in Barberton. He eventually finds a mentor in Karl "Doc" von Vollensteen, a lonely German musician whose family was executed by the Nazis. Doc warms to PK and under his guidance PK soon becomes an excellent pianist. He is soon interned as an enemy alien for the rest of the war, but PK continues to visit him regularly in prison. Doc introduces the boy to Geel Piet, a Cape Coloured inmate who trains him to be an excellent boxer. Piet also impresses on PK his mantra: "first with the head, then with the heart".


title: The Power of One (film)

text: A maturing PK begins to express sympathy towards black prisoners, who are detained under appalling conditions and frequently beaten by the Afrikaner guards. He works with Doc to distribute contraband among the Africans, writes their letters to home, and shares their many sufferings. The war does not end happily for PK, as Doc is repatriated and Piet is killed by a guard. PK goes to study at the prestigious Prince of Wales School in Johannesburg. While attending a boxing championship, he is enamoured by Maria Marais, the Afrikaans daughter of a leading National Party official. Since her strict father will not permit them to see each other, they begin dating in secret. On one such outing they are introduced to Gideon Duma, a prominent boxer in Alexandra, a black township. Duma's passion for resisting apartheid inspires PK, and he opens an English school for Africans.


title: The Power of One (film)

text: Maria's father, incensed by the couple's ongoing relationship and PK's ties to a multiracial gym, leads him to request a formal investigation by one of his South African Police contacts, Colonel Breyten. Breyten and his sergeant, an embittered Jaapie Botha, place PK under surveillance for subversion. His clashes with the police (which result in detainment of numerous people he knows) come to a head when Duma is severely injured and Maria is killed during a raid on their school in a church along with numerous other innocent people. Maddened by grief, PK considers going to study at Oxford in England, but is consoled by a recovering Duma who shows him that all his teachings have finally shown progress and reminds him of all the good he can still do in Africa.


title: The Power of One (film)

text: Botha leads a violent raid on Alexandra the following night which results in Breyten's death at the hands of an enraged villager. Botha threatens to shoot Elias Mlungisi, the local boxing promoter, only to be confronted by PK. They fight, and PK finally defeats his childhood enemy. Despite the loss, a bloodied and vindictive Botha is still bent on killing him with a hidden pistol, but an arriving Gideon Duma brutally kills Botha with a cricket bat to the head before he can fire. Now wanted fugitives from the apartheid government, PK and Duma vow to continue a campaign against racial injustice with the aid of the other survivors. PK's closing narration identifies meaningful voices during his life from his nanny to Doc, Geel Piet, Dabula Manzi, and finally Maria.


title: The Power of One (film)

text: The film received mixed reviews. Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes currently ranks the film at a 39% 'rotten' rating based on 18 reviews, with an average score of 4.96/10. Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave it two and a half stars out of four, stating that the nature of troubles of South Africa "are too complex to be reduced to a formula in which everything depends on who shoots who", but did add "there are some nice touches," such as the locations and Gielgud's performance.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Presidential elections were held in Taiwan on 11 January 2020 along with the 10th Legislative Yuan election. Incumbent president Tsai Ing-wen and former premier William Lai of the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) won the election, defeating Kaohsiung mayor Han Kuo-yu of the Kuomintang (KMT) and his running mate Chang San-cheng, as well as third-party candidate James Soong.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Following major losses during the 2018 Taiwanese local elections, Tsai Ing-wen resigned from her party's chairmanship and was challenged in the primary contest by former Premier William Lai, himself a former Tsai appointee. The Kuomintang also ran a competitive primary, which saw Han Kuo-yu, initially reluctant to run, defeat former presidential candidate and New Taipei mayor Eric Chu, and Foxconn chief executive Terry Gou.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Both domestic issues and Cross-Strait relations featured in the campaign, with Han attacking Tsai for her perceived failures in labour reform, economic management, and dealing with corruption of her aides. However, Tsai's strong response to Beijing's increasing pressures on Taiwan to accede to a unification agreement, amid the backdrop of the intensely followed Hong Kong anti-extradition protests, proved crucial in her recapturing broad support.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: The election had a turnout of 74.9%, the highest among nationwide elections since 2008. Tsai won a record 8.17 million votes, representing 57.1% of the popular vote, the highest vote share won by a DPP candidate in presidential elections. The DPP received a higher share of the vote in major metropolitan areas, reversing the KMT's fortunes in Kaohsiung and environs, while the Kuomintang retained strength in limited eastern regions and off-island constituencies. Tsai and Lai were inaugurated on 20 May 2020.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Presidential candidates and vice presidential running mates are elected on the same ticket, using first-past-the-post voting. This was the seventh direct election of the president and vice president, the posts having previously been indirectly elected by the National Assembly until 1996.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Under applicable legislation, any party which received more than five per cent of the total vote share in the latest election in any level were eligible to contest the election. The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP), Kuomintang (KMT), New Power Party (NPP) and People First Party (PFP) were eligible, though in the end only three major-party candidates were certified: incumbent President Tsai Ing-wen of the Democratic Progressive Party, Kaohsiung mayor Han Kuo-yu of Kuomintang, and perennial veteran candidate James Soong of the People First Party. Vice President Chen Chien-jen, Tsai's running mate in 2016, was eligible for re-election but chose not to contest.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Tsai Ing-wen suffered a stinging defeat during the 2018 Taiwanese local elections due to widespread discontentment over numerous domestic policy issues, including public pension reform, same-sex marriage, pollution, and labour reform. In the lead up to the election, her staffers were found to have been implicated in a tobacco smuggling ring, which also allegedly involved the top management of flag carrier China Airlines and National Security Bureau. Dogged by scandal and having lost on major referendums questions, Tsai's clout continued to deteriorate both in her own party and more broadly.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: The major inflection of the campaign came amid the Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protests, an event that was triggered with the murder of Poon Hiu-wing in Taiwan. As the protests became heated over the later half of 2019, Tsai began to portray the situation in Hong Kong as a direct result of an encroachment of the territory's autonomy from Beijing. In January 2019, Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, had announced an open letter to Taiwan proposing a one country, two systems formula for eventual unification. Additionally, over the course of 2019, several small nations that previously had diplomatic ties to Taiwan, including Panama, Kiribati, and Solomon Islands, broke off relations in favour of the PRC. Tsai issued pronouncements that Taiwan will "never accept one country, two systems" and that "today's Hong Kong could be tomorrow's Taiwan". Tsai's strong positioning ultimately led her to victory in what was a bruising primary challenge by Premier William Lai.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Tsai reconciled with diverse elements in her party in signing up Lai to be her running mate. Kuomintang, after fits and starts over procedural disputes, flirted with a high-profile nomination of Foxconn chief Terry Gou. The party ultimately nominated firebrand Han Kuo-yu, who had in 2018 successfully run an insurgent mayoral campaign in the DPP stronghold of Kaohsiung. However, his combative, eccentric antics and participation in the presidential election soon after his taking on the post in Kaohsiung earned him scorn from detractors. Additionally, Tsai made hay with Han's perceived friendliness with Beijing, citing his early 2019 visit to mainland China where he met with multiple high-level Communist Party officials, and his continued recognition of the 1992 Consensus, which Tsai had disavowed. Han eventually spoke out against one country, two systems, remarking that it will never happen if he was president unless it was "over my dead body." Nonetheless, Tsai's political advantage on the issue had been solidified.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: The election also saw widespread accusations from both sides that internet trolls were working to sway public opinion, including allegations from Australia-based Chinese defector William Wang that Beijing had used internet operatives to disrupt the election in favor of the KMT. Various pro-Han Kuo-yu groups on Facebook were also shut down for violating terms and policies.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Incumbent President Tsai Ing-wen's re-election chances were dealt a blow after the Democratic Progressive Party's devastating defeat in the 2018 local elections, where the DPP lost seven of the 13 cities and counties it previously held. The DPP’s share of the vote also fell from 56 to 39 per cent since the 2016 presidential election. Tsai resigned as the party chairwoman after the defeat. However, Tsai kept trailing behind in the polls as the surveys found most Taiwanese would not support Tsai in the 2020 election but would support Premier William Lai, who also resigned from the premiership for the electoral defeat in January 2019.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: On 19 February 2019, Tsai Ing-wen told CNN in an interview she will run for re-election, despite facing calls from senior members of her own party to not seek re-election. Before her announcement, Tsai had received a bump in the polls after she gave a robust speech saying that her people would never relinquish their democratic freedoms, as a response to the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping's speech in January describing Taiwan's unification with the mainland as "inevitable".


