title: Pop (U2 album)

text: Retrospectively, "Pop" is viewed in the music press and public as a disappointment. In a 2013 article, "Spin" was more critical of the album than in the magazine's original review, calling it "U2's nadir period" and a "weirder, bolder, nervier record than its garish exterior would suggest... if you can tune out Bono's mugging, which of course you can't, which was the whole problem. The stupidity of all this subsumed the prescient bravery of it..." Caryn Rose of "Vulture" said that "A lengthy book could be written about the disaster that was "Pop" and the subsequent tour." Nonetheless, the album has been praised, including from Elvis Costello who included it in his 2000 list of "500 Albums You Need", and from "Hot Press" which ranked the album at number 104 on their 2009 list of "The 250 Greatest Irish Albums of All Time". Similarly, in 2003, "Slant Magazine" included the album in their list "Vital Pop: 50 Essential Pop Albums," with reviewer Sal Cinquemani saying "the reason why "Pop" wasn't a bigger hit in the U.S. is a mystery" and said the record was "better (and deeper) than anything on U2's much-ballyhooed 'return' to pop, "All That You Can't Leave Behind"." Bobby Olivier of "Billboard" believed that "Pop" was the band's "last legitimately courageous project," saying that "all we see is a group that chose not to coast."


title: Pop (U2 album)

text: "Pop" was initially a commercial success, debuting at number one in 27 countries, including the UK and the US. In its first week on sale, the record sold 349,000 copies in the US. In its second week in the US, the album's sales fell 57 percent, selling 150,000 copies. The record quickly dropped out of the top ten of the "Billboard" 200 chart. "Pop"s lifetime sales are among the lowest in U2's catalogue. It was certified RIAA platinum once, the lowest since the band's album "October".


title: Pop (U2 album)

text: In support of the album, the band launched the PopMart Tour. Consisting of four legs and a total of 93 shows, the tour took the band to stadiums worldwide from April 1997 to March 1998. Much like the band's previous Zoo TV Tour, PopMart was elaborately staged, featured a lavish set, and saw the band embrace an ironic and self-mocking image. The band's performances and the tour's stage design poked fun at the themes of consumerism and embraced pop culture. Along with the reduced rehearsal time that affected initial shows, the tour suffered from technical difficulties and mixed reviews from critics and fans over the tour's extravagance. The PopMart Tour grossed US$171,677,024.


title: Pop (U2 album)

text: Following the PopMart Tour, the band expressed their dissatisfaction with the final product. Between the album's various singles and the band's "The Best of 1990–2000" compilation (and disregarding dance remixes and the like), the band has re-recorded, remixed, and rearranged "Discothèque", "If God Will Send His Angels", "Staring at the Sun", "Last Night on Earth", "Gone", and "Please". Bono has also recorded and issued a drastically different studio version of "If You Wear That Velvet Dress" with Jools Holland. Bono felt that ""Pop" never had the chance to be properly finished. It is really the most expensive demo session in the history of music."


title: Pop (U2 album)

text: The band took a considerably more conservative, stripped down approach with "Pop"'s follow-up, "All That You Can't Leave Behind" (2000), along with the Elevation Tour that supported it; "All That You Can't Leave Behind" features a "more traditional U2 sound." The few songs from "Pop" that were performed on the Elevation Tour ("Discothèque", "Gone", "Please", "Staring at the Sun", and "Wake Up Dead Man") were often presented in relatively bare-bones versions. On the Vertigo Tour, songs from "Pop" were even more rarely played; "Discothèque" was played twice at the beginning of the third leg, while other "Pop" songs appeared merely as snippets. No "Pop" songs appeared on the band's U2 360° Tour, though the chorus and guitar riff of "Discotheque" did appear as a regular snippet during the "dance" remix of the song "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight" late in the tour. U2 did not play a single song from the album on their Innocence + Experience Tour in 2015, although "Mofo" was sampled twice in the earliest tour dates. "Pop" was the only U2 album that U2 did not play a single song from for the full duration of their tour. "Pop" was viewed as U2's "most neglected album" with the band "effectively [disowning] the record by purging its material from setlists." Although he reiterated his belief that the album was rushed, the Edge still viewed "Pop" as a "great record," and said, "I was very proud of it by the end of the tour. We finally figured it out by the time we made . It was an amazing show that I'm really proud of." In the same interview, Edge also states, "We started out trying to make a dance-culture record and then realized at the end there are things we can do that no EDM producer or artist can do, so let’s try and have it both ways. In that case, we probably went too far in the other direction. We probably needed to allow a bit more of the electronica to survive."


title: Pop (U2 album)

text: In March 2018, U2 announced that "Pop" would be reissued and remastered on vinyl alongside "Wide Awake in America" (1985) and "All That You Can't Leave Behind" (2000) on 13 April 2018. "Staring at the Sun" was performed live during U2's 2018 Experience + Innocence Tour, which Andy Greene of "Rolling Stone" described as "a rare onstage acknowledgment that "Pop" is a thing that happened." In 2018, BBC included it on its list of "acclaimed albums that nobody listens to any more".


title: Bira 91

text: Bira 91 is an Indian craft beer brand manufactured by B9 Beverages Pvt. Ltd., launched in 2015. The company's first brewery unit was located in Flanders region of Belgium where a craft distillery was used to contract manufacture the beer with ingredients from France, Belgium, Himalayas and Bavarian Farms and the beer was imported to India. After initial success, the company thereafter began manufacturing the beer in India with the same ingredients. Made from wheat, barley and hops, the beer is available in draft, 330ml, 650ml bottles and 500ml cans.


title: Bira 91

text: B9 Beverages Pvt Ltd was founded by Ankur Jain, an entrepreneur who moved from India to the United States in 1998. Jain completed his degree in Computer Science from Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago. He briefly worked with Motorola before starting his first venture in Healthcare Revenue Management in New York which was later sold to an undisclosed healthcare provider network in 2007.


title: Bira 91

text: Jain moved back to India and started his first beer venture in 2008; which was importing traditional craft beers from Europe and US to India. B9 Beverages launched Bira 91 beer in early 2015.


title: Bira 91

text: The company has five beers in its portfolio - Bira 91 White (a low bitterness wheat beer with alcohol content of 4%), Bira 91 Blonde (an extra hoppy craft lager), Bira 91 Light (a low calorie lunchtime lager), Bira 91 Strong (a high intensity wheat beer with a higher percentage of alcohol content at 7%), and The Bira 91 Indian Pale Ale (the first IPA brewed and bottled in India).


title: Bira 91

text: Bira 91 White is a cloudy wheat beer with low bitterness and high aromas like citrus and coriander; while Bira 91 Blonde is a clear lager made from barley and saaz hops; Bira 91 White measures 13 while Bira 91 Blonde comes 21 on the IBU scale (International Bitterness Unit). Both the variants have strength of 4.9% Alcohol by Volume.


title: Bira 91

text: Bira 91 garnered unprecedented success amongst Indians due to its distinct taste that is low on the expected bitterness of beer. Indian restaurant and bar owners saw a rise in Bira 91's demand soon upon its launch as the beer brand captured sizeable market share basis word of mouth publicity, without leveraging traditional marketing campaigns initially.


title: Bira 91

text: Bira 91 offered a distinct taste to beer drinkers in India and witnessed unexpected demand upon its launch. However, due to beer being made in Belgium and it being imported to India, Bira 91 had erratic supplies and due to a major supply crunch in 2016, it went off shelves for a while.


title: Bira 91

text: Bira 91 made its International debut in New York City at the Tribeca Film Festival 2016 where it was the chief sponsor of beer. It claims to be the first craft beer from India to be sold in New York.


title: Bira 91

text: In 2017, Bira 91 produced Bira 91 Hot Stuff, an eight-episode travelogue that covers the hottest chillis and cuisines across India. The company has also collaborated with Saavn to launch a Bira 91 Hip Hop Channel on Saavn.


title: Bira 91

text: Apart from the Tribeca Film Festival in 2016, Bira 91 sponsored the Global Citizen Festival in 2017. In India there was also Bira 91 FreeFlow, a 3 city tour with hip hop artist Lady Leshurr. In 2018, the brand organized its first owned on-ground event - Bira 91 April Fools' Fest in New Delhi (1 April being the 91st day of the year).


title: Bira 91

text: In May 2018, Bira 91 was the beer for the month of May at the United Nations global headquarters in New York.


title: Bira 91

text: As of June 2018, Bira 91 is available in India, USA, UK, and Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand, and UAE.


title: Bira 91

text: In November 2018, Bira 91 announced its global sponsorship for the Cricket World Cup and various other ICC events.


title: Bira 91

text: The name Bira does not stand for anything literally, however colloquially it is how a Punjabi would call his brother and 91 represents India's Country Code. The reverse B in the logo represents a spirit of irreverence. The monkey mascot was designed considering the urban millennial as the key consumer of Bira 91 and with the idea of presenting the brand with a playful identity.


title: Bira 91

text: The company aspired Bira 91 to be a brand that is an integral part of a tech immersed, creative, urban, diverse and modern world of the 21st century.


title: Bira 91

text: Bira 91 has recently launched its brand merchandise that includes T-shirts, growlers, bags, ice bucket and beer mugs.


title: Bira 91

text: Ankur Jain raised $1.5 million from a group of friends when he had initially started B9 Beverages Pvt. Ltd. In January 2016, B9 Beverages Pvt Ltd received its first round of funding with $6 million (INR. 40 Crore) from Sequoia Capital (which was Sequoia's first investment in the Alcohol Beverage segment). This Series A funding also saw participation from Angel investors of India like Kunal Bahl and Rohit Bansal (Co-founders - Snapdeal), Deepinder Goyal (Zomato), Ashish Dhawan (ChrysCapital) and Mayank Singhal.


title: Bira 91

text: In 2018, the company raised a further amount of $50 million from Sofina, a Belgian family owned fund and its existing investors.


title: Bira 91

text: In May 2019, Bira 91 raised the funding of $4.3M from Sixth Sense Ventures in its Pre-Series C round.


