title: Volusia County, Florida

text: In the county, the age distribution was 20.30% under 18, 8.20% from 18 to 24, 25.30% from 25 to 44, 24.20% from 45 to 64, and 22.10% at 65 or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.80 males.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: The median income for a household in the county was $35,219, and for a family was $41,767. Males had a median income of $30,573 versus $22,471 for females. The per capita income for the county was $19,664. About 7.90% of families and 11.60% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.30% of those under age 18 and 7.10% of those age 65 or over.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: As of 2016, an estimated 205,310 households were in Volusia County. The total population was 510,806. About 86.8% spoke English as their only language, so 13.2% could speak a language other than English. The largest ancestry groups in the county were English-American at 15.7%, German-American at 12.3%, Irish-American at 11.0% and Italian-American at 7.0%.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: The overall gross metro product (GMP) for Volusia County economy increased from $12.98 billion in 2005 to $13.69 billion in 2006; a $709.9 million increase. The GMP is an annual measurement of the total economic output and sales of goods and services provided within the metropolitan statistical area that comprises all of Volusia County and its 16 cities. A GMP of $13.69 billion represents a significant circulation of new capital resources in an economy populated by just over 500,000 residents.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: Local consumer confidence and a continued immigration of an estimated 28,800 new residents, new capital investments for new construction exceeding $1.11 billion, and the steady growth of professional and health-care services continued to drive much of the county's economic viability.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: Volusia County's manufacturing sector maintained a steady and stable position within the local economy contrary to the declining trends being experienced elsewhere within Florida. The overall number of manufacturers present within the county increased to over 430 in 2006 and accounted for a large portion of the county's GMP. Manufacturing maintains one of the highest of all average wage levels within the county and generates a higher rate of circulation of economic impact than any other business sector that comprises the local economy.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: Volusia County's manufacturing sector generated an average annual wage of $37,632 in 2006, well above the county's average annual wage of $32,200 for all workers.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: Volusia County Public Transit System (VOTRAN) is the local bus service. The buses offer service throughout the county, Monday through Saturday, from 7 am to 7 pm, and is handicapped-accessible. Limited service is offered in East Volusia in the evenings and on Sundays. The cost is $1.25 per trip, $3.00 for a one-day bus pass, or $40 for a 31-day pass (valid for all VOTRAN routes).


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: Passenger train service to Volusia County is provided by Amtrak on the "Silver Meteor" and "Silver Star" routes.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: Service between Volusia County and Orlando is provided by SunRail, a commuter rail line running from Volusia to Orange County. The initial phase of the project commenced in 2014 and extends service to as far north as DeBary. A planned expansion was to include the DeLand Amtrak station in 2015.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: Public primary and secondary education is handled by Volusia County Schools. One of the larger private schools is Father Lopez Catholic High School.


title: Volusia County, Florida

text: Public broadcasting station WDSC-TV is located in Daytona Beach and broadcasts to 10 counties in Central Florida. Television station WESH is allocated to Daytona Beach - Orlando, and its transmission tower is located midway between those two. Otherwise, Volusia County is served by the major TV broadcasting stations in Orlando and Orange County.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: BRP Inc. is the holding company for Bombardier Recreational Products Inc., operating as BRP, a Canadian manufacturer of snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, side by sides, motorcycles, and personal watercraft. It was founded in 2003, when the Recreational Products Division of Bombardier Inc. was spun-off and sold to a group of investors consisting of Bain Capital, the Bombardier-Beaudoin family and the Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec. Bombardier Inc., was founded in 1942 as "L'Auto-Neige Bombardier Limitée" (Bombardier Snowmobile Limited) by Joseph-Armand Bombardier at Valcourt in the Eastern Townships, Quebec.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: , BRP had about 5,500 employees; its revenues in 2007 were above US$2.5 billion. BRP has manufacturing facilities in five countries: Canada, the United States (Wisconsin, Illinois, North Carolina, Arkansas, Michigan and Minnesota), Mexico, Finland, and Austria. The company's products are sold in more than 100 countries, some of which have their own direct-sales network.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: BRP's products include the Ski-Doo and Lynx snowmobiles, Can-Am ATVs and Can-Am motorcycles, Sea-Doo personal watercraft, and Rotax engines. The Ski-Doo was ranked 17th place on CBC Television's "The Greatest Canadian Invention" in 2007.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: Before the start of the company's development of track vehicles, Joseph-Armand Bombardier experimented with propeller-driven snow vehicles (similar to Russian aerosanis). His work with snowplane designs can be traced to before 1920. He quickly abandoned his efforts to develop a snowplane and turned his inventive skills to tracked vehicles.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: From the start, the company made truck-sized half-track vehicles, with skis in the front and caterpillar tracks in the rear, designed for the worst winter conditions of the flatland Canadian countryside. After producing half-tracks in World War II for the Canadian Army, the company experimented with new forms of track systems and developed an all-tracked, heavy duty vehicle designed for logging and mining operations in extreme wilderness conditions, such as heavy snow or semiliquid muskeg. They produced it under the name Muskeg tractor.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: Each track is composed of two or more rubber belts joined into a loop. The loops are held together with interior wheel guides and exterior cleats, commonly called grousers. The tracks are driven by a large drive sprocket that engages the grousers in sequence and causes the track to rotate. Two belt tracks were common on early model Bombardiers and muskeg machines. For deep-snow use, wider tracks, employing additional belts, are used for added flotation over the snow.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: The research for the track base made it possible to produce a relatively small, continuous-rubber track for the light one- or two-person snowmobile the founder of the company had dreamed about during his teen years. This led to the invention of snowmobiles.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: The company created the snowmobile market, and held its own after international competitors entered the market in the late 1960s. From the 1940s through the early 1970s, Bombardier built the most successful snowcat models ever produced by any snowcat manufacturer. The B12 seated 12 people, and the C18 seated 18. Both were similar in design with long tracks in the rear and skis used to steer the vehicle. The B12 and C18 were very fast for their day, with speeds over the snow exceeding 30 miles per hour. Most historic and most modern snowcats have a top speed of barely 20 mph. The Bombardier B12 and C18 were probably the precursors to the more modern snow coach currently used by resorts for transporting tourists. In their day, the B12 and C18 vehicles were used as school buses, mail delivery and emergency vehicles in northern United States and Canada, and were best suited to flat land conditions, frozen roadways, or frozen lakes. While more than 3,000 of the Bombardier B12/C18 variants were produced, Bombardier had competitors in both the North American and world markets. Most of the Bombardier production stayed in North American. The front ski design was incapable of being used in deep snow and rough ground conditions, which opened the door for the development of dual-track and quad-track snowcats. Unfortunately, the front ski design was not easily adapted to change for other ground conditions, so while it was successful on flat lands, frozen lakes, and snow-covered roads, it could not compete on rough, off-road conditions. The combination of the lack of design flexibility, incompatibility with off-road conditions, and the advent of modern snowplowing practices of public roadways beginning in the 1950s, and becoming common in remote areas by the 1960s, probably led to the demise of the B12/C18 design. Today, B12s are still in used in large-scale ice fishing in northern Canada.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: Notable competitors included the Aktiv Snow Trac ST4 from Sweden, Thiokol, and Tucker Sno-Cat from the USA. The Snow Trac was produced, virtually unchanged, until 1981, but it was successful, with over 2,000 units sold, and it was used all over the globe for exploration and commercial purposes, as well as the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo, Japan. Tucker Sno-Cat grew to become one of the world's largest builders of these vehicles, and currently produces a wide range of large commercial and exploration vehicles from its location in Medford, Oregon, USA. Thiokol produced many popular units, notably the Imp, Super Imp, and Spryte models, but changed ownership and name several times before going out of business in 2000 as the Logan Machine Company and manufacturer of the LMC brand.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: Armand dreamed of developing a fast, lightweight snowmobile that could carry one or two people. In the early 1950s, Armand set aside his dream to focus on developing his company's other tracked vehicles. But by the end of the decade, smaller, more efficient engines had been developed and were starting to come on the market. Armand resumed his efforts to build a "miniature" snowmobile. He worked alongside his eldest son Germain, who shared his father's mechanical talents. Armand and Germain developed several prototypes of the lightweight snowmobile and finally, the first Bombardier snowmobile went on sale in 1959.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: The Ski-Doo was originally intended to be named the "Ski-Dog" because Bombardier meant it to be a practical vehicle to replace the dogsled for hunters and trappers. By accident, a printer misinterpreted the name and printed "Ski-Doo" in the first sales brochure. Public interest in the small snowmobiles grew quickly. Suddenly a new winter sport was born, centred in Quebec. In the first year, Bombardier sold 225 Ski-Doos; four years later, 8,210 were sold. But Armand was reluctant to focus too much on the Ski-Doo and move resources away from his all-terrain vehicles. He vividly remembered his earlier business setbacks that forced him to diversify. Armand slowed down promotion of the Ski-Doo line to prevent it from dominating the other company products but still dominate the entire snowmobile industry. The snowmobiles produced were of exceptional quality and performance, earning a better reputation than the rival Polaris and Arctic Cat brands of motor sleds. In 1971, Bombardier completed the purchase of the Moto-Ski company to expand the Ski-Doo line and eliminate a competitor from the marketplace.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: Some of the sleds made by Ski-Doo are the Formula III, Mach 1, and Mach Z with Rotax engines. While it is a commonly held misconception that all Ski-Doo snowmobiles were powered by rotary valved engines, this is not true. Only two cylinder Rotax engines were equipped with rotary valves. As a rule, the later rotary valved sleds were liquid cooled as well. Fan cooled sleds were usually piston port (2-stroke) induction. Sleds such as the formula III, later model mach-1's and the mach Z were powered by three cylinder, 2-stroke, Rotax engines. In 1994 the company produced the first snowmobile equipped specifically for mountain riding, the Ski-Doo Summit. Ski-Doo snowmobiles have consistently been extremely competitive for performance and in the marketplace up to the current day, taking a number of national titles in racing events from Sno-X to hill-climbing. In 1999 Ski-Doo introduced the ZX aluminum chassis which was lighter weight with better suspension and thus very successful in sno-cross competition. In 2003 Ski-Doo introduced rider-forward REV chassis, which changed the sport and was followed by other manufacturers. In 2008 Ski-Doo introduced the XP chassis, which moved the rider further forward with major weight reduction. The XP was the lightest machine available, with power-to-weight ratios in the Summit models for the first time under 3 lb per HP.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: For the 2017 snow year, Ski-Doo will release its most powerful engine. The Rotax 850 cc "Etec" engine. The engine produces 10 more horsepower (170 hp) than its predecessor, it is also more efficient 40 percent less oil burn than the previous Etec. and 30 percent quicker throttle response; this engine paired with the new SP chassis which moves the rider even further forward and provides a big weight reduction over the XP chassis. This makes the 2017 the most capable snowmobile ever, reaching speed of upwards of 90 mph in the Renegade models and climbing nearly straight up mountains at impressive speed in the Summit models.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: During the 1970s, Bombardier built the Can-Am brand of off-road competition motorcycles designed for motocross and enduro with Rotax engines displacing 125, 175, 248, 366, 500 and 800 cc. The bikes competed successfully in professional racing with Gary Jones winning the 1974 US 250cc AMA motocross national championship. In 1983, Bombardier licensed the brand and outsourced development and production of the Can-Am motorcycles to Armstrong-CCM Motorcycles of Lancashire, England. 1987 was the last model year for Can-Am.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: In 2007 Bombardier renamed their all-terrain vehicle line of products Can-Am. Can-am Off-Road has seven models of ATVs, the Outlander, the Renegade, the Commander, The Maverick, the DS, the Traxter, the Quest, and the Rally. The Traxter and Quest (no longer in production) had two engine sizes 500cc and 650cc. The Rally (also no longer in production) was available with a 200cc engine. The Outlander is a utility style ATV available in multiple engine sizes, including 400cc and 450cc single cylinder and 500cc, 570cc, 650cc, 800cc, 850cc and 1000cc V-Twin engines. The Outlander MAX is available for 2-up riding and the Outlander X-MR is built specifically for mud riding. The Renegade is also available with multiple engine choices, a 500cc, 570cc, 800cc, 850cc or 1000cc V-Twin engine. The Renegade X-XC is a separate trim level built specifically for cross country racing. The Outlander 800R X-XC is a version of the Renegade with the same trim level for cross country racing and non-racing trail riding. The XT-P is the modern outlander XXC and features the XT package with front sway bar and beadlock wheels. The 1000cc engine was introduced into the quad classification in the 2012 model year for both the Outlander and the Renegade series. The DS has four engine choices, a 450cc, 250cc, 90cc and 70cc. A 650cc engine was once available but has since been discontinued. An "X" trim level is available for the DS-450 and the DS-90. The Commander is a SSV or Side by side introduced for 2010 with either 800cc or 1000cc engines. Commander has several trim levels, including XT, X and LTD (Limited) at the time the only engine option for the extra packages was the 1000. The XT had upgraded wheels, winch, front bumper and upgraded gauge and steering wheel. The X package had Bumpers, rock sliders, XT gauge and steering wheel, X package seats, and beadlock wheels. Commander Limited includes air ride suspension, an am/fm radio with four speakers, an iPod adapter, XT package and built-in touch screen GPS. All Can Am ATVs except the DS-70 and the DS-90 feature four-stroke Rotax engines. The maverick side by side was introduced to stand up to the Commander's rival the Polaris RZR XP 900. The Maverick has an updated version of the commander's 1000cc V-Twin Rotax engine (1000R) this engine had a massive 101 horsepower. This was achieved by using high flow dynamics to increase exhaust and air flow. The Maverick was a revolution into the horsepower triple digits. The Maverick comes in 6 packages today (February 2014) Base, XRS, XRS DPS, XMR, X ds, and X ds Turbo. In the X ds lineup Can Am brought the first factory installed turbocharged engine to the industry. The turbo boosts the horsepower of the Maverick from 101 horsepower to 121 horsepower.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: In 2007, BRP announced the launch of a new three-wheeled roadster called the Spyder, which was released in Q4 2007 under the Can-Am brand. This is the first vehicle from BRP to go on the road.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: Beginning in the 1970s, Bombardier also built several sailboat models, including the Invitation sailboat, with hull length of ; the Bombardier 3.8, with hull length of ; the Bombardier 4.8 and the Bombardier 7.6 keelboat.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: In the 1970s and 1980s the company diversified into railway and aeronautical products and became a multinational corporation known as Bombardier Inc.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: During restructuring operations in 2003 the original snowmobile and tracked utility vehicle division was spun off as a separate company, with majority ownership transferred to Bain Capital. Though the company is a major manufacturer of two stroke engines and four stroke motors for several industries it is better known for its consumer recreational products.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: They now make Ski-Doo and Lynx brand snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, Sea-Doo personal water craft, jet boats, and Evinrude outboard motors (through the purchase of Outboard Marine Corporation). Bombardier Recreational Products no longer sells outboards under the Johnson brand since 2007, as they have moved all sales entirely to Evinrude Outboard Motors. They support existing Johnson outboard motors through servicing and parts. They also produce motorcycle motors, kart motors, and small airplane motors, through their Rotax division.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: In December 2004 Bombardier Recreational Products Inc, sold the industrial vehicles division to the Camoplast of Sherbrooke, Quebec. The industrial vehicles division made tracked vehicles such as snowcats, sidewalk snow removal tractors, and Tracked Utility Vehicles, including the descendant of their original Muskeg tractor.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: In October 2007, Bombardier Recreational Products Inc. ordered at least some U.S. ATV dealerships to stop selling vehicles to Canadian customers, as the sales were a violation of dealer agreements to respect assigned geographic boundaries. Bombardier also announced that the warranty on any craft purchased by a Canadian in the United States – even if the purchase was initially made by an American - would be void. Newspaper articles revealed that some models were being sold in Canada for as much as 40% above prices in the U.S.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: In September 2012, the company announced that it would exit the sport boat business citing a decline in global sales in the marine industry. This meant the loss of 350 jobs, including most of those at a plant in Benton, Illinois.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: On May 29, 2013 the company announced the closing of an initial public offering of 12,200,000 subordinate voting shares of the company at a price of $21.50 per share resulting in gross proceeds to the company of approximately $262,300,000. The net proceeds from the offering were used to repay outstanding loans. The company's shares now trade on the Toronto Stock Exchange.


