title: Laugh track

text: Douglass's "laff box" was purchased, unseen, at auction in 2010 when its owner failed to pay rent on the storage locker where it was housed. It was later discussed, and demonstrated in a June 2010 episode of "Antiques Roadshow" from San Diego, California, where its value was appraised at $10,000.


title: Laugh track

text: The laugh track was also used on some prime time animated television series, starting with "The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show" (ABC, 1959–61; NBC, 1961–64), but only used it for the first four episodes of the series (see its controversy below). Hanna-Barbera followed suit and utilized a full laugh track for its prime-time shows up to 1970, including "The Flintstones" (ABC, 1960–66), "Top Cat" (ABC, 1961–62), and "The Jetsons" (ABC, 1962–63). Hanna-Barbera's mid-summer sitcom, "Where's Huddles?" (CBS, 1970), as well as Krayo Creston and MCA's "Calvin and the Colonel" (ABC, 1961–62), also used a laugh track. Midday programming, like "The Banana Splits Adventure Hour" (NBC, 1968–70), gradually followed suit. From 1968 to 1983, most comedic cartoons produced for the Saturday morning genre were fitted with a laugh track, beginning with Filmation's "The Archie Show" in 1968. Rankin-Bass, DePatie–Freleng Enterprises (DFE) and Hanna-Barbera followed suit. As Douglass' laughter became redundant in the television industry, all of the animation studios eventually abandoned the laugh track by the early 1980s. Filmation's "Gilligan's Planet" (CBS, 1982–83) was the final animated Saturday-morning series to include a laugh track.


title: Laugh track

text: Because "The Banana Splits" was shown midday, "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!" (CBS, 1969–70) became Hanna-Barbera's first Saturday morning show to use Douglass' laugh track in 1969. Following its success, Hanna-Barbera expanded the laugh track to virtually all of its shows for the 1970–71 season, including "Harlem Globetrotters" (CBS, 1970–71) and "Josie and the Pussycats" (CBS, 1970–71).


title: Laugh track

text: "The Pink Panther Show" (NBC, 1969–1978; ABC, 1978–1980) was an anomaly among its peers. The show consisted of previous theatrical entries compiled into a series of half-hour showcases, which included other DFE theatrical shorts including "The Inspector", "Roland and Ratfink", "The Ant and the Aardvark" and "The Tijuana Toads" (redubbed as "The Texas Toads" for television due to perceived Mexican racial stereotypes). The original theatrical versions did not contain laugh tracks, but NBC insisted on its inclusion for television broadcast. The soundtracks were restored to their original form in 1982 when the DFE theatrical package went into syndication. Repackaging over the years has resulted in both theatrical and television versions of the entries being available. The exceptions were "Misterjaw" and "Crazylegs Crane", which were produced specifically for television and never re-released theatrically, resulting in laughter-only versions.


title: Laugh track

text: Following Filmation were producers Sid and Marty Krofft. When production began on "H.R. Pufnstuf" in 1969, executive producer Si Rose viewed any comedy without a laugh track as a handicap, and convinced the Kroffts to include one on "Pufnstuf". After "Pufnstuf", the Kroffts employed Douglass's services on all shows produced for Saturday morning television (except for "Land of the Lost", which was more dramatic in nature), including "The Bugaloos", "Lidsville", "Sigmund and the Sea Monsters", "The Lost Saucer" and "Far Out Space Nuts". When transitioning from high concept children's programming to live variety shows, the Kroffts continued to employ Douglass for sweetening. Several shows included "Donny and Marie", "The Brady Bunch Variety Hour", "The Krofft Supershow", "The Krofft Superstar Hour", "Pink Lady and Jeff", "Barbara Mandrell and the Mandrell Sisters", "Pryor's Place", as well as their 1987 syndicated sitcom "D.C. Follies".


title: Laugh track

text: As the use of laugh tracks for Saturday morning series became more common, Douglass eventually added several children's laughs to his library. "Kiddie laughs", as they are known, first saw use for sweetening for the 1973 syndicated television special, "The World of Sid and Marty Krofft at the Hollywood Bowl", but were soon heard on most Saturday morning kids' shows by 1974, such as "Uncle Croc's Block", "Sigmund and the Sea Monsters", "The Pink Panther Show", "The Lost Saucer" and "Far Out Space Nuts".


title: Laugh track

text: Current Disney Channel-produced sitcoms and studio-created laugh tracks are primarily recorded in front of live audiences. Nickelodeon – Disney's top competitor – utilizes a laugh track for shows such as "iCarly" and "Victorious" since closing the original studio facilities fitted for live audience seating.


title: Laugh track

text: By 1970, Douglass's laugh business was proving so lucrative that he decided to raise the rates for his services. However, unlike sitcoms, cartoons were mainly produced with lower budgets and studios looked for opportunities to reduce costs. Hanna-Barbera and Rankin-Bass distanced themselves from Douglass starting in 1971. They still felt that having a laugh track was necessary, so they began extracting several of Douglass's chuckles by various means and compiled their own laugh tracks. These custom laugh tracks were controversial, and contemporaries and historians questioned the sensibility and realism for the use of these tracks.


title: Laugh track

text: Despite this trend, Filmation, DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and Sid & Marty Krofft Television Productions still retained the services of Douglass for their Saturday-morning content.


title: Laugh track

text: Hanna-Barbera was the first cartoon production studio to cease using Douglass's services. They first used the laugh track for their prime-time shows, such as "The Flintstones", "Top Cat", and "The Jetsons". They then expanded using the laugh track into their daytime fare, starting with "The Banana Splits" in 1968, which emulated Filmation's "The Archies". Successful series prior to 1971, like "Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!", "Harlem Globetrotters" and "Josie and the Pussycats" employed a full laugh track. This changed at the start of the 1971–72 season, when Hanna-Barbera employed their limited laugh track using the MacKenzie Repeater machine, a tape machine that can play up to five sound effects repeatedly on rotation, which cued up to five Douglass laughs repeatedly. Mixed with a metallic sound, it included three mild laughs and two uncontrollable belly-laughs (one contains a woman laughing prominently at the tail end). With the exception of their variety shows, such as "The Hanna-Barbera Happy Hour", which they briefly turned to Douglass for sweetening, Hanna-Barbera used these laughs regularly over the next decade on nearly all of their Saturday morning fare.


title: Laugh track

text: The Hanna-Barbera laugh track affected several television specials as well, many of them from "The ABC Saturday Superstar Movie" (ABC, 1972–74), which served as a showcase for hopeful new comedic cartoon shows. On occasion, the studio slowed the laugh track for a greater effect; this was done for the second season of "The New Scooby-Doo Movies".


title: Laugh track

text: Hanna-Barbera also used the limited laugh track when they produced "Wait Till Your Father Gets Home" in 1972. This laugh track, which added an additional belly laugh to the mix, was noticeably slowed during production ("Wait Till Your Father Gets Home" was the only television series produced by Hanna-Barbera to have included that specific belly laugh track).


title: Laugh track

text: In 1994, laugh track historian and re-recording mixer Paul Iverson commented on the legacy of the Hanna-Barbera track:


title: Laugh track

text: Animation studio Rankin/Bass, best remembered for their Christmas specials, also experimented with fitting their Saturday morning animated series "The Jackson 5ive" with a laugh track in 1971. Like Hanna-Barbera, Rankin/Bass isolated several snippets of canned chuckles from Douglass's library and inserted them onto the soundtrack. The laughs initially consisted of only loud eruptions; mild jokes received unnatural bouts of laughter, while other times, the laughter erupted in mid-sentence. The studio had improved the process by the time production began on "The Osmonds" in 1972, using more modulated laughs culled from Douglass's 1971–1972 library. Laughs did not erupt mid-sentence like "The Jackson 5ive" and timing was improved by Rankin/Bass sound engineers. Unlike Hanna-Barbera's laugh track, Rankin/Bass provided a larger variety of laughs and did not sound as metallic.


title: Laugh track

text: Unlike the two "silent" pilots before it, "The Muppet Show" series incorporated its own laugh track onto the show, but in a completely different manner; because the variety program was modeled after vaudeville, the viewers were often treated to glimpses of the theater audience and their reactions to The Muppets' antics on stage (though the audience was composed of Muppet characters as well).


title: Laugh track

text: As the show was produced at the ATV Elstree Studios in England, Jim Henson and his Muppet production team bypassed Douglass's familiar laughs. New laughs, chuckles and applause were recorded for the first few episodes so they sounded fresh and new. Some of these laughs were provided by the actual cast and crew members reacting to dailies of episodes; eventually, "The Muppet Show" began recycling these same chuckles for later shows, establishing its own one-of-a-kind laugh track. A by-product of this convincing laugh track was the belief by viewers that "The Muppet Show" was indeed taped in front of a live audience, some even asking for tickets to attend tapings; Henson's son, Brian, noted how strange he thought it was that people believed the show was shot before a live audience. Henson himself knew that having a live audience was impractical, given the production complexities (the NBC sitcom "ALF" was also difficult to produce and utilized only a laugh track); he also notes that because of the series' vaudeville inspiration, having sounds of laughter was a necessity, but admits that it was not an easy task – "I look at some of the early shows, I'm really embarrassed by them. The sweetening got better later on, but it's always a difficult thing to do well, and to create the reality of the audience laughing." Henson himself initially felt apprehensive about adding a laugh track to a Muppet series, and later commented about the pilot episode not having a laugh track, saying "I did one special dry – without any laugh track – looked at it, and then tried it adding a laugh track to it, and it's unfortunate, but it makes the show funnier."


title: Laugh track

text: Various Muppet characters or guest stars broke the fourth wall and acknowledged the use of the laugh track. In the fourth episode of the series, Kermit the Frog was asked by guest Ruth Buzzi if he felt a gag or routine was funny enough for the show, to which he turned to the camera and replied, "That's up to the laugh track." A season two episode featuring guest Steve Martin eschewed a laugh track altogether to support the concept that the show had been canceled that night in favor of auditioning new acts; the only audible laughs were those of the Muppet performers themselves.