title: Bira 91

text: Bira raised $10 million in debt funding, to increase production capacity from 400,000 cases to 1.7 million cases.


title: Hu Yitian

text: Hu Yitian (; born 26 December 1993) is a Chinese actor. He made his acting debut in the television drama "A Rush to Dead Summer" (2017), and subsequently starred in the 2017 hit web series "A Love So Beautiful" which brought him wider recognition and several newcomer awards. He later gained fame from around the world in The drama he starred with "Xing Fei" that aired in 2022 during the Winter Olympics, their drama was liked by around the world by many fans, and the drama gained popularity


title: Hu Yitian

text: Hu was born on 26 December 1993 in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China. He majored in landscape architecture at Hangzhou Wanxiang Polytechnic. Hu worked briefly as a model before debuting as an actor.


title: Hu Yitian

text: Hu first appeared in a series of short films titled "Cat Tree". He made his official debut in the youth drama "Rush to the Dead Summer" (2017), playing a minor supporting role.


title: Hu Yitian

text: Hu rose to fame with his role as Jiang Chen in the 2017 hit web series "A Love So Beautiful", based on the youth romance novel "To Our Pure Little Beauty" by Zhao Gangan. Hu also performed the ending theme song for the series, titled "It’s a Dream".


title: Hu Yitian

text: From February to April 2018, Hu appeared in the third season of the reality game show "Twenty-Four Hours" as a regular cast member. Hu was also cast in youth workplace drama "Youth Should Be Early", and youth romance drama "Unrequited Love".


title: Hu Yitian

text: In 2019, Hu featured in the esports romance comedy drama "Go Go Squid!" as a computer genius. Despite his short appearance in the series, Hu gained popularity for his role. "Forbes China" listed Hu under their 30 Under 30 Asia 2019 list which consisted of 30 influential people under 30 years old who have had a substantial effect in their fields.


title: Hu Yitian

text: In 2020, Hu starred in "Handsome Siblings", a wuxia drama based on Gu Long’s 1966 novel "Juedai Shuangjiao"; playing Hua Wuque. The series received positive reviews and high ratings, and Hu was praised for his portrayal of Hua Wuque. The same year, he starred in the republican mystery drama "My Roommate is a Detective" as a deduction genius. Hu received positive reviews for his humorous performance as a deduction genius, a stark contrast from his previous characters; as well as chemistry with co-star Zhang Yunlong.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: A receptor antagonist is a type of receptor ligand or drug that blocks or dampens a biological response by binding to and blocking a receptor rather than activating it like an agonist. Antagonist drugs interfere in the natural operation of receptor proteins. They are sometimes called blockers; examples include alpha blockers, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers. In pharmacology, antagonists have affinity but no efficacy for their cognate receptors, and binding will disrupt the interaction and inhibit the function of an agonist or inverse agonist at receptors. Antagonists mediate their effects by binding to the active site or to the allosteric site on a receptor, or they may interact at unique binding sites not normally involved in the biological regulation of the receptor's activity. Antagonist activity may be reversible or irreversible depending on the longevity of the antagonist–receptor complex, which, in turn, depends on the nature of antagonist–receptor binding. The majority of drug antagonists achieve their potency by competing with endogenous ligands or substrates at structurally defined binding sites on receptors.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: The English word antagonist in pharmaceutical terms comes from the Greek ἀνταγωνιστής – "antagonistēs", "opponent, competitor, villain, enemy, rival", which is derived from "anti-" ("against") and "agonizesthai" ("to contend for a prize"). Antagonists were discovered in the 20th century by American biologist Bailey Edgren.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Biochemical receptors are large protein molecules that can be activated by the binding of a ligand such as a hormone or a drug. Receptors can be membrane-bound, as cell surface receptors, or inside the cell as intracellular receptors, such as nuclear receptors including those of the mitochondrion. Binding occurs as a result of non-covalent interactions between the receptor and its ligand, at locations called the binding site on the receptor. A receptor may contain one or more binding sites for different ligands. Binding to the active site on the receptor regulates receptor activation directly. The activity of receptors can also be regulated by the binding of a ligand to other sites on the receptor, as in allosteric binding sites. Antagonists mediate their effects through receptor interactions by preventing agonist-induced responses. This may be accomplished by binding to the active site or the allosteric site. In addition, antagonists may interact at unique binding sites not normally involved in the biological regulation of the receptor's activity to exert their effects.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: The term "antagonist" was originally coined to describe different profiles of drug effects. The biochemical definition of a receptor antagonist was introduced by Ariens and Stephenson in the 1950s. The current accepted definition of receptor antagonist is based on the receptor occupancy model. It narrows the definition of antagonism to consider only those compounds with opposing activities at a single receptor. Agonists were thought to turn "on" a "single" cellular response by binding to the receptor, thus initiating a biochemical mechanism for change within a cell. Antagonists were thought to turn "off" that response by 'blocking' the receptor from the agonist. This definition also remains in use for physiological antagonists, substances that have opposing physiological actions, but act at different receptors. For example, histamine lowers arterial pressure through vasodilation at the histamine H receptor, while adrenaline raises arterial pressure through vasoconstriction mediated by alpha-adrenergic receptor activation.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Our understanding of the mechanism of drug-induced receptor activation and receptor theory and the biochemical definition of a receptor antagonist continues to evolve. The two-state model of receptor activation has given way to multistate models with intermediate conformational states. The discovery of functional selectivity and that ligand-specific receptor conformations occur and can affect interaction of receptors with different second messenger systems may mean that drugs can be designed to activate some of the downstream functions of a receptor but not others. This means efficacy may actually depend on where that receptor is expressed, altering the view that efficacy at a receptor is receptor-independent property of a drug.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: By definition, antagonists display no efficacy to activate the receptors they bind. Antagonists do not maintain the ability to activate a receptor. Once bound, however, antagonists inhibit the function of agonists, inverse agonists, and partial agonists. In functional antagonist assays, a dose-response curve measures the effect of the ability of a range of concentrations of antagonists to reverse the activity of an agonist. The potency of an antagonist is usually defined by its "half maximal inhibitory concentration" (i.e., IC value). This can be calculated for a given antagonist by determining the concentration of antagonist needed to elicit half inhibition of the maximum biological response of an agonist. Elucidating an IC value is useful for comparing the potency of drugs with similar efficacies, however the dose-response curves produced by both drug antagonists must be similar. The lower the IC the greater the potency of the antagonist, and the lower the concentration of drug that is required to inhibit the maximum biological response. Lower concentrations of drugs may be associated with fewer side-effects.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: The affinity of an antagonist for its binding site (K), i.e. its ability to bind to a receptor, will determine the duration of inhibition of agonist activity. The affinity of an antagonist can be determined experimentally using Schild regression or for competitive antagonists in radioligand binding studies using the Cheng-Prusoff equation. Schild regression can be used to determine the nature of antagonism as beginning either competitive or non-competitive and K determination is independent of the affinity, efficacy or concentration of the agonist used. However, it is important that equilibrium has been reached. The effects of receptor desensitization on reaching equilibrium must also be taken into account. The affinity constant of antagonists exhibiting two or more effects, such as in competitive neuromuscular-blocking agents that also block ion channels as well as antagonising agonist binding, cannot be analyzed using Schild regression. Schild regression involves comparing the change in the dose ratio, the ratio of the EC of an agonist alone compared to the EC in the presence of a competitive antagonist as determined on a dose response curve. Altering the amount of antagonist used in the assay can alter the dose ratio. In Schild regression, a plot is made of the log (dose ratio-1) versus the log concentration of antagonist for a range of antagonist concentrations. The affinity or K is where the line cuts the x-axis on the regression plot. Whereas, with Schild regression, antagonist concentration is varied in experiments used to derive K values from the Cheng-Prusoff equation, agonist concentrations are varied. Affinity for competitive agonists and antagonists is related by the Cheng-Prusoff factor used to calculate the K (affinity constant for an antagonist) from the shift in IC that occurs during competitive inhibition. The Cheng-Prusoff factor takes into account the effect of altering agonist concentration and agonist affinity for the receptor on inhibition produced by competitive antagonists.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Competitive antagonists bind to receptors at the same binding site (active site) as the endogenous ligand or agonist, but without activating the receptor. Agonists and antagonists "compete" for the same binding site on the receptor. Once bound, an antagonist will block agonist binding. Sufficient concentrations of an antagonist will displace the agonist from the binding sites, resulting in a lower frequency of receptor activation. The level of activity of the receptor will be determined by the relative affinity of each molecule for the site and their relative concentrations. High concentrations of a competitive agonist will increase the proportion of receptors that the agonist occupies, higher concentrations of the antagonist will be required to obtain the same degree of binding site occupancy. In functional assays using competitive antagonists, a parallel rightward shift of agonist dose–response curves with no alteration of the maximal response is observed.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Competitive antagonists are used to prevent the activity of drugs, and to reverse the effects of drugs that have already been consumed. Naloxone (also known as Narcan) is used to reverse opioid overdose caused by drugs such as heroin or morphine. Similarly, Ro15-4513 is an antidote to alcohol and flumazenil is an antidote to benzodiazepines.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Competitive antagonists are sub-classified as reversible ("surmountable") or irreversible ("insurmountable") competitive antagonists, depending on how they interact with their receptor protein targets. Reversible antagonists, which bind via noncovalent intermolecular forces, will eventually dissociate from the receptor, freeing the receptor to be bound again. Irreversible antagonists bind via covalent intermolecular forces. Because there is not enough free energy to break covalent bonds in the local environment, the bond is essentially "permanent", meaning the receptor-antagonist complex will never dissociate. The receptor will thereby remain permanently antagonized until it is ubiquitinated and thus destroyed.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: A non-competitive antagonist is a type of insurmountable antagonist that may act in one of two ways: by binding to an allosteric site of the receptor, or by irreversibly binding to the active site of the receptor. The former meaning has been standardised by the IUPHAR, and is equivalent to the antagonist being called an "allosteric antagonist". While the mechanism of antagonism is different in both of these phenomena, they are both called "non-competitive" because the end-results of each are functionally very similar. Unlike competitive antagonists, which affect the amount of agonist necessary to achieve a maximal response but do not affect the magnitude of that maximal response, non-competitive antagonists reduce the magnitude of the maximum response that can be attained by any amount of agonist. This property earns them the name "non-competitive" because their effects cannot be negated, no matter how much agonist is present. In functional assays of non-competitive antagonists, depression of the maximal response of agonist dose-response curves, and in some cases, rightward shifts, is produced. The rightward shift will occur as a result of a receptor reserve (also known as spare receptors) and inhibition of the agonist response will only occur when this reserve is depleted.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: An antagonist that binds to the active site of a receptor is said to be "non-competitive" if the bond between the active site and the antagonist is irreversible or nearly so. This usage of the term "non-competitive" may not be ideal, however, since the term "irreversible competitive antagonism" may also be used to describe the same phenomenon without the potential for confusion with the second meaning of "non-competitive antagonism" discussed below.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: The second form of "non-competitive antagonists" act at an allosteric site. These antagonists bind to a distinctly separate binding site from the agonist, exerting their action to that receptor via the other binding site. They do not compete with agonists for binding at the active site. The bound antagonists may prevent conformational changes in the receptor required for receptor activation after the agonist binds. Cyclothiazide has been shown to act as a reversible non-competitive antagonist of mGluR1 receptor.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Uncompetitive antagonists differ from non-competitive antagonists in that they require receptor activation by an agonist before they can bind to a separate allosteric binding site. This type of antagonism produces a kinetic profile in which "the same amount of antagonist blocks higher concentrations of agonist better than lower concentrations of agonist". Memantine, used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, is an uncompetitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Silent antagonists are competitive receptor antagonists that have zero intrinsic activity for activating a receptor. They are true antagonists, so to speak. The term was created to distinguish fully inactive antagonists from weak partial agonists or inverse agonists.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Partial agonists are defined as drugs that, at a given receptor, might differ in the amplitude of the functional response that they elicit after maximal receptor occupancy. Although they are agonists, partial agonists can act as a competitive antagonist in the presence of a full agonist, as it competes with the full agonist for receptor occupancy, thereby producing a net decrease in the receptor activation as compared to that observed with the full agonist alone. Clinically, their usefulness is derived from their ability to enhance deficient systems while simultaneously blocking excessive activity. Exposing a receptor to a high level of a partial agonist will ensure that it has a constant, weak level of activity, whether its normal agonist is present at high or low levels. In addition, it has been suggested that partial agonism prevents the adaptive regulatory mechanisms that frequently develop after repeated exposure to potent full agonists or antagonists. E.g. Buprenorphine, a partial agonist of the μ-opioid receptor, binds with weak morphine-like activity and is used clinically as an analgesic in pain management and as an alternative to methadone in the treatment of opioid dependence.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: An inverse agonist can have effects similar to those of an antagonist, but causes a distinct set of downstream biological responses. Constitutively active receptors that exhibit intrinsic or basal activity can have inverse agonists, which not only block the effects of binding agonists like a classical antagonist but also inhibit the basal activity of the receptor. Many drugs previously classified as antagonists are now beginning to be reclassified as inverse agonists because of the discovery of constitutive active receptors. Antihistamines, originally classified as antagonists of histamine H receptors have been reclassified as inverse agonists.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Many antagonists are reversible antagonists that, like most agonists, will bind and unbind a receptor at rates determined by receptor-ligand kinetics.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Irreversible antagonists covalently bind to the receptor target and, in general, cannot be removed; inactivating the receptor for the duration of the antagonist effects is determined by the rate of receptor turnover, the rate of synthesis of new receptors. Phenoxybenzamine is an example of an irreversible alpha blocker—it permanently binds to α adrenergic receptors, preventing adrenaline and noradrenaline from binding. Inactivation of receptors normally results in a depression of the maximal response of agonist dose-response curves and a right shift in the curve occurs where there is a receptor reserve similar to non-competitive antagonists. A washout step in the assay will usually distinguish between non-competitive and irreversible antagonist drugs, as effects of non-competitive antagonists are reversible and activity of agonist will be restored.