title: Bombardier Recreational Products

text: On May 27, 2020, the company announced the discontinuation of its Evinrude E-TEC and E-TEC G2 outboard engines, the repurposing of its Sturtevant, WI, facility, and the closing of its Alumacraft operations in Arkadelphia, AR. The company stated that it had signed an agreement with Mercury Marine to support boat packages and continue to supply outboard engines to BRP boat brands.


title: Gray langur

text: Gray langurs, also called Hanuman langurs and Hanuman monkeys, are Old World monkeys native to the Indian subcontinent constituting the genus Semnopithecus. Traditionally only one species "Semnopithecus entellus" was recognized, but since about 2001, additional species have been recognized. The taxonomy has been in flux, but currently eight species are recognized.


title: Gray langur

text: Gray langurs are fairly terrestrial, inhabiting forest, open lightly wooded habitats, and urban areas on the Indian subcontinent. Most species are found at low to moderate altitudes, but the Nepal gray langur and Kashmir gray langur occur up to in the Himalayas.


title: Gray langur

text: These langurs are largely gray (some more yellowish), with a black face and ears. Externally, the various species mainly differ in the darkness of the hands and feet, the overall color and the presence or absence of a crest. Typically all north Indian gray langurs have their tail tips looping towards their head during a casual walk whereas all south Indian and Sri Lankan gray langurs have an inverted "U" shape or a "S" tail carriage pattern. There are also significant variations in the size depending on the sex, with the male always larger than the female. The head-and-body length is from . Their tails, at are always longer than their bodies. Langurs from the southern part of their range are smaller than those from the north. At , the heaviest langur ever recorded was a male Nepal gray langur. The larger gray langurs are rivals for the largest species of monkey found in Asia. The average weight of gray langurs is in the males and in the females.


title: Gray langur

text: Langurs mostly walk quadrupedally and spend half of their time on the ground and the other half in trees. They will also make bipedal hops, climbing and descending supports with the body upright, and leaps. Langurs can leap horizontally and in descending.


title: Gray langur

text: Traditionally, only "Semnopithecus entellus" was recognized as a species, the remainder all being treated as subspecies. In 2001, it was proposed that seven species should be recognized. This was followed in "Mammal Species of the World" in 2005, though several of the seven species intergrade, and alternative treatments exist where only two species (a northern and a southern) are recognized. Phylogenetic evidence supports at least three species: a north Indian, a south Indian and a Sri Lankan one.


title: Gray langur

text: It has been suggested that the "Semnopithecus priam thersites" is worthy of treatment as a species rather than a subspecies, but at present this is based on limited evidence. During a study based on external morphology and ecological niche modelling in Peninsular India six main types were found, but continued to label all as subspecies. Coat color is highly variable, possible due to phenotypic plasticity and therefore of questionable value in species delimitation.


title: Gray langur

text: It has been suggested that "Trachypithecus" should be considered only a subgenus of "Semnopithecus". If maintaining the two as separate monophyletic genera, the purple-faced langur and Nilgiri langur belong in "Semnopithecus" instead of their former genus "Trachypithecus". At present it is unclear where the "T. pileatus" species group (consisting of the capped langur, Shortridge's langur and Gee's golden langur) belongs, as available mtDNA data place it in "Semnopithecus", while Y chromosome data place it in "Trachypithecus". A possible explanation for this is that the "T. pileatus" species group is the result of fairly recent hybridization between "Semnopithecus" and "Trachypithecus".