title: Laugh track

text: After "The Muppet Show" ended in 1981, most Muppet projects were produced in the U.S. due to the demise of the commercial ATV franchise in the UK and Lord Lew Grade, who had financed the show, no longer being involved in television. Post-"Muppet Show" fare then turned to Douglass for audience reactions; one-shot specials such as "The Fantastic Miss Piggy Show" and "" were given full audience by Douglass's son, Robert, who by that time was running Northridge Electronics following his father's retirement. Robert Douglass also orchestrated the audience for Disney's unsuccessful "Muppet Show" reboot, "Muppets Tonight".


title: Laugh track

text: Though the use of canned laughter reached its peak in the 1960s, a few shows still retained the multi-camera tradition. In 1967, Desi Arnaz produced "The Mothers-in-Law" (NBC, 1967–69), which was recorded in front of a live audience at Desilu Studios, with a sweetening performed in post-production. A year later, "The Good Guys" (CBS, 1968–70) followed the same format. Production changes in location, however, caused the remainder of the first season to transition back to single-camera entirely, using only a laugh track. This continued through season two until low ratings led to its cancellation in 1970.


title: Laugh track

text: The 1970s began with the decline of rural-based shows (such as "The Beverly Hillbillies", "Green Acres" and "Mayberry RFD") and the rise of socially conscious programming (such as "All in the Family", "M*A*S*H" and "Maude"). The resulting change also spurred the return of live audiences, starting with "Here's Lucy" (CBS, 1968–1974), which starred Lucille Ball and served as a prototypal impetus to the new subject matter, and ultimately "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" (CBS, 1970–77). The series' pilot episode, "Love is All Around", had been initially filmed using the single-camera method. The results were not satisfactory to Moore or the producers, who then decided to shift to multiple cameras. Since the first several episodes were taped in late summer, the pilot's first taping was not received well due to bad insulation and poor audio. The second taping, however, provided better air conditioning and a better quality sound system to the stage. Critical reception thus improved, and the show used the multi-camera format thereafter, and became a major success during its seven-year run.


title: Laugh track

text: The resurgence of live audiences began to gradually take hold. More sitcoms began to veer away from the single-camera, movie-style format, reverting to the multi-camera format with a live studio audience providing real laughter, which producers found more pleasing because it had a better comic rhythm and helped them write better jokes. Creator Norman Lear's "All in the Family" (CBS, 1971–1979) followed suit in 1971. Videotaped live, Lear was more spontaneous; he wanted the studio audience to act like the performer, with hopes of the two developing a rapport with each other. Lear was not a fan of pretaped audiences, resulting in no laugh track being employed, not even during post-production when Lear could have had the luxury of sweetening any failed jokes (Lear relented somewhat in later seasons, and allowed Douglass to insert an occasional laugh). Lear's decision resulted in the show being a huge success, and ushered in the return of live audiences to the U.S. sitcom mainstream. To make his point clear, an announcement proclaimed over the closing credits each week that ""All in the Family" was recorded on tape before a live audience" or during the show's final seasons where live audiences no longer attended tapings of the show, ""All in the Family" was played to a studio audience for live responses."


title: Laugh track

text: Jack Klugman and Tony Randall expressed displeasure during the first season of "The Odd Couple" (ABC, 1970–75), which used a laugh track without a live audience. Co-creator/executive producer Garry Marshall also disliked utilizing a laugh track, and theatre veteran Randall, in particular, resented the process of having to wait several seconds between punchlines in order to allot enough space for the laugh track to be inserted. The production team experimented with omitting the laugh track altogether with the episode "Oscar's New Life"; the episode aired without a laugh track (laughter was subsequently added for syndication in order to maintain continuity). ABC relented by the second season, with "The Odd Couple" being filmed with three cameras (vs. a single camera the previous season) and performed like a stage play in front of a studio audience. The change also required a new, larger set to be constructed within a theatre. With a live audience present, Randall and Klugman enjoyed the spontaneity that came with it; any missed or blown lines went by without stopping (they could always be re-filmed during post-production). In addition, it gave the show a certain edge that was seen as missing in the first season, although actors had to deliver lines louder, since they were on a larger sound stage as opposed to a quiet studio with only minimal crew present. Klugman later commented, "We spent three days rehearsing the show. We sat around a table the first day. We tore the script apart. We took out all the jokes and put in character. The only reason we leave in any jokes is for the rotten canned laughter. I hated it. I watch the shows at home, I see Oscar come in and he says, 'Hi,' and there is the laughter. 'Hey,' I think, 'what the hell did I do?' I hate it; it insults the audience."


title: Laugh track

text: The sitcom "Happy Days" (ABC, 1974–84) mirrored "The Odd Couple" scenario as well. Its first two seasons used only a laugh track, and by third season, shifted over to a live audience.


title: Laugh track

text: The shows were not entirely live, however. With the exception of "All in the Family", sweetening was still a necessity during post-production in order to bridge any gaps in audience reactions. Television/laugh track historian Ben Glenn II observed a taping of the sitcom "Alice" (CBS, 1976–85) and noted the need for sweetening: "The actors kept blowing their lines. Of course, by the third or fourth take, the joke was no longer funny. A Douglass laugh was inserted into the final broadcast version to compensate."


title: Laugh track

text: Some producers, like James Komack, however, followed Lear's approach. Komack, who was involved in the short-lived sitcom "Hennesey" starring Jackie Cooper, was a longtime critic of the Douglass laugh track, believing the laughs were too predictable and could hinder the effect of the sitcom's humor. Komack instead employed music to counteract the sweetened laughs. He experimented with this technique in "The Courtship of Eddie's Father" (ABC, 1969–72), which featured a subdued laugh track. Multi-camera shows produced by Komack, such as "Chico and the Man" (NBC, 1974–78) and "Welcome Back, Kotter" (ABC, 1975–79), utilized background music cues during scene transitions (obvious locations for sweetening) and made sure that Douglass's laugh track was used infrequently during post-production. Komack later commented, "If you ever try to do a show without a laugh track, you'll see a huge difference...[I]t flattens. The only way to get away from a laugh track is to use music, which can indicate when something is funny." On sweetening, he continued, "Then it's determined by the taste of the producers – by the morality of the producers...[A]fter a while, you learn that it is valueless. In the extremes, people are going to hear it and say, 'Why are they laughing?' and they'll turn off your program."


title: Laugh track

text: In addition to "The Odd Couple", "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" and "Happy Days", other live sitcoms that were sweetened by Douglass (many of which also sweetened by Pratt by the end of the 1970s) were "The Paul Lynde Show" (ABC, 1972–73), "The Bob Newhart Show" (CBS, 1972–78), "Maude" (CBS, 1972–78), "Rhoda" (CBS, 1974–78), "Barney Miller" (ABC, 1975–82), "Laverne and Shirley" (ABC, 1976–83), "Soap" (ABC, 1977–81), "The Comedy Shop" (Syndication, 1978–81), "Mork & Mindy" (ABC, 1978–82), "Taxi" (ABC, 1978–82; NBC, 1982–83), "Cheers" (NBC, 1982–93) and its spinoff "Frasier" (NBC, 1993–2004).


title: Laugh track

text: Variety shows that became prominent during the 1970s, such as "The Carol Burnett Show", "The Flip Wilson Show" and "The Dean Martin Show" (as well as "The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast" succeeding afterwards) also continued to use Douglass's sweetening for any less appealing jokes performed during sketches.


title: Laugh track

text: Game shows were sweetened during the 1970s and early 1980s, often played when a contestant or the host says something considered to be funny and only a small reaction comes from the live audience. Douglass's laugh track was especially heard in Chuck Barris' game shows (i.e. "The Gong Show" and "The Newlywed Game"), whose shows were designed mainly to entertain the audience; the "prizes" were often rudimentary or derisive. Game shows that were produced at CBS Television City and NBC Studios Burbank were also sweetened, often to intensify audience reactions, including shows like "Press Your Luck" (used during "Whammy" segments). During a typical game show's closing credits, the show used canned cheers and applause noises to sweeten the live studio audience applause noises that viewers did not hear during the credits. This was common on daytime game shows on CBS and NBC and some syndicated game shows from the 1970s through the 1990s. Game shows taped at NBC Studios Burbank used three different applause tracks for sweetening: one with a smaller crowd, one with a medium crowd, and one with a large crowd with a cheerful male audience member in the background. However, many kids' game shows, most ABC game shows, and most Mark Goodson-Bill Todman productions, such as "The Price Is Right", "Match Game" and "Family Feud" were taped with a live audience present, though sweetening was used on rare occasions.


title: Laugh track

text: There were still some producers who either still did not trust a live audience, produced a show that was too complex for an audience to be present, favored the single-camera method, or could not afford to screen it live to an audience for responses. In these cases, Douglass orchestrated the laugh track from scratch. Sitcoms like "The Brady Bunch", "The Partridge Family" and "M*A*S*H" utilized the single-camera method for their entire run. Several hour-long comedy dramas, like "The Love Boat" and "Eight Is Enough", used only a laugh track.


title: Laugh track

text: In the intervening years beginning with live film, progressing through videotape and onto studio-filmed productions with no live audience back to live-on-tape, Douglass had gone from merely enhancing or tweaking a soundtrack, to literally customizing entire audience reactions to each performance and back again to enhancing and tweaking performances recorded with live audiences.