title: Receptor antagonist

text: Irreversible competitive antagonists also involve competition between the agonist and antagonist of the receptor, but the rate of covalent bonding differs and depends on affinity and reactivity of the antagonist. For some antagonists, there may be a distinct period during which they behave competitively (regardless of basal efficacy), and freely associate to and dissociate from the receptor, determined by receptor-ligand kinetics. But, once irreversible bonding has taken place, the receptor is deactivated and degraded. As for non-competitive antagonists and irreversible antagonists in functional assays with irreversible competitive antagonist drugs, there may be a shift in the log concentration–effect curve to the right, but, in general, both a decrease in slope and a reduced maximum are obtained.


title: Samnites

text: The Samnites () were an ancient Italic people who lived in Samnium, which is located in modern inland Abruzzo, Molise, and Campania in south-central Italy.


title: Samnites

text: An Oscan-speaking people, who may have originated as an offshoot of the Sabines, they formed a confederation consisting of four tribes: the Hirpini, Caudini, Caraceni, and Pentri.


title: Samnites

text: Although allied together against the Gauls in 354 BC, they later became enemies of the Romans and fought them in a series of three wars. Despite an overwhelming victory at the Battle of the Caudine Forks (321 BC), the Samnites were subjugated in 290 BC. Although severely weakened, the Samnites would still side against the Romans, first in the Pyrrhic War and then with Hannibal in the Second Punic War. They also fought in the Social War and later in Sulla's civil war as allies of the Roman consuls Papirius Carbo and Gaius Marius against Sulla, who defeated them and their leader Pontius Telesinus at the Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC). Afterward, they were assimilated by the Romans and ceased to exist as a distinct people.


title: Samnites

text: The Samnites had an economy focused upon livestock and agriculture. Samnite agriculture was highly advanced for its time, and they practiced transhumance. Aside from relying on agriculture, the Samnites exported goods such as ceramics, bronze, iron, olives, wool, pottery, and terracottas. Their trade networks extended across Campania, Latium, Apulia, and Magna Graecia.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite society was stratified into cantons. Each city was a "vicus". Many "vici" were grouped into a "pagus", and many "pagi" were grouped into a "touto". There were four Samnite "touto", one for each of the Samnite tribes. Aside from this system of government, a few Samnite cities had political entities similar to a senate. It was rare, although possible, for the Samnites to unify under a coalition; normally the tribes and cities functioned independently from one another.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite religion worshipped both spirits called "numina" and gods and goddesses. The Samnites honored their gods by sacrificing live animals and using votive offerings. Superstition was prominent in the Samnite religion. It was believed that magical chants could influence reality, that magical amulets could protect people, and that augurs could see the future. Samnite priests would manage religious festivals and they could bind people to oaths. Sanctuaries were a major part of the Samnite religion. These might have been used to benefit from trade networks, may have marked the border between territories, and may have been intertwined with government. Samnite sanctuaries may have also been used to reinforce group identity.


title: Samnites

text: The Indo-European root "Saβeno" or "Sabh" evolved into the word "Safen", which later became "Safin". The word "Safin" may have been the first word used to describe the Samnite people and the Samnite Kingdom. Some archaeologists believe it refers to all the people of the Italian peninsula, others say just the people of Molise. "Safin" could also be an adjective used to describe a group of people. It appears on graves near Abruzzo from the 5th century, as well as Oscan inscriptions and slabs in Penna Sant'Andrea. The last known usage of the word is on a coin from the Social War.


title: Samnites

text: "Safin" would go through a series of changes culminating in "Safinim", the Oscan word for Samnium, meaning "cult place of the "Safin" people"."" This became the word for the Samnite people, "Safineis". as well as other words in Greek such as "Saini", "Saineis", "Samnītēs," "Sabellī," and "Saunìtai". These terms likely originated in the 5th century BC and derive from "saunion", the Greek word for javelin.


title: Samnites

text: The Greek geographer Strabo wrote that the Samnite civilization originated from a group of Sabine exiles. According to this account, during either a famine, or as part of an attempt to end a war with the Umbrians, the Sabines vowed to hold a Ver Sacrum. As part of this ritual, all things produced that year were sacrificed, including babies. Once these babies had reached adulthood they were exiled, and then guided by a bull to their new homeland. Upon reaching this land they sacrificed this bull to Mars. Other Samnite tribes claimed to have been guided by different animals. The Hirpini claimed they were guided by a wolf, and the Picentes claimed to have been guided by a woodpecker. Alternatively, the Samnites may have been connected to Sparta. This legend is possibly apocryphal. It might have been created by the Greeks for an alliance with the Samnites, or to include the Italic peoples within their worldview, and possibly to highlight similarities between the Samnites and Spartans. Archaeological evidence shows that Samnite civilization likely developed from a preexisting Italian culture.


title: Samnites

text: After the Etruscans abandoned Campania in the 5th century, the Samnites conquered the region. Cities like Pompeii and Herculaneum were conquered. It is unclear what Samnite cities took part in the campaign, or why. They could have wanted its fertile soil, or to alleviate overpopulation. This theory relies on the Samnites having a poor agricultural industry, which is contradicted by other evidence. Alternatively, the Samnites could have wanted access to the Volturno River and other resources. Once Greek hegemony in Italy waned, the Samnites invaded and conquered much of their former land. They conquered cities like Cumae, only failing to take Naples. In the ensuing centuries, they would wage more war against the Campanians, Volscians, Epirot Greeks, and other Latin communities.


title: Samnites

text: The Samnites and Romans first came into contact after the Roman conquest of the Volscians. In 354 BC, they agreed to set their border at the Liris River. Livy, a Roman historian who serves as a source on the Samnite Wars, states that when the Samnites attacked the Campanians, the latter civilization formed an alliance with the Romans. Igniting war between them and the Samnites in 343 BC. This account of the war's cause is not universally accepted by modern historians. Livy may be writing propaganda or trying to compare this war to other conflicts. After three Samnite defeats and a Roman invasion, the Samnites agreed to sign a peace treaty.