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: On 18 March, William Lai registered to run in the party's presidential primary, saying that he could shoulder the responsibility of leading Taiwan in defending itself from being annexed by China. This is the first time in history where a serious primary challenge has been mounted against a sitting president.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Tsai was duly nominated by the DPP on 19 June 2019. She and William Lai formed the DPP presidential ticket on 17 November 2019.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Former Kuomintang chairman and 2016 presidential candidate Eric Chu announced that he would run in the 2020 presidential race when he stepped down on 25 December 2018 as Mayor of New Taipei City, becoming the first big-name politician to throw his hat in the ring. Former President of the Legislative Yuan Wang Jin-pyng also announced his presidential bid on 7 March. Other candidates included former Deputy Secretary-General of the Presidential Office and incumbent Taipei City Councillor Lo Chih-chiang and National Taiwan University professor Chang Ya-chung who have also announced their candidacies.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: The party has decided to hold its primary based on a 70-30 weighing of public polls and party member votes, although it has not ruled out the possibility of drafting the strongest candidate in an all-out effort to win back power, which was seen to be reserved for the party's best performing candidate in the polls, Mayor of Kaohsiung Han Kuo-yu. Several KMT heavyweights such as party chairman Wu Den-yih and even former President Ma Ying-jeou were believed to also be interested in running for the party's presidential nomination. Wu Den-yih’s withdrew his proposal to only allow KMT members to decide the party’s presidential candidate which drew criticism, with some questioning whether he aimed to rig the game for himself, before he declined to run on 11 April.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: On 17 April, founder and chairman of Foxconn Terry Gou announced his presidential bid by joining the KMT presidential primary. He also stated that he would not accept to be drafted to run. Han, Gou's potential rival, announced on 23 April that he was "willing to take responsibility" for the development of Taiwan but was "unable" to participate in the party's primary in its current form. He expressed his disapproval of the "closed-door negotiations" within the party and called for reform. In order to settle the demand from Han's supporters, the party adopted a resolution to put in place special guidelines to include all its presidential hopefuls, including Han, in its primary on the next day, and also switch the primary method from 70-30 weighing of public polls and party member votes to fully being determined by public polls.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: On 15 July, Han Kuo-yu was announced to have won the party's poll in a press conference by KMT Vice Chairman Tseng Yung-chuan. On 11 November, independent Chang San-cheng joined Kuomintang presidential ticket as the vice presidential candidate. Kuomintang ticket completed registration for the election on 18 November 2019.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: On 13 November 2019, People First Party chairperson James Soong announced his fourth bid for president, along with his running mate, independent and former United Communications Group chairwoman Sandra Yu.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: A single television debate was held on 29 December 2019 at 2 PM local time. Most of the themes discussed had already been elaborated upon by the candidates during the policy presentations in the weeks immediately prior to the debate. As usual, Cross-Strait relations was a focal point of conversation; the candidates also touched upon military spending, nuclear energy, labour relations, and special interests. Tsai reiterated her commitment to the cross-strait status quo, without "unnecessary provocations" or changes in policy. Han said he would protect the "sovereignty of the Republic of China". James Soong said that Taiwan has inherited Chinese culture and tradition but insists that any changes to the island's political status needed to be achieved via "democratic means."


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Han used the debate to paint Tsai variously as being at the mercy of the "New Tide" ultra-progressive wing of her own party, a dictatorial and autocratic figure as president, a leader unable to effectively control her allegedly corrupt subordinates, and a flip-flopper on the issue of cross-strait relations. Tsai said that Han did not have concrete policies of his own and focused undue attention on attacks against her. Tsai acknowledged the DPP's poor performance in the local elections of 2018 but reiterated her position that she was the best candidate to protect against perceived encroachment of sovereignty from the PRC; she repeatedly invoked One Country, Two Systems, suggesting that Han would accede to China's position on the issue, and in her closing remarks said "do not let Taiwan be the next Hong Kong". Tsai and Han each accused the other of using internet trolls, so-called "cyber armies", to smear the other. While Tsai attacked Han for being prejudiced towards marginalized groups, Han tried to brand Tsai as an out-of-touch elitist and himself an everyman who will happily go "have street food" with the common folk as president. James Soong attempted to strike a middle ground, repeating his support for the status quo in cross-strait relations, calling for mutual understanding with the mainland, and denying his own family's connections to mainland business interests.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: The debate was noted for some bizarre exchanges involving Han Kuo-yu, who became especially animated on multiple occasions, raising his voice and using wild hand gestures, most notably yelling the phrase “Long live the Republic of China!” three times, in addition to employing props to complement his attacks on Tsai. In response to questions from "Apple Daily" on the relationship between Han and a woman he allegedly had an extramarital affair with, Han called the outlet a "tabloid without the slightest standards," and responded "why don't you also ask how many girlfriends I had in college [...] and when I lost my virginity?" Han used a cross-examination segment to ask the other candidates whether they believed in God, asserted his own Buddhist faith, and said "we will all face judgment one day", without meaningful follow-up. Notably, Han also criticized former KMT president Ma Ying-jeou, saying he was "too soft".


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: Incumbent President Tsai Ing-wen won the 2020 Taiwanese presidential election with her Democratic Progressive Party and was re-elected to a second term with a historic record of 8.17 million votes (57.1 per cent), the highest vote share won by a DPP candidate. Rival candidate Han Kuo-yu of the Kuomintang (KMT) was the runner up with 5.52 million votes (38.6 per cent). Despite defeat, the KMT saw a recovery in vote share from 2016, noticeably in traditionally KMT-leaning areas including Hsinchu County, Miaoli, Nantou, Hualien, and Taitung. People First Party's candidate James Soong came third and received 600,000 votes (4.26 per cent). Turnout for the election was 74.9%, the highest among nationwide elections since 2008.


title: 2020 Taiwanese presidential election

text: At an election rally after the results were announced, Tsai stated, "Democratic Taiwan and our democratically elected government will not concede to threats and intimidation. The results of this election have made that answer crystal clear."


title: Laser cutting

text: Laser cutting is a technology that uses a laser to vaporize materials, resulting in a cut edge. While typically used for industrial manufacturing applications, it is now used by schools, small businesses, architecture, and hobbyists. Laser cutting works by directing the output of a high-power laser most commonly through optics. The laser optics and CNC (computer numerical control) is used to direct the laser beam to the material. A commercial laser for cutting materials uses a motion control system to follow a CNC or G-code of the pattern to be cut onto the material. The focused laser beam is directed at the material, which then either melts, burns, vaporizes away, or is blown away by a jet of gas, leaving an edge with a high-quality surface finish.


title: Laser cutting

text: In 1965, the first production laser cutting machine was used to drill holes in diamond dies. This machine was made by the Western Electric Engineering Research Center. In 1967, the British pioneered laser-assisted oxygen jet cutting for metals. In the early 1970s, this technology was put into production to cut titanium for aerospace applications. At the same time CO lasers were adapted to cut non-metals, such as textiles, because, at the time, CO lasers were not powerful enough to overcome the thermal conductivity of metals.


title: Laser cutting

text: The laser beam is generally focused using a high-quality lens on the work zone. The quality of the beam has a direct impact on the focused spot size. The narrowest part of the focused beam is generally less than in diameter. Depending upon material thickness, kerf widths as small as are possible. In order to be able to start cutting from somewhere other than the edge, a pierce is done before every cut. Piercing usually involves a high-power pulsed laser beam which slowly makes a hole in the material, taking around 5–15 seconds for stainless steel, for example.