title: Gray langur

text: As of 2005, the authors of "Mammal Species of the World" recognized the following seven "Semnopithecus" species


title: Gray langur

text: Results of analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and two nuclear DNA-encoded genes of several colobine species revealed that Nilgiri and purple-faced langurs cluster with gray langur, while "Trachypithecus" species form a distinct clade.


title: Gray langur

text: In addition, "Semnopithecus dussumieri" has been determined to be invalid. Most of the range that had been considered "S. dussumieri" is now considered "S. entellus".


title: Gray langur

text: A 2013 genetic study indicated that while "S. entellus", "S. hypoleucos", "S. priam" and "S. johnii" are all valid taxa, there has been hybridization between "S. priam" and "S. johnii".


title: Gray langur

text: It also indicated that there has been some hybridization between "S. entellus" and "S. hypoleucos" where their ranges overlap, and a small amount of hybridization between "S. hypoleucos" and "S. priam". It also suggested that "S. priam" and "S. johnii" diverged from each other fairly recently.


title: Gray langur

text: The entire distribution of all gray langur species stretches from the Himalayas in the north to Sri Lanka in the south, and from Bangladesh in the east to Pakistan in the west. They possibly occur in Afghanistan. The bulk of the gray langur distribution is within India, and all seven currently recognized species have at least a part of their range in this country.


title: Gray langur

text: Gray langurs can adapt to a variety of habitats. They inhabit arid habitats like deserts, tropical habitats like tropical rainforests and temperate habitats like coniferous forests, deciduous habitats and mountains habitats. They are found at sea level to altitudes up to . They can adapt well to human settlements, and are found in villages, towns and areas with housing or agriculture. They live in densely populated cities like Jodhpur, which has a population numbering up to a million.


title: Gray langur

text: Gray langurs are diurnal. They sleep during the night in trees but also on man-made structures like towers and electric poles when in human settlements. When resting in trees, they generally prefer the highest branches.


title: Gray langur

text: Ungulates like bovine and deer will eat food dropped by foraging langurs. Langurs are preyed upon by leopards, dholes and tigers. Wolves, jackals, Asian black bears and pythons may also prey on langurs.


title: Gray langur

text: Gray langurs are primarily herbivores. However, unlike some other colobines they do not depend on leaves and leaf buds of herbs, but will also eat coniferous needles and cones, fruits and fruit buds, evergreen petioles, shoots and roots, seeds, grass, bamboo, fern rhizomes, mosses, and lichens. Leaves of trees and shrubs rank at the top of preferred food, followed by herbs and grasses. Non-plant material consumed include spider webs, termite mounds and insect larvae. They forage on agricultural crops and other human foods, and even accept handouts. Although they occasionally drink, langurs get most of their water from the moisture in their food.


title: Gray langur

text: All-male groups tend to be the smallest of the groups and can consist of adults, subadults, and juveniles. Some populations have only multiple-male groups as mixed sex groups, while others have only one-male groups as mixed sexed groups.


title: Gray langur

text: Some evidence suggests multiple-male groups are temporary and exist only after a takeover, and subsequently split into one-male and all-male groups.


title: Gray langur

text: Social hierarchies exist for all group types. In all-male groups, dominance is attained through aggression and mating success. With sexually mature females, rank is based on physical condition and age. The younger the female, the higher the rank. Dominance rituals are most common among high-ranking langurs. Most changes in social rank in males take place during changes in group members. An adult male may remain in a one-male group for 45 months. The rate of male replacement can occur quickly or slowly depending on the group.


title: Gray langur

text: Females within a group are matrilineally related. Female memberships are also stable, but less so in larger groups. Relationships between the females tend to be friendly. They will do various activities with each together, such as foraging, traveling and resting. They will also groom each other regardless of their rank. However, higher-ranking females give out and receive grooming the most. In addition, females groom males more often than the other way around. Male and female relationships are usually positive. Relationships between males can range from peaceful to violent. While females remain in their natal groups, males will leave when they reach adulthood. Relationships between groups tend to be hostile. High-ranking males from different groups will display, vocalize, and fight among themselves.


title: Gray langur

text: In one-male groups, the resident male is usually the sole breeder of the females and sires all the young. In multiple-male groups, the highest-ranking male fathers most of the offspring, followed by the next-ranking males and even outside males will father young. Higher-ranking females are more reproductively successful than lower-ranking ones.


title: Gray langur

text: Female gray langurs do not make it obvious that they are in estrous. However, males are still somehow able to deduce the reproduction state of females. Females signal that they are ready to mate by shuddering the head, lowering the tail, and presenting their anogenital regions. Such solicitations do not always lead to copulation. When langurs mate, they are sometimes disrupted by other group members. Females have even been recorded mounting other females.


title: Gray langur

text: The gestation period of gray langur lasts around 200 days, at least at Jodhpur, India. In some areas, reproduction is year-around. Year-round reproduction appears to occur in populations that capitalize on human-made foods. Other populations have seasonal reproduction.


title: Gray langur

text: Infanticide is common among gray langurs. Most infanticidal langurs are males that have recently immigrated to a group and driven out the prior male. These males only kill infants that are not their own. Infanticide is more commonly reported in one-male groups, perhaps because one male monopolizing matings drives the evolution of this trait. In multiple-male groups, the costs for infanticidal males are likely to be high as the other males may protect the infants and they can't ensure that they'll sire young with other males around. Nevertheless, infanticide does occur in these groups, and is suggested that such practices serve to return a female to estrous and gain the opportunity to mate.


title: Gray langur

text: Females usually give birth to a single infant, although twins do occur. Most births occur during the night. Infants are born with thin, dark brown or black hair and pale skin. Infants spend their first week attached to their mothers' chests and mostly just suckle or sleep. They do not move much in terms of locomotion for the first two weeks of their life. As they approach their sixth week of life, infants vocalize more. They use squeaks and shrieks to communicate stress. In the following months, the infants are capable of quadrupedal locomotion and can walk, run and jump by the second and third months. Alloparenting occurs among langurs, starting when the infants reach two years of age. The infant will be given to the other females of the group. However, if the mother dies, the infant usually follows. Langurs are weaned by 13 months.


title: Gray langur

text: Gray langurs have stable populations in some areas and declining ones in others. Both the black-footed gray langur and Kashmir gray langur are considered threatened. The latter is the rarest species of gray langur, with less than 250 mature individuals remaining.


title: Gray langur

text: In India, gray langurs number at around 300,000. India has laws prohibiting the capturing or killing of langurs, but they are still hunted in some parts of the country. Enforcement of these laws has proven to be difficult and it seems most people are unaware of their protection. Populations are also threatened by mining, forest fires and deforestation for wood.


title: Gray langur

text: Langurs can be found near roads and can become victims of automobile accidents. This happens even in protected areas, with deaths by automobile collisions making nearly a quarter of mortality in Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, India. Langurs are considered sacred in the Hindu religion and are sometimes kept for religious purposes by Hindu priests and for roadside performances. However, some religious groups use langurs as food and medicine, and parts of gray langurs are sometimes kept as amulets for good luck.


title: Gray langur

text: Because of their sacred status and their less aggressive behavior compared to other primates, langurs are generally not considered pests in many parts of India. Despite this, research in some areas show high levels of support for the removal of langurs from villages, their sacred status no longer important. Langurs will raid crops and steal food from houses, and this causes people to persecute them. While people may feed them in temples, they do not extend such care to monkeys at their homes. Langurs stealing and biting people to get food in urban areas may also contribute to more persecutions.


title: Vermont Progressive Party

text: The Vermont Progressive Party, formerly the Progressive Coalition, is a progressive political party in the United States founded in 1999 and active only in the state of Vermont. As of 2019, the party has two members in the Vermont Senate and seven members in the Vermont House of Representatives, as well as several more affiliated legislators who caucus with the Democratic Party. After the Democratic and Republican parties, the Progressive Party has the highest number of seats in state and national offices for any organized political party in the country.


title: Vermont Progressive Party

text: The Vermont Progressive Party originated in the early 1980s with the successful independent campaign of Bernie Sanders for mayor of Burlington (prior to being elected mayor Sanders was a leader in the Vermont Liberty Union Party). Sanders, who was later elected to the House of Representatives and subsequently to the Senate, and who co-founded the Congressional Progressive Caucus, never officially associated himself with the Progressive Party due to the fact it was only organized at the state level and not nationally, although the Progressives were among his biggest supporters. A group of Sanders's supporters, the "Progressive Coalition" as they had come to be known, as well as former members of the dissolved Citizens Party, organized themselves during his final term as mayor to contest future elections within the city as well as other parts of the state.


title: Vermont Progressive Party

text: Progressive Peter A. Clavelle was elected Mayor of Burlington in 1989 and served seven terms. After winning his first term, he remained in office until 1993 when he lost his re-election bid after giving domestic partners of city employees full benefits. Clavelle returned to the mayor's office two years later in 1995, continuing to hold the position until 2006, when he was succeeded by Progressive State Representative Bob Kiss.


title: Vermont Progressive Party

text: The coalition succeeded in electing several members, including Terry Bouricius in 1990, to the Vermont General Assembly, and formally became the Progressive Party after establishing a stable political base following the 1998 elections. In the 2004 elections, the party picked up three new seats and then had five representatives in the Vermont House of Representatives.


title: Vermont Progressive Party

text: By the 2012 elections the party had several members of the legislature and a candidate elected to statewide office, as well as dozens of local office holders around the state.


title: Vermont Progressive Party

text: The Progressive Party encompasses a progressive platform. The party's main focus has historically been advocacy for a single-payer health care system, which has recently made great strides with the implementation of Green Mountain Care, a health care program that was pushed by Democratic Governor Peter Shumlin due to pressure from the Progressive Party. Other major policy platforms are renewable energy programs and a phase-out of nuclear energy, public transportation proposals including one for a high-speed rail system, criminal justice reforms directed at reducing the state's prison population and better protecting convicts' rights, the creation of programs to end homelessness in the state, ending the War on Drugs and repealing No Child Left Behind and ending the focus on standardized testing in the school system. The party also has an anti-war stance, advocating for Vermont's national guard to be restricted from engaging in war zones outside the United States, an end to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and opposition to all preemptive wars, strikes, or other offensive or interventionist military actions. The party is very supportive of LGBT rights and members of the party were involved in the legalization of same-sex marriage in the state.