title: Samnites

text: There are two accounts of the cause of the Second Samnite War. Possibly, Rome declared war due to a Samnite alliance with the Vestini and wars against Fregellae and Paleopolis. Additionally, the Romans wished to use the economic prosperity of the city of Venafrum for their own benefit. Conflict may have also emerged because the Samnites desired to solidify their hold over crucial economic positions. After the Roman defeat at the Battle of the Caudine Forks both sides agreed to an armistice. Fighting resumed in 326 BC. The war ended after a Roman campaign into Apulia and Samnium. Following the end of the war, the Romans annexed Bovianum and Fregellae, and forced the Samnites out of Apulia.


title: Samnites

text: In 298 BC, the Third Samnite War broke out due to tension over the Lucanians, who had asked Rome for protection. On another front, treaties between the Romans and Picentes caused conflict with the Etruscans. This war came to end after the Samnite defeat at the Battle of Aquilonia. Afterwards, Samnium was conquered and the Samnites were assimilated into Roman society.


title: Samnites

text: The Samnites were one of the Italian peoples that allied with King Pyrrhus of Epirus during the Pyrrhic War. After Pyrrhus left for Sicily, the Romans invaded Samnium and were crushed at the Battle of the Cranita Hills, but after the defeat of Pyrrhus, the Samnites could not resist on their own and surrendered to Rome. Some of them joined and aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, but most stayed loyal to Rome. After the Romans refused to grant the Samnites citizenship, they, along with other Italic peoples, rebelled against the Romans. This war, known as the Social War, lasted almost four years and resulted in a Roman victory. After this bloody conflict, Samnites and other Italic tribes were granted citizenship to avoid the possibility of another war.


title: Samnites

text: The Samnites supported the faction of Marius and Carbo in the civil war against Sulla. The Samnites and their allies were led by Pontius Telesinus and a Lucanian named Marcus Lamponius. They gathered an army of 40,000 men and fought a battle against Sulla at the Colline Gates. After their defeat in the battle, and subsequently the war, Pontius was executed.


title: Samnites

text: As a consequence of Sulla's victory and his establishment as dictator of Rome he ordered the punishment of those who had opposed him. Samnites, who were some of the most prominent supporters of the Marians, were punished so severely that it was recorded, "some of their cities have now dwindled into villages, some indeed being entirely deserted." The Samnites did not play any prominent role in history after this, and they were Latinized and assimilated into the Roman world. Several of their gentes would go on to achieve high distinction, including the Cassii, the Herennii, and the Vibii.


title: Samnites

text: Most of Samnium consisted of rugged and mountainous terrain lacking in natural resources. This resulted in a mixed economy focused on using the small amounts of fertile land to practice highly developed forms of subsistence agriculture, mixed farming, animal husbandry, sheep farming, pastoralism, and smallholdings. The prosperity of the Samnite agricultural industry likely resulted in conflicts between them and other civilizations, and possibly one of the causes of the Samnite Wars.


title: Samnites

text: The prominence of pastoralism and livestock in the Samnite economy was also a consequence of their homeland's terrain. Horses, poultry, cattle, goats, pigs, and sheep were all common and important kinds of livestock. These animals were valued because they could serve as a tradeable good, and as a source of food. Transhumance, or the seasonal movement of livestock from summer to winter pastures, was an important aspect of the Samnite economy. Annual short distance transhumance formed the basis of the aristocracy's wealth. Long distance transhumance was practiced between Apulia and Samnium.


title: Samnites

text: During the fifth and fourth centuries BC, an increasing population combined with trade links to other Italians contributed to further agricultural and urban development. This change was most drastic in Larinum. The city began as a major grain producer with a mill and a threshing floor, and later developed into the hub for all economic activity in the Biferno Valley. The Samnites exported goods such as cereals, cabbages, olives, olive oil, wine, bronze, iron, textiles, legumes, and vines. They also imported materials such as bronze bowls and bucchero from places like Campania, Etruria, Latium, Apulia, and Magna Graecia. These trade networks resulted in the adoption of products and ideas from other cultures such as the Sabines, Latins, and Etruscans.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite currency developed in the late fifth and early fourth centuries BC, likely as a consequence of interaction with the Greeks, and war, which created a need for mercenaries. Their bronze or silver currency might have been produced in Naples, and then "ordered" from the city's workshops. Alternatively, Samnite cities might have supplied the materials necessary for making currency. Or coins could have been imported from cities that Samnite mercenaries worked for. Such as Taranto. Currency at this time generally depicted places like Allifae, Nola, Philistia, or peoples such as the Campani. These images are associated with the development of the Samnite political structure. Coins may have not been used by individuals, but instead by government institutions to finance administrative tasks. Following this early period of high currency production, the Samnites began to mint less money.


title: Samnites

text: Wool and leather were likely harvested by the Samnites in significant quantities, as evidenced by the numerous loom weights found throughout Samnium. Most loom weights used incised lines, dots, oval stamps, gem impressions, or imprints from metal signet rings to create patterns. Common patterns included pyramids, stars, or dotted or incised cross motifs. Motifs could have been shaped like leaves, flowers, pomegranates, or mythological figures. One loom weight from the town of Locri is decorated with a gem impression of a satyr playing the lyre. Numerous pieces of Samnite pottery with Greek words incised into them have been found. These Greek words may have served a variety of possibilities, such as instructing the weaver how to order the threads in the textile patterns, or they could also have marked the piece's quality. The Greek inscriptions may also have stated the weight of either the loom weight or the cloth, and possibly the cloth's dimensions.


title: Samnites

text: The Samnites also produced amphorae, terracottas, and impasto pottery with black gloss. Protective coating, also called varnish, was used to cover pottery and amphorae. Most amphorae came from Rhodes, and pottery was commonly purchased from Greece. Pottery was also rarely imported from North Africa or areas by the Adriatic. After the urbanization of Samnite society, the production of Hellenistic or Italian pottery dramatically increased. Ceramics, pottery, and amphorae often used patterns. The majority of these patterns were trademarks or signatures from the craftsmen. On other occasions, they depicted places such as the island of Rhodes, or named government officials., such as the Meddíss Túvtíks. One example of a pottery stamp is:


title: Samnites

text: Throughout the Iron Age Samnium was ruled by chieftains and aristocrats who used funerary displays to flaunt their wealth. During the early third and fourth centuries, the Samnite political system developed into an organization focused on rural settlements led by magistrates. The Samnite settlements, or "vici", were at the bottom of the Samnite social hierarchy. They were grouped into cantons called "pagi", which were run by an elected official known as a "meddiss". The "pagi" were organized into "toutos", which were the Samnite tribes. Each "touto" was led by an annually elected official with supreme executive and judicial powers called the "meddíss túvtiks."


title: Samnites

text: Political entities similar to councils, assemblies, or senates such as the "kombennio" possibly existed. The "Kombennio" was a democratic organization in Pompeii responsible for electing officials, as well as making laws and enforcing them. Senates were located at the capitals of the Samnite tribes, such as Bovianum, the Pentrian capital. It is unclear if these forms of government existed before the Roman conquest. Despite these democratic institutions, Samnite society was still dominated by a small group of aristocratic families such as the "Papii", "Statii", "Egnatii", and "Staii".


title: Samnites

text: Each Samnite tribe functioned independently from the others. However, a union similar to the Latin League would occasionally form between the tribes. Such an alliance would be primarily militaristic, with a commander and chief enforcing all laws enacted by the alliance. In order for the alliance to pass legislation, leading men of each tribe would have to unanimously agree before a bill could become a law. Such an alliance was rare, and even if some tribes unified others might refuse to unite with the other tribes. The Frentani was another Italic tribe that might have been included in this alliance, however, their importance to the union might be exaggerated. The relevance of the Samnite tribes in this organization might also be exaggerated; cities could have had more political power.


title: Samnites

text: This system of government maintained itself after the Roman conquest of Samnium albeit with some reductions in power. The "touto" and "pagus" began to function as miniature Republics, while the "vicus" remained unchanged. The only interference from the Romans would be that the Municipum held authority over all previous institutions and could override them, while the prefectures had little authority over the Samnites.


title: Samnites

text: Roman historians believed that Samnite society was highly militaristic. They feared Samnite cavalry and infantry, and nicknamed them "Belliger Samnis", which translates to "Warrior Samnites". It is unclear if this portrayal is accurate as most Roman historical accounts of the Samnites were written after this civilization had disappeared. Much of this work could also be propaganda. In the early periods of Samnite history, the military consisted of trained warriors led by local leaders. Access to the military (and military equipment) was dependent on one's wealth and status, while poorer and lower status individuals were relegated to work such as agriculture. Samnite soldiers would have been trained in the triangular forum in Pompeii from an early age as part of a group known as the "Vereiia". The "Vereiia" evolved into a community service group after the Roman conquest. During the Samnite Wars, the army evolved to resemble the armies of Ancient Greek city states. This new system used phalanxes, hoplites, maniples, and cohorts made of 400 men, creating an army flexible enough to fight in mountainous terrain. Low class soldiers began to be conscripted into the army, increasing its size to several thousand soldiers, although these recruits were less skilled and poorly trained.


title: Samnites

text: Livy mentions a "legio linteata" ("linen legion"); this unit used flamboyant equipment to differentiate itself from other Samnite warriors. According to Livy, this legion took an oath to never flee battle inside a linen structure. Scholars believe that this description was designed to highlight the differences between the "civilized" Romans, and the barbaric enemies of Rome. Livy also could have been attempting to try and convey Samnite historical and religious power through a single unit. Due to corroborating archaeological evidence, other scholars state that it would be "rash" to completely dismiss this entire story.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite soldiers wore a small single disc breastplate. This breastplate, called the kardiophylax consisted of straps that passed around the shoulders, chest, and back, and attached around points. Although the triple-disc cuirass offered more protection, this armor continued to be used as a status symbol. There were three types of triple-disc cuirasses. The first used bronze to fill the space between the three identical discs. Small rings were attached to this bronze, and side straps were used to hold the armor together. Shoulder straps were also fastened to these small rings. The second type utilized an edge to outline the discs, while the third used plates to depict the heads of religious figures such as Athena or demons. All three types were constructed by placing a disc below and between two upper discs forming a triangular shape.