title: Laser cutting

text: The parallel rays of coherent light from the laser source often fall in the range between in diameter. This beam is normally focused and intensified by a lens or a mirror to a very small spot of about to create a very intense laser beam. In order to achieve the smoothest possible finish during contour cutting, the direction of beam polarization must be rotated as it goes around the periphery of a contoured workpiece. For sheet metal cutting, the focal length is usually .


title: Laser cutting

text: Advantages of laser cutting over mechanical cutting include easier workholding and reduced contamination of workpiece (since there is no cutting edge which can become contaminated by the material or contaminate the material). Precision may be better, since the laser beam does not wear during the process. There is also a reduced chance of warping the material that is being cut, as laser systems have a small heat-affected zone. Some materials are also very difficult or impossible to cut by more traditional means.


title: Laser cutting

text: Laser cutting for metals has the advantages over plasma cutting of being more precise and using less energy when cutting sheet metal; however, most industrial lasers cannot cut through the greater metal thickness that plasma can. Newer laser machines operating at higher power (6000 watts, as contrasted with early laser cutting machines' 1500 watt ratings) are approaching plasma machines in their ability to cut through thick materials, but the capital cost of such machines is much higher than that of plasma cutting machines capable of cutting thick materials like steel plate.


title: Laser cutting

text: There are three main types of lasers used in laser cutting. The laser is suited for cutting, boring, and engraving. The neodymium (Nd) and neodymium yttrium-aluminium-garnet () lasers are identical in style and differ only in application. Nd is used for boring and where high energy but low repetition are required. The Nd:YAG laser is used where very high power is needed and for boring and engraving. Both and Nd/Nd:YAG lasers can be used for welding.


title: Laser cutting

text: In addition to the power source, the type of gas flow can affect performance as well. Common variants of lasers include fast axial flow, slow axial flow, transverse flow, and slab. In a fast axial flow resonator, the mixture of carbon dioxide, helium and nitrogen is circulated at high velocity by a turbine or blower. Transverse flow lasers circulate the gas mix at a lower velocity, requiring a simpler blower. Slab or diffusion cooled resonators have a static gas field that requires no pressurization or glassware, leading to savings on replacement turbines and glassware.


title: Laser cutting

text: The laser generator and external optics (including the focus lens) require cooling. Depending on system size and configuration, waste heat may be transferred by a coolant or directly to air. Water is a commonly used coolant, usually circulated through a chiller or heat transfer system.


title: Laser cutting

text: A "laser microjet" is a water-jet guided laser in which a pulsed laser beam is coupled into a low-pressure water jet. This is used to perform laser cutting functions while using the water jet to guide the laser beam, much like an optical fiber, through total internal reflection. The advantages of this are that the water also removes debris and cools the material. Additional advantages over traditional "dry" laser cutting are high dicing speeds, parallel kerf, and omnidirectional cutting.


title: Laser cutting

text: Fiber lasers are a type of solid state laser that is rapidly growing within the metal cutting industry. Unlike CO, Fiber technology utilizes a solid gain medium, as opposed to a gas or liquid. The “seed laser” produces the laser beam and is then amplified within a glass fiber. With a wavelength of only 1064 nanometers fiber lasers produce an extremely small spot size (up to 100 times smaller compared to the CO) making it ideal for cutting reflective metal material. This is one of the main advantages of Fiber compared to CO.


title: Laser cutting

text: There are many different methods in cutting using lasers, with different types used to cut different material. Some of the methods are vaporization, melt and blow, melt blow and burn, thermal stress cracking, scribing, cold cutting and burning stabilized laser cutting.


title: Laser cutting

text: In vaporization cutting the focused beam heats the surface of the material to flashpoint point and generates a keyhole. The keyhole leads to a sudden increase in absorptivity quickly deepening the hole. As the hole deepens and the material boils, vapor generated erodes the molten walls blowing eject out and further enlarging the hole. Non melting material such as wood, carbon and thermoset plastics are usually cut by this method.


title: Laser cutting

text: Melt and blow or fusion cutting uses high-pressure gas to blow molten material from the cutting area, greatly decreasing the power requirement. First the material is heated to melting point then a gas jet blows the molten material out of the kerf avoiding the need to raise the temperature of the material any further. Materials cut with this process are usually metals.


title: Laser cutting

text: Brittle materials are particularly sensitive to thermal fracture, a feature exploited in thermal stress cracking. A beam is focused on the surface causing localized heating and thermal expansion. This results in a crack that can then be guided by moving the beam. The crack can be moved in order of m/s. It is usually used in cutting of glass.


title: Laser cutting

text: The separation of microelectronic chips as prepared in semiconductor device fabrication from silicon wafers may be performed by the so-called stealth dicing process, which operates with a pulsed , the wavelength of which (1064 nm) is well adapted to the electronic band gap of silicon (1.11 eV or 1117 nm).


title: Laser cutting

text: Also called "burning stabilized laser gas cutting", "flame cutting". Reactive cutting is like oxygen torch cutting but with a laser beam as the ignition source. Mostly used for cutting carbon steel in thicknesses over 1 mm. This process can be used to cut very thick steel plates with relatively little laser power.


title: Laser cutting

text: Standard roughness Rz increases with the sheet thickness, but decreases with laser power and cutting speed. When cutting low carbon steel with laser power of 800 W, standard roughness Rz is 10 μm for sheet thickness of 1 mm, 20 μm for 3 mm, and 25 μm for 6 mm.


title: Laser cutting

text: Where: formula_2 steel sheet thickness in mm; formula_3 laser power in kW (some new laser cutters have laser power of 4 kW); formula_4 cutting speed in meters per minute.


title: Laser cutting

text: This process is capable of holding quite close tolerances, often to within 0.001 inch (0.025 mm). Part geometry and the mechanical soundness of the machine have much to do with tolerance capabilities. The typical surface finish resulting from laser beam cutting may range from 125 to 250 micro-inches (0.003 mm to 0.006 mm).


title: Laser cutting

text: There are generally three different configurations of industrial laser cutting machines: moving material, hybrid, and flying optics systems. These refer to the way that the laser beam is moved over the material to be cut or processed. For all of these, the axes of motion are typically designated X and Y axis. If the cutting head may be controlled, it is designated as the Z-axis.


title: Laser cutting

text: Moving material lasers have a stationary cutting head and move the material under it. This method provides a constant distance from the laser generator to the workpiece and a single point from which to remove cutting effluent. It requires fewer optics, but requires moving the workpiece. This style machine tends to have the fewest beam delivery optics, but also tends to be the slowest.


title: Laser cutting

text: Hybrid lasers provide a table which moves in one axis (usually the X-axis) and move the head along the shorter (Y) axis. This results in a more constant beam delivery path length than a flying optic machine and may permit a simpler beam delivery system. This can result in reduced power loss in the delivery system and more capacity per watt than flying optics machines.


title: Laser cutting

text: Flying optics lasers feature a stationary table and a cutting head (with laser beam) that moves over the workpiece in both of the horizontal dimensions. Flying optics cutters keep the workpiece stationary during processing and often do not require material clamping. The moving mass is constant, so dynamics are not affected by varying size of the workpiece. Flying optics machines are the fastest type, which is advantageous when cutting thinner workpieces.


title: Laser cutting

text: Flying optic machines must use some method to take into account the changing beam length from near field (close to resonator) cutting to far field (far away from resonator) cutting. Common methods for controlling this include collimation, adaptive optics or the use of a constant beam length axis.


title: Laser cutting

text: Five and six-axis machines also permit cutting formed workpieces. In addition, there are various methods of orienting the laser beam to a shaped workpiece, maintaining a proper focus distance and nozzle standoff, etc.


title: Laser cutting

text: Pulsed lasers which provide a high-power burst of energy for a short period are very effective in some laser cutting processes, particularly for piercing, or when very small holes or very low cutting speeds are required, since if a constant laser beam were used, the heat could reach the point of melting the whole piece being cut.


title: Laser cutting

text: Most industrial lasers have the ability to pulse or cut CW (continuous wave) under NC (numerical control) program control.