title: Vermont Progressive Party

text: Economically, the party also calls for converting the minimum wage to a living wage and having it tied to inflation rates, having the economy focus on small and local businesses, empowerment of worker cooperatives and publicly owned companies as democratic alternatives to multi-national corporations and to decentralize the economy, for the strengthening of state law to protect the right to unionize, for implementing a progressive income tax and repealing the Capital Gains Tax Exemption and residential education property tax, and for all trade to be subject to international standards on human rights. The party is also critical of privatization.


title: Vermont Progressive Party

text: The current chair of the party's State Committee is State Senator and former Gubernatorial nominee and Congressional candidate Anthony Pollina, and the current vice-chair, Marielle Blais, was first elected in 2019. Secretary Chris Brimmer, also the Chair of the Caledonia County Committee, has served since 2009. The current Treasurer is Robert Millar, who briefly served as Acting Chair in 2001, and Assistant Treasurer Martha Abbott previously served as Treasurer and twice as chair. After being in the position of Acting Chair while the State Committee was not formalized, Heather Riemer served as the party's first chair at its formation as a statewide party in 1999. The position of executive director was added in 2011, and since 2015 has been the party's only paid staff, and has been occupied by Joshua Wronski. Current Treasurer Robert Millar previously served as executive director from 2011 to 2015.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: Son of Sardaar is a 2012 Indian Hindi-language action comedy film directed by Ashwni Dhir. A remake of 2010 Telugu film "Maryada Ramanna" directed by S. S. Rajamouli, it featured Ajay Devgn, Sanjay Dutt, Sonakshi Sinha and Juhi Chawla in lead roles. "Son of Sardaar" was released on 13 November 2012. Salman Khan appears in a cameo role.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: Although competing with the Yash Raj film "Jab Tak Hai Jaan", "Son of Sardaar" managed to do good business at the box office worldwide. and received divided response, with praising humor, performance of all cast, stylized action sequences, and familiar tone, but criticised for screenplay." Box Office India declared it a Hit in India and an average grosser in the overseas markets. It went on to gross worldwide.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: A massive rivalry exists between the Sandhus and the Randhawas. During an intense fight between the two families, Jaswinder "Jassi" Singh Randhawa's father and Balwinder "Billu" Singh Sandhu's uncle kill each other, on the night of Billu's wedding with Parmeet "Pammi" Kaur. Billu ultimately vows to remain unmarried until he kills Randhawa's son. Meanwhile, Jassi's mother flees the village along with Jassi, later settling in London.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: Twenty-five years later, Jassi is a struggling immigrant in London. He is best friends with Pathan, who runs a club. Jassi decides to go to India because his father left him some land in Phagwara, Punjab. Although made aware of the rivalry by Pathan, he does not worry about it as he thinks that the rivalry is now forgotten. Back in Phagwara, Billu still searches for Randhawa's son with the help of his two younger brothers, Tito and Tony. Pammi yearns for marriage with Billu to be completed. Jassi arrives in India and meets Sukhmeet "Sukh" Kaur Sandhu on a train ride from New Delhi to Phagwara. Unbeknownst to Jassi, who flirts with her, Sukh is Billu's younger sister, who is returning to Phagwara after having completed her studies in Delhi. During the train ride, Jassi falls in love with her. Once he parts ways with Sukh upon landing in Phagwara, Jassi is offered a ride by Tony to a Gurdwara as the land behind the Gurdwara is Jassi's. Tony finds out that Jassi is Randhawa's son and tries to kill him in vain.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: Jassi soon bumps into Billu at a temple as the villagers tell him that Billu would guide him to the land better. Billu is accompanied by his family and Sukh, who recognizes Jassi, prompting Billu to invite Jassi to his house. Tony then reveals to Billu that Jassi is the person they were searching for these 25 years. Billu vows that he will kill Jassi as soon as he gets out of the Sandhu household. Jassi finds out that he is in the Sandhu household. Since there is a tradition in the Sandhu household that treats guests as 'akin to God' and forbids any killings in the house during the period, Jassi feigns injury by telling everyone he has broken his back and needs to say in the house for treatment. Enraged, Billu plans a number on Jassi's life.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: Sukh's friend Tej "Bobby" Jaswal, a doctor, finds out that Jassi has been lying all along, but confides this secretly to Sukh alone. One day, Jassi informs a local inspector that Billu and his brothers are hell bent on killing him. The inspector promises to escort him out, but instead leads Jassi to a dilapidated mansion where he is confronted by Billu and his men, revealing that he was in league with Billu, who along with his group starts attacking Jassi once the inspector leaves. However, in an attempt to escape, Jassi eventually lands back into the Sandhu household again.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: After a few more days, during the Lohri celebrations, Billu announces that Bobby and Sukh will be engaged the very next day. Both are initially taken aback, but eventually agree. Jassi finds out that Sukh loves him too. Pammi reveals to Sukh and Bobby that she planned this engagement because she wanted Jassi, who she now knows through the land papers in his bag, is Randhawa's son, to escape; as the engagement is taking place in the Gurdwara, nobody will be in the Sandhu household. Jassi, meanwhile, decides to fight Billu's brothers so he can stop this rivalry. Sukh escapes from the engagement after strong prodding from Pammi and, surprisingly, Bobby himself, and reunites with Jassi. She wants to elope with him but Jassi wishes to end this rivalry, no matter what. Following an intense confrontation and fight between the duo, Billu's mother convinces him to forget about this rivalry. He decides to let go and forgive Jassi on the condition that he marry Sukh, while announcing his own marriage to Pammi after all.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: "Son of Sardaar" is a remake of Telugu comedy thriller film "Maryada Ramanna" directed by S. S. Rajamouli starring Sunil and Saloni Aswani in lead roles. In an interview, director Ashwni Dhir replied that it was only the plot that was remade; the rest was changed.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: "Maryada Ramanna" has also been remade in Kannada as "Maryade Ramanna" starring Komal Kumar and Nisha Shah, and in Bengali as "Faande Poriya Boga Kaande Re" starring Soham Chakraborty and Srabanti Chatterjee. In fact, each and every antic in "Son of Sardaar" is prominently depicted in the Bengali remake. The movie was also re-made in Tamil "Vallavanukku Pullum Aayudham" starring comedian Santhanam in a hero role with newcomer Ashna Zaveri as the heroine. The movie was also remade in Malayalam as "Ivan Maryadaraman" starring Malayalam actor Dileep in the hero role with Nikki Galrani as the heroine.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: was spent on making "Son of Sardaar". However, an all-inclusive price tag of was also announced in the media.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: The Punjabi Cultural Heritage Board raised disagreements due to some objection regarding certain scenes and dialogues. The producer and lead actor Ajay Devgn understood the objections and edited the scenes. "The creativity of the film has not been affected in any way. Every film is rectified, sometimes it's made even better," said Devgn during a press conference. "The objectionable things were very small. The writer and director of the film is Punjabi and we took care of things. Even the guy who tied my turban was from Punjab", he added.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: "Son of Sardaar" released in 2,000 screens in India and 350 screens overseas. "Son of Sardaar" got 300 more screens in its second week.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: Two weeks before Diwali, Ajay Devgn FFilms sent an intimation notice to Yash Raj Films through their lawyer at the Competition Commission of India. The notice accused Yash Raj Films of monopolistic business practices and stated that they used "their dominant position in the Bollywood film market" to secure many high quality single-screens for their release "Jab Tak Hai Jaan".


title: Son of Sardaar

text: Yash Raj Films responded by saying that they were shocked and questioned Devgn's motives. The studio dismissed Devgn's claim that high-quality single-screens were unavailable by pointing out that they had only booked 1,500 single-screens for "Jab Tak Hai Jaan" out of the 10,500 available in India. The studio added that Ajay could have changed the release of his film as Yash Chopra announced on 27 June 2011 "Jab Tak Hai Jaan" would come out on Diwali 2012. Ajay announced the date of "Son of Sardaar" on 29 May 2012 and finalised distribution deals on 4 October 2012. He had a year to avoid a simultaneous release. Lastly, Yash Raj Films stated it was unfair to say they were in a dominant position. The studio only released a handful of films in 2012 while the makers of "Son of Sardaar", Viacom 18 and Eros International, released dozens the same year.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: After the statement made by Yash Raj Films, Ajay Devgn responded by saying he only managed to book 600 single-screens for "Son of Sardaar" and would take legal action if not allotted more. He denied having anything against Shahrukh Khan and said that distributors cannot be allowed to enter into an arrangement which adversely affects competition. Yash Raj Films entered into a tie-in arrangement with exhibitors that made it compulsory for them to show an untitled Yash Chopra film on Diwali and keep it in cinemas for at least two weeks thereafter. Devgn claimed that this violated provisions of the 2002 Indian Competition Act. Senior film critic Vinod Mirani said that YRF's move of blocking single screens may not help much. "Single screens watchers will have more affinity towards an action film such as SOS. Moreover, JTHJ's length and the fact that music has still not picked up, will not go down well with the movie goers."