title: Samnites

text: Broad belts made of leather, gold, or bronze were common pieces of armor, and significant to Samnite culture. They were likely dedicated to protecting the abdomen. Samnite belts were made by heating up tin alloys at 800 degrees Celsius. Afterward, work would be performed on the belt at a temperature ranging from 600 to 800 degrees Celsius. Hammers and abrasives were used to grind the strips, giving them the appearance of silver. When making the belts, a thermal treatment was used in repeated cycles to increase the durability of the material.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite helmets were based on Greek military equipmentthey used cheek guards, crests, and plumes. Crests were usually made by fastening horse tails to a metal piece that hung at the back of the helmet. Rivets could also be used to pin crests to the helmet's peak. Another type of crest was thin and bushy with long free-flowing ends. Feathers and horns were a common feature of Samnite crests and plumes. Soldiers would don their greaves by resting their leg on a rock whilst using their hands to test the fit of the equipment. This piece of equipment reached down to the ankle and was likely custom-made to fit the owner. There are few depictions of Samnite soldiers wearing graves, implying that they were rarely used outside of rituals and "mock-fights."


title: Samnites

text: Projectiles such as spears and javelins were commonly used by the Samnites. Spearheads were made from two bronze or iron parts. The upper part was the spearhead proper, and a lower part, which used a tube to hold up the end of a wooden shaft. To fasten the shaft to the spearhead, nails were driven through a hole in the shaft. Tubes were used to fit the spear into a bronze chape, which would protect the wooden shaft. Projectile weaponry was so essential to Samnite tactics that if a soldier ran out of projectiles, they would throw rocks off the ground.


title: Samnites

text: Alongside spears, soldiers would use swords or even hand-to-hand combat. Depictions on pottery, and figurines such as the Capestrano Warrior showcase Samnite soldiers using a kind of Bronze Age sword called an antenna sword. Another kind of sword associated with the Samnite civilization is the short sword. Short swords were carried using a long strap fastened to either the warrior's body or the sword's hilt. Samnite art depicts soldiers receiving swords in ritual ceremonies, and warriors eager to receive swords, implying that short swords were highly valued in Samnite society. Maces were rarer than spears or javelins, yet still common. They had heavy and undecorated iron heads attached to a handle hoisted with a hole or a socket. Axes were rarely used; they may have primarily been symbols of power.


title: Samnites

text: There is little archaeological record of the Samnite shield, as most of the remaining shields have had much of their components destroyed. Samnite art commonly depicts Samnite soldiers using a round shield called an "aspis". To carry the shield, two straps were used. One strap was leather, decorated with patterns, and ran vertically over the middle of the shield. Another strap used to provide a firm grip ran vertically near the shield's edge. Alongside "aspides", the Samnites possibly used bronze oval shields with pointed ends and incised decorations. It is possible that the Samnites used "scuta". It is also possible that the Samnite "scutum" influenced the Roman shield; however, evidence for this is unclear. Samnite art depicts their soldiers carrying "scuta"; however, it is either as trophies taken from the enemy or an attempt to mimic ancient Greek art. Livy states that the Samnite shield was broad near the shoulder and chest, but thinner closer to the feet. Archaeological evidence does not substantiate this idea. Livy possibly mistook the equipment of a Samnite gladiator for that of a Samnite soldier.


title: Samnites

text: Superstition dominated Samnite culture. They believed magic could influence reality and practiced augury. Vaguely defined spirits called "numina" were also prominent in Samnite mythology. It was essential to establish proper relations with these spirits, which evolved into the Samnite gods and goddesses. Few of these Samnite deities are known. It is known that gods such as Vulcan, Diana, and "Mefitis" were all worshipped, with Mars being the most prominent in the Samnite religion. To honor their gods, votive offerings and animals would be sacrificed. In a practice known as the "Ver Sacrum", all things produced in a particular year would be exiled or offered to the gods. The description of these practices may have been fabricated by Livy for propaganda purposes.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite gravesites often contained goods. For example, wealthy individuals had graves with statues or steles. These goods indicated the wealth and status of the individual in life. Burials required that certain practices be observed in order to bury the dead adequately. Burial was likely a sign of social status as it was rare to be buried, despite the Samnite belief in an afterlife.


title: Samnites

text: Sanctuaries were important to the Samnite religion. They served a variety of purposes: they siphoned money off transhumance routes, marked borders, served as centers for communication and places of worship, and played a role in government. Over time, sanctuaries become much less prominent in Samnite culture, and were all abandoned soon afterwards.


title: Samnites

text: There were two major roles for Samnite women: domestic and ceremonial. Women would weave, which likely played an important role in the economy. They also likely exercised a small amount of political power through the symposium, which was a kind of ancient Greek or Etruscan banquet. Other responsibilities included teaching young girls how to dance, childrearing, and possibly managing the household. Relationships between Samnite wives and husbands are unclear. Libation scenes might suggest that a wife was supposed to be dutiful and loyal to her husband. Women may have been expected to be disciplinedin Horace's "Odes" he complains about women lacking these traits. He possibly based his expectations of women on Samnite customs. Another possibility is that women were capable of acquiring large amounts of wealth. However, they might have only been capable of displaying their partner's wealth. Artwork and pottery depicting Samnite women showcase them involved in rituals or nearby altars with votive offerings. These rituals usually involve women honoring their husbands through offerings of wine, or possibly praying for their husbands before they leave to fight.


title: Samnites

text: The geographer Strabo states that the Samnites would take ten virgin women and ten young men, who were considered to be the best representation of their sex, and marry them. Following this, the second-best women would be given to the second-best males. This would continue until all 20 people had been assigned to one another. It is possible that the "best" men and women were chosen based on athletic capabilities. If any of the individuals involved dishonored themselves, they would be displaced and forcibly separated from their partners.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite society may have enforced a distinction between men, who were supposed to be warriors, and women, who were supposed to be "bejeweled". Ancient historians describe the Samnites as a warlike people; however much of this is possibly propaganda. Campanian pottery often depicts Samnite warriors and cavalrymen fighting, while Apulian pottery tends to depict them in a wider variety of circumstances. Pottery from those same cultures also depicts armed men involved with other activities such as burying the dead or marriage. Differences between male and female graves also support this theory. Men were buried with weapons and armor, while women were buried with domestic goods such as spindles or jewelry. Young adult women were typically buried with coils, pendants, beads, clothing, spindles, and fibulae similar to those worn by boys, possibly meaning that femininity was tied to youth in Samnite culture. Men wore much smaller and less elaborate fibulae, possibly indicating that the male identity was tied to maturity. The skeletons of men and women also show differences in trauma. Male skeletons found near Pontecagnano Faiano have a cranial trauma rate of 12.9%, while only 8% of female skeletons showed cranial trauma. Another community at Alfedena has male Samnite skeletons with similar rates of cranial injury. This indicates that Samnite men may have been expected to serve as warriors and fight, while women were not.


title: Samnites

text: However, a large number of graves are not buried with their respective gender's items. Samnite men have been buried with goods typically associated with women, and a few Samnite women have been buried with goods associated with men. Only 3% of men in Campo Consolino were buried with their respective gender's goods, while one in five women were buried with weaponry. Men have also been found buried with domestic goods. This could be explained if these goods were not indicative of the person's responsibilities in life, but instead were offerings to the dead. The rarity of certain burial goods could indicate that they were exclusive to high-status individuals. For example, jewelry could be explained as an indication of wealth or femininity. Differences in jewelry between the graves of adolescent and young adult women could be a form of preventative healthcare; it may have been done to protect them in childbirth.


title: Samnites

text: Another possibility is that Samnite society was not as focused on gender roles or as warlike as ancient scholars believed. Most of the literature concerning the Samnites and the Samnite Wars was written long after the civilization had collapsed. These works may also be propaganda, designed to support the idea of the civilized Romans fighting the barbarians. Archaeological evidence may also not be sufficient: some evidence such as tattoos, clothing, and hairstyles can be lost or destroyed, and archaeologists and historians may misinterpret grave sites. In addition to this, focusing on weapons and clothing may only serve to give academics an incomplete or biased picture of Samnite society.


title: Samnites

text: Analysis of skeletons has shown that both genders have fractures, lesions, and injuries, although men have these injuries much more commonly. This difference could be explained by greater amounts of male skeletons than female skeletons. Other skeletons showcase similarities between the lives of men and women. For example, both have healthy teeth, implying that they had healthy diets with low amounts of carbohydrates. The art depicts groups of both men and women honoring both dead men and women, indicating that Samnite men and women could be honored in similar ways after death. Each gender may have had different, but equally important roles. Another possibility is that the Samnites had two categories for gender, one being adult males, and the other, everyone else.


title: Samnites

text: The Samnites possibly practiced ritualized prostitution. Young women of all social standings would engage in sexual activities as a rite of passage. It is possible this practice would transform from a ritual into a profession.


title: Samnites

text: The first art style used by the Samnites in Pompeii developed when Greek painters traveled to Italy to paint for local aristocrats. It borrows elements from Greek, Etruscan, and other Italic art. For example, hierarchy of scale, clothing demonstrating status, captions, episodic narratives, and depictions of history were all borrowed from other cultures.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite art featured polychrome murals and paintings. The murals usually used black or red cement pavements outlined with designs that ran across tesserae. There were two different styles of tesserae: worm-like, or "miculatum", and woven-style, or "oppus tessellatum,". "Miculatum" consisted of inserting marble and terracotta trays into a mosaic floor. The "oppus tessellatum" style used tesserae to create an appearance resembling weaving. Samnite art was usually colorful, and it often depicted myths, warriors, or Greek subjects. Murals found in Pompeii were designed to create an idyllic sense.


