title: Dayanand Shetty

text: In "CID", Senior Inspector Daya is known for his immense strength, whose name is enough to make the toughest of criminals break down. Daya's signature dialogue in "CID" is "Jab Daya ka hath padta hai, to muh ke andar daaton se piano bajne lagta hai" (meaning "When Daya slaps, then a piano plays in the mouth by the teeth"). One of the most famous dialogues in "CID" is that of ACP Pradyuman asking him "Daya darwaaza tod do" (meaning "Daya, break the door"). This dialogue become so popular that it is even used in the film "Singham Returns", which is one of the most appreciated scenes of the film. In "CID", Daya is also critical in finding the clues to solve the case. Although tough in appearance, he is also soft-mannered and sympathetic in nature and is always the first one to support team members and others when they need it the most.


title: Dayanand Shetty

text: Shetty has acted in TV commercials, plays and films. He also won the "Best Looking Guy" vote, conducted by Indian Television in 2002. He also participated in "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa" (Season 4), dance reality show.


title: Dayanand Shetty

text: A song was recorded for "CID" episode (aired on 21 January 2012), which was a lullaby sung by Shetty and his fellow actors Shivaji Satam and Aditya Shrivastava. His talent as a singer has been appreciated in talk shows like "Movers and Shakers" as well.


title: Dayanand Shetty

text: Daya Shetty has made guest appearances in shows like "Jassi Jaissi Koi Nahin" and "Kkusum". He has acted in "Gutur Gu", which is a silent comedy show (in both season one and two). He has made appearances as Celebrity Guest in shows including "Deal Ya No Deal", "Entertainment Ke Liye Kuch Bhi Karega (season 4)", "Kahani Comedy Circus Ki" and "Aapka Sapna Hamara Apna".


title: Dayanand Shetty

text: He participated in the 2014 Season of "Khatron ke Khiladi" doing many stunts, but was eventually eliminated.


title: Dayanand Shetty

text: Daya Shetty and Shivaji Satam appeared as Celebrity Guests in the TV show "Sa Re Ga Ma Pa L'il Champs" (in the Independence Day Special episode of 2011). Daya Shetty, Shivaji Satam, Aditya Srivastava and Narendra Gupta also appeared in "Kaun Banega Crorepati" in 2014. He has won the best-supporting actor award (for the role of Senior Inspector Daya in CID) in the Gold Awards 2012.


title: Dayanand Shetty

text: Dayanand Shetty was born on 11 December 1969, in a Tulu speaking Bunt family in Katapadi village of Udupi district of "Karnataka" State in India to Chandra Prakash Shetty and Uma Shetty. He has two sisters (Naina and Sandhya). He did his B.com from Rizvi College, Bandra. He married Smitha Shetty and they have one daughter.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: The Libyan House of Representatives (HoR) () is the legislature of Libya resulting from the 2014 Libyan parliamentary election, which had an 18% turnout. In late 2014, following the failed coup attempt to take over the capital Tripoli in the context of the Libyan Civil War, the House of Representatives relocated itself to Tobruk in the far east of Libya. Several HoR sessions were held in Tripoli in May 2019 while Tripoli was under armed attack, electing an Interim Speaker for 45 days. Between 2014 and 2021, the House of Representatives supported the Tobruk-based government led by Abdullah al-Thani before supporting the incumbent Government of National Unity led by Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh. In September 2021, the House of Representatives passed a no-confidence motion against the interim GNU government.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: The Libyan House of Representatives officially became a legislative body on 4 August 2014, following an election on 25 June 2014, replacing the General National Congress. Turnout at the election was 18%, down from 60% in the first post-Gaddafi election of July 2012. Because of security concerns no voting took place in some locations.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: The Tripoli-based Libyan Supreme Constitutional Court ruled on 6 November 2014 that the June elections were unconstitutional and that the House of Representatives should be dissolved. The House of Representatives rejected the ruling, saying that the ruling was made "at gunpoint", with the court being controlled by armed militias.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: In late 2014, a rival parliament in Tripoli was restored, the General National Congress (GNC). The House of Representatives did not recognize the new GNC, and voted on 6 October 2015, 112 out of 131, "to extend its term beyond 20 October", given the inability to hold elections.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: In late 2014, following the occupation of Tripoli by armed Islamist groups during the Second Libyan Civil War, the House of Representatives relocated to Tobruk in the far east of the country. Since there was not enough housing for them, they initially hired a car ferry from a Greek shipping company, the "Elyros" of ANEK Lines, for members to live and meet in. Later the HoR relocated to the Dar al-Salam Hotel in Tobruk.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: In October 2015, the UN envoy for Libya, Bernardino León, announced a proposal for the House of Representatives to share power with the rival new GNC government, under a compromise prime minister, Fayez al-Sarraj. However, the terms of the final proposal were not acceptable to either side, and both rejected it. Nonetheless, the proposal did spark a revised proposal put together by Fayez al-Sarraj and others, which was subsequently supported by the United Nations. On 17 December 2015 members of the House of Representatives and the new General National Congress signed this revised political agreement, generally known as the ""Libyan Political Agreement"" or the ""Skhirat Agreement"". Under the terms of the agreement, a nine-member Presidency Council and a seventeen-member interim Government of National Accord would have been formed, with a view to holding new elections within two years. The House of Representatives would have continued to exist as a legislature and an advisory body, to be known as the High Council of State, would have been formed with members nominated by the New General National Congress. On 31 December 2015, Chairman of the House of Representatives, Aguila Saleh Issa declared his support for the Libyan Political Agreement.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: As of April 2016, the Libyan National Elections Commission was still considering its recommendations on legislation to implement the next election of the House of Representatives.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: A new round of talks that started in October 2017 in Tunis broke down a month later without a deal. On 17 December 2017, general Khalifa Haftar declared the "so-called" Skhirat agreement void.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: Early in April 2019, during the 2019–20 Western Libya campaign, 31 members of the House of Representatives made a public statement supporting the attack on Tripoli and 49 members made a public statement opposing the attack. On 2 May, 51 members of the HoR held a session at the Rixos al-Nasr Hotel. They stated that their session was not intended to split up the HoR nor Libya and called other members of the HoR to attend another Tripoli session planned for 5 May. They opposed the use of military force, called for a political solution to the offensive, and called for the Presidential Council, in its role as the head of the Libyan armed forces, to appoint a new head of the army to replace Khalifa Haftar, who had been appointed by the HoR on 2 March 2015.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: On 5 May, a Tripoli session of 47 members of the House of Representatives elected al-Sadiq al-Kehili as Interim Speaker, Musaab al-Abed as a rapporteur and Hammuda Siala as a spokesperson, for a period of 45 days, with 27 votes in favour.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: In the 2014 Libyan parliamentary election, al-Kehili was elected with 1596 votes in electorate 56, Tajura; Musaab al-Abed (Musab Abulgasim) was elected with 2566 votes in electorate 59, Hay al-Andalus; and Sayala (Siyala) was elected with 6023 votes in electorate 58, Tripoli Central. On 8 May, another session was held in Tripoli, creating an Internal Code Review committee, to review HoR decisions made since 2014, under Article 16 of the Skhirat Agreement; an International Communication committee; a Secretarial Office; and a Crisis committee, to "follow" the work of the emergency committee created by the Presidential Council in relation to the 2019 Western Libya offensive. Sayala stated in a televised interview that solving the crisis in Libya would require a political agreement in which the HoR is "restored" as the highest legislative authority in Libya.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: On 17 July 2019, one of the Benghazi members of the House of Representatives, Seham Sergewa, well-known for her documentation of rape as a weapon of war during the 2011 Libyan Civil War, was detained by the Libyan National Army (LNA). , her location was unknown.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: On 10 March 2021, the House of Representatives met in the central city of Sirte to formally approve the formation of a Government of National Unity (GNU) led by Mohamed al-Menfi as chairman of the Presidential Council and Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh as Prime Minister. 121 members of the House voted to approve the formation of the unity government. The Government of National Unity was seeking to unify the rival Government of National Accord based in Tripoli and the Second Al-Thani Cabinet based in Tobruk.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: On 21 September, the House of Representatives passed a no-confidence vote against the GNU led by Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh after 83 out of the 113 members present voted for the motion, thus practically acknowledging support for the Government of National Stability.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: On 10 February 2022, the House of Representatives selected Fathi Bashagha as prime minister-designate, after HoR Speaker Aguila Saleh announced the only other candidate, Khalid Al-Baybas, withdrew his candidacy. However, Al-Baybas has denied withdrawing from the race. Prime Minister of the GNU Abdul Hamid Dbeibeh rejected Bashagha's appointment as prime minister, stating that he will only hand power after a national election. Khalifa Haftar and his Libyan National Army welcomed Bashagha's appointment. Civilian and military leaders in Misrata rejected the formation of a new government and declared support for the GNU. Egypt’s foreign ministry supported the “new government,” but the United Nations said it continued to recognize Mr. Dbeiba’s leadership.


title: House of Representatives (Libya)

text: On 1 March, the House of Representatives voted to give confidence to Bashagha's Government of National Stability (GNS). According to HoR Speaker Saleh, 92 out of 101 attending members voted for the new government. A HoR member raised questions about the validity of the vote by stating that 10 votes from absent members were cast via voice messages sent to the Speaker. The High Council of State rejected "unilateral" steps by the HoR and regards the HoR decision to grant confidence to a new government a violation of the Libyan Political Agreement. The United Nations has voiced concerns over the vote due to reports on lack of transparency and procedure, and acts of intimidation prior to the HoR session.