title: Son of Sardaar

text: The Competition Commission dismissed the case against Yash Raj Films on 6 November 2012. Ajay Devgn has appealed to Competition Appellate Tribunal after rejection of petition against Yash Raj Films. The Competition Appellate tribunal bench headed by chairman Justice V. S. Sirpurkar refused Devgn's stay against "Jab Tak Hai Jaan" but stated that the case against Yash Raj Films will be reviewed again. Both films were released on 13 November 2012.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: "Son of Sardaar" received mixed reviews. Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave it a score of 4 out of 5 stars and said "Son of Sardaar is for lovers of hardcore masala movies. If you liked Wanted, Dabangg and Rowdy Rathore, chances are you will relish Son of Sardaar as well. The North Indian audiences in particular and those residing abroad will be simply delighted by this chatpata, masaledaar fare." Gayatri Sankar of Zee News gave it 3 out of 5 stars while commenting "Certain portions are a bit of a drag, but the comic sequences will make up for the monotony. The cast has put up a good show. Overall, SOS is worth a watch, a complete family entertainer." Rediff gave 2 out of 5 and stated Son of Sardaar has a lot for the masses but it lacks a good story. Filmfare gave 2 out of 5 stars and stated "Comedy is more than just gags and slapstick. Sadly SOS gets it wrong." Rajeev Masand of CNN-IBN gave 2 out of 5 stars and stated Son of Sardaar "is only sporadically entertaining, and peddles the same tired stereotypes of Punjab and Sikhs. A cameo by Salman Khan, sadly, doesn't make up for the film's many flaws." Hindustan Times gave the film 2 out of 5 stars, describing it as "exhausting, painfully loud and way too long, with too few laughs", while the Telegraph stated that it was "run-of-the-mill", but that it could be a "guilty pleasure" for some viewers. Like the Hindustan Times, IBNLive gave the movie 2 out of 5, with a slightly lower grade coming from Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV, who rated the film 1.5 out 5, stated that it was "A tangled mess that has no way of working its way around the sloppy screenplay." "The Hindu" stated that there's nothing more torturous than watching an unfunny film that's trying so hard to be funny.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: "Son of Sardaar" had opening of around 70% on average at multiplexes, especially in North India. The single screens opening was similar. It earned around on its opening day. It shows very good growth of 70% with a collection of around net on its second day. It netted nett in its first three-day weekend. "Son of Sardaar" net grossed in first five days of release. The film held up well with a collection of in its extended week of six days. The movie brought its extended first-week collection to nett.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: After its first week, the film continued its successful run and collected nett in ten days. "Son of Sardaar" had netted after its second weekend. "Son of Sardaar" dropped in week two, collecting around net. The film netted a total of in four weeks. "Son of Sardaar" has distributor share of 49–500 million.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: "Son of Sardaar" grossed $2 million in seven days. "Son of Sardaar" did a business of around $3 million overseas, which BoxofficeIndia.com called it "average".


title: Son of Sardaar

text: The music of the film was composed by Himesh Reshammiya while the lyrics were penned by Sameer, Shabbir Ahmed, Irshad Kamil & Manoj Yadav. Only one song, ""Yeh Jo Halki Halki Khumariya"", composed by Sajid–Wajid was also included in the album.


title: Son of Sardaar

text: The album received mixed to positive reviews. Joginder Tuteja of "Bollywood Hungama" gave the album 3.5 out of 5 stars and stated that "Son of Sardaar lives up to its promise of a high-on-energy soundtrack with not many dull moments in its 50-odd minutes duration. " "Koimoi" gave it 3 out of 5 stars and said, "Overall this album is more than a decent affair where Punjabi 'tadka' makes it reasonably happening. While the tracks Son of Sardaar and Bichdann will certainly do well, Kabhi Kabhi Mere Dil Mein and Rani Tu Mein Raja also carry potential to make their presence felt." "IBNLive" gave it 3 out of 5 stars and said, "The album is woven around the theme of the film and manages to justify it well, although the sound gets a bit monotonous at times."


title: Betty Cooper

text: Elizabeth "Betty" Cooper is one of the main characters appearing in American comic books published by Archie Comics. She is the lead guitarist, percussionist and one of the three singers of The Archies. The character was created by Bob Montana and John L. Goldwater, and first appeared in "Pep Comics" #22 (cover-dated Dec. 1941), on the first page of the first "Archie" story, serving as a love interest to Archie Andrews.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty is in love with Archie, which drives her attempts to win his affections by whatever means possible, and her rivalry with her best friend, vocalist/keyboardist Veronica Lodge, have been among the longest-running themes in the comics. She is portrayed by Lili Reinhart on "Riverdale" and Khushi Kapoor on "The Archies".


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty was named for, and originally based on, Betty Tokar Jankovich, a Czech immigrant who briefly dated Archie co-creator Bob Montana in 1939 when she was 18. Created to serve as a love interest for Archie Andrews, she is portrayed as a smart, talented, sweet, tomboyish yet beautiful girl with blonde hair and blue eyes.


title: Betty Cooper

text: In addition to appearing in many Archie stories, Betty was the star of two long-running comic book titles published by Archie Comics during the period 1965–2012: "Betty and Me" (later styled as "Betty & Me"), which published 200 issues from Aug. 1965 to Aug. 2012; and "Betty", which published 195 issues from Sept. 1992 to Jan. 2012. She also was featured in "Betty's Diary", which published 40 issues from Apr. 1986–Apr. 1990.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Currently, Betty is the co-star of "Betty and Veronica Digest Magazine", now known as "B&V Friends Double Digest", which was launched in Nov. 1980 and has published more than 250 issues; and "Betty and Veronica Double Digest", which has published 250+ issues since June 1987.


title: Betty Cooper

text: She was the co-star of "Betty and Veronica", which ran for 347 issues (and eight annuals) from March 1950–April 1987. A new "Betty and Veronica" series published 278 issues from June 1987–late 2015. The limited series "Betty and Veronica", taking place in their rebooted New Riverdale universe, was published in 2017. Betty and Veronica also co-starred in:


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty Cooper ("Betty Rosas" in the Spanish version) is the third and youngest child and second daughter of Hal Cooper and Alice Cooper. Her older brother Charlie Cooper was given up for adoption and older sister Polly Cooper has moved out of Riverdale, their hometown. Charlie moved to New York City and Polly to San Francisco, but both occasionally appear in flashbacks to Betty's childhood, and both occasionally visit their family.


title: Betty Cooper

text: The quintessential girl next door, Betty's middle class upbringing is a world apart from the flashy lifestyle of her wealthy friend, Veronica Lodge. Nowhere is this more evident than when she and Veronica are competing for Archie Andrews' heart, and yet they remain best friends (Veronica once told Archie that she and Betty are only rivals in unimportant matters, like boys).


title: Betty Cooper

text: In the late 1960s, the two girls joined Archie's band, a garage band appropriately named The Archies. Both sang, and Betty played a tambourine, while Veronica played an organ. Some stories indicate that Betty is the better vocalist. Additionally, there is little consistency in the instruments she is able to play. Betty has played the recorder, tambourine, maracas, guitar, banjo, keyboard, saxophone, cello, and the bongos.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty is friends with everybody, and is a loving daughter and sister. She likes to help the homeless, read to the senior citizens, and rescue wounded animals and birds.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty's hobbies include playing sports (particularly baseball), cooking (the gang thinks her cooking is excellent), and looking after animals (she owns a cat, Caramel). She is also concerned with the environment and other social issues and encourages the rest of the gang to clean up after themselves. She loves children and sometimes babysits Jellybean with Jughead as well as other children in Riverdale. Occasionally, families hire Betty to keep their elderly members company. Betty is a skilled mechanic who frequently helps Archie with his broken down car Betsy. Betty is also good at skiing and car-racing. She is often said to be the best pitcher in the girls' baseball team. Betty is a scuba diver, wearing a red shorty wetsuit, breathing with an air tank she carries on her back and a regulator in her mouth, wears red fins on her feet and a mask on her face, but she prefers to swim underwater.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty has an above-average intelligence and is one of the smartest students at Riverdale High School, along with Dilton Doiley. In one story she won an award and was sent to compete in New York and has won numerous academic awards. At one point, she gained ESP when an encyclopedia accidentally fell on her head. This ability took away all hope for the future; Archie asked Veronica for a date, but Betty knew that Archie would dump Veronica for her. Betty lost her ESP power when a ball that Reggie kicked accidentally hit her; in her gratefulness, she gave him a thankful kiss.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty's many talents and accomplishments often make her friend Veronica jealous, who then tries to sabotage Betty to steal her glory and make her look bad.


title: Betty Cooper

text: During a stay at the Lodge mansion, while the family are in Europe, Betty is waited on hand and foot by the servants and, keeping true to her caring, loving, and unselfish nature, she begins to feel guilty about being waited on.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Wanting to do something very special for them in appreciation for the tough jobs that they do (and for what also seems to be a very thankless job in serving someone like Veronica, who tends to be very snobbish towards those who serve her), she throws them a pool party which surprises Mr. and Mrs. Lodge, and angers Veronica. In return, Smithers, the butler, and the rest of the staff, who are quite appreciative of what Betty did for them (since they never seem to get any appreciation from Veronica), offer to help Betty with the next party she throws, for free. Mr. Lodge would then lecture Veronica about how servants were people too.


title: Betty Cooper

text: On the TV show "Riverdale", Betty participates in many extracurricular activities at Riverdale High School, including cheerleader with the other members of The River Vixens, writing for The Blue and Gold with Jughead Jones and discovering the true identities and intentions/actions of many people in Riverdale, including Clifford Blossom (Cheryl Blossom's father), Penelope Blossom (Cheryl Blossom's mother), Hal Cooper, and Robert Phillips (a.k.a. The Sugarman).