title: Samnites

text: Aside from the murals, other works of Samnite art have survived to the modern day. On the walls of a sanctuary at Pietrabbondate there is an unidentifiable relief that is possibly an atlas. Another possible work of Samnite or Roman origin in Isernia depicts two helmeted warriors. One example of Samnite figurative art may be the Warrior of Capestrano. The statue was, however, found in Vestini territory and depicts a Picentine warrior.


title: Samnites

text: Most Samnite clothes were loose, pinned, draped, folded, and not stitched or sewn. Clothing held symbolic and ritual purposes in Samnite society. For example, clothing indicated social status, and chitons were often used in ceremonies. The most valuable kind of clothing was a fastened bronze or leather girdle covered in bronze.


title: Samnites

text: Men wore rings, amulets with snake heads, and collars. Collars were usually pierced with holes from which they suspended amulets and pendants and engraved with incised decorations. Collars would be given to the man in boyhood, and never removed. Bearskins were also common clothing.


title: Samnites

text: Female clothing was similar to Greek apparel. Women wore long sleeveless peplum, caps, hats similar to a pileus, chitons, decorated belts, and chatelaine. The chatelaine had a central section consisting of mail and metal spirals made from perforated discs of metal. An essential part of Samnite women's clothing was garments long enough to touch the ground. These were worn alongside colored capes that were fastened beneath the chin and held together with a brooch. Samnite capes covered the whole upper body, the arms, and the legs, although necklaces and amulets remained visible, as the neckline of the cape did not touch the shoulders. Women also wore another kind of cape similar to a jacket. This jacket had sleeves, was fastened at the front, used a low-cut neckline, and fit the body tightly, covering much of it with folding. The frontal part of the jacket hung just below the waist, which is also nearby where it was kept. Samnite skirts were heavily influenced by Greek clothing. They covered with a himation that usually also covered the hips as well as drapery. Women wore headdresses made from a folded piece of cloth. One depiction of this kind of headdress shows it as a long veil that was folded and ran across the head. Another piece of art shows a Samnite woman wearing a hairnet beneath a cylindrical headdress with white and red stripes running across it. Some kinds of clothing were gender neutral. Red, white, or black belts covered in motifs that were usually made by using hooks to fasten cloth or leather into holes were worn by both genders.


title: Samnites

text: It was common in ancient Samnium for both men and women to wear no footwear. Despite this, numerous shoe styles still existed. Some shoes were low, some reached to the ankles, and others had a small hole at their tip. Another kind used an accentuated upper edge and reached higher than the ankles. Styles of footwear did not vary greatly between gender, except for styles of boot. Female boots were usually ankle-high, while male boots reached higher. To secure the lacing of the shoe, white buttons and pointed, curved, or short lines that ran across horizontal laces could be used. Samnite sandals had white soles that used a strap to attach the soles to the foot. One kind of sandal left the foot uncovered, while the other covered it up. Socks may have existed in ancient Samnium. If they did not, an alternative could have existed, such as a sort of soft fabric used as a replacement for socks.


title: Samnites

text: Italic pottery and Samnite tomb paintings depict Samnite warriors wearing tunics. These were usually made from one piece of cloth and decorated with black or white motifs that were almost always placed on the sleeves, though rarely on the lower part of the tunic. Common motifs included stripes or dots. Tunics were held together at the midriff by broad leather belts.


title: Samnites

text: Livy describes Samnite soldiers wearing two kinds of clothing. One was referred to as versicolor, meaning the clothing used contrasting colors. These clothes might have been designed to give a chameleon-like appearance Livy may have intended to invoke ideas of Aeneas, who once allied with a warrior named Astyr, who had multi-colored weapons and armor. It also may have been designed to showcase the worthiness of the Samnites as opponents of Rome. These are not the only possibilitiesLivy may have wanted to reference Plato's Republic, which compares Republics to a multi-colored garment. Also, multi-colored clothing may have symbolized wealth. The other group of Samnites wore silver clothing and carried weapons.


title: Samnites

text: Drinking and eating were very important to the life of the Samnites. It served as a way to entertain, and to establish social networks, and to negotiate politics or labor. Whilst eating, the host would distribute food and drink to the guests. It was rare for wine to be given to adult men, although it was consumed by other demographics. Banquets used large containers or mixing vessels, serving vessels, and small pieces for individuals' consumption. Large containers were often amphorae or kraters. Serving vessels were usually dippers, or jugs. The smaller vessels were usually cups, beakers, kylikes, and kantharoi. It was common to import these goods, for example, bucchero was commonly imported from Etruria.


title: Samnites

text: Gladiatorial games may have originated in Samnium. Roman and Greek authors such as Livy, Strabo, Horace, Athenaeus, and Silius Italicus mention that the Campanian aristocrats would host gladiator games during their banquets. It is possible that the Samnite gladiator originated from these Oscan and Samnite games. However, evidence for this is inconclusive. Other scholars believe that gladiatorial games originated from Etruria, the Celts, or the city of Mantineia. The word "lanista" may imply a connection between gladiatorial games and the Etruscans. Although the earliest gladiators were called Samnites, the word "lanista" may have no connection to the Etruscans. Art from Campania depicts Samnites in gladiatorial games. One piece of art depicts a dead gladiator with a spear stuck in the head. This indicates that the Samnites likely were not averse to brutality. Art also showcases large gladiatorial games alongside chariot racing and banquets, implying that Samnite gladiatorial games were grandiose and for entertainment. Alternatively, these games may have been conducted at funerals. Games are usually depicted taking place near funerals, and pomegranates are depicted in the background, which was symbols of the afterlife. The warriors in these funerary games are depicted wearing colorful armor.


title: Samnites

text: Chariot racing and hunting with projectile weaponry were recreational activates practiced by Samnite men. In Pompeii, ancient baths were built during the time the Samnites ruled the city.


title: Samnites

text: From the Bronze to the Iron Age, the number of Samnite settlements drastically increased. Most of these settlements were small, with most people living in hamlets and working for a living. These small settlements organized around larger settlements, such as Saepinum and Caiatia. Samnite cities were generally not as large as those in the rest of Italy. They were largely disorganized, and generally lacked urban centers. Roads called "tratturi" were used to connect the summer pastures to those of winter. Alongside these roads, Samnite cities had buildings such as temples, dining complexes, houses, and sanctuaries. Their cities had no buildings similar to a forum or an Agora, except for the city of Pompeii, which had a small forum with irregular architecture and tabernae.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite cities began to develop walls and other defensive fortifications during the Samnite Wars. Walls were usually rough and crude, and located by the crest of a hill with no other defenses nearby. This indicated that they were built to allow the defending army to retreat and regroup, rather than protect the city. City gates were heavily fortified on the left side, but not on the right. This was done to force soldiers to attack the city on the side they were not holding their shield on.


title: Samnites

text: Hillforts built with polygonal walling may have been either a common defensive fortification or a form of settlement that represented a transitional phase between a more rural society and a more urban one. It is unclear if these hillforts were permanent defenses as they may have only been inhabited temporarily. Scholars have proposed other possible purposes for the Samnite hillforts. They may have played a role in government. Forts may have also been used to pass along signals by fire.


title: Samnites

text: Samnite architecture in Pompeii often resembled that of Greek architecture. For example, palaestras, colonnades, stoai, and columns were all borrowed from the Greeks. Other techniques were borrowed from the Etruscans. Such as breaking up orthostates with narrow blocks. The Samnite palaestra in Pompeii is made from a rectangular courtyard surrounded by porticos and Doric columns made of tufa. A peristyle courtyard lies to the west of the palaestra. This building was similar to Greek palaestra, and was likely either a gymnasium, religious site, or a campus. Houses were built on foundations topped with smaller blocks laid in courses. In order to elevate the foundation, dados and orthostats were inserted into the fauces. Blocks of stone also needed to be put alongside the base of the wall. Walls were usually made of rubble. The rubble could have been carved to make it resemble carved blocks of stone, rather than rubble. Alongside this practice, layers of plaster were spread over it. Plaster was also used to make frescoes. This was done by applying pigment to the plaster whilst it was damp. Another construction material called stucco was often painted, creating the appearance of a house covered in marble. Atriums were a common feature of Samnite houses. They used impulviums, loggia, and cellae. Façades made of tuff, tabernae, peristyles, dentil cornices supported by cubic capitals, which are the upper part of a column, used figurines and were all located outside of the houses. Roofs with downspouts made of stone and tiles.


title: Samnites

text: Small, personal, and makeshift farms or houses were common buildings. One farmhouse found near Campobasso consists of a square module, which was likely a stable house, and a series of rooms with hearths centered around a courthouse. The house has a small mortar line basin, a dolia, and other container vessels. Indicating that these materials were used for the process and storage of produce. Another farmstead was built in 200 BC using limestone blocks held together by yellow mortar. An archaeological site known as "ACQ 11000" had a terrace covered in thick clay, a walled space with a paved floor, and a stone wall.


title: Kim Su-an

text: Kim Su-an (; born January 27, 2006) is a South Korean actress. She debuted in the entertainment industry when she was five years old, and has since featured in films and television series, eventually gaining wider recognition with her role in the international hit film "Train to Busan" (2016).


title: Kim Su-an

text: Kim debuted as an actress in the film "Sorry, Thanks" in 2011. Since then, she has become an in-demand child actress in both independent and big-budget films like "Sprout" (2013) "Mad Sad Bad" (2014) and "Coin Locker Girl" (2015).


title: Kim Su-an

text: In 2016, she gained wider recognition for playing the daughter of Gong Yoo's character in the box-office zombie hit "Train to Busan". The same year, she signed an exclusive contract with talent management agency Blossom Entertainment.


title: Kim Su-an

text: In 2017, she starred in the action film "The Battleship Island", playing Hwang Jung-min's daughter. She was awarded the Best Supporting Actress award at the Buil Film Awards. She also appeared in " (2017)."