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Sunderland 'Til I Die is a sports documentary series. Produced by Fulwell 73 (named as a homage to Sunderland A.F.C. by its founders), the series documents the events around English football club Sunderland A.F.C.


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Released on 14 December 2018, the first series documents Sunderland's 2017–18 season which saw the club playing in the EFL Championship having been relegated from the Premier League the season prior. As a result of the first series success a second series was produced documenting the following season in 2018-19, which coincided with the club's first season under the ownership of Stewart Donald; this was released on 1 April 2020. A third and final series is scheduled to be released in the near future documenting the club's promotion to the EFL Championship in 2022.


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Sunderland chairman Ellis Short originally agreed to extensive, behind-the-scenes filming in the summer of 2017 on the basis it would attract potential investors. Sunderland had already been the focus of previous fly on the wall documentaries, including the 1998 "Premier Passions" (which also documented a relegation season) and its 1999 follow-up "Premier Pressures".


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Production company Fulwell 73 (who had previously produced the acclaimed football documentary "The Class of '92") had allegedly expressed interest in buying Sunderland in June 2017 shortly before the commencement of filming, but withdrew, citing the demands of their production business. Promoting "Sunderland 'til I Die" on "The Totally Football League Show" in December 2018, Pearlman and Turner cast doubt on the veracity of these reports, suggesting there had been: "a lot of two plus two equals five going on". Speaking on the Roker Report podcast prior to the release of the series, Pearlman and Turner, both Sunderland fans, revealed that they had been trying to produce material for the club for a while and had even offered to produce an end-of-season DVD for free.


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Filming commenced in June 2017 with the expectation that Sunderland would be challenging for promotion back to the Premier League. Manager Chris Coleman admitted to being uncomfortable with the filming arrangements, which were already in place when he replaced Simon Grayson as manager part way through the season. Coleman described the constant attention as being 'unnatural'. The series does not include a repeat of the memorable, expletive-laden dressing room scenes from "Premier Passions," as Coleman explained: "The only thing I really dug my heels in about was that I didn't want any filming in my dressing room. That’s been kept separate."


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: A premiere of the first episode took place at the Sunderland Empire Theatre on 5 December 2018. The production company were joined by local media, Sunderland players and staff, and a group of 200 season ticket holders who had been selected from a draw. After the premiere, attendees were shown a trailer for a second series.


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: The opening titles were created by Alchemy Studio, and feature icons from Sunderland's industrial past, with the song "Shipyards" from the Sunderland-based band The Lake Poets.


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Filming continued during the 2018–19 season, with a view to producing a second series. Speaking to BBC Sport in February 2019, Turner said that they had received greater access since the change of ownership.


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Regarding the possibility of a third series, co-producer Leo Pearlman had stated that there were no plans currently in place for one and filming didn't take place during the 2019–20 season. Following the club's victory in the 2022 EFL League One play-off Final, Pearlman announced a third and final series documenting Sunderland's 2022 League One play-offs.


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Reviewing the series for "Sports Illustrated", Luis Miguel Echegaray compared it to "" and wrote: "The project perfectly encapsulates the cultural significance of the city’s relationship with its proud, working-class supporters. As a result, "Sunderland 'Til I Die", despite the club's plight, is a cut above the rest." Writing for "The Independent", Alex Hess again drew comparisons to "All or Nothing", suggesting that, unlike the "weirdly bland affair" which followed Manchester City's unrelenting success, the dismal failure of Sunderland's season made for "triumphant TV".


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: The Newcastle-based "Evening Chronicle" gave the series a positive five-star review describing it as "so much more than just a tale of woe" and praising the show's focus on the fans. Writing for "The Guardian", Barry Glendenning described it as a "wonderful series" which: "simultaneously showcases everything that is right and wrong with English football." Jack Fox in the "Metro" states "at times it’s more gory than "Game of Thrones" but it is a series well worth binging on." "The Daily Telegraph" gave it four out of five stars, and described it as an "uplifting story", while "The Wall Street Journal" described it as "superb".


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Writing a review for the "Sunderland Echo" (the local newspaper for the Sunderland area), Phil Smith expressed disappointment at the lack of anything revelatory or explosive in the series, and considered the setup of Sunderland as an area of post-industrial poverty a little forced in the opening episodes. Nevertheless he described it as "a beautiful and fundamentally true piece of work".


title: Sunderland 'Til I Die

text: Writing for "Decider", Scott Hines compared the first season of "Sunderland 'Til I Die" to the likes of "Gimme Shelter" or "9/11" as a case in which "you start making a movie about one thing, and something entirely different happens". He also wrote that the story of the first season – a team hoping to return to the top flight that instead finds itself moving further away from it after piling up losses on the pitch – is "deeply relatable if you’ve ever worked hard for a company that’s failed over your head, if you’ve ever tried to help someone who can’t help themself, if you've ever kept hope in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary."


title: Army Service Uniform

text: The Army Service Uniform (ASU) is a military uniform worn by United States Army personnel in situations where formal dress is called for. It can be worn at most public and official functions. Over history, a number of different non-combat service uniforms have been authorized by the Army, often with different varieties in use simultaneously depending on the social occasion or weather conditions. As of 2021, the Army has two service uniforms for use by its personnel. The Army Green Service Uniform, announced in 2018 and authorized in 2020, is used primarily for daily use and for situations where civilians wear business attire. The Army Blue Service Uniform, which was the sole service uniform between 2015 and 2020, is used primarily for ceremonial or formal social situations. In combat situations, the Army Combat Uniform is used.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: In the early days of the U.S. Army, the uniform worn in combat was essentially the same as that worn for everyday duties, as was the common practice with most armies of the time. This changed in modern times, as field uniforms were developed which were more suited for battle.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: During the 19th century, army uniforms were relatively simple. Typically, the same uniform served as a garrison uniform and as a combat uniform. Combat soldiers in the American Civil War wore a standard dark blue coat, just like personnel in garrisons or in army offices and headquarters. Uniform standards were relaxed during the war years, especially on campaign, as conditions demanded.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: The 1899 "Army Uniform Regulations" provided for a cotton khaki uniform for field service, drawing on the experience of the Spanish–American War when both blue and khaki clothing had been worn. From 1902 to 1917, the army had three uniforms: a service uniform of olive drab wool cloth for use by soldiers in the field, a khaki cotton version used for hot weather, and a blue dress uniform used for ceremonies and off-post wear by enlisted men. The blue uniforms were dropped in 1917 prompted by the exigencies of World War I.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: In 1926, the previous stand collar service coat was replaced with an open-collared coat worn with a collared shirt and tie, and in 1937 breeches were replaced with straight-legged trousers. Dress uniforms of dark blue coats and light blue trousers were reintroduced in a modernized form (with open collar and tie) for officers in 1937.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: United States Army uniforms in World War II initially included service uniforms that were intended for both field and garrison use, though some parts, such as the open-collared service coat, were used only in garrison, while items such as the M-1941 Field Jacket were specifically for use in the field, and not meant to be worn in garrison. By the latter part of the war, the introduction of the M-1943 field uniform acknowledged the distinction between field and garrison wear.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: Garrison uniforms included olive drab uniforms with coat and tie which were distinct for officers and enlisted soldiers, with the officers' version having a darker, belted coat that could be worn with trousers of either matching color or a contrasting light taupe (a combination known as "pinks and greens"), while the enlisted service coat was unbelted and lighter in shade to match the issued field uniform trousers. Late in the war the Eisenhower jacket was introduced, intended for both field and garrison wear, though it too became used only for garrison wear shortly after the war. A summer service uniform of khaki cotton shirt and trousers also was issued, but was used only for garrison wear as the herringbone twill utility uniform became the preferred warm weather field uniform. These uniforms remained in use through the Korean War.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: Because of the widespread use of army surplus clothing after World War II, a fresh, distinct uniform was seen as needed. In 1954, the Army introduced a new, all-ranks "Class A" service uniform in Army Green shade 44. This grey-green shade was adopted in order to provide a color which had a distinct military appearance from various uniforms of civilian service workers. Originally worn with a tan shirt, the shirt was switched to a pale green-grey shade in 1979.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: The tan summer service uniform saw the reintroduction of a matching coat, but it was dropped in 1964 following the introduction of a tropical weight version of the "Class A" greens, and the tan uniform became a "Class B" uniform worn with a short-sleeved shirt and no tie. The tan "Class B" uniform was phased out the 1980s when the green uniform with a short sleeve shirt became the standard Class B uniform.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: In the mid 1950s, the blue dress uniform was reintroduced as an option for enlisted soldiers. A white dress uniform for use in tropical areas, last worn in the early 20th century, was also reintroduced, but was rarely used, as it was only required for officers; it was retired in 2014.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: In 2006, then-Army Chief of Staff General Peter Schoomaker announced that a version of the dress blue uniform would be adopted as the sole service uniform for all ranks, combining ceremonial, dress, and service uniforms through wear stipulations to reduce the number of uniforms needed. The blue Army Service Uniform made its debut at the 2007 State of the Union Address, when General Schoomaker attended the address in it. In 2010 it started being issued to all soldiers.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: Since 2010, enlisted soldiers have received the blue service uniform as part of their basic clothing bag issue when they enter the Army during initial training. The Army requires officers to purchase and maintain the blue service uniform. Possession and use of the blue ASU has been mandatory for all soldiers since October 1, 2015, when the green Class A uniform was fully retired.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: On Veterans Day 2018, the Army announced that a new Army Green Service Uniform, based on the "pinks and greens" officers' service uniform worn in World War II and the Korean War, would be introduced as the everyday service uniform for all ranks starting in 2020. The uniform became available to soldiers in mid-2020. By early 2021, the uniform became available for purchase at all Army and Air Force Exchange Service locations, with soldiers required to purchase them by October 1, 2027. The Army Blue Service Uniform returns to its former use as a formal dress uniform.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: The Army Green Service Uniform includes a dark olive drab four-pocket coat with belted waist, drab trousers, khaki shirt, olive tie, and brown leather oxfords for both men and women, with women having the option to wear a pencil skirt and pumps instead. Headwear consists of an olive garrison cap or an olive peaked service cap with brown visor; units with distinctive colored berets continue to wear them. An olive trench coat is the standard all-weather overcoat with the uniform. Enlisted rank is indicated by chevrons worn on the upper sleeve, while officer rank is indicated by pins on the shoulder straps. In class B configuration, the service coat is omitted, and the necktie is optional if a short-sleeved shirt is worn. An olive pullover sweater is authorized with the class B uniform, while optional jackets include an olive zip-front windbreaker, an olive Eisenhower jacket, and a brown leather bomber jacket.