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty's best friend is Veronica. Although the two are often involved in disputes over Archie or something else that evokes jealousy, they have remained friends. The two have commented that Jughead and Archie's friendship could not compare to theirs. In many stories, Betty and Veronica team up or help each other despite Veronica's jealousy and bitterness towards her. Betty's other female friends include Ethel Muggs, Midge Klump, and Nancy Woods, all of whom share common interests and group activities such as shopping and cheer-leading.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Frequently, Betty has been shown to flirt with and date bassist Reggie Mantle early on in the titles' runs and occasionally still, more often than not as a casual date. Once Betty said that sometimes the way Archie and Reggie fight over her, it sounds like she has the plague. In the Life with Archie magazines that depict a future timeline in which Archie marries Veronica, Betty and Reggie are portrayed as a loving couple. It has been hinted they may be planning to get married.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty's relationship with Jughead Jones has mostly been that of close confidant and close friend, as they normally discuss their issues more candidly with each other than anyone else; Jughead will provide commentary on her feelings for Archie, and Betty will attempt to "better" Jughead, by getting rid of his slothful attitude and laziness. Once when she had a sprained ankle, Veronica told both Archie and Jughead to visit her. The four of them were having dinner together when people from the school mistook Jughead as Betty's boyfriend because he was carrying chocolates to her house. Jughead appears to care more about Betty than other girls and there have been hints of a potential romantic relationship between them. He once accidentally asked her out to a school dance. When he was telling Archie what to do, Betty walked up behind him and thought he was asking her even though he was just demonstrating how to ask Betty to the dance. In one story, Jughead even says that if the time ever comes that he would willingly kiss a girl, it would be Betty. A happy tear is seen sliding down Betty's face at this comment.


title: Betty Cooper

text: She had a friendship with an elderly woman named Lydia Wyndham, whom she found when doing research about World War I. With this acquaintance, Betty got to know an accomplished writer and poet with a sharp mind (and a sad past—Betty's research had turned up a beau of Ms. Wyndham's who was killed in combat), but after a while, Ms. Wyndham herself died.


title: Betty Cooper

text: At times, Betty is seen to have a close friendship with Cheryl Blossom, especially in Cheryl's own title. However, at other times, Betty and Veronica regard the seductive Cheryl as a threat because she tries to lure Archie away from them, and the two best friends unite against Cheryl to protect their interests. Jason Blossom, Cheryl's twin brother, is sometimes seen to have a genuine interest in Betty, which makes Archie jealous.


title: Betty Cooper

text: In the late '90s, Betty started dating Adam Chisholm. It was thought by some people that Betty had chosen Adam over Archie. This event made Archie jealous and he concentrated his attention on Betty, ignoring Veronica, as he always does when he thinks someone else may take Betty away from him. Though in actuality, Adam has rarely been seen in the stories after that story arc, and Betty has continued to prefer Archie.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty enjoys writing and keeps a diary that is featured in the series "Betty's Diary". She wants to be a famous writer someday, an aspiration that her teacher Miss Grundy approves of and encourages. She submits her work to writing magazines and has been published a number of times. She once got to be an intern for a fashion magazine but ended up modeling as well. At the same time, she takes various types of employment, including some work as a mechanic, which is also a career that she is interested in. In some stories she finds employment as an assistant teacher at the local elementary school. Betty is also a well-known babysitter and baker.


title: Betty Cooper

text: In 2011, Betty Cooper was ranked 66th in "Comics Buyer's Guide's" "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list written by Brent Frankenhoff.


title: Betty Cooper

text: In "", Betty hails from a long-line of werewolf hunters that have always taken down the Jones werewolves. She only befriended Archie and faked her affections towards him in an effort to get closer to the newest werewolf of Riverdale, Jughead. Archie convinces her to try curing Jughead with wolfsbane, which initially works until it wears off and results in Reggie's death and resurrection/metamorphosis. Jughead leaves town because he knows Betty won't give him a second chance. Betty sets out to find him with the help of Archie and her cousin Bo, with backing by her aunt, the Cooper family matriarch, Elena.


title: Betty Cooper

text: Betty appears as a main character in "Life with Archie: The Married Life". In "Archie Loves Veronica", she runs a catering business while her boyfriend, Reggie Mantle, runs a repair shop. They both star in a reality show based on their lives. In "Archie Loves Betty", she is an English teacher at Riverdale High. However, in both universes, Betty previously worked as a buyer for Saks Fifth Avenue in New York.


title: BoxRec

text: BoxRec or boxrec.com is a website dedicated to holding updated records of professional and amateur boxers, both male and female. It also maintains a MediaWiki-based encyclopaedia of boxing.


title: BoxRec

text: The objective of the site is to document every professional boxer and boxing match from the instigation of the Queensberry Rules up to the present times. BoxRec publishes ratings for all active boxers and all time ratings. Since 2012 the site has hosted Barry Hugman's History of World Championship Boxing.


title: BoxRec

text: The site was founded by John Sheppard, an Englishman. Sheppard had never attended a boxing bout until 1995 when he attended a "Prince" Naseem Hamed fight with Hamed's older brothers Riath and Nabeel. Sheppard had considered boxing to be a "barbaric and degrading" spectacle, stating "I sat there watching people punch each other in the head, wondering why they were doing it... I was sprayed with blood, getting more and more miserable." However, Sheppard later explained, "[D]uring Naseem's fight, something clicked in my head. The subtlety of what he was doing, the genius of it all, became obvious to me. It wasn't a disgusting spectacle anymore. It was art, and I found myself cheering."


title: BoxRec

text: Following Hamed's split with Frank Warren, Sheppard went to work for Hamed at "Prince Promotions" in 2000. Sheppard then began to compile record of active British boxers in an attempt to aid matchmaking of boxers and then decided to create a website which would store the records of all boxers. The site has grown so much that Sheppard has gone full-time since 2005. As of December 2008, on a typical day 50,000 visitors could view 700,000 pages with the record of 1,300,000 bouts in its database encompassing 17,000 active and 345,000 non-active fighters.


title: BoxRec

text: The website is updated by volunteer editors from many countries around the world. Each editor is assigned a country or in some instances, regions within countries and they maintain the records for boxers in that country or region. BoxRec also rates each active fighter by weight division.


title: BoxRec

text: BoxRec has been criticized for not keeping correct records for boxers, especially historic fighters. In 2005, BoxRec applied to become recognized as the official record keepers for the Association of Boxing Commissions (ABC). The ABC held interviews with both Fight Fax and BoxRec at their 2005 convention. Each applicant made a submission and presentation to the ABC panel which included state commissioners and attorneys. The panel then voted unanimously in favour to award Fight Fax the position. The ABC later revealed that they had performed tests to measure the accuracy of each website's records: Fight Fax's records were shown to be 100% accurate, while the accuracy of BoxRec's records was found to be "substantially lower". Nonetheless, in 2016 the ABC voted to recognize Boxrec as an official record-keeper alongside Fight Fax.


title: BoxRec

text: Boxing promoter J. Russell Peltz stated "very few things in life are one hundred percent. But I've come across some glaring errors at BoxRec, mostly in the historical records." ESPN's Dan Rafael noted that "so many people have a hand in BoxRec that the records aren't always accurate. Ricardo Mayorga's record has been wrong for years. There's a mistake [in] Derrick Gainer's record too."


title: BoxRec

text: When asked how important BoxRec was to him, boxing promoter Lou DiBella stated that "anyone in boxing who says he doesn't use BoxRec is either a complete imbecile or lying" and Bruce Trampler, the matchmaker for Top Rank, said that "short of actually being at a fight, they're the best source of information out there."


title: BoxRec

text: Boxing journalist Thomas Hauser also asked the chairman of the New York State Athletic Commission Ron Scott Stevens what his thoughts were and Stevens was quoted as saying "Fight Fax is the mandated record-keeper for athletic commissions in the United States. But BoxRec does more than supplement Fight Fax. In many respects, it surpasses Fight Fax."


title: BoxRec

text: I'd love to get revenge over Carl Thompson, I know I have improved and made the adjustments required, but still I take a look at my record at BoxRec and I see this red blob there, that one loss there really does stick out at me.


title: Close encounter

text: In ufology, a close encounter is an event in which a person witnesses an unidentified flying object. This terminology and the system of classification behind it were first suggested in astronomer and UFO researcher J. Allen Hynek's 1972 book "The UFO Experience: A Scientific Inquiry". Categories beyond Hynek's original three have been added by others but have not gained universal acceptance, mainly because they lack the scientific rigor that Hynek aimed to bring to ufology.


title: Close encounter

text: Sightings more than from the witness are classified as "Daylight Discs," "Nocturnal Lights," or "Radar/Visual Reports." Sightings within about are subclassified as various types of "close encounters." Hynek and others argued that a claimed close encounter must occur within about to greatly reduce or eliminate the possibility of misidentifying conventional aircraft or other known phenomena.


title: Close encounter

text: Hynek's scale became well known after being referenced in a 1977 film, "Close Encounters of the Third Kind", which is named after the third level of the scale. Promotional posters for the film featured the three levels of the scale, and Hynek himself makes a cameo appearance near the end of the film.


title: Close encounter

text: Hynek devised a sixfold classification for UFO sightings: They are arranged according to increasing proximity:


title: Close encounter

text: UFO reports that have radar confirmation—these supposedly try to offer harder evidence that the objects are real, although radar propagation can be occasionally discredited due to atmospheric propagation anomalies


title: Close encounter

text: Visual sightings of an unidentified flying object, seemingly less than away, that show an appreciable angular extension and considerable detail


title: Close encounter

text: A UFO event in which a physical effect is alleged; this can be interference in the functioning of a vehicle or electronic device, animals reacting, a physiological effect such as paralysis or heat and discomfort in the witness, or some physical trace like impressions in the ground, scorched or otherwise affected vegetation, or a chemical trace


title: Close encounter

text: UFO encounters in which an animated entity is present—these include humanoids, robots, and humans who seem to be occupants or pilots of a UFO


title: Close encounter

text: UFO researcher Ted Bloecher proposed six subtypes for the close encounters of the third kind in Hynek's scale:


title: Close encounter

text: A Close Encounter of the Fourth Kind is a UFO event in which a human is abducted by a UFO or its occupants. This type was not included in Hynek's original close encounters scale.


title: Close encounter

text: Hynek's erstwhile associate Jacques Vallee argued in the "Journal of Scientific Exploration" that the "Fourth Kind" should refer to "cases when witnesses experienced a transformation of their sense of reality", so as to also include non-abduction cases where absurd, hallucinatory or dreamlike events are associated with UFO encounters.