title: Laser cutting

text: Double pulse lasers use a series of pulse pairs to improve material removal rate and hole quality. Essentially, the first pulse removes material from the surface and the second prevents the ejecta from adhering to the side of the hole or cut.


title: Laser cutting

text: The main disadvantage of laser cutting is the high power consumption. Industrial laser efficiency may range from 5% to 45%. The power consumption and efficiency of any particular laser will vary depending on output power and operating parameters. This will depend on type of laser and how well the laser is matched to the work at hand. The amount of laser cutting power required, known as "heat input", for a particular job depends on the material type, thickness, process (reactive/inert) used, and desired cutting rate.


title: Laser cutting

text: The maximum cutting rate (production rate) is limited by a number of factors including laser power, material thickness, process type (reactive or inert), and material properties. Common industrial systems (≥1 kW) will cut carbon steel metal from in thickness. For many purposes, a laser can be up to thirty times faster than standard sawing.


title: Hyperspace

text: In science fiction, hyperspace (also known as nulspace, subspace, overspace, jumpspace and similar terms) is a concept relating to higher dimensions as well as parallel universes and a faster-than-light (FTL) method of interstellar travel. Its use in science fiction originated in the magazine "Amazing Stories Quarterly" in 1931 and within several decades it became one of the most popular tropes of science fiction, popularized by its use in the works of authors such as Isaac Asimov and E. C. Tubb, and media franchises such as "Star Wars".


title: Hyperspace

text: One of the main reasons for the popularity of the concept is the prohibition against faster-than-light travel in ordinary space, which hyperspace allows writers to bypass. In most works, hyperspace is described as a higher dimension through which the shape of our three-dimensional space can be distorted to bring distant points close to each other, similar to the concept of a wormhole; or a shortcut-enabling parallel universe that can be travelled through. Usually it can be traversed – the process often known as "jumping" – through a gadget known as a "hyperdrive"; rubber science is sometimes used to explain it. Many works rely on hyperspace as a convenient background tool enabling FTL travel necessary for the plot, with a small minority making it a central element in their storytelling. While most often used in the context of interstellar travel, a minority of works focus on other plot points, such as the inhabitants of hyperspace, hyperspace as an energy source, or even hyperspace as the afterlife.


title: Hyperspace

text: The basic premise of hyperspace is that vast distances through space can be traversed quickly by taking a kind of shortcut. There are two common models used to explain this shortcut: folding and mapping. In the folding model, hyperspace is a place of higher dimension through which the shape of our three-dimensional space can be distorted to bring distant points close to each other; a common analogy popularized by Robert A. Heinlein's "Starman Jones" (1953) is that of crumpling two-dimensional paper or cloth in the third dimension, thus bringing points on its surface into contact. In the mapping model, hyperspace is a parallel universe much smaller than ours (but not necessarily the same shape), which can be entered at a point corresponding to one location in ordinary space and exited at a different point corresponding to another location after travelling a much shorter distance than would be necessary in ordinary space. "The Science in Science Fiction" compares it to being able to step onto a world map at one's current location, walking across the map to a different continent, and then stepping off the map to find oneself at the new location—noting that the hyperspace "map" could have a significantly more complicated shape, as in Bob Shaw's "Night Walk" (1967).


title: Hyperspace

text: Hyperspace is generally seen as a fictional concept, incompatible with our present-day understanding of the universe (in particular, the theory of relativity). Some science fiction writers attempted quasi-scientific rubber science explanations of this concept. For others, however, it is just a convenient MacGuffin enabling faster-than-light travel necessary for their story without violating the prohibitions against FTL travel in ordinary space imposed by known laws of physics.


title: Hyperspace

text: The term "hyperspace" originated in 19th-century mathematical texts in the context of higher-dimensional space, and it is still occasionally used in academic works in that context, popularized among others by theoretical physicist Michio Kaku's popular science book "Hyperspace" (1994)."" The means of accessing hyperspace is often called a "hyperdrive", and navigating hyperspace is typically referred to as "jumping" (as in "the ship will now jump through hyperspace").


title: Hyperspace

text: A number of related terms (such as imaginary space, Jarnell intersplit, jumpspace, megaflow, N-Space, nulspace, slipstream, overspace, Q-space, subspace, and tau-space) have been used by various writers, although none have gained recognition to rival that of hyperspace. Some works use multiple synonyms; for example, in the "Star Trek" franchise, the term hyperspace itself is only used briefly in a single 1988 episode ("") of "", while a related set of terms – such as subspace, transwarp, and proto-warp – are employed much more often, and most of the travel takes place through the use of a warp drive. Hyperspace travel has also been discussed in the context of wormholes and teleportation, which some writers consider to be similar whereas others view them as separate concepts.


title: Hyperspace

text: Emerging in the early 20th century, within several decades hyperspace became a common element of interstellar space travel stories in science fiction. Kirk Meadowcroft's "The Invisible Bubble" (1928) and John Campbell's "Islands of Space" (1931) feature the earliest known references to hyperspace, with Campbell, whose story was published in the science fiction magazine "Amazing Stories Quarterly", likely being the first writer to use this term in the context of space travel. According to the Historical Dictionary of Science Fiction, the earliest known use of the word "hyper-drive" comes from a preview of Murray Leinster's story "The Manless Worlds" in "Thrilling Wonder Stories" 1946.


title: Hyperspace

text: Another early work featuring hyperspace was Nelson Bond's "The Scientific Pioneer Returns" (1940). Isaac Asimov's "Foundation" series, first published in "Astounding" starting in 1942, featured a Galactic Empire traversed through hyperspace through the use of a "hyperatomic drive". In "Foundation" (1951), hyperspace is described as an "...unimaginable region that was neither space nor time, matter nor energy, something nor nothing, one could traverse the length of the Galaxy in the interval between two neighboring instants of time." E. C. Tubb has been credited with playing an important role in the development of hyperspace lore; writing a number of space operas in the early 1950s in which space travel occurs through that medium. He was also one of the first writers to treat hyperspace as a central part of the plot rather than a convenient background gadget that just enables the faster-than-light space travel.


title: Hyperspace

text: In 1963, Philip Harbottle called the concept of hyperspace "a fixture" of the science fiction genre, and in 1977 Brian Ash wrote in "The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" that it had become the most popular of all faster-than-light methods of travel. The concept would subsequently be further popularized through its use in the "Star Wars" franchise.


title: Hyperspace

text: In the 1974 film "Dark Star", special effects designer Dan O'Bannon created a visual effect to depict going into hyperspace wherein the stars in space appear to move rapidly toward the camera. This is considered to be the first depiction in cinema history of a ship making the jump into hyperspace. The same effect was later employed in "Star Wars" (1977) and the "star streaks" are considered one of the visual "staples" of the "Star Wars" franchise.


title: Hyperspace

text: Hyperspace is typically described as chaotic and confusing to human senses; often at least unpleasant – transitions to or from hyperspace can cause symptoms such as [[nausea]], for example – and in some cases even [[hypnotic]] or dangerous to one's sanity. Visually, hyperspace is often left to the reader's imagination, or depicted as "a swirling gray mist". In some works, it is dark. Exceptions exist; for example, [[John Russell Fearn|John Russel Fearn]]'s "Waters of Eternity" (1953) features hyperspace that allows observation of regular space from within.


title: Hyperspace

text: Many stories feature hyperspace as a dangerous, treacherous place where straying from a preset course can be disastrous. In [[Frederick Pohl]]'s "[[The Mapmakers (novel)|The Mapmakers]]" (1955), navigational errors and the perils of hyperspace are one of the main plot-driving elements, and in [[John Brunner (novelist)|K. Houston Brunner]]'s "[[Fiery Pillar]]" (1955), a ship re-emerges within Earth, causing a catastrophic explosion. In some works, travelling or navigating hyperspace requires not only specialized equipment, but physical or psychological modifications of passengers or at least navigators, as seen in [[Frank Herbert]]'s "[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]" (1965), [[Michael Moorcock]]'s "[[The Sundered Worlds]]" (1966), [[Vonda N. McIntyre|Vonda McIntyre]]'s "[[Aztecs (novel)|Aztecs]]" (1977), and [[David Brin]]'s "[[The Warm Space]]" (1985).