title: Army Service Uniform

text: The Army Blue Service Uniform includes a midnight blue coat worn with lighter blue trousers for male soldiers and a midnight blue coat worn with either lighter blue slacks or midnight blue skirt for female soldiers. The trousers/slacks for non-commissioned and commissioned officers include a stripe of gold braid on the outer side of the leg. Generals wear midnight blue trousers/slacks with gold braid instead of the lighter blue used in lower ranks. The blue service uniform is worn with a white shirt, a black four-in-hand necktie for males or black neck tab for females, and black leather shoes. Headwear includes a matching service cap with branch-of-service colors on the hat band or a beret, with black remaining the default color unless the soldier is authorized a distinctive colored beret. Enlisted rank is also indicated by chevrons on the upper sleeve, while officer rank is indicated by passant shoulder straps with branch-of-service color backing. Combat boots and organizational items, such as brassards, military police accessories, or distinctive unit insignia are not worn when used as ceremonial dress. When the blue uniform is worn for social events in the evening, men may wear a black bow tie rather than a black four-in-hand necktie, and commanders may direct that headwear is not required.


title: Shawn Dou

text: Dou was born in Xi'an. His parents migrated to Canada when Dou was ten years old. Dou attended David Lloyd George Elementary School in Vancouver. There, Dou learned Karate and won the championship for two years consecutively. After graduating from DLG in 2001, he attended Sir Winston Churchill Secondary School in Vancouver, BC, and graduated from there in 2006. He returned to China and was accepted by the Beijing Film Academy in 2008. When Dou was in his second year of studies, he participated in the auditions for "The Love of the Hawthorn Tree" and was subsequently picked as the male lead.


title: Shawn Dou

text: Dou rose to fame for his role in Zhang Yimou's film "The Love of the Hawthorn Tree" (2010). He then starred in the romance drama film "The Seal of Love" (2011) directed by Huo Jianqi.


title: Shawn Dou

text: Dou starred in films of various genres, most notably "Wolf Totem" (2015) and "Youth Dinner" (2017), which won him the Best Actor award at the 11th Festival Du Cinema Chinois De Paris.


title: Shawn Dou

text: Dou gained mainstream recognition for his role as an antagonistic prince in the highly popular historical drama "Princess Agents". Thereafter, he starred in the fantasy epic drama "".


title: Shawn Dou

text: In 2019, Dou starred in the romance dramas "See You Again" alongside Tiffany Tang; as well as "Ten Years Late". The same year, he co-starred in the action thriller "Breakout: Sky Fire".


title: Shawn Dou

text: In 2020, Dou reunited with Tiffany Tang in the historical drama "The Legend of Xiao Chuo", portraying Han Derang.


title: Kurmi

text: Kurmi is traditionally a non-elite tiller caste in the lower Gangetic plain of India, especially southern regions of Awadh, eastern Uttar Pradesh and parts of Bihar. The Kurmis came to be known for their exceptional work ethic, superior tillage and manuring, and gender-neutral culture, bringing praise from Mughal and British administrators alike.


title: Kurmi

text: There are several late-19th century theories of the etymology of "Kurmi". According to Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya (1896), the word may be derived from an Indian tribal language, or be a Sanskrit compound term "krishi karmi", "agriculturalist." A theory of Gustav Salomon Oppert (1893) holds that it may be derived from "kṛṣmi", meaning "ploughman".


title: Kurmi

text: With the continued waning of Mughal rule in the early 18th century, the Indian subcontinent's hinterland dwellers, many of whom were armed and nomadic, began to appear more frequently in settled areas and interact with townspeople and agriculturists. Many new rulers of the 18th century came from such nomadic backgrounds. The effect of this interaction on India's social organisation lasted well into the colonial period. During much of this time, non-elite tillers and pastoralists, such as the Kurmi, were part of a social spectrum that blended only indistinctly into the elite landowning classes at one end, and the menial or ritually polluting classes at the other.


title: Kurmi

text: The Kurmi were famed as market gardeners. In western and northern Awadh, for example, for much of the eighteenth century, the Muslim gentry offered the Kurmi highly discounted rental rates for clearing the jungle and cultivating it. Once the land had been brought stably under the plough, however, the land rent was usually raised to 30 to 80 per cent above the going rate. Although British revenue officials later ascribed the high rent to the prejudice among the elite rural castes against handling the plough, the main reason was the greater productivity of the Kurmi, whose success lay in superior manuring. According to historian Christopher Bayly, Whereas the majority of cultivators manured only the lands immediately around the village and used these lands for growing food grains, Kurmis avoided using animal dung for fuel and manured the poorer lands farther from the village (the "manjha"). They were able, therefore, to grow valuable market crops such as potatoes, melons and tobacco immediately around the village, sow fine grains in the "manjha", and restrict the poor millet subsistence crops to the periphery. A network of "ganjs" (fixed rural markets) and Kurmi or Kacchi settlements could transform a local economy within a year or two.


title: Kurmi

text: Cross-cultural influences were felt also. Hindu tillers worshipped at Muslim shrines in the small towns founded by their Muslim overlords. The Hindu Kurmis of Chunar and Jaunpur, for instance, took up the Muslim custom of marrying first cousins and of burying their dead. In some regions, the Kurmis' success as tillers led to land ownership, and to avowals of high status, as noted, for examples, by Francis Buchanan in the early 19th century among the Ayodhya Kurmis of the Awadh. Earlier, in the late eighteenth century, when Asaf-Ud-Dowlah, the fourth Nawab of Awadh, attempted to grant the kshatriya title of Raja to a group of influential landed Ayodhya Kurmis, he was thwarted by a united opposition of Rajputs, who were themselves (as described by Buchanan), "a group of newcomers to the court, who had been peasant soldiers only a few years before ..." According to historian William Pinch: Rajputs of Awadh, who along with brahmans constituted the main beneficiaries of what historian Richard Barnett characterizes as "Asaf's permissive program of social mobility," were not willing to let that mobility reach beyond certain arbitrary socio-cultural boundaries. ... The divergent claims to status in the nineteenth century (and earlier) illustrate the point that for non-Muslims, while varna was generally accepted as the basis for identity, on the whole little agreement prevailed with respect to the place of the individual and the jati within a varna hierarchy.


title: Kurmi

text: Although the free peasant farm was the mainstay of farming in many parts of north India in the 18th century, in some regions, a combination of climatic, political, and demographic factors led to the increased dependence of peasant cultivators such as the Kurmi. In the Benares division, which had come under the revenue purview of the British East India Company in 1779, the Chalisa famine of 1783 and the relentless revenue demand from the Company reduced the status of many Kurmi cultivators. A British revenue agent wrote in 1790, "It unfortunately happened that during the famine aforesaid a great proportion of the Kurmis, Kacchis and Koeris were in this district as well as in others supplanted by Brahmans ... " and bemoaned the loss of agricultural revenue in part due to, "this unfavourable mutation amongst the cultivators ..."