title: Close encounter

text: A Close Encounter of the Fifth Kind is a UFO event claiming direct communication between aliens and humans.


title: Killshot (song)

text: "Killshot" is a diss track by American rapper Eminem and produced by IllaDaProducer. The song is Eminem's response to Machine Gun Kelly's song "Rap Devil" that was released in 2018. Eminem had previously dissed MGK in his song "Not Alike" from his tenth studio album "Kamikaze".


title: Killshot (song)

text: In 2012, Machine Gun Kelly made a tweet about Eminem's daughter, Hailie Mathers (who was then sixteen). The tweet read, "ok so I just saw a picture of Eminem's daughter...and I have to say, she is hot as fuck, in the most respectful way possible cuz Em is king". MGK claimed to apologize to Eminem behind the scenes. After this, in 2015, Eminem allegedly banned him from going to Shade 45, a SiriusXM radio station owned by Eminem. In 2017, MGK was on Power 106 FM and did a freestyle with The LA Leakers. During this, he again claimed Eminem had banned him from Shade 45. MGK also collaborated on a song with Tech N9ne in March 2018, and sent disses towards Eminem. On August 31, 2018, Eminem released a surprise album "Kamikaze" in which he dissed several artists, including MGK.


title: Killshot (song)

text: On the song "Not Alike" from "Kamikaze", Eminem made several disses aimed at MGK. Two days later, MGK responded to "Not Alike" with the song "Rap Devil", releasing a music video for the song as well on September 3, 2018. After MGK's response, Eminem released an interview with Sway Calloway, in which Eminem was asked about the feud. Eminem explained that he did not want to respond initially, because it would just benefit MGK's exposure. On September 14, 2018, Eminem released "Killshot". On September 19, 2018, the song was officially released as a single.


title: Killshot (song)

text: "Killshot" debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 in its first week after gaining over 38.1 million views within the first 24 hours of releasing on YouTube, making it the nineteenth most-viewed video in the first 24 hours, and the most for an audio only release on the YouTube platform. It also held the biggest YouTube debut for a hip hop video ever, surpassing Kanye West's and Lil Pump's "I Love It", beating the record just the week before. This was beaten by 6ix9ine's debut of "Gooba" in 2020.


title: Killshot (song)

text: Machine Gun Kelly responded in a tweet, criticizing Eminem for what he perceived as a slow response. Rapper Jay Electronica criticized Eminem for a line in the song where he jokingly accused Diddy of having Tupac killed. After this, Electronica had then deactivated his social media profiles. Rapper Iggy Azalea's name was dropped in the song and she let out a series of tweets reacting to and criticizing the lyrics, calling the bars "lazy". Halsey also responded to her name being dropped in reference to her relationship with rapper G-Eazy in a tweet saying, "I'm jus saying my pops had to hear a grown man talk about his daughter getting fucked while that man simultaneously defended his own daughter." She later added, "I'm not proud. I just don't care. They can argue about record sales. My album sold more copies than each of theirs." Her claim that her album "Hopeless Fountain Kingdom" allegedly sold more copies was later proven to be false.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: The Man from Snowy River is a 1982 Australian Western drama film based on the Banjo Paterson poem "The Man from Snowy River". The film had a cast including Kirk Douglas in a dual role as the brothers Harrison (a character who appeared frequently in Paterson's poems) and Spur, Jack Thompson as Clancy, Tom Burlinson as Jim Craig, Sigrid Thornton as Harrison's daughter Jessica, Terence Donovan as Jim's father Henry Craig, and Chris Haywood as Curly. Both Burlinson and Thornton later reprised their roles in the 1988 sequel, "The Man from Snowy River II" (the film's original Australian title). The 1988 sequel film was later released in the United States by Walt Disney Pictures under the title Return to Snowy River and in the United Kingdom under the title The Untamed.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: When Jim Craig and his father Henry are discussing their finances, a herd of wild horses called the Brumby mob passes by, and Henry wants to shoot the black stallion leader, but Jim convinces his father to capture and sell them.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: Jim and Henry are making a yard to trap the mob when they reappear and trample through the area. In the mayhem, the Craig's horse runs off with the mob and Henry is accidentally killed.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: Before Jim can inherit the station, a group of mountain men tell him that he must first earn the right – and to do so he must go to the lowlands and work. Jim and his father's old friend, Spur, a one-legged miner, gives Jim a horse. Jim then gets a job on a station owned by Harrison, Spur's brother, on a recommendation by Harrison's friend, Andrew Patterson (a character based on the poet A. B. (Banjo) Patterson). Meanwhile, Clancy appears at Spur's mine and the two discuss their pasts and futures. Clancy goes to Harrison's station to lead a cattle muster. At dinner, Harrison tells Clancy that "he has no brother" when referring to Spur.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: Harrison organises a round-up of his cattle, but Jim is not allowed to go. While the others are gone, Harrison's daughter Jessica asks Jim to help her break in a prize colt. The mob appears again, and Jim unsuccessfully gives chase to the valuable horse. When Harrison returns, he sends Jim to bring back 20 strays. Later, Harrison learns of Jim's actions and tells Jessica that Jim will be fired and that she will be sent to a women's college. Impulsively, she rides off into the mountains where she is caught in a storm.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: Spur, meanwhile, finally strikes a large gold deposit. Jim finds Jessica's horse and rescues her. She tells him that he's going to be fired, but he still leaves to return the cattle. Jessica is surprised at meeting Spur, her uncle, whom she had never been told about. She is also confused when Spur mistakes her for her dead mother and refuses to tell her anything about his past. After returning, Jessica learns that Spur and Harrison both fell in love with her mother, Matilda. Matilda declared that the first to make his fortune would be her husband. Spur went looking for gold, while Harrison bet his life savings on a horse race. Harrison became rich overnight when the horse he bet on won. Having made his fortune, Harrison wed Matilda, but she died while delivering Jessica. Harrison is grateful to Jim for returning his daughter, but he becomes angry when Jim says he loves her. As Jim leaves, a prized colt is let loose by a farmhand named Curly in the hope that Jim will be blamed.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: Later, while camping out, Spur tells Jim that he will inherit his father's share of the mine. Clancy joins them and informs them of the colt, but Jim refuses to retrieve the animal. Meanwhile, Harrison offers a reward of £100, attracting riders and fortune-hunters from every station in the area. Clancy does eventually show, accompanied by Jim, whom Harrison finally allows to join the hunt. Several riders have accidents in pursuit and even Clancy is unable to contain the Brumby mob. The riders give up when the mob descends a seemingly impassable grade. However, Jim goes forward and returns the horses to Harrison's farm. Harrison offers him the reward but he refuses. Having cleared his name, Jim would like to return some day for the horses and, looking at Jessica, "anything else that's mine." He rides back up to the mountain country, knowing that he has earned his right to live there.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: According to Geoff Burrowes, the idea to make the film came at a dinner party when someone suggested the poem would make a good movie. Burrowes developed a treatment with George Miller then hired John Dixon to write a screenplay. All three men had worked together in television; another former TV colleague, Simon Wincer, became involved as executive producer with Michael Edgley and succeeded in raising the budget.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: The screenplay contains numerous references to Banjo Paterson, aside from using his poem "The Man from Snowy River" as the source material and his inclusion as a character in the film. For example, the numerous references to the late Matilda are likely a reference to the song "Waltzing Matilda", which was written by Paterson. In addition, the melody for "Waltzing Matilda" can be heard near the end of the film. A Bible passage from Genesis 30:27, which talks about cattle, goats, and sheep is read aloud in a scene in the middle of the film.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: The film was not shot in the actual Snowy Mountains but in the Victorian High Country near Mansfield, Victoria, where Burrowes' wife's family had lived for several generations, which was logistically easier. Burt Lancaster and Robert Mitchum were considered for the dual role of Harrison and Spur before Kirk Douglas was cast in the roles.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: Tom Burlinson had ridden a horse only a few times before being cast in the film. He was taught to ride by mountain cattleman Charlie Lovick, who owned the buckskin horse Burlinson rode in the film. Gerald Egan doubled for Burlinson for several riding shots in the film, including the jump into the "terrible descent". Other moments in the film such as when Jim is thrown over the fence into the path of the brumbies were performed by professional stunt men. Nevertheless, Burlinson did much more of the action riding in the film than an actor normally would, including all the profile shots of the downhill ride.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: Bruce Rowland composed the music for both the film and the sequel. Clancy's theme is a derivative of the convict ballad Moreton Bay.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: The film "was released to a fair degree of critical acclaim" and "moviegoers found it to be a likable and highly entertaining piece of filmmaking that made no effort to hide its Australian roots, despite the presence of American star Kirk Douglas in one of the principal roles." The film has a rating of 85% on film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes. One reviewer commented: "The Australian film industry has been responsible for many decent films for decades (and some utter crap, of course), but the percentage with international appeal is quite small. That is changing, and it is films such as "The Man from Snowy River" that have ensured ongoing interest. The film was inspired by the 'Banjo' Paterson poem of the same name, and stars numerous respected local talents and a Hollywood big name star in Kirk Douglas, playing two roles.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: Sandra Hall in "The Bulletin" said, "the horses are fine. Magnified by the wide screen, their every pant and whinny dignified by Dolby Sound, the horses deliver the goods. As the production notes say, the problem in making Banjo Paterson’s poem into a film was that while he provided a wonderful climax, he didn’t leave much in the way of exposition." Roger Ebert said, "It's corny in places, and kind of dumb, and its subplot about the romance between the boy and the girl seems plundered from some long-shelved Roddy McDowall script. But "The Man from Snowy River" has good qualities, too, including some great aerial photography of thundering herds of horses."


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: "The Man from Snowy River" was a box-office success, grossing A$17,228,160 at the box office in Australia – the highest-grossing Australian film until "Crocodile Dundee" was released four years later. It was briefly the highest-grossing film in Australia until surpassed by "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial".