title: Laugh track

text: Although Douglass had a monopoly on the laugh track, he eventually faced competition by 1977 when other sound engineers began to offer laugh tracks that differed from Douglass's distinctive laughs. Most notably, engineer and Douglass protégé Carroll Pratt started his own company, Sound One. Pratt and his brother had been working under Douglass since the early 1960s, but began to notice that Douglass's technique was falling behind as advances were made in production technology. Pratt commented that after years of constant use, an audible hiss could be heard when a laugh was being cued up due to Douglass's tapes wearing out. Pratt also observed that as the 1970s progressed, audiences started maturing more with the sitcom's humor, that he felt Douglass should also tone down his invasive laughs while adding quieter and more subdued laughter to the mix. While not stubborn, Douglass was so fond of his machine and technique that he felt no urgency to advance his technology. Pratt parted ways with Douglass after the 1976–77 television season wrapped up, and created a new "laff box," one that was simpler to use and had greater capacity than Douglass's (Pratt's recordings were on cassette tape, Douglass's on an older reel-to-reel tape). With the advent of stereo television, Pratt's stereo recordings matched the sound quality of television shows being filmed or videotaped in that audio format, whereas Douglass attempted to convert previous mono analog recordings to stereo. Pratt introduced an innovative laugh track that contained more realistic (though less distinctive) reactions. While Pratt's laugh track had its share of recognizable chuckles as well, they are more quiet and subtle than Douglass's, which had become so familiar and ubiquitous that they sounded trite. Some sitcoms started switching to Pratt's laugh track in 1977, including "M*A*S*H" and "The Love Boat" (which were more dramatic in tone). By the end of the decade, many live and single-camera sitcoms, such as "Laverne and Shirley", "Happy Days", "Eight Is Enough", and all post-1978 MTM productions like "WKRP in Cincinnati" (CBS, 1978–82) and "Newhart" (CBS, 1982–90), also chose Pratt over Douglass for the sweetening process.


title: Laugh track

text: The competition from Pratt caused Douglass to retool his library after the 1977–78 television season, retiring most of his distinctive laughs with new laughs and salvaging his more extreme reactions almost exclusively. The combination of classic loud guffaws, mixed with his own new, less invasive recordings, had middling results.


title: Laugh track

text: Both viewers and television critics had become conditioned to hearing laughter as part of the television comedy viewing experience. Shows like "The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd" (NBC, 1987–88), "Hooperman" (ABC, 1987–89) and "Doogie Howser, M.D." (ABC, 1989–93) were comedy dramas that abandoned the laughter altogether, earning laudatory media attention in the process.


title: Laugh track

text: Single-camera comedy has made a comeback in the U.S. since the early 1990s, but networks have mostly abandoned the old tradition of laugh tracks for single-camera shows. A key player in this revolution was HBO, which allowed its single-camera comedies such as "Dream On" and "The Larry Sanders Show" to run without laugh tracks, and won critical praise for doing so. Single-camera shows without an audience, live or laugh track, have become increasingly common on broadcast networks as well.


title: Laugh track

text: Animated shows have also gone silent, except on the rare occasion that canned laughter is used, usually as a parody of a sitcom. Animated shows that used to employ a laugh track, such as "Scooby-Doo", had dismissed the laugh track altogether by the 1990s. However, sitcoms made by It's a Laugh Productions, such as "That's So Raven", use laugh tracks.


title: Laugh track

text: Sweetening is a common practice in live awards shows such as the Emmy Awards, the Academy Awards and the MTV Video Music Awards. The microphones onstage often do not fully pick up the audience's laughter and reaction to the monologues as audiences are not microphoned in live awards shows due to the amount of conversation that takes place during filming. Laughter and applause are often sweetened and edited prior to public viewing, or if aired live, are done on the spot via a seven-second delay (the same crew is also used to mute swear words and controversial statements from award winners).


title: Laugh track

text: "Holliston", an independently produced multicamera sitcom on the defunct Fearnet, used laugh tracks to mimic the look and feel of popular sitcoms from the 1980s and 1990s. Creator Adam Green also expressed interest in using a live studio audience in the future.


title: Laugh track

text: The practice of simulating an audience reaction was controversial from the beginning. A silent minority of producers despised the idea of a prerecorded audience reaction. Douglass was aware that his "laff box" was maligned by critics and actors, but also knew that the use of a laugh track became standard practice. Leading industry experts reasoned that laugh tracks were a necessary evil in prime time television: without the canned laughter, a show was doomed to fail. It was believed that in the absence of any sort of audience reaction, American viewers could not differentiate between a comedy or drama. That did not stop several from forgoing the laugh track entirely:


title: Laugh track

text: In the 20th century, most sitcoms in the United Kingdom were taped before live audiences to provide natural laughter. Scenes recorded outdoors, traditionally recorded in advance of studio work, are played back to the studio audience and their laughter is recorded for the broadcast episode (occasionally, entire shows have been recorded in this fashion). Other comedies, such as "The Royle Family" and "The Office", which are presented in the mode of cinéma vérité rather than in the format of a traditional sitcom, do not feature any audience laughter.


title: Laugh track

text: One notable exception to the use of a live audience was Thames Television's "The Kenny Everett Video Show", whose laugh track consisted of spontaneous reaction to sketches from the studio production crew. This technique was maintained throughout its four-year run, even as the show moved to larger studio facilities and its emphasis switched from music to comedy. Everett's later series for the BBC ("The Kenny Everett Television Show") were recorded in front of live studio audiences.


title: Laugh track

text: In the early 1980s it was BBC policy that comedy programmes be broadcast with a laugh track, though producers did not always agree this suited their programmes. As a result, a laugh track for "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" was recorded for the first episode, but dropped before transmission. "The League of Gentlemen" was originally broadcast with a laugh track, but this was dropped after the programme's second series.


title: Laugh track

text: The pilot episode of the satirical series "Spitting Image" was also broadcast with a laugh track, apparently at the insistence of Central Television. This idea was dropped as the show's producers felt that the show worked better without one. Some later editions, in 1992 (Election Special) and 1993 (two episodes) did use a laughter track, as these were performed live in front of a studio audience and included a spoof "Question Time".


title: Laugh track

text: Most episodes of "Only Fools and Horses" feature a studio audience; the exceptions, which featured no laughter at all, were all Christmas specials, "To Hull and Back", "A Royal Flush" and the second part of "Miami Twice". For their DVD releases, "A Royal Flush" (which was edited to remove over 20 minutes of footage) had an added laughter track, as did the second part of "Miami Twice" (which was merged with the first part to make "Miami Twice: The Movie").


title: Laugh track

text: In the 21st century, many sitcoms inspired by the new wave of British comedies of the late 1990s have not featured a laugh track or studio audience. Although "Green Wing" does not feature audience laughter, partly because of its surreal nature, it does feature unusual lazzi techniques, where the film of the episode is slowed down immediately following a joke. "Mrs Brown's Boys" and "Still Open All Hours" both feature a studio audience.


title: Laugh track

text: Most contemporary Canadian television comedies do not incorporate a laugh track, although some programs, such as the sitcom "Maniac Mansion" (1990–1993) and the children's program "The Hilarious House of Frightenstein" (1971) had a laugh track added for airings in the U.S. despite being broadcast in Canada without one.


title: Laugh track

text: The children's sketch comedy series "You Can't Do That on Television" (1979–1990) had no laugh track during its first season as a locally televised program. However, when it entered the Canadian network realm (as "Whatever Turns You On"), a laugh track was added which was composed almost exclusively of children's laughter, with some peppering of adult laughter. While unique and appropriate for the nature of the show, the use and quality of the laugh track varied from season to season. The 1981 episodes featured an excellent variety of different laughs, offering a more authentic sound. The 1982 season, which was the first season of the series produced for U.S. cable channel Nickelodeon, used fewer laughs, but also employed Carroll Pratt's titter track used on U.S. sitcoms such as "Happy Days" and "What's Happening!!". The last six episodes of 1982 corrected the repetition of the kiddie track by mixing different laughs together, along with the titter track. 1983 took a noticeable downturn, with the laugh track being considerably muted and poorly edited. By 1984, the editors corrected this problem, with laughs reverting to 1982 minus the effective titter track. In 1986, a new children's laugh track was used with decidedly younger sounding laughs to match the material, which targeting a younger demographic than earlier seasons. When the series returned in 1989, it used both 1981 and 1986 kiddie tracks.


title: Laugh track

text: "I Love My Family", the first multi-camera sitcom in mainland China, used a live studio audience. Some single-camera comedies, such as "iPartment", used a laugh track.


title: Laugh track

text: Laugh tracks are commonly used in variety shows for comic effect. Examples include "Super Sunday", "Kangxi Lai Le", "Variety Big Brother" and "Home Run".


title: Laugh track

text: Several Latin American countries like Argentina replace the laugh track with a crew of off-screen people paid specifically to laugh on command whenever the comedic situation merits a laugh. Known as "reidores" ("laughers"), a senior laugher signals all the others when to laugh. In others like Mexico, comedies without audience reactions were openly stated to have no laugh track because they respected their audience, most notably Chespirito programs like "El Chapulín Colorado" and "El Chavo del Ocho".


title: Laugh track

text: Most French television comedies do not incorporate laugh tracks. One noticeable try was on AB Productions television series, produced by Jean-Luc Azoulay, such as "Hélène et les Garçons" and the following series, each one being a spin-off of the previous one - which allowed using the same stages or actors. Each series copied the use of the sitcom format, such as twenty minutes duration, almost single camera, but no studio audience, since the editing was very poor and very short principal photography (somehow, many in-camera editing episodes could be shot during the same day), which makes actual audience laughter impossible. Many criticisms were made of the poor quality of the realisation, actor play, many of them were not professional actors, and also the attempt to copy American series format – mix-up of sitcom, soap-opera and teen drama – in which laughter was the main complaint.


title: Laugh track

text: In order to gauge the continued relevance of Douglass's laugh track, a study was published in 1974 in the "Journal of Personality and Social Psychology" that concluded people were still more likely to laugh at jokes that were followed by canned laughter. "That Girl" co-creator Sam Denoff commented in 1978 that "laughter is social. It's easier to laugh when you're with people." Denoff added "in a movie theatre, you don't need a laugh track, but at home, watching TV, you're probably alone or with just a few others."


title: Laugh track

text: Dartmouth College psychology professor Bill Kelley gauged the necessity of the laugh track, particularly on U.S. sitcoms. He stated "we're much more likely to laugh at something funny in the presence of other people." Kelley's research compared students' reactions to an episode of "Seinfeld", which utilizes a laugh track, to those watching "The Simpsons", which does not. Brain scans suggested that viewers found the same things funny and the same regions of their brain lit up whether or not they heard others laughing. Despite this, Kelley still found value in the laugh track. "When done well," Kelley commented, "they can give people pointers about what's funny and help them along. But when done poorly, you notice a laugh track and it seems unnatural and out of place."