title: Kurmi

text: In the first half of the nineteenth century, economic pressures on the large landowning classes increased noticeably. The prices of agricultural lands fell at the same time that the East India Company, after acquiring the Ceded and Conquered Provinces (later the North-Western Provinces) in 1805, began to press landowners for more land revenue. The annexation of Awadh in 1856 created more fear and discontent among the landed elite, and may have contributed to the Indian rebellion of 1857. Economic pressures also opened marginal areas to intensive agriculture and turned the fortunes of the non-elite peasants, such as the Kurmi, who worked them. After the rebellion, the landowning classes, defeated but still pressed economically in the new British Raj, attempted to treat their tenants and labourers as people of lowly birth and to demand unpaid labour from them. According to historical anthropologist Susan Bayly, In some instances these were attempts to stave off decline by reinvigorating or intensifying existing forms of customary service. Elsewhere these were wholly novel demands, many being imposed on 'clean' tillers and cattle-keepers like the Ram- and Krishna-loving Koeris, Kurmis and Ahirs ... In either case, these calls were buttressed with appeals to Sanskritic varna theory and Brahmanical caste convention. ... Kurmi and Goala/Ahir tillers who held tenancies from these 'squireens' found themselves being identified as Shudras, that is, people who were mandated to serve those of the superior Kshatriya and Brahman varnas.


title: Kurmi

text: The elite landowning classes, such as Rajputs and Bhumihars, now sought to present themselves as flagbearers of the ancient Hindu tradition. At the same time, there was a proliferation of Brahmanical rituals in the daily life of the elite, a greater stress on pure bloodlines, more stringent conditions placed on matrimonial alliances, and, as noted by some social reformers of the day, an increase among the Rajputs of female infanticide, a practice that had little history among the Kurmi.


title: Kurmi

text: The second half of the nineteenth century also largely overlapped with the coming of age of ethnology—interpreted then as the science of race—in the study of societies the world over. Although later to be discredited, the methods of this discipline were eagerly absorbed and adopted in British India, as were those of the emerging science of anthropology. Driven in part by the intellectual ferment of the discipline and in part by the political compulsions in both Britain and India, two dominant views of caste emerged among the administrator-scholars of the day. According to Susan Bayly: Those like (Sir William) Hunter, as well as the key figures of H. H. Risley (1851–1911) and his protégé Edgar Thurston, who were disciples of the French race theorist Topinard and his European followers, subsumed discussions of caste into theories of biologically determined race essences, ... Their great rivals were the material or occupational theorists led by the ethnographer and folklorist William Crooke (1848–1923), author of one of the most widely read provincial "Castes and Tribes" surveys, and such other influential scholar-officials as Denzil Ibbetson and E. A. H. Blunt.


title: Kurmi

text: Seeing caste as a fundamental force in Indian life, Risley, especially, influenced official views as expressed in both the Censuses of British India and the Imperial Gazetteer brought out by Hunter. Risley is best known for the now discounted attribution of all differences in caste to varying proportions of seven racial types which included "Dravidian," "Aryo-Dravidian," and "Indo-Aryan". The Kurmi fell into two such categories. In the ethnological map of India published in the 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India and based on the 1901 Census supervised by Risley, the Kurmi of the United Provinces were classified as "Aryo-Dravidian," whereas the Kurmi of the Central Provinces were counted among "Dravidians". In the 1901 Census of India, the category of varna, the four-fold graded system, was included in the official classification of caste, the only time this was the case. In the United Provinces (UP), the Kurmi were classified under "Class VIII: Castes from whom some of the twice-born would take water and "pakki" (food cooked with ghee), without question;" whereas, in Bihar, they were listed under: "Class III, Clean Sudra, Subclass (a)." According to William Pinch, "Risley's hierarchy (for United Provinces) was far more elaborate than that for Bihar, suggesting that contending claims of social respectability may have been more deeply entrenched in the western half of the Gangetic Plain."


title: Kurmi

text: In the writings of the occupational theorists, the Kurmis and the Jats came to be extolled for their yeoman-like purposefulness, tirelessness, and thrift, all of which, according to writers such as Crooke, Ibbetson, and Blunt had been largely abandoned by the landed elite. Crooke wrote about the Kurmi in 1897: They are about the most industrious and hard-working agricultural tribe in the Province. The industry of his wife has passed into a proverb:


title: Kurmi

text: According to Susan Bayly, By the mid-nineteenth century, influential revenue specialists were reporting that they could tell the caste of a landed man by simply glancing at his crops. In the north, these observers claimed, a field of 'second-rate barley' would belong to a Rajput or Brahman who took pride in shunning the plough and secluding his womenfolk. Such a man was to be blamed for his own decline, fecklessly mortgaging and then selling off his lands to maintain his unproductive dependents. By the same logic, a flourishing field of wheat would belong to a non-twice-born tiller, wheat being a crop requiring skill and enterprise on the part of the cultivator. These, said such commentators as Denzil Ibbetson and E. A. H. Blunt, were the qualities of the non-patrician 'peasant' – the thrifty Jat or canny Kurmi in upper India, ... Similar virtues would be found among the smaller market-gardening populations, these being the people known as Keoris in Hindustan, ...


title: Kurmi

text: As the economic pressures on the patrician landed groups continued through the remainder of the nineteenth century and into the early twentieth, there were increasing demands for unpaid labour directed at the Kurmi and other non-elite cultivators. The landed elites' demands were couched in avowals of their ancient rights as "twice-born" landowners and of the Kurmi's alleged lowly, even servile, status, which required them to serve. At times encouraged by sympathetic British officials and at other times carried by the groundswell of egalitarian sentiment being espoused then by the devotional Vaishnava movements, especially those based on Tulsidas's "Ramcharitmanas", the Kurmi largely resisted these demands. Their resistance, however, did not take the form of denial of caste or of caste-based imposition, but rather of disagreement about where they stood in the caste ranking. A noteworthy attribute of the resulting Kurmi-kshatriya movement was the leadership provided by educated Kurmis who were now filling the lower and middle levels of government jobs. According to William Pinch: The mantle of leadership in this phase befell the well-connected Ramdin Sinha, a government forester who had gained notoriety by resigning from his official post to protest a provincial circular of 1894 that included Kurmis as a "depressed community" and barred them therefore from recruitment into the police service. The governor’s office was flooded with letters from an outraged Kurmi-kshatriya public and was soon obliged to rescind the allegation in an 1896 communique to the police department "His Honor [the governor] is ... of the opinion that Kurmis constitute a respectable community which he would be reluctant to exclude from Government service."


title: Kurmi

text: The first Kurmi caste association had been formed in 1894 at Lucknow to protest against the police recruitment policy. This was followed by an organisation in Awadh that sought to draw other communities — such as the Patidars, Marathas, Kapus, Reddys and Naidus — under the umbrella of the Kurmi name. This body then campaigned for Kurmis to classify themselves as Kshatriya in the 1901 census and, in 1910, led to the formation of the All India Kurmi Kshatriya Mahasabha. Simultaneously, newly constituted farmers' unions, or "Kisan Sabhas"—composed of cultivators and pastoralists, many of whom were Kurmi, Ahir, and Yadav (Goala), and inspired by Hindu mendicants, such as Baba Ram Chandra and Swami Sahajanand Saraswati—denounced the Brahman and Rajput landlords as ineffective and their morality as false. In the rural Ganges valley of Bihar and Eastern United Provinces, the Bhakti cults of Rama, the incorruptible Kshatriya god-king of Hindu tradition, and Krishna, the divine cowherd of Gokul, had long been entrenched among the Kurmi and Ahir. The leaders of the "Kisan Sabhas" urged their Kurmi and Ahir followers to lay claim to the Kshatriya mantle. Promoting what was advertised as soldierly manliness, the "Kisan Sabhas" agitated for the entry of non-elite farmers into the British Indian army during World War I; they formed cow protection societies; they asked their members to wear the sacred thread of the twice-born, and, in contrast to the Kurmis own traditions, to sequester their women in the manner of Rajputs and Brahmins.


title: Kurmi

text: In 1930, the Kurmis of Bihar joined with the Yadav and Koeri agriculturalists to enter local elections. They lost badly but in 1934 the three communities formed the Triveni Sangh political party, which allegedly had a million dues-paying members by 1936. However, the organisation was hobbled by competition from the Congress-backed Backward Class Federation, which was formed around the same time, and by co-option of community leaders by the Congress party. The Triveni Sangh suffered badly in the 1937 elections, although it did win in some areas. The organisation also suffered from caste rivalries, notably the superior organisational ability of the higher castes who opposed it, as well as the inability of the Yadavs to renounce their belief that they were natural leaders and that the Kurmi were somehow inferior. Similar problems beset a later planned caste union, the "Raghav Samaj", with the Koeris.


title: Kurmi

text: Again in the 1970s, the India Kurmi Kshatriya Sabha attempted to bring the Koeris under their wing, but disunity troubled this alliance.


title: Kurmi

text: Many private caste-based armies surfaced in Bihar between the 1970s and 1990s, largely influenced by landlord farmers reacting to the growing influence of left extremist groups. Among these was the Bhumi Sena, the membership of which was drawn mainly from youths who had a Kurmi origin. Bhumi Sena was much feared in the Patna region and also had influence in the districts of Nalanda, Jehanabad and Gaya.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: As of their March 2020 publication, the Prison Policy Initiative, a non-profit organization for decarceration, estimated that in the United States, about 2.3 million people were or are currently incarcerated. Of those who were incarcerated, 1,291,000 people were in state prison, 631,000 in local jails, 226,000 in federal prisons, 44,000 in youth correctional facilities, 42,000 in immigration detention camps, 22,000 in involuntary commitment, 11,000 in territorial prisons, 2,500 in Indian Country jails, and 1,300 in United States military prisons.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Total U.S. incarceration (prisons and jails) peaked in 2008. Total correctional population peaked in 2007. If all prisoners are counted (including those juvenile, territorial, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) (immigration detention), Indian country, and military), then in 2008 the United States had around 24.7% of the world's 9.8 million prisoners.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: In 2009, the United States had the highest documented incarceration rate in the world, at 754 per 100,000. As of December 31, 2010, the International Centre for Prison Studies (ICPS) at King's College London estimated 2,266,832 prisoners from a total population of 310.64 million as of this date (730 per 100,000 in 2010).