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: The film grossed A$33 million outside Australia for a worldwide total of A$50 million, including US$20,659,423 from the United States and Canada.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: As indicated by its box-office takings, "The Man from Snowy River" gained a very large audience, popularising the story and Banjo Paterson's poem. Since 1995 the story has been re-enacted at The Man from Snowy River Bush Festival in Corryong, Victoria. Jack Thompson who played Clancy in the film has released recordings of a number of Banjo Paterson poems, including Clancy of the Overflow and The Man from Snowy River on the album "The Bush Poems of A.B. (Banjo) Paterson".


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: The Craigs' Hut building was a permanent fixture created for the film. Located in Clear Hills, east of Mount Stirling, Victoria, the popular 4WD and hiking landmark was destroyed on 11 December 2006 in bushfires. The hut has been rebuilt. The film was selected for preservation as part of the National Film and Sound Archive of Australia's Kodak/Atlab Cinema Collection Restoration Project.


title: The Man from Snowy River (1982 film)

text: For the 2000 Summer Olympics, Rowland composed a special Olympics version of "The Man from Snowy River" "Main Title" for the Olympic Games, which were held in Sydney. The CD of the music for the Sydney Olympics includes the Bruce Rowland's special Olympic version of the main title. Rowland composed special arrangements of some of the soundtrack music for the 2002 musical version of "The Man from Snowy River", "".


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: A wireless ad hoc network (WANET) or mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a decentralized type of wireless network. The network is ad hoc because it does not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or access points in wireless networks. Instead, each node participates in routing by forwarding data for other nodes, so the determination of which nodes forward data is made dynamically on the basis of network connectivity and the routing algorithm in use.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: In the Windows operating system, ad hoc is a communication mode (setting) that allows computers to directly communicate with each other without a router. Wireless mobile ad hoc networks are self-configuring, dynamic networks in which nodes are free to move.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Such wireless networks lack the complexities of infrastructure setup and administration, enabling devices to create and join networks "on the fly".


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any direction, and will therefore change its links to other devices frequently. Each must forward traffic unrelated to its own use, and therefore be a router. The primary challenge in building a MANET is equipping each device to continuously maintain the information required to properly route traffic. This becomes harder as the scale of the MANET increases due to 1) the desire to route packets to/through every other node, 2) the percentage of overhead traffic needed to maintain real-time routing status, 3) each node has its own goodput to route independent and unaware of others needs, and 4) all must share limited communication bandwidth, such as a slice of radio spectrum. Such networks may operate by themselves or may be connected to the larger Internet. They may contain one or multiple and different transceivers between nodes. This results in a highly dynamic, autonomous topology. MANETs usually have a routable networking environment on top of a link layer ad hoc network.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: The earliest wireless data network was called PRNET, the packet radio network, and was sponsored by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in the early 1970s. Bolt, Beranek and Newman Inc. (BBN) and SRI International designed, built, and experimented with these earliest systems. Experimenters included Robert Kahn, Jerry Burchfiel, and Ray Tomlinson. Similar experiments took place in the amateur radio community with the x25 protocol. These early packet radio systems predated the Internet, and indeed were part of the motivation of the original Internet Protocol suite. Later DARPA experiments included the Survivable Radio Network (SURAN) project, which took place in the 1980s. A successor to these systems was fielded in the mid-1990s for the US Army, and later other nations, as the Near-term digital radio.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Another third wave of academic and research activity started in the mid-1990s with the advent of inexpensive 802.11 radio cards for personal computers. Current wireless ad hoc networks are designed primarily for military utility. Problems with packet radios are: (1) bulky elements, (2) slow data rate, (3) unable to maintain links if mobility is high. The project did not proceed much further until the early 1990s when wireless ad hoc networks were born.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: The growth of laptops and 802.11/Wi-Fi wireless networking have made MANETs a popular research topic since the mid-1990s. Many academic papers evaluate protocols and their abilities, assuming varying degrees of mobility within a bounded space, usually with all nodes within a few hops of each other. Different protocols are then evaluated based on measures such as the packet drop rate, the overhead introduced by the routing protocol, end-to-end packet delays, network throughput, ability to scale, etc.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: In the early 1990s, Charles Perkins from SUN Microsystems USA, and Chai Keong Toh from Cambridge University separately started to work on a different Internet, that of a wireless ad hoc network. Perkins was working on the dynamic addressing issues. Toh worked on a new routing protocol, which was known as ABR – associativity-based routing. Perkins eventually proposed DSDV – Destination Sequence Distance Vector routing, which was based on distributed distance vector routing. Toh's proposal was an on-demand based routing, i.e. routes are discovered on-the-fly in real-time as and when needed. ABR was submitted to IETF as RFCs. ABR was implemented successfully into Linux OS on Lucent WaveLAN 802.11a enabled laptops and a practical ad hoc mobile network was therefore proven to be possible in 1999. Another routing protocol known as AODV was subsequently introduced and later proven and implemented in 2005. In 2007, David Johnson and Dave Maltz proposed DSR – Dynamic Source Routing.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: The decentralized nature of wireless ad hoc networks makes them suitable for a variety of applications where central nodes can't be relied on and may improve the scalability of networks compared to wireless managed networks, though theoretical and practical limits to the overall capacity of such networks have been identified.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Minimal configuration and quick deployment make ad hoc networks suitable for emergency situations like natural disasters or military conflicts. The presence of dynamic and adaptive routing protocols enables ad hoc networks to be formed quickly.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a continuously self-configuring, self-organizing, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices connected without wires. It is sometimes known as "on-the-fly" networks or "spontaneous networks".


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: VANETs are used for communication between vehicles and roadside equipment. Intelligent vehicular ad hoc networks (InVANETs) are a kind of artificial intelligence that helps vehicles to behave in intelligent manners during vehicle-to-vehicle collisions, accidents. Vehicles are using radio waves to communicate with each other, creating communication networks instantly on-the-fly while vehicles move along roads. VANET needs to be secured with lightweight protocols.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: A SPAN leverages existing hardware (primarily Wi-Fi and Bluetooth) and software (protocols) in commercially available smartphones to create peer-to-peer networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points, or traditional network infrastructure. SPANs differ from traditional hub and spoke networks, such as Wi-Fi Direct, in that they support multi-hop relays and there is no notion of a group leader so peers can join and leave at will without destroying the network. Most recently, Apple's iPhone with version 8.4 iOS and higher have been enabled with multi-peer ad hoc mesh networking capability, in iPhones, allowing millions of smart phones to create ad hoc networks without relying on cellular communications. It has been claimed that this is going to "change the world".


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Mesh networks take their name from the topology of the resultant network. In a fully connected mesh, each node is connected to every other node, forming a "mesh". A partial mesh, by contrast, has a topology in which some nodes are not connected to others, although this term is seldom in use. Wireless ad hoc networks can take the form of a mesh networks or others. A wireless ad hoc network does not have fixed topology, and its connectivity among nodes is totally dependent on the behavior of the devices, their mobility patterns, distance with each other, etc. Hence, wireless mesh networks are a particular type of wireless ad hoc networks, with special emphasis on the resultant network topology. While some wireless mesh networks (particularly those within a home) have relatively infrequent mobility and thus infrequent link breaks, other more mobile mesh networks require frequent routing adjustments to account for lost links.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Military or tactical MANETs are used by military units with emphasis on data rate, real-time requirement, fast re-routing during mobility, data security, radio range, and integration with existing systems. Common radio waveforms include the US Army's JTRS SRW, Silvus Technologies MN-MIMO Waveform (Mobile Networked MIMO)


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: , Persistent System's WaveRelay and the Domo Tactical Communications (DTC) MeshUltra Tactical Waveform. Ad hoc mobile communications come in well to fulfill this need, especially its infrastructureless nature, fast deployment and operation. Military MANETs are used by military units with an emphasis on rapid deployment, infrastructureless, all-wireless networks (no fixed radio towers), robustness (link breaks are no problem), security, range, and instant operation.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Flying ad hoc networks (FANETs) are composed of unmanned aerial vehicles, allowing great mobility and providing connectivity to remote areas.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Unmanned aerial vehicle, is an aircraft with no pilot on board. UAVs can be remotely controlled (i.e., flown by a pilot at a ground control station) or can fly autonomously based on pre-programmed flight plans. Civilian usage of UAV include modeling 3D terrains, package delivery (Logistics), etc.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: With wireless ad hoc network technology embedded into the UAVs, multiple UAVs can communicate with each other and work as a team, collaboratively to complete a task and mission. If a UAV is destroyed by an enemy, its data can be quickly offloaded wirelessly to other neighboring UAVs.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: The UAV ad hoc communication network is also sometimes referred to UAV instant sky network. More generally, aerial MANET in UAVs are now (as of 2021) successfully implemented and operational as mini tactical reconnaissance ISR UAVs like the BRAMOR C4EYE from Slovenia.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Navy ships traditionally use satellite communications and other maritime radios to communicate with each other or with ground station back on land. However, such communications are restricted by delays and limited bandwidth. Wireless ad hoc networks enable ship-area-networks to be formed while at sea, enabling high-speed wireless communications among ships, enhancing their sharing of imaging and multimedia data, and better co-ordination in battlefield operations.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Some defense companies (such as Rockwell Collins, Silvus Technologies and Rohde & Schwartz) have produced products that enhance ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communications.


title: Wireless ad hoc network

text: Sensors are useful devices that collect information related to a specific parameter, such as noise, temperature, humidity, pressure, etc. Sensors are increasingly connected via wireless to allow large-scale collection of sensor data. With a large sample of sensor data, analytics processing can be used to make sense out of these data. The connectivity of wireless sensor networks rely on the principles behind wireless ad hoc networks, since sensors can now be deploy without any fixed radio towers, and they can now form networks on-the-fly. "Smart Dust" was one of the early projects done at U C Berkeley, where tiny radios were used to interconnect smart dust. More recently, mobile wireless sensor networks (MWSNs) have also become an area of academic interest.