title: Hyperspace

text: While generally associated with science fiction, hyperspace-like concepts exist in some works of [[fantasy]], particularly ones which involve movement between different worlds or dimensions. Such travel, usually done through portals rather than vehicles, is usually explained through the existence of [[Magic (supernatural)|magic]].


title: Hyperspace

text: While mainly designed as means of fast space travel, occasionally, some writers used the hyperspace concept in more imaginative ways, or as a central element of the story. In [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s "[[Technical Error]]" (1950), a man is laterally reversed by a brief accidental encounter with "hyperspace". In Robert A. Heinlein's "[[Glory Road]]" (1963) and [[Robert Silverberg]]'s "[[Nightwings (novella)|Nightwings]]" (1968), it is used for storage. In [[George R. R. Martin|George R.R. Martin's]] "[[FTA (novel)|FTA]]" (1974) hyperspace travel takes longer than in regular space, and in [[John E. Stith]]'s "[[Redshift Rendezvous]]" (1990), the twist is that the relativistic effects within it appear at lower velocities. Hyperspace is generally unpopulated, save for the space-faring travellers. Early exceptions include Tubb's "[[Dynasty of Doom]]" (1953), Fearn's "[[Waters of Eternity]]" (1953) and [[Christopher Grimm]]'s "[[Someone to Watch Over Me (novel)|Someone to Watch Over Me]]" (1959), which feature denizens of hyperspace. In "[[The Mystery of Element 117]]" (1949) by [[Milton Smith (author)|Milton Smith]], a window is opened into a new "hyperplane of hyperspace" containing those who have already died on Earth, and similarly, in [[Bob Shaw]]'s "[[The Palace of Eternity]]" (1969), hyperspace is a form of [[afterlife]], where human minds and memories reside after death. In some works, hyperspace is a source of extremely dangerous energy, threatening to destroy the entire world if mishandled (for instance [[Eando Binder]]'s "[[The Time Contractor]]" from 1937 or [[Alfred Bester]]'s "[[The Push of a Finger]]" from 1942). The concept of hyperspace travel, or space folding, can be used outside space travel as well, for example in [[Stephen King]]'s short story "[[Mrs. Todd's Shortcut]]" it is a means for an elderly lady to take a shortcut while travelling between two cities.


title: Hyperspace

text: In many stories, a starship cannot enter or leave hyperspace too close to a large concentration of mass, such as a planet or [[star]]; this means that hyperspace can only be used after a starship gets to the outside [[Planetary system|edge of a solar system]], so that it must use [[Spacecraft propulsion|other means of propulsion]] to get to and from planets. Other stories require a very large expenditure of energy in order to open a link (sometimes called a "jump point") between hyperspace and regular space; this effectively limits access to hyperspace to very large starships, or to large stationary "jump gates" that can open jump points for smaller vessels. Examples include the "jump" technology in "[[Babylon 5]]" and the star gate in Arthur C. Clarke's "[[2001: A Space Odyssey]]" (1968). Just like with the very concept of hyperspace, the reasons given for such restrictions are usually [[technobabble]], but their existence can be an important [[plot device]]. Science fiction author [[Larry Niven]] published his opinions to that effect in "[[N-Space (short story collection)|N-Space]]". According to him, an unrestricted FTL technology would give no limits to what heroes and villains could do. Limiting the places a ship can appear in, or making them more predictable, means that they will meet each other most often around contested planets or space stations, allowing for narratively satisfying battles or other encounters. On the other hand, a less restricted hyperdrive may also allow for dramatic escapes as the pilot "jumps" to hyperspace in the midst of battle to avoid destruction. In 1999 science fiction author [[James P. Hogan (writer)|James P. Hogan]] wrote that hyperspace is often treated as a plot-enabling gadget rather than as a fascinating, world-changing item, and that there are next to no works that discuss how hyperspace has been discovered and how such discovery subsequently changed the world.


title: Crooner

text: Crooner is a term used to describe primarily male singers who performed using a smooth style made possible by better microphones which picked up quieter sounds and a wider range of frequencies, allowing the singer to access a more dynamic range and perform in a more intimate manner. It is derived from the old verb "to croon" (meaning "to speak or sing softly"). This suggestion of intimacy was supposedly wildly attractive to women, especially younger ones such as teenage girls, known at the time as "bobby soxers". The crooning style developed out of singers who performed with big bands, and reached its height in the 1940s to late 60s.


title: Crooner

text: Crooning is epitomised by jazz vocalists like Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra, although Sinatra once said that he did not consider himself or Crosby to be "crooners". Other performers, such as Russ Columbo, also rejected the term.


title: Crooner

text: This dominant popular vocal style coincided with the advent of radio broadcasting and electrical recording. Before the advent of the microphone, popular singers like Al Jolson had to project to the rear seats of a theater, as did opera singers, which made for a very loud vocal style. The microphone made possible the more personal style. Al Bowlly, Gene Austin, Art Gillham and, by some historical accounts, Vaughn De Leath are often credited as inventors of the crooning style, but Rudy Vallée achieved more widespread popularity, beginning in 1928; he could be heard by anyone with a phonograph or a radio.


title: Crooner

text: His first film, "The Vagabond Lover", was promoted with the line, "Men Hate Him! Women Love Him!" while his success brought press warnings of the "Vallee Peril": this "punk from Maine" with the "dripping voice" required mounted police to "beat back crowds of screaming and swooning females" at his vaudeville shows.


title: Crooner

text: By the early 1930s, the term "crooner" had taken on a pejorative connotation. Cardinal William O'Connell of Boston and the New York Singing Teachers Association (NYSTA) both publicly denounced the vocal form, O'Connell calling it "base", "degenerate", "defiling" and un-American, with the NYSTA adding "corrupt". Even "The New York Times" predicted that crooning would be just a passing fad. The newspaper wrote, "They sing like that because they can't help it. Their style is begging to go out of fashion…. Crooners will soon go the way of tandem bicycles, mah jongg and midget golf." Voice range shifted from tenor (Vallée) to baritone (Russ Columbo, Bing Crosby). Still, a 1931 record by Dick Robertson, "Crosby, Columbo & Vallee", called upon men to fight "these public enemies" brought into homes via radio.


title: Crooner

text: Some female singers, such as Vaughn De Leath, Annette Hanshaw, Mildred Bailey (at the beginning of her career), Harriet Lee, and Helen Rowland have been cited in the category of crooners.


title: Crooner

text: Due to the country songs popularized by Bing Crosby, the crooning style of singing became an enduring part of country music. Crosby achieved a million seller with his 1940 rendition of the song "San Antonio Rose", originally recorded by Bob Wills & His Texas Playboys. In 1942, Perry Como had a smash hit with "Deep in the Heart of Texas"; Crosby, who had an enormous influence on Como, covered this song and took it to the number 3 position in the US chart that same year. Eddy Arnold, Jim Reeves and Ray Price are especially well known for their country crooner standards.


title: Crooner

text: Dean Martin is associated with the country music he recorded in the period when he was working for Reprise Records, whilst his fellow Italian-American crooner Como recorded several albums with country producer Chet Atkins in Nashville. Regular, non-country crooners also scored hits with pop versions of country songs: Tony Bennett had a "Billboard" number 1 hit in 1951 with his rendition of Hank Williams' "Cold, Cold Heart"; Como had a number 1 hit in 1953 with his version of "Don't Let the Stars Get in Your Eyes", a chart-topping country hit for its author Slim Willet and a number 4 country hit for Ray Price; Guy Mitchell scored a number 1 in 1959 with "Heartaches by the Number", a country hit for Ray Price; and Britain's Engelbert Humperdinck achieved a 1967 UK number 1 hit with "Release Me", another song already made famous by Price in 1954. In 1970, Price had a number 1 US country hit and a number 11 Hot 100 hit with the song "For the Good Times", written by Kris Kristofferson; subsequently, Como's rendition reached number 7 in 1973 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Gammon (meat)

text: Gammon is the hind leg of pork after it has been cured by dry-salting or brining, which may or may not be smoked. Strictly speaking, a gammon is the bottom end of a whole side of bacon (which "includes" the back leg), ham is just the back leg cured on its own. Like bacon, it must be cooked before it can be eaten; in that sense gammon is comparable to fresh pork meat, and different from dry-cured ham like prosciutto. The term is mostly used in the United Kingdom and Ireland, while other dialects of English largely make no distinction between gammon and ham.