title: Laugh track

text: Since its inception, the idea of prerecorded laughter has had its share of supporters as well as detractors.


title: Laugh track

text: Si Rose, executive producer for Sid and Marty Krofft, convinced the Kroffts to use a laugh track on their puppet shows, such as "H.R. Pufnstuf", "The Bugaloos" and "Sigmund and the Sea Monsters". Rose stated:


title: Laugh track

text: In a 2007 interview, Filmation producer/founder Lou Scheimer praised the laugh track for its usage on "The Archie Show". "Why did we use a laugh track?" Scheimer asked. "Because it makes the audience want to laugh with all the other people who are watching [at home]. And you felt like [you were] part of the show than just [being] an observer." Scheimer confirmed that "The Archie Show" was the first Saturday morning cartoon to utilize a laugh track.


title: Laugh track

text: Television and laugh track historian Ben Glenn, II, commented that the laugh tracks currently used are radically different from the "carefree" quality of the laughter of past:


title: Laugh track

text: Several months after Douglass's death in 2003, his son Bob commented on the pros and cons of his father's invention:


title: Laugh track

text: Carroll Pratt confirmed Douglass's comments in a June 2002 interview with the Archive of American Television, saying that producers regularly wanted louder, longer laughs:


title: Laugh track

text: Few re-recording mixers have carried on the "laff box" tradition. In addition to Bob Douglass, Los Angeles-based mixers Bob La Masney, and Sound One's Jack Donato and John Bickelhaupt currently specialize in audience sweetening. While modern digital machines are not as cumbersome as Douglass's original machinery, Bickelhaupt confirmed they "are pretty anonymous, with [unlabeled] knobs and buttons. We like to remain kind of mysterious – the man-behind-the-curtain thing. We don't really like to talk about it too much." Bickelhaupt added that "most of the time, what we're doing isn't re-creating a studio audience; the audience laughter is already there. But in editing, when sections of the show are taken out, when they take out lines to make the show fit a time slot – we have to cover the bridge between one laugh and another by using the laugh machine." In reference to the quiet laugh track employed on "How I Met Your Mother", Bickelhaupt commented that producers are increasingly "shying away from that big, full audience – the raucous sound that was more commonplace in the 70s, 80s, and 90s. They want a more subtle track." Bickelhaupt concluded, "I have a great job. When you sit and work on comedy all day, you can't possibly get depressed. When people ask me what I do for a living, I tell them, 'I laugh.'"


title: Laugh track

text: Steven Levitan, creator of "Just Shoot Me!" (a multi-camera series that used live and taped audience reactions) and co-creator of "Modern Family" (which does not utilize live or recorded audience laughter as a single-camera series), commented, "When used properly, the laugh guy's job is to smooth out the soundtrack – nothing more." Phil Rosenthal confirmed that he "rarely manipulated the laughs" on "Everybody Loves Raymond". "I worked on shows in the past where the 'sweetener' was ladled on with a heavy hand, mainly because there were hardly any laughs from the living. The executive producers would say, 'Don't worry – you know who will love that joke? Mr. Sweet man.'" Bickelhaupt confirmed this observation, admitting there are many occasions he has created all audience responses. Conversely, Lloyd J. Schwartz, son of "Brady Bunch" creator Sherwood Schwartz, admitted in his book, "Brady, Brady, Brady", that the laugh track in his directorial debut of "The Brady Bunch" (S4E23 "Room at the Top") was "significantly louder than any of the other ["Brady Bunch"] episodes." Schwartz added, "I'm a little embarrassed about it now, but I wanted to make sure that the manufactured audience got all the jokes I directed."


title: Laugh track

text: Karal Ann Marling, professor of American studies and art history at the University of Minnesota, voiced concerns about Douglass's invention:


title: Laugh track

text: Marling added she was concerned more about canned laughter as a symptom of a larger social willingness to accept things uncritically, which included political messages as well as commercial messages. "It's a kind of decline in American feistiness and an ability to think for yourself," she said. "It certainly is embedded, but that doesn't make it a good thing. There are a lot of things that we do every day of the week that aren't good things. And this is one of them."


title: Amy Forsyth

text: Amy Forsyth (born 6 August 1995) is a Canadian actress. On television, she appeared as a series regular on the Hulu drama "The Path" (2016–17), the second season of SyFy horror anthology "Channel Zero" (2017), and the NBC musical drama "Rise" (2018), along with recurring roles on the science fiction Western "Defiance" (2014–15) and the historical drama "The Gilded Age" (2022). She also appeared in the horror films "A Christmas Horror Story" (2015), "Hell Fest" (2018), and "We Summon the Darkness" (2020) and the drama films "Beautiful Boy" (2018), "CODA" (2021), and "The Novice" (2021).


title: Airline codes

text: This is a list of airline codes. The table lists IATA's two-character airline designators, ICAO's three-character airline designators and the airline call signs (telephony designator). Historical assignments are also included.ht


title: Airline codes

text: IATA airline designators, sometimes called IATA reservation codes, are two-character codes assigned by the International Air Transport Association (IATA) to the world's airlines. The standard is described in IATA's "Standard Schedules Information Manual" and the codes themselves are described in IATA's "Airline Coding Directory". (Both are published semiannually.)


title: Airline codes

text: The IATA codes were originally based on the ICAO designators which were issued in 1947 as two-letter airline identification codes (see the section below). IATA expanded the two-character-system with codes consisting of a letter and a digit (or vice versa) e.g. EasyJet's U2 after ICAO had introduced its current three-letter-system in 1982. Until then only combinations of letters were used.


title: Airline codes

text: Airline designator codes follow the format xx(a), i.e., two alphanumeric characters (letters or digits) followed by an optional letter. Although the IATA standard provides for three-character airline designators, IATA has not used the optional third character in any assigned code. This is because some legacy computer systems, especially the "central reservations systems", have failed to comply with the standard, notwithstanding the fact that it has been in place for twenty years. The codes issued to date comply with IATA Resolution 762, which provides for only two characters. These codes thus comply with the current airline designator standard, but use only a limited subset of its possible range.


title: Airline codes

text: There are three types of designator: unique, numeric/alpha and controlled duplicate (explained below):


title: Airline codes

text: IATA airline designators are used to identify an airline for commercial purposes in reservations, timetables, tickets, tariffs, air waybills and in telecommunications.


title: Airline codes

text: A flight designator is the concatenation of the airline designator, xx(a), and the numeric flight number, n(n)(n)(n), plus an optional one-letter "operational suffix" (a). Therefore, the full format of a flight designator is xx(a)n(n)(n)(n)(a).


title: Airline codes

text: After an airline is delisted, IATA can make the code available for reuse after six months and can issue "controlled duplicates". Controlled duplicates are issued to regional airlines whose destinations are not likely to overlap, so that the same code is shared by two airlines. The controlled duplicate is denoted here, and in IATA literature, with an asterisk (*). An example of this is the code "7Y", which refers to both Mid Airlines, a charter airline in Sudan, and Med Airways, a charter airline in Lebanon (ceased 2015, but did actually fly to Sudan)


title: Airline codes

text: IATA also issues an accounting or prefix code. This number is used on tickets as the first three characters of the ticket number.


title: Airline codes

text: IATA airline designators are usually kept even if the airline changes name, so the code does not match the name anymore. For example, AY was given to Aero OY, now Finnair, and FI was given to Flugfélag Íslands, now Icelandair.


title: Airline codes

text: The ICAO airline designator is a code assigned by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to aircraft operating agencies, aeronautical authorities, and services related to international aviation, each of which is allocated both a "three-letter designator" and a "telephony designator". These codes are unique by airline, unlike the IATA airline designator codes (see section above). The designators are listed in ICAO Document 8585: "Designators for Aircraft Operating Agencies, Aeronautical Authorities and Services".


title: Airline codes

text: ICAO codes have been issued since 1947. The ICAO codes were originally based on a two-letter system and were identical to the airline codes used by IATA. After an airline joined IATA its existing ICAO two-letter code was taken over as IATA code. Because both organizations used the same code system, the current terms ICAO code and IATA code did not exist until the 1980s. They were commonly called two-letter airline designators. At that time it was impossible to find out whether an airline was an IATA member or not just by looking at its code. In the 1970s the abbreviation "BA" was the ICAO code and the IATA code of British Airways, while non-IATA members like Court Line used their two-letter abbreviation as ICAO code only. In 1982 ICAO introduced the current three-letter system due to the increasing number of airlines. After a transitional period of five years, it became the official new ICAO standard system in November 1987 while IATA kept the older two-letter system that was introduced by ICAO in 1947.


title: Airline codes

text: Certain combinations of letters are not allocated, to avoid confusion with other systems. Other designators, particularly those starting with Y and Z, are reserved for government organizations.


title: Airline codes

text: Most airlines employ a call sign that is normally spoken during airband radio transmissions. As by ICAO Annex 10 chapter 5.2.1.7.2.1 a call sign shall be one of the following types:


title: Airline codes

text: The one most widely used within commercial aviation is type C. The flight identification is very often the same as the flight number, though this is not always the case. In case of call sign confusion a different flight identification can be chosen, but the flight number will remain the same. Call sign confusion happens when two or more flights with similar flight numbers fly close to each other, e.g., KLM 645 and KLM 649 or Speedbird 446 and Speedbird 664.


title: Airline codes

text: The flight number is published in an airline's public timetable and appears on the arrivals and departure screens in the airport terminals. In cases of emergency, the airline name and flight number, rather than the call sign, are normally mentioned by the main news media.


title: Airline codes

text: Some call signs are less obviously associated with a particular airline than others. This might be for historic reasons (South African Airways uses the callsign "Springbok", hearkening back to the airline's old livery which featured a springbok), or possibly to avoid confusion with a call sign used by an established airline.