title: United States incarceration rate

text: This number comprises local jails with a nominal capacity of 866,782 inmates occupied at 86.4% (June 6, 2010), state prisons with a nominal capacity of approximately 1,140,500 occupied at approximately 115% (December 31, 2010), and federal prisons with a nominal capacity of 126,863 occupied at 136.0% (December 31, 2010). Of this number, 21.5% are pretrial detainees (December 31, 2010), 8.7% are female prisoners (December 31, 2010), 0.4% are juveniles (June 6, 2009), and 5.9% are foreign prisoners (June 30, 2007).


title: United States incarceration rate

text: The imprisonment rate varies widely by state; Louisiana surpasses this by about 100%, but Maine incarcerates at about a fifth this rate. A report released 28 February 2008, indicates that more than 1 in 100 adults in the United States are in prison.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: According to a U.S. Department of Justice report published in 2006, over 7.2 million people were at that time in prison, on probation, or on parole (released from prison with restrictions). That means roughly 1 in every 32 adult Americans are under some sort of criminal justice system control.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: In the last quarter of the twentieth century, the incarceration rate in the US increased by a factor of five. Between the years 2001 and 2012, crime rates (both property and violent crimes) have declined 22% after already falling 30% in years prior between 1991 and 2001. In 2012, 710 out of every 100,000 U.S. residents were imprisoned in either local jails, state prisons, federal prisons, and privately operated facilities.; close to a quarter of the global prison population.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: The Bureau of Justice Statistics has released a study which finds that, despite the total number of prisoners incarcerated for drug-related offenses increasing by 57,000 between 1997 and 2004, the proportion of drug offenders to total prisoners in State prison populations stayed steady at 21%. The percentage of Federal prisoners serving time for drug offenses declined from 63% in 1997 to 55% in that same period. In the twenty-five years since the passage of the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986, the United States penal population rose from around 300,000 to more than two million. Between 1986 and 1991, African-American women's incarceration in state prisons for drug offenses increased by 828 percent.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: In 2009, the U.S. Department of Justice announced that the growth rate of the state prison population had fallen to its lowest since 2006, but it still had a 0.2% growth-rate compared to the total U.S. prison population. The California state prison system population fell in 2009, the first year that populations had fallen in 38 years.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: When looking at specific populations within the criminal justice system the growth rates are vastly different. In 1977, there were just slightly more than eleven thousand incarcerated women. By 2004, the number of women under state or federal prison had increased by 757 percent, to more than 111,000, and the percentage of women in prison has increased every year, at roughly double the rate of men, since 2000. The rate of incarcerated women has expanded at about 4.6% annually between 1995 and 2005 with women now accounting for 7% of the population in state and federal prisons.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Comparing some countries with similar percentages of immigrants, Germany has an incarceration rate of 76 per 100,000 population (as of 2014), Italy is 85 per 100,000 (as of 2015), and Saudi Arabia is 161 per 100,000 (as of 2013). Comparing other countries with a zero tolerance policy for illegal drugs, the rate of Russia is 455 per 100,000 (as of 2015), Kazakhstan is 275 per 100,000 (as of 2015), Singapore is 220 per 100,000 (as of 2014), and Sweden is 60 per 100,000 (as of 2014).


title: United States incarceration rate

text: A 2014 report by the National Research Council identified two main causes of the increase in the United States' incarceration rate over the previous 40 years: longer prison sentences and increases in the likelihood of imprisonment. The same report found that longer prison sentences were the main driver of increasing incarceration rates since 1990.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Even though there are other countries that commit more inmates to prison annually, the fact that the United States keeps their prisoners longer causes the total rate to become higher. To give an example, the average burglary sentence in the United States is 16 months, compared to 5 months in Canada and 7 months in England.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Looking at reasons for imprisonment will further clarify why the incarceration rate and length of sentences are so high. The practice of imposing longer prison sentences on repeat offenders is common in many countries but the three-strikes laws in the U.S. with mandatory 25 year imprisonment — implemented in many states in the 1990s — are statutes enacted by state governments in the United States which mandate state courts to impose harsher sentences on habitual offenders who are previously convicted of two prior serious criminal offenses and then commit a third.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 may have had a minor effect on mass incarceration.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Crime rates in low-income areas are much higher than in middle to high class areas. As a result, Incarceration rates in low-income areas are much higher than in wealthier areas due to these high crime rates. When the incarcerated or criminal is a youth, there is a significant impact on the individual and rippling effects on entire communities. Social capital is lost when an individual is incarcerated. How much social capital is lost is hard to accurately estimate, however Aizer and Doyle found a strong positive correlation between lower income as an adult if an individual is incarcerated in their youth in comparison to those who are not incarcerated. 63 percent to 66 percent of those involved in crimes are under the age of thirty. People incarcerated at a younger age lose the capability to invest in themselves and in their communities. Their children and families become susceptible to financial burden preventing them from escaping low-income communities. This contributes to the recurring cycle of poverty that is positively correlated with incarceration. Poverty rates have not been curbed despite steady economic growth. Poverty is not the sole dependent variable for increasing incarceration rates. Incarceration leads to more incarceration by putting families and communities at a dynamic social disadvantage.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: The "War on Drugs" is a policy that was initiated by Richard Nixon with the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970 and vigorously pursued by Ronald Reagan. By 2010, drug offenders in federal prison had increased to 500,000 per year, up from 41,000 in 1985. According to Michelle Alexander, drug related charges accounted for more than half the rise in state prisoners between 1985 and 2000. 31 million people have been arrested on drug related charges, approximately 1 in 10 Americans. In contrast, John Pfaff of Fordham Law School has accused Alexander of exaggerating the influence of the War on Drugs on the rise in the United States' incarceration rate: according to him, the percent of state prisoners whose primary offense was drug-related peaked at 22% in 1990. The Brookings Institution reconciles the differences between Alexander and Pfaff by explaining two ways to look at the prison population as it relates to drug crimes, concluding "The picture is clear: Drug crimes have been the predominant reason for new admissions into state and federal prisons in recent decades" and "rolling back the war on drugs would not, as Pfaff and Urban Institute scholars maintain, totally solve the problem of mass incarceration, but it could help a great deal, by reducing exposure to prison."


title: United States incarceration rate

text: As of December 2017, only 14.4% of state prisoners were serving sentences for a drug offenses with 3.7% of serving for possession and 10.8% serving for trafficking, other drug offenses, and unspecified drug offenses. Time served for drug related offenses are also amongst the shortest with prisoners released in 2016 having served an average sentence length 22 months while the median time served only 14 months.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: After the passage of Reagan's Anti-Drug Abuse Act in 1986, incarceration for non-violent offenses dramatically increased. The Act imposed the same five-year mandatory sentence on those with convictions involving crack as on those possessing 100 times as much powder cocaine. This had a disproportionate effect on low-level street dealers and users of crack, who were more commonly poor blacks, Latinos, the young, and women.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Courts were given more discretion in sentencing by the "Kimbrough v. United States" (2007) decision, and the disparity was decreased to 18:1 by the Fair Sentencing Act of 2010.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: By 2003, 58% of all women in federal prison were convicted of drug offenses. Black and Hispanic women in particular have been disproportionately affected by the War on Drugs. Since 1986, incarceration rates have risen by 400% for women of all races, while rates for Black women have risen by 800%. Formerly incarcerated Black women are also most negatively impacted by the collateral legal consequences of conviction.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: According to the American Civil Liberties Union, "Even when women have minimal or no involvement in the drug trade, they are increasingly caught in the ever-widening net cast by current drug laws, through provisions of the criminal law such as those involving conspiracy, accomplice liability, and constructive possession that expand criminal liability to reach partners, relatives and bystanders."