title: Gammon (meat)

text: Ham hock, gammon hock, or knuckle, is the back end of the joint, and contains more connective tissue and sinew.


title: Gammon (meat)

text: In the United Kingdom and Ireland, joints of cooked gammon are often served at Christmas. It can be found in most supermarkets either as a full joint or sliced into steaks, which can then be cooked via pan frying in a manner similar to bacon.


title: Gammon (meat)

text: The word 'gammon' is derived from the Middle English word for 'ham', "gambon", which is attested since the early 15th century and derived from Old North French "gambon", itself derived from Old French "jambon", which is identical to the modern French word for 'ham'. Old French "jambon" is attested since the 13th century and is derived from Old French "jambe" ("gambe" in Old North French) which in turn is derived from the Late Latin "gamba", meaning 'leg/hock of a horse/animal', which can ultimately be traced to Greek "kampe" meaning 'a bending/a joint', which is from Proto-Indo-European *kamp- (“to bend; crooked”). In some English dialects a similarly derived 'gambol' refers to a 'leg'.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: USAir Flight 427 was a scheduled flight from Chicago's O'Hare International Airport to Palm Beach International Airport, Florida, with a stopover at Pittsburgh International Airport. On Thursday, September 8, 1994, the Boeing 737 flying this route crashed in Hopewell Township, Pennsylvania while approaching Runway 28R at Pittsburgh, which was at the time USAir's largest hub.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: After the longest investigation in the history of the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), it was determined that the probable cause was that the aircraft's rudder malfunctioned and went hard over in a direction opposite to that commanded by the pilots, causing the plane to enter an aerodynamic stall from which the pilots were unable to recover. All 132 people on board were killed, making the crash the deadliest air disaster in Pennsylvania's history.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: The aircraft involved was a Boeing 737-3B7, registration N513AU, and previously registered as N382AU. The aircraft was delivered in 1987 and was powered by two


title: USAir Flight 427

text: CFM56-3B2 engines. The aircraft had recorded approximately 18,800 hours of flight time before the crash.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: The flight crew consisted of Captain Peter Germano, 45, who was hired by USAir in February 1981, and First Officer Charles B. "Chuck" Emmett III, 38, who was hired in February 1987 by Piedmont Airlines (which merged into USAir in 1989). Both were regarded as excellent pilots and were very experienced: Germano logged approximately 12,000 flight hours, including 4,064 on the Boeing 737, while Emmett logged 9,000 flight hours, 3,644 on the 737. Flight attendants Stanley Canty and April Slater were hired in 1989 by Piedmont Airlines. Flight attendant Sarah Slocum-Hamley was hired in October 1988 by USAir (now USAirways).


title: USAir Flight 427

text: In its arrival phase approaching Pittsburgh, Flight 427 was sequenced behind Delta Air Lines Flight 1083, a Boeing 727-200. At no time was Flight 427 closer than to Delta 1083, according to radar data. Flight 427 was on approach at altitude, at flaps 1 configuration, and at approximately .


title: USAir Flight 427

text: At 19:02:57, the aircraft entered the wake turbulence of Delta 1083, and three sudden thumps, clicking sounds and a louder thump occurred, after which the 737 began to bank and roll to the left. The autopilot disconnected, and First Officer Emmett stomped on the rudder pedal, and held it there for the remainder of the flight, unaware that the rudder reversed hard to the left. As the aircraft's heading and bank angle slewed dramatically to the left, Emmett and Germano both rolled their yokes to the right and pulled back on the elevators to counter the gradually decreasing pitch angle, as the airplane entered an aerodynamic stall, because of the wing's already high angle of attack.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: As the stick shaker activated, Germano exclaimed "Hold on!" numerous times, while Emmett, under physical exertion, said, "Oh shit!" Germano exclaimed, "What the hell is this?" As air traffic control noticed Flight 427 descending without permission, Germano keyed the mic and stated, "Four-twenty-seven, emergency!" Because the mic remained keyed for the rest of the incident, the ensuing exclamations in the cockpit were heard in the tower at Pittsburgh. The aircraft continued to roll while pitched nose-down at the ground. Trying to counteract sharply rising G-forces, Germano yelled "Pull!" three consecutive times before screaming, during which Emmett stated "God, no" seconds before impact. Pitched 80° nose-down and banked 60° left while traveling at approximately , the 737 slammed into the ground and exploded at 19:03:25 in Hopewell Township, Beaver County, near Aliquippa, approximately 28 seconds after entering the wake turbulence.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: The National Transportation Safety Board investigated the crash. All 127 passengers and five crew members were killed. For the first time in NTSB history, investigators were required to wear full-body biohazard suits while inspecting the accident site. As a result of the severity of the crash impact, the bodies of the passengers and crew were severely fragmented, leading investigators to declare the site a biohazard, requiring 2,000 body bags for the 6,000 recovered human remains. USAir had difficulty determining Flight 427's passenger list, facing confusion regarding five or six passengers. Several employees of the U.S. Department of Energy had tickets to take later flights, but used them to fly on Flight 427. One young child was not ticketed. Among the victims of the crash was noted neuroethologist Walter Heiligenberg.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: Both the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) and flight data recorder (FDR) were recovered and used for the investigation. Because of the limited parameters recorded by the FDR, investigators did not have access to the position of the flight-control surfaces (rudder, ailerons, elevator, etc.) during the accident sequence. However, two parameters recorded were crucial: the aircraft's heading and the pitch-control yoke position. During the approach, Flight 427 encountered wake turbulence from Delta 1083, but the FAA determined "the wake vortex encounter alone would not have caused the continued heading change that occurred after 19:03:00." The abrupt heading change shortly before the dive pointed investigators immediately to the rudder. Without data relating to the rudder pedal positions, investigators attempted to determine whether the rudder moved hard over by a malfunction or by pilot command. The CVR was heavily scrutinized as investigators examined the pilots' words and their breathing to determine whether they were fighting for control over a rudder malfunction or had inadvertently stomped on the wrong rudder pedal in reaction to the wake turbulence. Boeing felt the latter more likely, while USAir and the pilots' union felt that the former was more likely. The FDR revealed that after the aircraft stalled, the plane and its occupants were subjected to a load as high as 4 "g" throughout the dive until impact with the ground in an 80-degree nose-down attitude at approximately 300 mph under significant sideslip.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: Reading the control-yoke data from the FDR revealed that the pilots made a crucial error by pulling back on the yoke throughout the dive, with the stick shaker audible on the CVR from the onset of the dive. This raised the aircraft's angle of attack, removed all aileron authority, prevented recovery from the roll induced by the rudder and caused an aerodynamic stall. Because the aircraft had entered a slip, pulling back on the yoke only further aggravated the bank angle. Boeing's test pilots reenacted the dive in a simulator and in a test 737-300 by flying with the same parameters recorded by the accident FDR, and found that recovery from a fully deflected rudder at level flight, while at 190-knot crossover speed, was accomplished by turning the wheel to the opposite direction of the roll, and not pulling back on the yoke to regain aileron authority. The FAA later remarked that the CVR proved that the pilots failed to utilize proper crew resource management during the upset while continuing to apply full up elevator after receiving a stall warning. The NTSB remarked that no airline had ever trained a pilot to properly recover from the situation experienced by the Flight 427 pilots and that the pilots had just 10 seconds from the onset of the roll to troubleshoot before recovery of the aircraft was impossible.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: Investigators later discovered that the recovered accident rudder power control unit was much more sensitive to bench tests than other new such units. The exact mechanism of the failure involved the servo valve, which remains dormant and cold for much of the flight at high altitude, seizing after being injected with hot hydraulic fluid that has been in continuous action throughout the plane. This specific condition occurred in fewer than 1% of the lab tests but explained the rudder malfunction that caused Flight 427 to crash. The jam left no trace of evidence after it occurred, and a Boeing engineer later found that a jam under this controlled condition could also lead to the slide moving in the opposite direction than that commanded. Boeing felt that the test results were unrealistic and inapplicable given the extremes under which the valve was tested. It stated that the cause of the rudder reversal was more likely psychological and likened the event to a circumstance in which an automobile driver panics during an accident and accidentally presses on the gas pedal rather than the brake pedal. The FAA's official position was that sufficient probable cause did not exist to substantiate the possibility of rudder system failure.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: After the longest accident investigation in NTSB history — lasting more than four and a half years — the NTSB released its final report on March 24, 1999. The NTSB concluded that the accident was the result of mechanical failure:


title: USAir Flight 427

text: The NTSB concluded that similar rudder problems had caused the previously mysterious March 3, 1991 crash of United Airlines Flight 585 and the June 9, 1996 incident involving Eastwind Airlines Flight 517, both Boeing 737s. The final report also included detailed responses to Boeing's arguments about the causes of the three accidents.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: At the time of the crash, Flight 427 was the second-deadliest accident involving a Boeing 737 (all series); as of 2020, it now ranks as the ninth deadliest. It was also the seventh-deadliest aviation disaster in the history of the United States, and the deadliest in the U.S. involving a 737; as of 2020, it ranks eleventh. The accident marked USAir's fifth crash in the period from 1989 to 1994. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania spent approximately $500,000 in recovery and cleanup for the accident site.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: The FAA disagreed with the NTSB's probable-cause verdict and Tom McSweeney, the FAA's director of aircraft certification, issued a statement on the same day on which the NTSB report was issued that read: "We believe, as much as we have studied this aircraft and this rudder system, that the actions we have taken assure a level of safety that is commensurate with any aircraft."


title: USAir Flight 427

text: However, the FAA changed its attitude after a special task force, the Engineering Test and Evaluation Board, reported in July 2000 that it had detected 46 potential failures and jams in the 737 rudder system that could have catastrophic effects. In September 2000, the FAA announced that it wanted Boeing to redesign the rudder for all iterations of the 737, affecting more than 3,400 aircraft in the U.S. alone.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: USAir submitted to the NTSB that pilots should receive training with regard to a plane's crossover speed and recovery from full rudder deflection. As a result, pilots were warned of and trained how to deal with insufficient aileron authority at an airspeed at or less than , formerly the usual approach speed for a Boeing 737. Boeing maintained that the most likely cause of the crash was that the co-pilot inadvertently deflected the rudder hard over in the wrong direction while in a panic and for unknown reasons maintained this input until impact with the ground. Boeing agreed to redesign the rudder control system with a redundant backup and paid to retrofit the entire worldwide 737 fleet. Following one of the NTSB's main recommendations, airlines were required to add four additional channels of information into flight data recorders in order to capture pilot rudder pedal commands, and the FAA set a deadline of August 2001 for airlines to comply. In 2016, former investigator John Cox stated that time has proven the NTSB correct in its findings because no additional rudder-reversal incidents have occurred since Boeing's redesign.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: Following the airline's response to the Flight 427 accident, the United States Congress required airlines to deal more sensitively with the families of crash victims. USAir ceased using Flight 427 as a flight number. The crash was the second fatal USAir crash in just over two months, following the July 2 Flight 1016 accident at Charlotte-Douglas International Airport that killed 37. The crashes contributed to the financial crisis that USAir was experiencing at the time.


title: USAir Flight 427

text: The crash site itself, located near the Aliquippa exit of I-376, is located on private property. The road that is needed to access the site is only accessible to 427 Support League and Pine Creek Land Trust members. Three tombstones are located at the Sewickley Cemetery, from the site of the crash and within the flight path of USAir 427.


title: Robert Fulton

text: Robert Fulton (November 14, 1765 – February 24, 1815) was an American engineer and inventor who is widely credited with developing the world's first commercially successful steamboat, the (also known as "Clermont"). In 1807, that steamboat traveled on the Hudson River with passengers from New York City to Albany and back again, a round trip of , in 62 hours. The success of his steamboat changed river traffic and trade on major American rivers.


title: Robert Fulton

text: In 1800, Fulton had been commissioned by Napoleon Bonaparte, leader of France, to attempt to design a submarine; he produced , the first practical submarine in history. Fulton is also credited with inventing some of the world's earliest naval torpedoes for use by the Royal Navy.


title: Robert Fulton

text: Fulton became interested in steam engines and the idea of steamboats in 1777 when he was around age 12 and visited state delegate William Henry of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, who was interested in this topic. Henry had learned about inventor James Watt and his Watt steam engine on an earlier visit to England.


title: Robert Fulton

text: Robert Fulton was born on a farm in Little Britain, Pennsylvania, on November 14, 1765. His father, Robert Fulton, married Mary Smith, daughter of Captain Joseph Smith and sister of Col. Lester Smith, a comparatively well off family. He had three sisters – Isabella, Elizabeth, and Mary, and a younger brother, Abraham.


title: Robert Fulton

text: For six years, he lived in Philadelphia, where he painted portraits and landscapes, drew houses and machinery, and was able to send money home to help support his mother. In 1785, Fulton bought a farm at Hopewell Township in Washington County near Pittsburgh for £80 (equivalent to $ in 2018), and moved his mother and family into it.


title: Robert Fulton

text: At the age of 23, Fulton traveled to Europe, where he would live for the next twenty years. He went to England in 1786, carrying several letters of introduction to Americans abroad from prominent individuals he had met in Philadelphia. He had already corresponded with artist Benjamin West; their fathers had been close friends. West took Fulton into his home, where Fulton lived for several years and studied painting. Fulton gained many commissions painting portraits and landscapes, which allowed him to support himself. He continued to experiment with mechanical inventions.


title: Robert Fulton

text: Fulton became caught up in the enthusiasm of the "Canal Mania". In 1793 he began developing his ideas for tugboat canals with inclined planes instead of locks. He obtained a patent for this idea in 1794, and also began working on ideas for the steam power of boats. He published a pamphlet about canals and patented a dredging machine and several other inventions. In 1794, he moved to Manchester to gain practical knowledge of English canal engineering. While there he became friendly with Robert Owen, a cotton manufacturer and early socialist. Owen agreed to finance the development and promotion of Fulton's designs for inclined planes and earth-digging machines; he was instrumental in introducing the American to a canal company, which awarded him a sub-contract. But Fulton was not successful at this practical effort and he gave up the contract after a short time.


title: Robert Fulton

text: As early as 1793, Fulton proposed plans for steam-powered vessels to both the United States and British governments. The first steamships had appeared considerably earlier. The earliest steam-powered ship, in which the engine moved oars, was built by Claude de Jouffroy in France. Called "Palmipède", it was tested on the Doubs in 1776. In 1783, de Jouffroy built , the first paddle steamer, which sailed successfully on the Saône. The first successful trial run of a steamboat in America had been made by inventor John Fitch, on the Delaware River on August 22, 1787. William Symington had successfully tried steamboats in 1788, and it seems probable that Fulton was aware of these developments.


title: Robert Fulton

text: In Britain, Fulton met the Duke of Bridgewater, Francis Egerton, whose canal, the first to be constructed in the country, was being used for trials of a steam tug. Fulton became very enthusiastic about the canals, and wrote a 1796 treatise on canal construction, suggesting improvements to locks and other features. Working for the Duke of Bridgewater between 1796 and 1799, Fulton had a boat constructed in the Duke's timber yard, under the supervision of Benjamin Powell. After installation of the machinery supplied by the engineers Bateman and Sherratt of Salford, the boat was duly christened "Bonaparte" in honour of Fulton having served under Napoleon. After expensive trials, because of the configuration of the design, the team feared the paddles might damage the clay lining of the canal and eventually abandoned the experiment. In 1801, Bridgewater instead ordered eight vessels for his canal based on , constructed by Symington.