title: Airline codes

text: Companies' assigned names may change as a result of mergers, acquisitions, or change in company name or status; British Airways uses BOAC's old callsign ("Speedbird"), as British Airways was formed by a merger of BOAC and British European Airways. Country names can also change over time and new call signs may be agreed in substitution for traditional ones. The country shown alongside an airline's call sign is that wherein most of its aircraft are believed to be registered, which may not always be the same as the country in which the firm is officially incorporated or registered. There are many other airlines in business whose radio call signs are more obviously derived from the trading name.


title: Airline codes

text: The callsign should ideally resemble the operator's name or function and not be confused with callsigns used by other operators. The callsign should be easily and phonetically pronounceable in at least English, the international language of aviation. For example, Air France' callsign is "Airfrans"; 'frans' is the phonetic spelling of 'France'.


title: Airline codes

text: In the previous years, alpha-numeric callsigns have been adopted by airlines (mostly in Europe) to minimise callsign confusion over the radio. These kind of callsigns may include a combination of: a digit and a letter, digit and two letters or two-digits and one letter. e.g. Airfrans 65 Kilo (AFR65K).


title: Airline codes

text: The airline accounting code, or prefix code, is a 3-digit number, referenced by IATA and unique among all the airlines, used to identify the airline in various accounting activities such as ticketing. For instance, Lufthansa (LH/DLH) has been assigned 220 as accounting code, and all the flight tickets issued by that airline start with "220-".


title: Infinite regress

text: An infinite regress is an infinite series of entities governed by a recursive principle that determines how each entity in the series depends on or is produced by its predecessor. In the epistemic regress, for example, a belief is justified because it is based on another belief that is justified. But this other belief is itself in need of one more justified belief for itself to be justified and so on. An infinite regress argument is an argument against a theory based on the fact that this theory leads to an infinite regress. For such an argument to be successful, it has to demonstrate not just that the theory in question entails an infinite regress but also that this regress is "vicious". There are different ways in which a regress can be vicious. The most serious form of viciousness involves a contradiction in the form of "metaphysical impossibility". Other forms occur when the infinite regress is responsible for the theory in question being implausible or for its failure to solve the problem it was formulated to solve. Traditionally, it was often assumed without much argument that each infinite regress is vicious but this assumption has been put into question in contemporary philosophy. While some philosophers have explicitly defended theories with infinite regresses, the more common strategy has been to reformulate the theory in question in a way that avoids the regress. One such strategy is "foundationalism", which posits that there is a first element in the series from which all the other elements arise but which is not itself explained this way. Another way is "coherentism", which is based on a holistic explanation that usually sees the entities in question not as a linear series but as an interconnected network. Infinite regress arguments have been made in various areas of philosophy. Famous examples include the cosmological argument, Bradley's regress and regress arguments in epistemology.


title: Infinite regress

text: An "infinite regress" is an infinite series of entities governed by a recursive principle that determines how each entity in the series depends on or is produced by its predecessor. This principle can often be expressed in the following form: "X" is "F" because "X" stands in "R" to "Y" and "Y" is "F". "X" and "Y" stand for objects, "R" stands for a relation and "F" stands for a property in the widest sense. In the epistemic regress, for example, a belief is justified because it is based on another belief that is justified. But this other belief is itself in need of one more justified belief for itself to be justified and so on. Or in the cosmological argument, an event occurred because it was caused by another event that occurred before it, which was itself caused by a previous event, and so on. This principle by itself is not sufficient: it does not lead to a regress if there is no "X" that is "F". This is why an additional triggering condition has to be fulfilled: there has to be an "X" that is "F" for the regress to get started. So the regress starts with the fact that "X" is "F". According to the recursive principle, this is only possible if there is a distinct "Y" that is also "F". But in order to account for the fact that "Y" is "F", we need to posit a "Z" that is "F" and so on. Once the regress has started, there is no way of stopping it since a new entity has to be introduced at each step in order to make the previous step possible.


title: Infinite regress

text: An "infinite regress argument" is an argument against a theory based on the fact that this theory leads to an infinite regress. For such an argument to be successful, it has to demonstrate not just that the theory in question entails an infinite regress but also that this regress is "vicious". The mere existence of an infinite regress by itself is not a proof for anything. So in addition to connecting the theory to a recursive principle paired with a triggering condition, the argument has to show in which way the resulting regress is vicious. For example, one form of evidentialism in epistemology holds that a belief is only justified if it is based on another belief that is justified. An opponent of this theory could use an infinite regress argument by demonstrating (1) that this theory leads to an infinite regress (e.g. by pointing out the recursive principle and the triggering condition) and (2) that this infinite regress is vicious (e.g. by showing that it is implausible given the limitations of the human mind). In this example, the argument has a negative form since it only denies that another theory is true. But it can also be used in a positive form to support a theory by showing that its alternative involves a vicious regress. This is how the cosmological argument for the existence of God works: it claims that positing God's existence is necessary in order to avoid an infinite regress of causes.


title: Infinite regress

text: For an "infinite regress argument" to be successful, it has to show that the involved regress is "vicious". A "non-vicious" regress is called "virtuous" or "benign". Traditionally, it was often assumed without much argument that each infinite regress is vicious but this assumption has been put into question in contemporary philosophy. In most cases, it is not self-evident whether an infinite regress is vicious or not. The "truth regress" constitutes an example of an infinite regress that is not vicious: if the proposition "P" is true, then the proposition that "It is true that P" is also true and so on. Infinite regresses pose a problem mostly if the regress concerns concrete objects. Abstract objects, on the other hand, are often considered to be unproblematic in this respect. For example, the truth-regress leads to an infinite number of true propositions or the Peano axioms entail the existence of infinitely many natural numbers. But these regresses are usually not held against the theories that entail them.


title: Infinite regress

text: There are different ways how a regress can be vicious. The most serious type of viciousness involves a contradiction in the form of "metaphysical impossibility". Other types occur when the infinite regress is responsible for the theory in question being implausible or for its failure to solve the problem it was formulated to solve. The vice of an infinite regress can be local if it causes problems only for certain theories when combined with other assumptions, or global otherwise. For example, an otherwise virtuous regress is locally vicious for a theory that posits a finite domain. In some cases, an infinite regress is not itself the source of the problem but merely indicates a different underlying problem.


title: Infinite regress

text: Infinite regresses that involve "metaphysical impossibility" are the most serious cases of viciousness. The easiest way to arrive at this result is by accepting the assumption that actual infinities are impossible, thereby directly leading to a contradiction. This anti-infinitists position is opposed to infinity in general, not just specifically to infinite regresses. But it is open to defenders of the theory in question to deny this outright prohibition on actual infinities. For example, it has been argued that only certain types of infinities are problematic in this way, like infinite intensive magnitudes (e.g. infinite energy densities). But other types of infinities, like infinite cardinality (e.g. infinitely many causes) or infinite extensive magnitude (e.g. the duration of the universe's history) are unproblematic from the point of view of metaphysical impossibility. While there may be some instances of viciousness due to metaphysical impossibility, most vicious regresses are problematic because of other reasons.


title: Infinite regress

text: A more common form of viciousness arises from the implausibility of the infinite regress in question. This category often applies to theories about human actions, states or capacities. This argument is weaker than the argument from impossibility since it allows that the regress in question is possible. It only denies that it is actual. For example, it seems implausible due to the limitations of the human mind that there are justified beliefs if this entails that the agent needs to have an infinite amount of them. But this is not metaphysically impossible, e.g. if it is assumed that the infinite number of beliefs are only non-occurrent or dispositional while the limitation only applies to the number of beliefs one is actually thinking about at one moment. Another reason for the implausibility of theories involving an infinite regress is due to the principle known as Ockham's razor, which posits that we should avoid ontological extravagance by not multiplying entities without necessity. Considerations of parsimony are complicated by the distinction between quantitative and qualitative parsimony: concerning how many entities are posited in contrast to how many kinds of entities are posited. For example, the cosmological argument for the existence of God promises to increase "quantitative" parsimony by positing that there is one first cause instead of allowing an infinite chain of events. But it does so by decreasing "qualitative" parsimony: it posits God as a new type of entity.


title: Infinite regress

text: Another form of viciousness applies not to the infinite regress by itself but to it in relation to the explanatory goals of a theory. Theories are often formulated with the goal of solving a specific problem, e.g. of answering the question why a certain type of entity exists. One way how such an attempt can fail is if the answer to the question already assumes in disguised form what it was supposed to explain. This is akin to the informal fallacy of begging the question. From the perspective of a mythological world view, for example, one way to explain why the earth seems to be at rest instead of falling down is to hold that it rests on the back of a giant turtle. In order to explain why the turtle itself is not in free fall, another even bigger turtle is posited and so on, resulting in a world that is turtles all the way down. Despite its shortcomings in clashing with modern physics and due to its ontological extravagance, this theory seems to be metaphysically possible assuming that space is infinite. One way to assess the viciousness of this regress is to distinguish between "local" and "global" explanations. A "local" explanation is only interested in explaining why one thing has a certain property through reference to another thing without trying to explain this other thing as well. A "global" explanation, on the other hand, tries to explain why there are any things with this property at all. So as a local explanation, the regress in the turtle theory is benign: it succeeds in explaining why the earth is not falling. But as a global explanation, it fails because it has to assume rather than explain at each step that there is another thing that is not falling. It does not explain why nothing at all is falling.


title: Infinite regress

text: It has been argued that infinite regresses can be benign under certain circumstances despite aiming at global explanation. This line of thought rests on the idea of the "transmission" involved in the vicious cases: it is explained that "X" is "F" because "Y" is "F" where this "F" was somehow transmitted from "Y" to "X". The problem is that to transfer something, you have to possess it first, so the possession is presumed rather than explained. For example, assume that in trying to explain why your neighbor has the property of being the owner of a bag of sugar, it is revealed that this bag was first in someone else's possession before it was transferred to your neighbor and that the same is true for this and every other previous owner. This explanation is unsatisfying since ownership is presupposed at every step. In non-transmissive explanations, on the other hand, "Y" is still the reason for "X" being "F" and "Y" is also "F" but this is just seen as a contingent fact. This line of thought has been used to argue that the epistemic regress is not vicious. From a Bayesian point of view, for example, justification or evidence can be defined in terms of one belief raising the probability that another belief is true. The former belief may also be justified but this is not relevant for explaining why the latter belief is justified.