title: United States incarceration rate

text: These new policies also disproportionately affect African-American women. According to Dorothy E. Roberts, the explanation is that poor women, who are disproportionately black, are more likely to be placed under constant supervision by the State in order to receive social services. They are then more likely to be caught by officials who are instructed to look specifically for drug offenses. Roberts argues that the criminal justice system's creation of new crimes has a direct effect on the number of women, especially black women, who then become incarcerated.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: One of the first laws in the U.S. against drugs was the Opium Exclusion Act of 1909. It prohibited the smoking of opium, which was ingested but not smoked by a substantial portion of Caucasian housewives in America. It was smoked mainly by Asian American immigrants coming to build the railroads. These immigrants were targeted with anti-Asian sentiment, as many voters believed they were losing jobs to Asian immigrants.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Currently, the U.S. is at its highest rate of imprisonment in history, with young Black men experiencing the highest levels of incarceration. One out of every 15 people imprisoned across the world is a Black American incarcerated in the United States. A 2004 study reported that the majority of people sentenced to prison in the United States are Black, and almost one-third of Black men in their twenties are either on parole, on probation, or in prison. These disproportionate levels of imprisonment have made incarceration a normalized occurrence for African-American communities. This has caused a distrust from Black individuals towards aspects of the legal system such as police, courts, and heavy sentences. In 2011, more than 580,000 Black men and women were in state or federal prison. Black men and women are imprisoned at higher rates compared to all other age groups, with the highest rate being Black men aged 25 to 39. In 2001, almost 17% of Black men had previously been imprisoned in comparison to 2.6% of White men. By the end of 2002, of the two million inmates of the U.S. incarceration system, Black men surpassed the number of White men (586,700 to 436,800 respectively of inmates with sentences more than one year). In the same year, there were also more Black women behind bars than White women (36,000 to 35,400). African-Americans are about eight times more likely to be imprisoned than Whites. The Sentencing Project, a Washington, D.C.-based non-profit organization, released in 1990 that almost one in four Black men in the U.S. between the ages of 20 and 29 were under some degree of control by the criminal justice system. In 1995, the organization announced that the rate had increased to one in three. In the same year, the non-profit stated that more than half of young Black men were then under criminal supervision in both D.C. and Baltimore. In addition, African-American women are the largest growing incarcerated population.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: The War on Drugs plays a role in the disproportionate amount of incarcerated African-Americans. Despite a general decline in crime, the massive increase in new inmates due to drug offenses ensured historically high incarceration rates during the 1990s and beyond, with New York City serving as an example. Drug-related arrests continued to increase in the city despite a near 50% drop in felony crimes. While White individuals have a higher rate of drug use, 60% of people imprisoned for drug charges in 1998 were Black. Drug crimes constituted 27% of the increase in the number of Black state prisoners in the 1990s, while Whites experienced a 14% increase. The rise in African-American imprisonment as a result of newer drug crimes has been justified for its alleged societal benefits. Law officials and advocates of these policies argue that targeting underserved, primarily inner-city neighborhoods is appropriate because these areas see the more harmful and violent effects of drug use. These same individuals further point to the negative effects drug distribution has on these areas to support the inequity in how crimes involving, for example, powdered cocaine can be treated with less severity than crack cocaine. This ideology results in a greater number of arrests of poor, inner-city Black individuals.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: A significant contributing factor to these figures are the racially and economically segregated neighborhoods that account for the majority of the Black prison population. These neighborhoods are normally impoverished and possess a high minority population. For example, as many as one in eight adult males who inhabit these urban areas is sent to prison each year, and one in four of these men is in prison on any given day. A 1992 study revealed that 72% of all New York State's prisoners came from only 7 of New York City's 55 community districts. Many recently released individuals return to the area they lived in prior to incarceration. Also in New York City, rates of incarceration stayed the same or grew in 1996 in neighborhoods that had the highest rates in 1990. Additionally, in these same neighborhoods, there was a stronger police presence and parole surveillance despite a period of a general decline in crime.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Finding employment post-release is a significant struggle for African-Americans. American sociologist Devah Pager performed a study to prove this. She assembled pairs of fake job seekers to find jobs with résumés that portrayed the applicant had a criminal record. The findings indicated that the presence of a criminal record reduced callbacks by approximately 50%. This was more common for African-Americans than for Whites.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: In the 1980s, the rising number of people incarcerated as a result of the War on Drugs and the wave of privatization that occurred under the Reagan Administration saw the emergence of the for-profit prison industry. Although modern private prisons did not exist in the US prior to the 1980s, the concept of private prisons can be found within the United States as early as the 1800s. In 1844, Louisiana privatized its penitentiary when it allowed a private company to run the facility as a factory where prisoners were used to manufacture clothing.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: In a 2011 report by the ACLU, it is claimed that the rise of the for-profit prison industry is a "major contributor" to "mass incarceration," along with bloated state budgets. Louisiana, for example, has the highest rate of incarceration in the world with the majority of its prisoners being housed in privatized, for-profit facilities. Such institutions could face bankruptcy without a steady influx of prisoners. A 2013 Bloomberg report states that in the past decade the number of inmates in for-profit prisons throughout the U.S. rose 44 percent.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Corporations who operate prisons, such as CoreCivic (formerly the Corrections Corporation of America) and The GEO Group, spend significant amounts of money lobbying the federal government along with state governments. The two aforementioned companies, the largest in the industry, have been contributors to the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), which seeks to expand the privatization of corrections and lobbies for policies that would increase incarceration, such as three-strike laws and "truth-in-sentencing" legislation. Prison companies also sign contracts with states that guarantee at least 90 percent of prison beds be filled. If these "lockup quotas" aren't met, the state must reimburse the prison company for the unused beds. Prison companies use the profits to expand and put pressure on lawmakers to incarcerate a certain number of people. This influence on the government by the private prison industry has been referred to as the Prison–industrial complex.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: The industry is well aware of what reduced crime rates could mean to their bottom line. This from the CCA's SEC report in 2010:


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Our growth … depends on a number of factors we cannot control, including crime rates … [R]eductions in crime rates … could lead to reductions in arrests, convictions and sentences requiring incarceration at correctional facilities.In January 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden signed an executive order directing the Department of Justice (DOJ) to begin phasing out its contracts with private federal prisons.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: As of March 2021, the private prison population of the United States has seen a 16% decline since reaching its peak in 2012 with 137,000 people incarcerated. According to a March 2021 report released by The Sentencing Project, 115,428 people were incarcerated in private prisons in the US, representing 8% of the total state and federal prison population.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Gallup polling since 1989 has found that in most years in which there was a decline in the U.S. crime rate, a majority of Americans said that violent crime was getting worse.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: A substantial body of research claims that incarceration rates are primarily a function of media editorial policies, largely unrelated to the actual crime rate. "Constructing Crime: Perspectives on Making News and Social Problems" is a book collecting together papers on this theme. The researchers say that the jump in incarceration rate from 0.1% to 0.5% of the United States population from 1975 to 2000 (documented in the figure above) was driven by changes in the editorial policies of the mainstream commercial media and is unrelated to any actual changes in crime. Media consolidation reduced competition on content. That allowed media company executives to maintain substantially the same audience while slashing budgets for investigative journalism and filling the space from the police blotter, which tended to increase and stabilize advertising revenue. It is safer, easier and cheaper to write about crimes committed by poor people than the wealthy. Poor people can be libeled with impunity, but major advertisers can materially impact the profitability of a commercial media organization by reducing their purchases of advertising space with that organization.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: News media thrive on feeding frenzies (such as missing white women) because they tend to reduce production costs while simultaneously building an audience interested in the latest development in a particular story. It takes a long time for a reporter to learn enough to write intelligently about a specific issue. Once a reporter has achieved that level of knowledge, it is easier to write subsequent stories. However, major advertisers have been known to spend their advertising budgets through different channels when they dislike the editorial policies. Therefore, a media feeding frenzy focusing on an issue of concern to an advertiser may reduce revenue and profits.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Sacco described how "competing news organizations responded to each other's coverage [while] the police, in their role as gatekeepers of crime news, reacted to the increased media interest by making available more stories that reflected and reinforced" a particular theme. "[T]he dynamics of competitive journalism created a media feeding frenzy that found news workers 'snatching at shocking numbers' and 'smothering reports of stable or decreasing use under more ominous headlines.'"


title: United States incarceration rate

text: The reasons cited above for increased incarcerations (US racial demographics, Increased sentencing laws, and Drug sentencing laws) have been described as consequences of the shift in editorial policies of the mainstream media.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Additionally, media coverage has been proven to have a profound impact on criminal sentencing. Beale found that the more media attention a criminal case is given, the greater the incentive for prosecutors and judges to pursue harsher sentences. This is directly linked to the enormous increase in media coverage of crime over the past two decades. While crime decreased by 8% between 1992 and 2002, news reports on crime increased by 800% and the average prison sentence length increased by 2,000% for all crimes. Less media coverage means a greater chance of a lighter sentence or that the defendant may avoid prison time entirely.


title: United States incarceration rate

text: Inmate citizenship statistics, which are updated monthly by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, lists the following statistics for July 2021: 83.67% of Federal inmates are U.S. citizens; 9.3% are citizens of Mexico, and the next three countries—Colombia, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic, contribute less than 1% each; 4.9% have other or unknown citizenship. The Bureau did not state how many had come to the U.S. legally.


title: George Robinson (actor)

text: George Ross Robinson (born 12 September 1997) is a British actor. He is known for his role as Isaac Goodwin in the Netflix series "Sex Education".


title: George Robinson (actor)

text: Robinson was born in Nottingham to parents Simon and Gill and grew up in Maxey, a village near Peterborough. He has a younger brother Edward "Eddie". They both attended Stamford School, and the family moved closer to Stamford in 2015. Robinson became interested in acting at 13.