title: Robert Fulton

text: In 1797, Fulton went to Paris, where he was well known as an inventor. He studied French and German, along with mathematics and chemistry. Fulton also exhibited the first panorama painting to be shown in Paris, Pierre Prévost's "Vue de Paris depuis les Tuileries" (1800), on what is still called "Rue des Panoramas" (Panorama Street) today. While living in France, Fulton designed the first working muscle-powered submarine, , between 1793 and 1797. He also experimented with torpedoes. When tested, his submarine operated underwater for 17 minutes in 25 feet of water. He asked the government to subsidize its construction, but he was turned down twice. Eventually, he approached the Minister of Marine and, in 1800, was granted permission to build. The shipyard Perrier in Rouen built it, and the submarine sailed first in July 1800 on the Seine River in the same city.


title: Robert Fulton

text: In France, Fulton met Robert R. Livingston, who was appointed U.S. Ambassador to France in 1801. He also had a scientifically curious mind, and the two men decided to collaborate on building a steamboat and to try operating it on the Seine. Fulton experimented with the water resistance of various hull shapes, made drawings and models, and had a steamboat constructed. At the first trial the boat ran perfectly, but the hull was later rebuilt and strengthened. On August 9, 1803, when this boat was driven up the River Seine, it sank. The boat was long, with an beam, and made between against the current.


title: Robert Fulton

text: In 1804, Fulton switched allegiance and moved to Britain, where he was commissioned by Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger to build a range of weapons for use by the Royal Navy during Napoleon's invasion scares. Among his inventions were the world's first modern naval "torpedoes" (modern "mines"). These were tested, along with several other of his inventions, during the 1804 Raid on Boulogne, but met with limited success. Although Fulton continued to develop his inventions with the British until 1806, the crushing naval victory by Admiral Horatio Nelson at the 1805 Battle of Trafalgar greatly reduced the risk of French invasion. Fulton was increasingly sidelined as a result.


title: Robert Fulton

text: In 1806, Fulton returned to the United States. In 1807, he and Robert R. Livingston built the first commercially successful steamboat, (later known as "Clermont"). Livingston's shipping company began using it to carry passengers between New York City and up the Hudson River to the state capital Albany. "Clermont" made the trip in 32 hours. Passengers on the maiden voyage included a lawyer Jones and his family from Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. His infant daughter Alexandra Jones later served as a Union nurse on a steamboat hospital in the American Civil War.


title: Robert Fulton

text: The Clermont was the first real steamboat in America. While it was being built people called it "Fulton's Folly". The Clermont had sails as well as a steam engine. At each end of the boat was a short mast with a small square sail that could be unfurled when needed. The engine was in the center of the boat and was surrounded by cord wood. The engine was 24-horsepower. Above the engine was a tall and slender smoke stack. On each side was a big paddle wheel that was open and uncovered. The diameter of the paddle wheels was . The boat itself was long and wide. Its displacement was 160 tons.


title: Robert Fulton

text: From 1811 until his death, Fulton was a member of the Erie Canal Commission, appointed by the Governor of New York.


title: Robert Fulton

text: Fulton's final design was the floating battery . This first steam-driven warship in the world was built for the United States Navy for the War of 1812. The heavy vessel was not completed until after Fulton's death and was named in his honor.


title: Robert Fulton

text: From October 1811 to January 1812, Fulton, along with Livingston and Nicholas Roosevelt (1767–1854), worked together on a joint project to build a new steamboat, , sturdy enough to take down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers to New Orleans, Louisiana. It traveled from industrial Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where it was built, with stops at Wheeling, Virginia; Cincinnati, Ohio; past the "Falls of the Ohio" at Louisville, Kentucky; to near Cairo, Illinois, and the confluence with the Mississippi River; and down past Memphis, Tennessee, and Natchez, Mississippi, to New Orleans some by river from the Gulf of Mexico coast. This was less than a decade after the United States had acquired the Louisiana Territory from France. These rivers were not well settled, mapped, or protected. By achieving this first breakthrough voyage and also proving the ability of the steamboat to travel upstream against powerful river currents, Fulton changed the entire trade and transportation outlook for the American heartland.


title: Robert Fulton

text: On January 8, 1808, Fulton married Harriet Livingston (1783–1826), the daughter of Walter Livingston and niece of Robert R. Livingston, prominent men in the Hudson River area, whose family dated to the colonial era. Harriet, who was nineteen years his junior, was well educated and was an accomplished amateur painter and musician. Together, they had four children:


title: Robert Fulton

text: Fulton died in 1815 in New York City from tuberculosis (then known as "consumption"). He had been walking home on the frozen Hudson River when one of his friends, Thomas Addis Emmet, fell through the ice. In rescuing his friend, Fulton got soaked with icy water. He is believed to have contracted pneumonia. When he got home, his sickness worsened. He was diagnosed with consumption and died at 49 years old. After his death, his widow remarried to Charles Augustus Dale on November 26, 1816.


title: Robert Fulton

text: He is buried in the Trinity Church Cemetery for Trinity Church (Episcopal) at Wall Street in New York City, near other notable Americans such as former U.S. Secretaries of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton and Albert Gallatin. His descendants include Cory Lidle, a former Major League Baseball pitcher.


title: Robert Fulton

text: The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania donated a marble statue of Fulton to the National Statuary Hall Collection in the United States Capitol. Fulton was also honored for his development of steamship technology in New York City's Hudson-Fulton Celebration of the Centennial in 1909. A replica of his first steam-powered steam vessel, "Clermont", was built for the occasion.


title: Robert Fulton

text: Fulton Hall at the United States Merchant Marine Academy houses the Department of Marine Engineering and included laboratories for diesel and steam engineering, refrigeration, marine engineering, thermodynamics, materials testing, machine shop, mechanical engineering, welding, electrical machinery, control systems, electric circuits, engine room simulators and graphics.


title: Robert Fulton

text: Bronze statues of Fulton and Christopher Columbus represent commerce on the balustrade of the galleries of the Main Reading Room in the Thomas Jefferson Building of the Library of Congress on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C. They are two of 16 historical figures, each pair representing one of the 8 pillars of civilization.


title: Robert Fulton

text: 20th Century-Fox's 1940 film, "Little Old New York", based on a 1920 play by Rida Johnson Young, is a fictionalized version of Fulton's life from his arrival in New York to the first sailing of "Clermont". British actor Richard Greene starred as Fulton with Brenda Joyce as Harriet Livingston. Alice Faye and Fred MacMurray played wharf friends who help Fulton overcome problems to realize his dream.


title: Robert Fulton

text: A fictionalized account of Fulton's role was produced by BBC television during the 1960s. In the first serial, "Triton" (1961, re-made in 1968), two British naval officers, Captain Belwether and Lieutenant Lamb, are involved in spying on Fulton while he is working for the French. In the sequel, "Pegasus" (1969), they are surprised to find themselves working with Fulton after he changed sides. In the 1961 series, Fulton was played by Reed De Rouen, in the 1968 and 1969 series he was played by Robert Cawdron.


title: Robert Fulton

text: A Robert Fulton cartoon character appears in the 1955 Casper the Friendly Ghost short film "Red, White, and Boo".


title: Robert Fulton

text: Author James McGee used Fulton's experiments in early submarine warfare (against wooden warships) as a major plot element in his 2006 novel "Ratcatcher".


title: Robert Fulton

text: "Invasion" (2009), the tenth novel in the "Kydd" naval warfare series by Julian Stockwin, uses Fulton and his submarine as an important plot element.


title: Robert Fulton

text: Until 2016, Disney Springs at Walt Disney World had a restaurant named Fulton's Crab House with a building in the shape of a steamboat.


title: A Broken Frame

text: A Broken Frame is the second studio album by English electronic music band Depeche Mode, released on 27 September 1982 by Mute Records. The album was written entirely by Martin Gore and was recorded as a trio after the departure of Vince Clarke, who had left and formed Yazoo with singer Alison Moyet. Alan Wilder was part of a second band tour in the United Kingdom prior to the release of "A Broken Frame", but had not officially joined yet and does not appear on the album.