title: Infinite regress

text: Philosophers have responded to infinite regress arguments in various ways. The criticized theory can be defended, for example, by denying that an infinite regress is involved. "Infinitists", on the other hand, embrace the regress but deny that it is vicious. Another response is to modify the theory in order to avoid the regress. This can be achieved in the form of "foundationalism" or of "coherentism".


title: Infinite regress

text: Traditionally, the most common response is "foundationalism". It posits that there is a first element in the series from which all the other elements arise but which is not itself explained this way. So from any given position, the series can be traced back to elements on the most fundamental level, which the recursive principle fails to explain. This way an infinite regress is avoided. This position is well-known from its applications in the field of epistemology. Foundationalist theories of epistemic justification state that besides inferentially justified beliefs, which depend for their justification on other beliefs, there are also non-inferentially justified beliefs. The non-inferentially justified beliefs constitute the foundation on which the superstructure consisting of all the inferentially justified beliefs rests. Acquaintance theories, for example, explain the justification of non-inferential beliefs through acquaintance with the objects of the belief. On such a view, an agent is inferentially justified to believe that it will rain tomorrow based on the belief that the weather forecast told so. She is non-inferentially justified in believing that she is in pain because she is directly acquainted with the pain. So a different type of explanation (acquaintance) is used for the foundational elements.


title: Infinite regress

text: Another example comes from the field of metaphysics concerning the problem of ontological hierarchy. One position in this debate claims that some entities exist on a more fundamental level than other entities and that the latter entities depend on or are grounded in the former entities. "Metaphysical foundationalism" is the thesis that these dependence relations do not form an infinite regress: that there is a most fundamental level that grounds the existence of the entities from all other levels. This is sometimes expressed by stating that the grounding-relation responsible for this hierarchy is "well-founded".


title: Infinite regress

text: "Coherentism", mostly found in the field of epistemology, is another way to avoid infinite regresses. It is based on a holistic explanation that usually sees the entities in question not as a linear series but as an interconnected network. For example, coherentist theories of epistemic justification hold that beliefs are justified because of the way they hang together: they cohere well with each other. This view can be expressed by stating that justification is primarily a property of the system of beliefs as a whole. The justification of a single belief is derivative in the sense that it depends on the fact that this belief belongs to a coherent whole. Laurence BonJour is a well-known contemporary defender of this position.


title: Infinite regress

text: Aristotle argued that knowing does not necessitate an infinite regress because some knowledge does not depend on demonstration:


title: Infinite regress

text: Gilbert Ryle argues in the philosophy of mind that mind-body dualism is implausible because it produces an infinite regress of "inner observers" when trying to explain how mental states are able to influence physical states.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked), abbreviated CVR(T), is a family of armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) developed in the 1960s and is in service with the British Army and others throughout the world. They are small, highly mobile, air-transportable armoured vehicles, originally designed to replace the Alvis Saladin armoured car.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: Designed by Alvis in the 1960s, the CVR(T) family includes Scorpion and Scimitar light reconnaissance tanks, Spartan armoured personnel carriers (APC)s, Sultan command and control vehicle, Samaritan armoured ambulance, Striker anti–tank guided missile vehicle and Samson armoured recovery vehicle. All members of the CVR(T) family were designed to share common automotive components and suspension; aluminium armour was selected to keep the weight down. By 1996, more than 3,500 had been built for British Army use and export.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In the early 1960s, the United Kingdom's overseas commitments were proving costly to garrison and were a drain on the defence budget. A new strategy was proposed, that troops and equipment would be airlifted to trouble-spots from their bases in Europe. To support the air-landed troops, a requirement was identified for an AFV that could provide fire support with an anti-armour capability and be light enough to be airportable by the projected Armstrong Whitworth AW.681. At the same time, consideration was being given to the replacement of the Saladin armoured car.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In 1960, work began on what was called the "Armoured Vehicle Reconnaissance". The vehicle would mount a 76 or 105 mm main gun in a limited-traverse turret, which also housed the three-man crew; namely: driver, gunner and commander. The anti–armour capability would be met by a Swingfire missile system (then under development) mounted at the rear. The design would come in both tracked and wheeled versions and share the same engine and transmission as the FV432 armoured personnel carrier. The final weight of the prototype was over 13 tons, which exceeded the weight limit if it was to be transported by air.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: To reduce weight, aluminium alloy armour – using AA7017 made to Alcan E74S specification (Al + Zn 3.9; Mn 2.6) – was originally selected instead of steel; research revealed that it provided greater protection from artillery shell-splinters because of its areal density. However, this alloy suffered from stress corrosion cracking over time, especially around the gun mantlets of the Scimitar, and an improved specification armour (AA1707 made to MVEE-1318B with strict quality control) was fitted from 1978.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: To fit inside the transport aircraft of the time, the vehicle's height had to be less than , its width had to be less than . To meet the ground pressure requirement of five psi, the tracks had to be wide. The width also dictated the engine used – it had to fit next to a driver in full winter clothing. Thus the engine compartment could only be wide. No tank engines in production or development at the time were suitable, so the Jaguar 4.2-litre petrol engine was used. This was modified to use military-grade fuel, with a compression ratio lowered from 9:1 to 7.75:1 and a single Solex Marcus carburettor, resulting in a power output reduction from 265 bhp to 195 bhp.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The driver position, being located at the front of the vehicle alongside the engine, dictated that the turret would have to be at the rear. The fire support version, armed with a 76 mm gun, was named Scorpion as the rear-mounted turret suggested a sting in the tail. Following the example of Alvis predecessor vehicles Saladin, Stalwart (load carrier) and Saracen (personnel carrier), all CVRTs started with the letter 'S'. The other vehicles were named to reflect their function; Striker anti–tank guided weapons, Spartan armoured personnel carrier; Samaritan ambulance; Sultan command and control and Samson recovery vehicles. In addition, the British General Staff had requested another vehicle armed with a 30 mm cannon, which became Scimitar.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In 1967, Alvis was awarded the contract to produce 30 CVR(T) prototypes. Vehicles P1–P17 being the Scorpion prototypes, P18–P30 were prototypes of the other six CVR(T) versions. Having to work under strict cost limitations imposed by the Ministry of Defence, the first prototype was completed on time and within budget on 23 January 1969, after extensive hot and cold weather trials in Norway, Australia, Canada and Abu Dhabi. In May 1970, the CVR(T) was accepted into British Army service; a contract was agreed for 275 Scorpions and 288 Scimitars. The first production Scorpion being completed in 1971, initial delivery to the British Army was in January 1972.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: By 1986, the United Kingdom had taken delivery of 1,863 CVR(T)s. Total production for the British Army was 313 Scorpions, 89 Strikers, 691 Spartans, 50 Samaritans, 291 Sultans, 95 Samsons and 334 Scimitars.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In 1988, Alvis plc was awarded a £32 million contract to carry out a Life Extension Programme (LEP). The initial contract was for 200 CVR(T)s and supply kits for a further 1,107 vehicles. The LEP was carried out on the Scimitar and Sabre reconnaissance vehicles, Spartan APCs, Sultan command post vehicles, Samson recovery vehicles, Samaritan ambulances and the Striker anti-tank vehicle. The major part of this upgrade was the replacement of the Jaguar 4.2-litre petrol engine by a more fuel efficient Cummins BTA 5.9 diesel engine.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: A second contract for 70 vehicles was divided between Alvis and the Army Base Repair Organisation (ABRO). ABRO was then contracted to upgrade about 600 of the remaining CVR(T)s to the LEP standard.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: Alvis also offered a comprehensive upgrade for the export version of the CVR(T), which included a diesel engine, upgraded suspension, new track and vision enhancements. Brunei is the only country known to have returned vehicles for an overhaul.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In 2001, Thales Optronics won the contract for the Battle Group Thermal Imaging (BGTI) programme. The contract will replace the image intensification sights installed on British Army Scimitar and Royal Engineers Spartan vehicles. They were replaced by a new gunner's sight with a day thermal image and laser rangefinder sight. The vehicle commander will have a monitor and a map display and the driver a navigation capability.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The FV101 Scorpion was originally developed to meet a British Army requirement for the Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked). Scorpion was accepted by the British Army in May 1970, with a contract for 275, which later rose to 313 vehicles. Main armament consisted of a low velocity 76mm main gun with a coaxial 7.62 mm GPMG and multi-barrelled smoke grenade dischargers. The first production vehicles were completed in 1972. The first British regiment to be equipped with the Scorpion was the Blues and Royals of the Household Cavalry in 1973.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In November 1981, the RAF Regiment took delivery of the first of 184 Scorpions and other variants of CVR(T). These were to be used for airfield defence and served at RAF bases in the United Kingdom, Germany and Cyprus. The 76mm gun was ideal for the role, especially the canister round, which could be used on base against attacking personnel whilst minimising the risk to aircraft and infrastructure due to its short range. The RAF Regiment tranche of vehicles is understood to have originally been part of an order for Iran, but which were not delivered following the revolution that overthrew the Shah. The vehicles differed by having no wading equipment, and the vehicle commander's cupola on the RAF Regiment Spartan was a different design from that of British Army variants.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: British Scorpions were withdrawn from service in 1995, principally because of the toxicity hazard in the crew compartment caused when the main armament was fired. In addition, RAF Bomb Disposal (EOD) teams used Scimitar and Spartan. Their protection and mobility allowed the teams to move around airfields that had unexploded ordnance (UXO) and CBRN contamination. The 30mm main armament on the Scimitar could be used to detonate the UXO or to crack the case of a bomb to allow the contents to drain or to deflagrate.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The FV102 Striker was the anti-tank guided missile version of the CVR(T), which was armed with the Swingfire missile system. Striker had five missiles ready to fire in a mounting at the rear of the vehicle, with another five stowed inside. Secondary armament consisted of a commander's 7.62 mm GPMG and multi-barrelled smoke grenade dischargers. Striker looked very similar to Spartan in appearance, becoming more easily identifiable only when the missile tubes were raised. In mid 2006, the British Army had 48 Strikers in service, although they were in the process of being phased out as the Swingfire missile was replaced by the Javelin in mid–2005.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The FV103 Spartan is a small armoured personnel carrier (APC); it can carry seven men in all, the crew of three and four others in the rear compartment. In the British Army, it is used to carry small specialised groups, such as engineer reconnaissance teams, air defence sections and mortar fire controllers. In mid-2006, the British Army had 478 Spartans in service, which from 2009 were being replaced by the Panther Command and Liaison Vehicle in some roles.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The FV104 Samaritan is the ambulance version of the CVR(T), 50 were produced for the British Army. In appearance it is similar to the Sultan Command and Control vehicle. It has a crew of two and capacity for four stretchers; being an ambulance it is not armed except for multi-barrelled smoke grenade dischargers.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The FV105 Sultan is the British Army command and control vehicle based on the CVR(T) platform, 205 were in service in 2006. It has a higher roof than the APC variants, providing a more comfortable "office space" inside. A large vertical map board and desk are located along one side, with a bench seat for three people facing it. Forward of this are positions for the radio operator, with provision for four radios, and the vehicle commander. Armament consists of a pintle-mounted GPMG and multi-barrelled smoke grenade dischargers. The back of the vehicle is designed to be extended by an attached tent to form a briefing area.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The FV106 Samson is an armoured recovery vehicle. The hull of the Spartan was adapted to contain a winch, which was operated to the rear of the vehicle. A hinged spade anchor was designed in two-halves to preserve access to the rear door.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The FV107 Scimitar is very similar to the Scorpion but carries the 30mm RARDEN cannon as its main weapon. Secondary armament consists of a coaxial GPMG and multi-barrelled smoke grenade dischargers. Stowage is provided for 201 rounds of 30 mm and 3,000 rounds of 7.62 mm ammunition. In 2006, the British Army had 328 in service; these are expected to be replaced by the scout version of the Future Rapid Effect System.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Sabre was a hybrid vehicle, with the turret from a Fox Armoured Reconnaissance Vehicle on a FV101 Scorpion hull and armed with the same 30mm RARDEN cannon as the Scimitar. One hundred and thirty-six of these hybrid vehicles were brought into service in 1995, after some modifications were made to the turret. These modifications included redesigning the smoke grenade dischargers, replacing the standard machine gun with an L94A1 chain gun and domed hatches to improve headroom for the commander and gunner. They were assigned to the reconnaissance platoons of armoured and mechanised infantry battalions before being withdrawn from service in 2004.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: Sturgeon (based on the Spartan) and Salamander (based on the Scorpion) are visually modified vehicles used to represent opposing forces in training exercises at the British Army Training Unit Suffield in Canada.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Alvis Stormer was originally designed in the 1970s as a private venture APC, using the CVR(T) range as a starting point. It is a larger ( longer with a 6th set of road wheels) and heavier (12,700 kg) vehicle with steel and aluminium armour. Production began in 1982. Malaysia ordered 25 of the APC variant.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In 1986, the British Army selected Stormer to carry the Starstreak missile anti–aircraft system and a flatbed version fitted with the Shielder minelaying system.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: BAE Land Systems, the descendant of Alvis military vehicles, market Stormer with various weapon systems for many purposes. Indonesia has received about 50 Stormer variants, including the APC, command post vehicle, ambulance, recovery, bridge-layers and logistics vehicle. Malaysia has 35, Oman has four and the United Kingdom has over 170.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In British Army service, the CVR(T) is mainly used by the Formation reconnaissance regiments, which are the Household Cavalry, 1st Queen's Dragoon Guards, 9th/12th Royal Lancers, Light Dragoons, Queen's Royal Lancers, the Royal Yeomanry and the Queen's Own Yeomanry. Scimitars are also used by one of the four squadrons in an armoured regiment and the reconnaissance platoons of armoured infantry battalions.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In August 1974, Scorpions from A Squadron 16th/5th The Queen's Royal Lancers, were transported by C-130 Hercules to Cyprus, to protect the British Sovereign Base Areas during the Turkish invasion.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: During the Falklands War in 1982, two troops from B Squadron, Blues and Royals were attached to the task force. They were equipped with four Scorpions and four Scimitars supported by a Samson and were the only armoured vehicles used in action by the British Army during the conflict. The two troops deployed provided fire support for the 2nd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment during the Battle of Wireless Ridge and for 2nd Battalion Scots Guards during the Battle of Mount Tumbledown.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: By the time of the Gulf war, the CVR(T) was well established in the British Army and all versions were deployed. The divisional reconnaissance regiment attached to the 1st Armoured Division was the 16th/5th The Queen's Royal Lancers, (with 36 Scimitars, 16 Strikers, 12 Spartans, 9 Sultans and 4 Samaritans), and 'A' Squadron 1st Queen's Dragoon Guards (16 Scorpions, 4 Spartans, 2 Sultans, 1 Samaritan, 1 Samson). This unit also had 1 Sqn RAF Regiment (Operating Scorpion, Spartan, Sultan & Samsons ) attached to them. The armoured regiments and armoured infantry battalions reconnaissance troops also had eight Scorpions or Scimitars each.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The CVR(T) family were deployed with the British Army's formation reconnaissance regiments– part of the NATO Implementation Force (IFOR), a multinational force in Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The next deployment for the British Army's CVR(T)s was the 2003 invasion of Iraq (Operation Telic). The initial force contained the 1st Queen's Dragoon Guards and D Squadron, the Household Cavalry, both equipped with CVR(T).