title: George Robinson (actor)

text: When he was 17, Robinson went on a school rugby tour to South Africa. On 27 July 2015, he had a severe spinal neck injury attempting a tackle whilst playing against D.F. Malan High School in Bellville near Cape Town. He was taken to the intensive care unit at Melomed Bellville Private Hospital, where he was operated on and stayed for 37 days. He was visited by Huw Jones. After being weaned off the ventilator, Robinson was transported back to England via air ambulance. He spent an additional 5 weeks at Addenbrooke's Hospital in Cambridge followed by 10 months in rehabilitation at the Princess Royal Spinal Unit in Sheffield.


title: George Robinson (actor)

text: As a result of the accident, Robinson is tetraplegic and uses a manual wheelchair. The accident received media coverage and attention from public figures in and out of the rugby community. A fundraiser #TeamGeorge was established by family friends, the proceeds of which went towards Robinson's equipment and long-term care.


title: George Robinson (actor)

text: With support from Stamford, Robinson was able to return to finish his secondary education at 19 with an unconditional offer to the University of Birmingham. He paused his studies in Philosophy when he was cast as a series regular in the second season of the Netflix comedy-drama "Sex Education". His character Isaac's disability was written around the actor's real life one, and Robinson was included in the creative process.


title: George Robinson (actor)

text: Robinson spoke on a panel on disability representation and treatment in the workplace at the 2021 Edinburgh TV Festival. That same year, he appeared in a two episode arc of the Channel 5 series "Dalgliesh" and was selected to be on the UK BAFTA Breakthrough list.


title: George Robinson (actor)

text: He is set to feature in an educational film for the charity Back Up Trust. Robinson will also play the lead (John McClamrock) in the film "Still Life", based on an award-winning Texas Monthly non-fiction article of the same name written by Skip Hollandsworth in 2009, about John McClamrock and his mother Ann.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: Key Largo is a 1948 American film noir crime drama directed by John Huston and starring Humphrey Bogart, Edward G. Robinson and Lauren Bacall. The supporting cast features Lionel Barrymore and Claire Trevor. The film was adapted by Richard Brooks and Huston from Maxwell Anderson's 1939 play of the same name. "Key Largo" was the fourth and final film pairing of actors Bogart and Bacall, after "To Have and Have Not" (1944), "The Big Sleep" (1946), and "Dark Passage" (1947). Claire Trevor won the 1948 Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for her portrayal of alcoholic former nightclub singer Gaye Dawn.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: Army veteran Frank McCloud arrives at the Hotel Largo in Key Largo, Florida, visiting the family of George Temple, a friend who served under him and was killed in the Italian campaign several years before. He meets with the friend's widow Nora Temple, and his father James, who owns the hotel. Because the winter vacation season has ended and a hurricane is approaching, the hotel has only six guests: dapper Toots, boorish Curly, stone-faced Ralph, servant Angel, attractive but aging alcoholic Gaye Dawn, and a sixth man who remains secluded in his room. The visitors claim to be in the Florida Keys for fishing.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: Frank tells Nora and James about George's heroism under fire and shares some small and cherished details that George had spoken of. Nora and her father-in-law seem taken with Frank, stating that George frequently mentioned Frank in his letters.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: While preparing the hotel for the hurricane, the three are interrupted by Sheriff Ben Wade and his deputy Sawyer. They are searching for the Osceola brothers, a pair of fugitive American Indians. Soon after the police leave, the local Seminoles seek shelter at the hotel, among them the Osceola brothers.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: As the storm approaches, Curly, Ralph, Angel, and Toots pull guns and take the Temples and Frank hostage. They explain that the sixth, reclusive member of their party is notorious gangster Johnny Rocco, who was exiled to Cuba some years before. Rocco is waiting for his Miami contacts to arrive to conclude a deal. The gang discover Deputy Sawyer looking about and capture him. A tense standoff ensues. Frank declines to fight a duel with Rocco, stating his belief in self-preservation over heroics and that "one Rocco more or less isn't worth dying for”. Rocco shoots Sawyer, and Rocco's men take Sawyer's body out on a rowboat in the approaching storm and drop it in the ocean.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: As the storm rages outside, Rocco forces his former moll, Gaye, to sing for them but then demeans her. In contrast, Frank politely gives her the promised drink and ignores Rocco's slaps. Nora understands that Frank's heroism matches her husband's, who was killed around Monte Cassino in Italy. Mr. Temple invites Frank to live with them at the hotel, a prospect that intrigues Nora.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: The storm finally subsides. Sheriff Wade returns looking for Deputy Sawyer, and discovers his body washed up by the storm on the hotel driveway. Rocco goes outside and convinces the Sheriff that the Osceola brothers are responsible for Sawyer's death. Wade confronts and kills them both before leaving with Sawyer's body. Rocco's contact Ziggy arrives to buy a large amount of counterfeit money. Rocco then forces Frank, who is a skilled seaman, to take him and his henchmen back to Cuba on the small hotel boat. As the gang prepares to board the boat, Gaye steals Rocco's gun and covertly passes it to Frank.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: Out on the Straits of Florida, Frank uses seamanship, trickery, and the stolen gun to kill the gang members one by one. He then heads back to Key Largo, while radioing for Coast Guard help and to get a message to the hotel. Meanwhile, Gaye tells Wade that Rocco bears the blame for Deputy Sawyer's murder. Wade mentions that Ziggy's gang has been captured and leaves with Gaye to identify them.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: The phone rings: James and Nora are delighted to hear that Frank is returning safely. Nora opens the shutters to the sun, while out at sea, Frank steers the boat towards shore.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: In addition, Jay Silverheels and Rodd Redwing appear in uncredited roles as John and Tom Osceola, respectively.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: The script was adapted from a 1939 play of the same name by Maxwell Anderson. In the play, the gangsters are Mexican bandidos, the war in question is the Spanish Civil War, and McCloud is a disgraced deserter who dies at the end.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: Robinson had top billing over Bogart in their four previous films together: "Bullets or Ballots" (1936), "Kid Galahad" (1937), "The Amazing Dr. Clitterhouse" (1938) and "Brother Orchid" (1940), but the situation switched for the billing in this final film in which Bogart and Robinson worked together. In at least one trailer for the film, however, Robinson is billed above Bogart in a list of the actors' names at the end of the preview, and photographs exist of Robinson being billed above Bogart on some theatre marquees. In the film itself and in posters, Robinson's name is between Bogart's and Bacall's but slightly higher than the other two. In some posters, Robinson's picture is substantially larger than Bogart's, and in the foreground manhandling Bacall while Bogart is in the background.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: The film was shot primarily at the Warner Bros. Studios, Burbank, in order to keep costs down. The beach and hotel exterior were constructed on the Warner Bros. backlot; the interior scenes were filmed on a sound stage; and the boat scenes were filmed in Sound Stage 21, a huge indoor water tank. Exterior shots of the hurricane were taken from stock footage used in "Night Unto Night", a Ronald Reagan melodrama which Warner Bros. also produced in 1948. Filming took 78 days.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: The boat used by Rocco's gang to depart Key Largo, with Bogart's character at the helm, is named the "Santana", which was also the name of Bogart's personal 55-foot (17 m) sailing yacht.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: A high point of the film comes when Robinson's alcoholic former moll Gaye Dawn (Claire Trevor) is forced to sing a song "a cappella" before he will allow her to have a drink. Trevor was nervous about the scene and assumed that she would be lip-syncing to someone else's voice. She kept after director Huston to rehearse the song, but he put her off and said "there's plenty of time." One afternoon, he told her that they would shoot the scene right then, without any rehearsal. She was given her starting note from a piano, and then sang in front of the rest of the cast and the crew. It was this raw take that was used in the film. The song was "Moanin' Low," composed by Ralph Rainger with lyrics by Howard Dietz, introduced on Broadway in the 1929 revue "The Little Show" by Libby Holman. It became a hit and was Holman's signature song.


title: Key Largo (film)

text: Author Philip Furia, whose books focus on the lyricists of the Tin Pan Alley era, writes that the song is about a woman who is trapped in a relationship with a cruel man, and Gaye slowly realizes as she is singing that she is in that very situation herself. He suggests that Trevor's performance in the role slowly breaks down during the song; "her voice falters and she sings off key." After the song, Bogart pours her a drink, saying "you deserve this." "It's a wonderful use of a song in a non-musical picture," according to Furia. He also suggests that Trevor won the Academy Award "based purely, I think, on that performance."