title: Umar Sadiq

text: Umar Sadiq Mesbah (born 2 February 1997) is a Nigerian professional footballer who plays as a forward for La Liga club Real Sociedad and the Nigeria national team.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: Sadiq formerly represented the Nigeria national under-23 team and was an important member of the squad that won a bronze medal at the 2016 Summer Olympics.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: Born in Kaduna, Sadiq started playing football on the streets of his hometown at an early age. He later played for local team Kusa Boys, before joining the Future of Africa Football Academy and finally the Football College Abuja. In June 2013, Sadiq traveled with FCA to Croatia and participated at the Kvarnerska Rivijera youth tournament. He finished as the competition's top scorer and helped his team become the champions.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: Following his promising performances in Croatia, Sadiq was acquired by Italian club Spezia. He failed to make any first-team appearances, but played regularly for the youth setup. In the 2014–15 season, Sadiq became the Campionato Primavera top scorer, tallying an impressive 26 goals in 24 games.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: Shortly upon joining Spezia, Sadiq was loaned to Serie D side Lavagnese, making his senior debut in the final round of the 2013–14 season.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: In July 2015, Sadiq joined Roma on a one-year loan. He was transferred alongside his teammate and compatriot Nura Abdullahi for €250,000 each with a buyout clause of €1,250 million per player. Having bagged eight goals in his first three Primavera matches for Roma, Sadiq made his Serie A debut on 21 November, replacing Juan Iturbe after 88 minutes in a 2–2 away draw against Bologna. He scored his first goal on 20 December, netting only seven minutes after coming on as an 82nd-minute substitute for Mohamed Salah, helping his team to a 2–0 home win over Genoa. On 6 January 2016, Sadiq bagged his second goal in his first start for Roma, opening the scoring in the 7th minute of an eventual 3–3 away draw against Chievo. He finished the season with two goals in six Serie A appearances.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: On 21 June 2016, it was announced that Roma exercised the option and signed Sadiq, as well as Nura, permanently until 30 June 2020. He traveled with the first team to the United States for the 2017 International Champions Cup, scoring in his only appearance against Paris Saint-Germain, as Roma lost after penalties.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: On 31 August 2016, Sadiq was sent on loan to Bologna until the end of the season with a purchase option. He appeared in seven Serie A games, before returning to Roma.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: On 16 August 2017, it was announced that Sadiq would be joining Torino on loan until 30 June 2018. The deal included an option to make the move permanent with a buyback clause in favour of Roma.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: In January 2018, Sadiq moved on a six-month loan to Dutch side NAC Breda with an extension option. He helped the club narrowly avoid relegation, contributing with five goals in 12 Eredivisie appearances.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: In July 2018, Sadiq joined Scottish Premiership side Rangers on a season-long loan. After just four first-team appearances in all competitions, his loan spell was terminated by the end of the year.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: In January 2019, Sadiq joined Serie B side Perugia for the remainder of the season. He scored three times in 17 appearances, helping his team to an eight-place finish with a chance to win promotion to Serie A via the playoffs. However, Perugia lost in the preliminary round to Verona after extra time.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: In early July 2019, Sadiq completed his loan move to Serbian club Partizan that included an option to buy. He made his official debut in a 1–0 away league win against Inđija on 21 July. On 4 August, Sadiq netted his first goal for the club in a 4–0 home league victory over Mačva Šabac. He subsequently scored the opener in an eventual 3–1 home win versus Turkish club Yeni Malatyaspor in the first leg of the Europa League third qualifying round. On 3 October, he netted a brace to give his team a 2–1 away victory against Astana in Europa League's Group L. He scored his first senior hat-trick in a 6–2 home league win over Javor Ivanjica on 22 November.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: On 1 September 2022, Sadiq signed a contract with Real Sociedad until the end of the 2027–28 season. Only two days later Sadiq scored first goal on his debut in a 1–1 home draw against Atlético Madrid.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: In July 2016, Sadiq was named in Nigeria's final 18-man squad for the 2016 Summer Olympics. He appeared in all six of his team's games and scored four goals in the process, including a brace in the third-place victory over Honduras.


title: Umar Sadiq

text: After a two successful seasons at Partizan and a move to the rising Almería, Sadiq received a call to the Nigerian national team called up for the 2022 African Cup of Nations qualifying matches against Benin and Lesotho on 27 and 30 March 2021 respectively.


title: Yoon Ji-on

text: Yoon Ji-on is a South Korean actor. He is best known for his roles in television series such as "Be Melodramatic" (2019), "Memorist" (2020), "You Are My Spring" (2021) and "Tomorrow" (2022).


title: Yoon Ji-on

text: In 2016 he made his debut as an actor. After his debut as an actor, he has appeared in a number of dramas and several films including "Monthly Magazine Home", "You Are My Spring" and "Memorist". He appeared in films including "", "Okay! Madam" and "".


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: Joint Base Lewis–McChord (JBLM) is a U.S. military installation home to I Corps and 62nd Airlift Wing located south-southwest of Tacoma, Washington under the jurisdiction of the United States Army Joint Base Headquarters, Joint Base Lewis–McChord. The facility is an amalgamation of the United States Army's Fort Lewis and the United States Air Force's McChord Air Force Base which merged on 1 February 2010 into a Joint Base as a result of Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommendations of 2005.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: Joint Base Lewis–McChord is a training and mobilization center for all services and is the only Army power projection base west of the Rocky Mountains in the Continental United States. Its geographic location provides rapid access to the deepwater ports of Tacoma, Olympia, and Seattle for deploying equipment. Units can be deployed from McChord Field, and individuals and small groups can also use nearby Sea-Tac Airport. The strategic location of the base provides Air Force units with the ability to conduct combat and humanitarian airlift with the C-17 Globemaster III.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: In 1916, a combination of local civilian businessmen seeking the creation of a military base in the Puget Sound area and a military survey team approved a military post to be constructed near American Lake. Businessmen and Washington voters approved a donation of the land near American Lake to the United States government. The base (then known as Camp Lewis) would serve as a vital training base for United States soldiers during World War I. This base would be known as one of the most well managed and cheaply funded bases that were constructed during World War I. Additional construction of the camp would officially commemorate a renaming of Camp Lewis to Fort Lewis in 1927.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: The construction of the base also included the seizure of Nisqually tribe reservation lands for their use as an artillery field. Legal seizure of the lands occurred through eminent domain and seizure, which resulted in tribal members being forced from their homes.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: Units trained at Fort Lewis would serve with distinction in both the Pacific and European theaters during World War II. Prisoner of war compounds were constructed to house German and Italian POWs until the end of the war. Fort Lewis units also participated in major operations in the modern-day, including Operation Just Cause and Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: McChord Air Force Base was originally named Tacoma Field in 1927 when a local voting measure voted to create a municipal airport. This airport would be purchased by the United States government in 1938 and renamed McChord Field in May 1938 in honor of Colonel William McChord, who had died in an aircraft accident in Virginia. The early work and construction of the base prior to the start of World War II occurred under the Works Projects Administration. McChord Field served as a critical piece of defense infrastructure during World War II, training bomber aircraft pilots who would participate in the allied invasion of Italy, southern France, and the Doolittle Raid. McChord Field became McChord Air Force Base in 1948 with the formation of the United States Air Force as a separate division of the armed forces from the United States Army.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: McChord Air Force Base served as an airlift base since the end of World War II. The base functions as a strategic airlift base participating in transport (such as in Operation Desert Shield), humanitarian (such as relief during 1992 typhoons, support during the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980, and support to New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina), and air defense roles (such as military interception in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks).


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: Fort Lewis and McChord Air Force Base officially joined to form Joint Base Lewis McChord in 2010 following the apolitical Base Realignment and Closure Commissions recommendations in 2005.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: The large protected lands available to military reservations makes environmental protection significantly important worldwide. Both formerly named Fort Lewis and McChord Air Force Base lands have been used as areas to conduct significant environmental studies. The use of military equipment on the base reservation contains the potential to damage environmental habitats. United States military facilities have implemented and continue to implement practices that include environmental preservation and protections.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: The Joint Base Headquarters (JBHQ) operates the installation to support the warfighting units, their families and the extended military community. The mission of the JBHQ is to provide support to mission commanders and the joint base community, to serve as an enabler to the soldiers as they train and project America's combat power, and to make JBLM the station of choice for American soldiers and their families.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: With an Army joint base commander and an Air Force deputy joint base commander, the JBHQ supports the installation through directorates and agencies that provide a full range of city services and quality-of-life functions; everything from facility maintenance recreation and family programs to training support and emergency services.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: Additional staff offices that support the installation mission include the Joint Base Public Affairs Office, the Religious Support Office, the Resource Management Office, Equal Employment Opportunity Office, the Joint Base Safety Office and the Plans, Analysis and Integration Office. Other partners who work closely with the JBHQ include the Civilian Personnel Advisory Center, the Mission and Installation Contracting Command and Joint Personal Property Shipping Office.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: JBLM Service Members receive medical care through on-base facilities such as Madigan Army Medical Center, the Okubo Clinic, the Nisqually Clinic, and the McChord Clinic.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: In 2010, Joint Base Lewis–McChord was called the U.S. military's "most troubled base" 2010 by "Stars and Stripes" newspaper. By 2015, the base had changed its public image, winning recognition in the Army Communities of Excellence awards program with a Silver Award in 2012, and Bronze Awards in 2013 and 2014.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: JBLM has two Senior Service Component Commanders, one Army (Commander, I Corps) and one Air Force (Commander, 62nd Airlift Wing), and has more than 45,000 service members and civilian workers. The post supports over 120,000 military retirees and more than 29,000 family members living both on and off post. The base has a total active population of nearly 210,000 inhabitants, making it the fourth largest military installment worldwide by population. JBLM consists of four geographical areas, Lewis Main, Lewis North, McChord Field, and Yakima Training Center. Lewis Main, Lewis North and McChord Field cover over ; while Yakima Training Center covers .