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: After Iraq, CVR(T) equipped formation reconnaissance regiments have taken part in Operation Herrick in Afghanistan, notably during Operation Panther's Claw with the Light Dragoons.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Belgian Army ordered 701 EA CVR(T) in the Scorpion, Scimitar, Sultan, Spartan and Samaritan versions, which were delivered in 1975. They were used by the COMRECCE that comprised the 1st, 2nd and 4th Mounted Rifles Regiments (also the 3rd Lancers, which was equipped with the Leopard 1 tank), the CVR-T group (Armoured Recce school) and all of the scout platoons from the 12EA armoured Infantry and 8EA Tank Regiments. The Belgian Army used its CVR(T) vehicles on UN deployments in the Balkans and Somalia. Belgium had disposed of all its CVR(T)s by 2004.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Irish Army obtained a small number of Scorpions for use by the Irish Army Cavalry Corps. As the United Kingdom, Belgium and Spain have all disposed of their Scorpions, Ireland was the sole user of the type during the last decade in Europe until they were retired in 2014.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Latvian army has obtained 123 ex-British Army Scimitar, Sultan, Spartan, Samson and Samaritan vehicles. According to the contract, all the vehicles will be modernised and overhauled. First deliveries to the Latvian Land Forces will commence in September 2015. Some of these vehicles will be used as mobile platforms for 4th generation Spike anti-tank guided missile systems.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Chilean Army has 28 Scorpions, which are used in a reconnaissance role alongside Leopard 1 and Leopard 2 tanks.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: In South East Asia and the Pacific, CVR(T) operators included Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines and New Zealand.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: Brunei is understood to have a fleet of 19 CVR(T)s, which comprises 16 Scorpions, two Sultan command post variants and one Samson armoured recovery vehicle.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Indonesian Army uses the Scorpion 90 armed with the Belgian 90mm Cockerill cannon and the Stormer. The Stormer variants include the APC, command post vehicle, ambulance, recovery, bridge-layers and logistics vehicle.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Malaysian Royal Armoured Corps of the Malaysian Army is known to use both Scorpion and the newer Stormer.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Royal Thai Army was forced to expand its forces after the fall of South Vietnam and the increased tension in the area. As part of this expansion, they obtained 144 Scorpions between 1973 and 1976.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Philippine Army operated up to 40 Scorpions in its Light Armor Division. This formation used a mixture of wheeled and tracked vehicles, but the Scorpion was the only fire support or anti-armour vehicle in their inventory. They also operated 6 Samaritans and 3 Samsons.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The New Zealand Army operated a small number of Scorpions, up to squadron strength. These have now been replaced by the LAV III.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Iranian army deployed its Scorpions with the reconnaissance regiment of the 28th Infantry Division in the 1980–1988 Iran–Iraq War. Little is known of how they performed or what losses they incurred. In December 1997, it was reported that Iran had manufactured a light tank named Tosan. Tosan was equipped with a 90 mm gun and appears to be based on the Scorpion.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Royal Jordanian Land Force has obtained 80 Scorpions and 100 Spartans. Some of the Scorpions are reported to have been captured by Iraq during the Iran–Iraq war and handed on to Jordan. The Spartans were obtained when Belgium disposed of their CVR(T) fleet.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Royal Army of Oman replaced the Saladin armoured car with between 30 and 50 Scorpions. They were delivered between 1982 and 1983, along with three Samson armoured recovery vehicles. In 1985, a second order for up to 30 vehicles was delivered. The second order included Scorpion, Sultan, Spartan and Samson vehicles. Oman operates the newer Stormer.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The United Arab Emirates Army has obtained 76 Scorpions for use by its armoured brigades. It is not known if these played any part in the Gulf War.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Nigerian Army reorganised from an infantry to an all arms formation after 1979. Part of their AFV inventory includes an unknown number of Scorpions.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Australian Army did not use CVR(T)s, but did use the Scorpion turret mounted on top of M113 armoured personnel carriers. Known in the Australian Army as the Medium Reconnaissance Vehicle, they were used in a fire support role. They have now been replaced by newer vehicles.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The Canadian Army also used the Scorpion turret, which they mounted on the AVGP Cougar. A total of 195 Cougars were originally procured, but the fleet was reduced to 100 vehicles in 1999 and are no longer employed.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: As a result of combat experience in Afghanistan, the British Army upgraded several Scimitar light tanks to Mark 2 standard. The improvements included a new aluminium hull based on that of the Spartan troop carrier, which provides greater internal volume and protection, and a new fuel system, environmental control system and suspension. New hulls have also been built for the Spartan, Sultan, Samson and Samaritan variants.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: The British firm OVIK has designed a vehicle named "Meerkat" based on the CVR(T), anticipating that large numbers of these will become available for refurbishment in future years when they are replaced in British service, and perhaps several other armed forces. The hull has been redesigned, and the driver has been moved back into a central position – sitting side by side with his primary crewman. The vehicle is steered using a conventional steering wheel system – which can be swapped from left to right – to allow either crewman to drive or command the vehicle. The engine has been replaced by a Cummins 6.7-litre diesel engine whilst the transmission has been uprated to DB TN15E+ and STORMER final drives. The turret has been replaced by a modular weapon "cassette" that will mount remote weapon stations, armed with, for example, a .50" M2 HB machine gun.


title: Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)

text: Another British consortium claims to have designed and developed a concept that uses a common tracked chassis with interchangeable pods for different vehicle roles. The Mark 1 mPODt (multi-role POD (tracked)) uses the Stallion, a flat bed development similar to that used on Shielder, to demonstrate the concept on a 10–13 tonne weight vehicle. However, the chassis could be from a number of in-service vehicles.


title: Lyme Regis

text: Lyme Regis is a town in west Dorset, England, west of Dorchester and east of Exeter. Sometimes dubbed the "Pearl of Dorset", it lies by the English Channel at the Dorset–Devon border. It has noted fossils in cliffs and beaches on the Heritage or Jurassic Coast, a World Heritage Site. The harbour wall, known as The Cobb, appears in Jane Austen's novel "Persuasion", the John Fowles novel "The French Lieutenant's Woman" and the 1981 film of that name, partly shot in the town. A former mayor and MP was Admiral Sir George Somers, who founded the English colonial settlement of Somers Isles, now Bermuda, where Lyme Regis is twinned with St George's. In July 2015, Lyme Regis joined Jamestown, Virginia in a Historic Atlantic Triangle with St George's. The 2011 Census gave the urban area a population of 4,712, estimated at 4,805 in 2019.


title: Lyme Regis

text: In Saxon times, the abbots of Sherborne Abbey had salt-boiling rights on land adjacent to the River Lym, and the abbey once owned part of the town. Lyme is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086. In the 13th century, it developed as one of the major British ports. A Royal Charter was granted by King Edward I in 1284 when "Regis" was added to the town's name. The charter was confirmed by Queen Elizabeth I in 1591.


title: Lyme Regis

text: John Leland visited in the 16th century and described Lyme as "a praty market town set in the rootes of an high rokky hille down to the hard shore. There cummith a shalow broke from the hilles about a three miles by north, and cummith fleting on great stones through a stone bridge in the bottom."


title: Lyme Regis

text: In 1644, during the English Civil War, Parliamentarians withstood an eight-week siege of the town by Royalist forces under Prince Maurice. The Duke of Monmouth landed at Lyme Regis at the start of the Monmouth Rebellion in 1685.


title: Lyme Regis

text: Between 1811 and her death in 1849 Mary Anning, a geological pioneer, found and identified Jurassic Marine reptile fossils in cliffs to the east of Lyme Regis.


title: Lyme Regis

text: On New Year's Day, 1915, was torpedoed, the first major U-boat kill of World War I. A local lifeboat delivered bodies to the "Pilot Boat Inn" in Bridge Street. Lassie, the owner's dog, licked the face of Seaman Cowan, who was believed dead, and seemingly brought him back to life. The namesake of this cross-breed became a legend of books, radio, film and television.


title: Lyme Regis

text: In 1965, the town's railway station was closed under the Beeching Axe. The station was dismantled and rebuilt at Alresford, on the Mid Hants Watercress Railway in Hampshire. The route to Lyme Regis was notable for being operated by aged Victorian locomotives. One of these Adams Radial Tank engines is now preserved on the Bluebell Railway in Sussex. A West Country Class steam locomotive No. 34009 was named "Lyme Regis" after the town.


title: Lyme Regis

text: In 2005, one event to mark the bicentenary of Admiral Nelson's victory at the Battle of Trafalgar was a re-enactment of the arrival of the news aboard the Bermuda sloop . The actor playing the part of Lieutenant John Richards Lapenotière, the Trafalgar messenger, was welcomed at Lyme Regis.


title: Lyme Regis

text: Lyme Regis is a coastal town in West Dorset, west of Dorchester and east of Exeter. It lies in Lyme Bay, on the English Channel coast at the Dorset–Devon border. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 3,671. The town has grown around the mouth of the River Lim (or Lym) which drops from a plateau at an altitude of about before flowing around south and south-east to the sea. Its name is of British origin and probably cognate with the Welsh "llif" meaning flood or stream. Historically there were mills along its length. Its lower reaches coincide with sections of three recreational footpaths: the Wessex Ridgeway, Liberty Trail and East Devon Trail.


title: Lyme Regis

text: The town's beaches and cliffs are noted for fossils. They form part of the Heritage Coast — known commercially as the Jurassic Coast – a World Heritage Site stretching for from Orcombe Point near Exmouth in the west to Old Harry Rocks in the east. The coastal exposures provide a continuous sequence of Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous rock formations spanning some 185 million years of the Earth's history. Localities along the Jurassic Coast include a range of important fossil zones.


title: Lyme Regis

text: The Blue Lias and Charmouth Mudstone geological formations host a multitude of remains from the Early Jurassic era, from which good fossil records are rare. Many remains are well preserved, including complete specimens of important species. Many of the earliest discoveries of dinosaur and other prehistoric reptile remains were made in the area around Lyme Regis, notably those discovered by Mary Anning (1799–1847). Significant finds include "Ichthyosaurus", "Plesiosaurus", "Dimorphodon", "Scelidosaurus" (one of the first armoured dinosaurs) and "Dapedium". The town holds an annual Mary Anning Day and Lyme Regis Fossil Festival. A fossil of the world's largest moth was discovered there in 1966.


title: Lyme Regis

text: To the south-west are Poker's Pool, Seven Rock Point and Pinhay Bay and to the north-east is Charmouth. The coast is subject to landslips that expose the Jurassic-age fossils to be found on the beaches. "The Dowlands Landslip" occurred on 24 December 1839, west along the coast in Devon, in an area belonging to Bindon Manor. About of wheat and turnip fields were dislodged when a great chasm more than across, deep and long was formed. The crops remained intact on the top of what became known as "Goat Island" among the newly formed gullies. On 3 February 1840 a smaller landslip occurred nearby. The phenomenon attracted many visitors, and farmers charged sixpence to view it. The area is now known as The Undercliff and is of interest for its diverse natural history.


title: Lyme Regis

text: Landslides continued to cause problems in the area into the 21st century. In 2005, work began on a £16 million engineering project to stabilise the cliffs and protect the town from coastal erosion. The town's main beach was relaid and reopened on 1 July 2006. On the evening of 6 May 2008, a section of land slipped onto the beach between Lyme Regis and Charmouth. Police described the landslip as the "worst in 100 years". It called for diverting the South West Coast Path inland between Lyme Regis and Charmouth via the Lyme Regis Golf Course.


title: Lyme Regis

text: In the 2011 census the town's parish had 2,431 dwellings, 1,770 households and a population of 3,671.


title: Lyme Regis

text: The parish church of St Michael the Archangel, above Church Cliff, dominates the old town. Dating from the 12th century, it was originally a tripartite structure with an axial tower. Transepts were added in about 1200 and two aisles in the 13th century. A new church was built east of the tower and transepts early in the 16th century and the old chancel and aisles removed. The old nave was shortened in the 19th century.


title: Lyme Regis

text: Mary Anning is buried there and commemorated in a stained-glass window provided by members of the Geological Society of London, an organisation that did not admit women until 1904.


title: Lyme Regis

text: The Baptist church was founded in 1653 and has been on the same site since 1699. Bethany Chapel, an independent Evangelical (Christian Brethren) church, celebrated its centenary in 2014.


title: Lyme Regis

text: The Boat Building Academy, a registered charity runs courses in traditional boatbuilding and furniture making from its site at Monmouth Beach.


title: Lyme Regis

text: The first record of the Cobb, the town's harbour wall, is in a 1328 document describing it as having been damaged by storms. It was made of oak piles driven into the seabed, with boulders stacked between. The boulders had been floated into place, tied between empty barrels. A 1685 account describes it as, "an immense mass of stone, of a shape of a demi-lune, with a bar in the middle of the concave: no one stone that lies there was ever touched with a tool or bedded in any sort of cement, but all the pebbles of the see are piled up, and held by their bearings only, and the surge plays in and out through the interstices of the stone in a wonderful manner." The Cobb wall provides a breakwater to shield the town from storms and separate Monmouth and Cobb Gate beaches.


title: Lyme Regis

text: The Cobb had economic importance in and around the town, creating an artificial harbour that enabled the town to develop as a port and shipbuilding centre from the 13th century onwards. Shipbuilding was significant between 1780 and 1850; nearly 100 ships were launched, including the 12-gun Royal Navy brig HMS "Snap." Well-sited for trade with France, the port's most prosperous period was from the 16th century until the end of the 18th. In 1780, the port was larger than the Port of Liverpool but its importance declined in the 19th century, as it could not handle ships of increasing size.


title: Lyme Regis

text: The Cobb has been destroyed or damaged by storms several times; it was swept away in 1377, along with 50 boats and 80 houses. The southern arm was added in the 1690s and rebuilt in 1793 after it was destroyed in a storm the previous year. It is thought that mortar was used in the Cobb's construction for the first time in this rebuilding. It was reconstructed in 1820 using Portland Admiralty Roach, a type of Portland stone. After the Great Storm of 1824, Captain Sir Richard Spencer RN carried out pioneering lifeboat design work in Cobb harbour.


title: Lyme Regis

text: Open since the late 1950s, Lyme Regis Marine Aquarium occupies an early 18th-century stone building on the Cobb harbour wall. The aquarium showcases some of the abundant local sea life and offers insight into Lyme's rich maritime history.