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: JBLM Lewis Main, Lewis North and McChord Field have abundant high-quality, close-in training areas, including 115 live-fire ranges. Additional training space is available at Yakima Training Center in eastern Washington, including maneuver areas and additional live-fire ranges.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: In 2009, the former Fort Lewis Regional Correctional Facility was remodeled and renamed the Northwest Joint Regional Correctional Facility (NWJRCF). The facility houses minimum and medium security prisoners from all branches of the U.S. Armed Forces.


title: Joint Base Lewis–McChord

text: JBLM Lewis North hosted the Leader Development and Assessment Course, a capstone program for the U.S. Army's ROTC program until it was relocated to Fort Knox, KY in 2014.


title: Boy

text: A boy is a young male human. The term is commonly used for a child or an adolescent. When a male human reaches adulthood, he is described as a man.


title: Boy

text: The word "boy" comes from Middle English "boi, boye" ("boy, servant"), related to other Germanic words for "boy", namely East Frisian "boi" ("boy, young man") and West Frisian "boai" ("boy"). Although the exact etymology is obscure, the English and Frisian forms probably derive from an earlier Anglo-Frisian *"bō-ja" ("little brother"), a diminutive of the Germanic root *"bō-" ("brother, male relation"), from Proto-Indo-European *"bhā-", *"bhāt-" ("father, brother"). The root is also found in Norwegian dialectal "boa" ("brother"), and, through a reduplicated variant *"bō-bō-", in Old Norse "bófi", Dutch "boef" "(criminal) knave, rogue", German "Bube" ("knave, rogue, boy"). Furthermore, the word may be related to "Bōia", an Anglo-Saxon personal name.


title: Boy

text: Historically, in the United States and South Africa, "boy" was not only a "neutral" term for domestics but also a disparaging term towards black men; the term implied a subservient status. Thomas Branch, an early African-American Seventh-day Adventist missionary to Nyassaland (Malawi) referred to the native students as "boys":Multiple politicians – including New Jersey Governor Chris Christie and former Kentucky Congressman Geoff Davis – have been criticized publicly for referring to a black man as "boy".


title: Boy

text: During an event promoting the 2017 boxing bout between Floyd Mayweather Jr. and Conor McGregor, the latter told the former to "dance for me, boy." The remarks led several boxers – including Mayweather and Andre Ward – as well as multiple commentators to accuse McGregor of racism.


title: Boy

text: Human sex is determined at fertilization when the genetic sex of the zygote has been initialized by a sperm cell containing either an X or Y chromosome. If this sperm cell contains an X chromosome, it will coincide with the X chromosome of the ovum and a girl will develop. A sperm cell carrying a Y chromosome results in an XY combination, and a boy will develop.


title: Boy

text: In male embryos at six to seven weeks' gestation, "the expression of a gene on the Y chromosome induces changes that result in the development of the testes". At approximately nine weeks' gestation, the production of testosterone by a male embryo results in the development of the male reproductive system.


title: Boy

text: The male reproductive system includes both external and internal organs. The external organs include the penis, the scrotum, and the testicles (or testes). The penis is a cylindrical organ filled with spongy tissue. It is the organ used by boys to expel urine. The foreskin of some boys' penises is removed in a process known as circumcision. The scrotum is a loose sac of skin behind the penis which contains the testicles. Testicles are oval-shaped gonads. A boy generally possesses two testicles. Internal male reproductive organs include the vas deferens, the ejaculatory ducts, the urethra, the seminal vesicles, and the prostate gland.


title: Boy

text: Puberty is the process by which children's bodies mature into adult bodies that are capable of reproduction. On average, boys begin puberty at ages 11–12 and complete puberty at ages 16–17.


title: Boy

text: In boys, puberty begins with the enlargement of the testicles and scrotum. The penis also increases in size, and a boy develops pubic hair. A boy's testicles also begin making sperm. The release of semen, which contains sperm and other fluids, is called ejaculation. During puberty, a boy's erect penis becomes capable of ejaculating semen and impregnating a female. A boy's first ejaculation is an important milestone in his development. On average, a boy's first ejaculation occurs at age 13. Ejaculation sometimes occurs during sleep; this phenomenon is known as a nocturnal emission.


title: Boy

text: When a boy reaches puberty, testosterone triggers the development of secondary sex characteristics. A boy's muscles increase in size and mass, his voice deepens, his bones lengthen, and the shape of his face and body changes. The increased secretion of testosterone from the testicles during puberty causes the male secondary sexual characteristics to be manifested. Male secondary sex characteristics include:


title: Boy

text: Boys who defy gender norms may face a higher risk of abuse, and may experience more depression than gender-conforming peers, as well as social stigma from parents and peers.


title: Boy

text: Boys perform the majority of child labor around the world compared to girls, 88 million are boys and 64 million are girls. Boys are also the primary victims of hazardous child labor. They are mainly employed in agriculture, construction and mining sectors. Boy workers also account for about 87 percent of those who died on the job between 2003 and 2016 in the US.


title: Boy

text: Boys are given a basic reading, writing and mathematics skill and then forced to pursue their father's profession in order to alleviate financial burden of the family. This is one of the main reasons why boys are preferred over girl by the rural communities in poor countries. In India, by contrast, the majority of adopted children are girls even though boys are preferred in general compared to girls.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: The World Boxing Organization (WBO) is an organization which sanctions professional boxing bouts. It is recognized by the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) as one of the four major world championship groups, alongside the World Boxing Association (WBA), World Boxing Council (WBC), and International Boxing Federation (IBF). The WBO's headquarters are located in San Juan, Puerto Rico.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: The WBO started after a group of Puerto Rican and Dominican businessmen broke out of the WBA's 1988 annual convention in Isla Margarita, Venezuela over disputes regarding what rules should be applied.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: The WBO's first president was Ramon Pina Acevedo of the Dominican Republic. Soon after its beginning, the WBO was staging world championship bouts around the globe. Its first championship fight was for its vacant super middleweight title, between Thomas Hearns and James Kinchen; Hearns won by decision. In order to gain respectability, the WBO next elected former world light heavyweight champion José Torres of Ponce, Puerto Rico, as its president. Torres left in 1996, giving way to Puerto Rican lawyer Francisco Valcarcel as president. Valcarcel has held that position since.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: While the IBF had awarded recognition to Larry Holmes soon after its inception in 1983 (as they did with several established champions in the lower weight divisions), the WBO sanctioned a fight between two relatively unknown fighters, Francesco Damiani (winner of the super heavyweight silver medal at the 1984 Summer Olympics) and Johnny DuPlooy, to determine the inaugural holder of its own heavyweight title in 1989. All other sanctioning bodies of boxing recognized the then-undefeated Mike Tyson as the undisputed heavyweight champion. Damiani, meanwhile, went on to become the first WBO heavyweight champion. At heavyweight, especially in the United States, the organization initially struggled to gain credibility as a major sanctioning body, with WBO heavyweight champions Michael Moorer, Riddick Bowe, and Henry Akinwande relinquishing the title to pursue other options. Boxing publication "The Ring" also did not recognize the WBO, despite having recognized the IBF after its inception in 1983, five years prior to the WBO.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: In the lighter weight divisions, however, long-reigning champions during the 1990s such as Chris Eubank, Dariusz Michalczewski, Johnny Tapia, and Naseem Hamed gave the WBO title increasingly more prestige. The WBO was also made popular by boxers such as Marco Antonio Barrera, Oscar De La Hoya, Nigel Benn, Ronald "Winky" Wright, Joe Calzaghe, and Wladimir Klitschko, all of whom held its title.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: On August 23, 1997, WBC minimumweight champion Ricardo López won the WBO minimumweight title by knocking out Puerto Rican fighter Alex Sánchez. After the bout, López told a Mexican newspaper that he wanted to give his newly won championship belt to his father, who is a boxing fan. WBO president Francisco Valcarcel said he viewed that comment as a public resignation and declared the title vacant without holding a hearing or notifying López. The WBO sanctioned a bout between Eric Jamili (10–5–1) and Mickey Cantwell (13–4–1) to fill the vacancy despite protests by López.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: In Europe, the WBO was more accepted during its early years than in the U.S., and WBO champions always fared well in unification bouts with WBA, WBC, and IBF champions. For example, WBO light heavyweight champion Michalczewski unified his title with the WBA and IBF titles by defeating Virgil Hill. WBO featherweight champion Naseem Hamed also defeated the reigning WBA, WBC and IBF champions in the same weight class. By 2000, the WBA was giving the same recognition to WBO champions as it did to WBC and IBF champions.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: In 2004 the WBC began naming WBO champions on its ranking listings. The IBF did not recognize the WBO in May 2006, but was doing so by February 2007. WBO regulations explicitly recognize the other three sanctioning bodies. For many years, as with the IBF, boxers based in Japan were not permitted to fight for WBO titles. In 2012, the Japan Boxing Commission (JBC) recognized the governing body. In August 2016, the WBO Asia Pacific Championship was recognized by the JBC and the Japan Professional Boxing Association (JPBA).


title: World Boxing Organization

text: In response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the WBO blocked championship fights involving Russian and Belarusian boxers.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: Since the early 2000s, the WBO has awarded the honorary title of "Super Champion" to certain boxers, in any given weight class, who fulfil a set of distinguished criteria. Boxers who have been named WBO Super Champion include: Anthony Joshua, Wladimir Klitschko, Oleksandr Usyk, Joe Calzaghe, Oscar De La Hoya, Bernard Hopkins, Jermain Taylor, Kelly Pavlik, Saúl Álvarez, Juan Manuel Márquez, Juan Díaz, Manny Pacquiao, Timothy Bradley, Marco Antonio Barrera, Fernando Montiel, Jorge Arce, Omar Narváez, Donnie Nietes, Kosei Tanaka, Iván Calderón, Marco Huck, Sergey Kovalev, Vasyl Lomachenko, and Terence Crawford. There are currently only two female boxers who earned the distinction of "Super Champion": Amanda Serrano and Claressa Shields.


title: World Boxing Organization

text: This title is not an actual world championship in the same vein as the WBA's Super titles; it is more akin to a lifetime achievement award. A boxer awarded the status of WBO Super Champion cannot win the title from or lose it to another boxer; recognition as Super Champion can be maintained even if a boxer moves to another weight class.