title: Key Largo (film)

text: MGM released the VHS format on February 11, 1997 while Warner Archive Collection released the Blu-ray version and DVD reissue on February 23, 2016 and May 8, 2018 respectively.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine deficiency is a lack of the trace element iodine, an essential nutrient in the diet. It may result in metabolic problems such as goiter, sometimes as an endemic goiter as well as congenital iodine deficiency syndrome due to untreated congenital hypothyroidism, which results in developmental delays and other health problems. Iodine deficiency is an important global health issue, especially for fertile and pregnant women. It is also a preventable cause of intellectual disability.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine is an essential dietary mineral for neurodevelopment among children. The thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine contain iodine. In areas where there is little iodine in the diet, typically remote inland areas where no marine foods are eaten, iodine deficiency is common. It is also common in mountainous regions of the world where food is grown in iodine-poor soil.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Prevention includes adding small amounts of iodine to table salt, a product known as "iodized salt". Iodine compounds have also been added to other foodstuffs, such as flour, water and milk, in areas of deficiency. Seafood is also a well known source of iodine.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: In the U.S., the use of iodine has decreased over concerns of overdoses since mid-20th century, and the iodine antagonists bromine, perchlorate and fluoride have become more ubiquitous. In particular, around 1980 the practice of using potassium iodate as dough conditioner in bread and baked goods was gradually replaced by the use of other conditioning agents such as bromide.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine deficiency resulting in goiter occurs in 187 million people globally (2.7% of the population). It resulted in 2700 deaths in 2013, up from 2100 deaths in 1990.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: A low amount of thyroxine (one of the two thyroid hormones) in the blood, due to lack of dietary iodine to make it, gives rise to high levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the thyroid gland to increase many biochemical processes; the cellular growth and proliferation can result in the characteristic swelling or hyperplasia of the thyroid gland, or goiter. In mild iodine deficiency, levels of triiodothyronine (T) may be elevated in the presence of low levels of levothyroxine, as the body converts more of the levothyroxine to triiodothyronine as a compensation. Some such patients may have a goiter, without an elevated TSH. The introduction of iodized salt since the early 1900s has eliminated this condition in many affluent countries; however, in Australia, New Zealand, and several European countries, iodine deficiency is a significant public health problem. It is more common in developing countries. Public health initiatives to lower the risk of cardiovascular disease have resulted in lower discretionary salt use at the table. Additionally, there is a trend towards consuming more processed foods in western countries. The noniodized salt used in these foods means that people are less likely to obtain iodine from adding salt during cooking.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Goiter is said to be endemic when the prevalence in a population is > 5%, and in most cases goiter can be treated with iodine supplementation. If goiter is untreated for around five years, however, iodine supplementation or thyroxine treatment may not reduce the size of the thyroid gland because the thyroid is permanently damaged.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Congenital iodine deficiency syndrome, previously known as "cretinism", is a condition associated with iodine deficiency and goiter, commonly characterised by mental deficiency, deafness, squint, disorders of stance and gait and stunted growth due to hypothyroidism. Paracelsus was the first to point out the relation between goitrous parents and their mentally disabled children.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: As a result of restricted diet, isolation, intermarriage, etc., as well as low iodine content in their food, children often had peculiar stunted bodies and retarded mental faculties, a condition later known to be associated with thyroid hormone deficiency. Diderot, in his 1754 "Encyclopédie", described these patients as "crétins". In French, the term "crétin des Alpes" also became current, since the condition was observed in remote valleys of the Alps in particular. The word "cretin" appeared in English in 1779.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: While reporting recent progress towards overcoming iodine-deficiency disorders worldwide, "The Lancet" noted: "According to World Health Organization, in 2007, nearly 2 billion individuals had insufficient iodine intake, a third being of school age." A conclusion was made that the single most preventable cause of intellectual disability is that of iodine deficiency.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: There is preliminary evidence that iodine deficiency enhances the sensitivity of breast tissue to estrogen. In rats treated with estradiol, iodine deficiency has been shown to lead to changes similar to benign breast changes that are reversible by increased iodine in the diet. In a few studies, iodine supplementation had beneficial effects (such as reducing the presence of breast cyst, fibrous tissue plaques and breast pain) in women with fibrocystic breast changes.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Protective effects of iodine on breast cancer have been postulated from epidemiologic evidence and described in animal models. In view of the antiproliferative properties of iodine in breast tissue, molecular iodine supplementation has been suggested as an adjuvant in breast cancer therapy.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine accounts for 65% of the molecular weight of T and 59% of T. There is a total of 15–20 mg of iodine in the human body, primarily concentrated in thyroid tissue and hormones. Thirty percent of iodine is distributed in other tissues, including the mammary glands, eyes, gastric mucosa, choroid plexus, arterial walls, the cervix, and salivary glands. In the cells of these tissues, iodide enters directly by sodium-iodide symporter (NIS).


title: Iodine deficiency

text: The diagnostic workup of a suspected iodine deficiency includes signs and symptoms as well as possible risk factors mentioned above. A 24-hour urine iodine collection is a useful medical test, as approximately 90% of ingested iodine is excreted in the urine. For the standardized 24-hour test, a 50 mg iodine load is given first, and 90% of this load is expected to be recovered in the urine of the following 24 hours. Recovery of less than 90% is taken to mean high retention, that is, iodine deficiency. The recovery may, however, be well less than 90% during pregnancy, and an intake of goitrogens can alter the test results.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: If a 24-hour urine collection is not practical, a random urine iodine-to-creatinine ratio can alternatively be used. However, the 24-hour test is found to be more reliable.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: A general idea of whether a deficiency exists can be determined through a functional iodine test in the form of an iodine skin test. In this test, the skin is painted with an iodine solution: if the iodine patch disappears quickly, this is taken as a sign of iodine deficiency. However, no accepted norms exist on the expected time interval for the patch to disappear, and in persons with dark skin color the disappearance of the patch may be difficult to assess. If a urine test is taken shortly after, the results may be altered due to the iodine absorbed previously in a skin test.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine deficiency is treated by ingestion of iodine salts, such as found in food supplements. Mild cases may be treated by using iodized salt in daily food consumption, or drinking more milk, or eating egg yolks, and saltwater fish. For a salt and/or animal product restricted diet, sea vegetables (kelp, hijiki, dulse, nori (found in sushi)) may be incorporated regularly into a diet as a good source of iodine.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: The recommended daily intake of iodine for adult women is 150–300 µg for maintenance of normal thyroid function; for men, it is somewhat less at 150 µg.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Nonetheless, there is a lack of evidence on iodine fortification in foods, beverages, condiments, or seasonings other than salt in preventing goiter or improving physical development. On the other hand, such a measure may increase iodine concentration in urine.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: However, too high iodine intake, for example due to overdosage of iodine supplements, can have toxic side effects. It can lead to hyperthyroidism and consequently high blood levels of thyroid hormones (hyperthyroxinemia). In case of extremely high single-dose iodine intake, typically a short-term suppression of thyroid function (Plummer effect and Wolff–Chaikoff effect) occurs. Persons with pre-existing thyroid disease, elderly persons, fetuses and neonates, and patients with other risk factors are at a higher risk of experiencing iodine-induced thyroid abnormalities. In particular, in persons with goiter due to iodine deficiency or with altered thyroid function, a form of hyperthyroidism called Jod-Basedow phenomenon can be triggered even at small or single iodine dosages, for example as a side effect of administration of iodine-containing contrast agents. In some cases, excessive iodine contributes to a risk of autoimmune thyroid diseases (Hashimoto's thyroiditis and Graves' disease).


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Different experts in nutrition advise different amounts of iodine supplementation. Supplementation is typically in a product which contains roughly half iodine and half iodide (a popular product used and sold for decades is “Iodoral®” which contains 5 mg of Iodine and 7.5 mg of Iodide).


title: Iodine deficiency

text: On low side there is Kara Fitzgerald recommending less than 1,100 mcg per day (except when treating some medical conditions), she considers long term dosage of 40,000 mcg per day “excessive”. In the middle we have Dr. Alan Gaby who considers a “moderately high dose” to be 3,000 to 6,000 mcg per day. On the higher end we have Dr. David Brownstein, Dr. Jorge Flechas, Dr. Guy Abraham, Dr. Alan Roby and Dr. Jonathan Wright who recommend 6,000 mcg to 50,000 mcg per day.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: With iodine supplementation, goiters caused by iodine deficiency decrease in size in very young children and pregnant women. Generally, however, long-standing goiters caused by iodine deficiency respond with only small amounts of shrinkage after iodine supplementation, and patients are at risk for developing hyperthyroidism.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Being pregnant while iodine-deficient additionally carries the risk of causing congenital iodine deficiency syndrome in the newborn. This disease can only be managed by lifelong administration of thyroxine (T).


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine deficiency resulting in goiter occurs in 187 million people globally (2.7% of the population). Certain areas of the world, due to natural deficiency and unavailability of iodine, are severely affected by iodine deficiency, which affects approximately two billion people worldwide. It is particularly common in the Western Pacific, South-East Asia and Africa. Among other nations affected by iodine deficiency, China and Kazakhstan have begun taking action, while Russia has not. Successful campaigns for the adoption of the use of iodized salt require education of salt producers and sellers and a communication campaign directed at the public. The cost of adding iodine to salt is negligible—"Only a few cents a ton."


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine deficiency has largely been confined to the developing world for several generations, but reductions in salt consumption and changes in dairy processing practices eliminating the use of iodine-based disinfectants have led to increasing prevalence of the condition in Australia and New Zealand in recent years. A proposal to mandate the use of iodized salt in most commercial breadmaking was adopted in Australia in October 2009. In a study of the United Kingdom published in 2011, almost 70% of test subjects were found to be iodine deficient. The study's authors suggested an investigation regarding "evidence-based recommendations for iodine supplementation".


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Micronutrient deficiencies, including iodine deficiency, impair the development of intelligence. Lacking iodine during human development causes a fall, in average, of 12 intelligence quotient (IQ) points in China. A study of U.S. military data collected during the First and Second World Wars found that the introduction of salt iodization in the U.S. in the 1920s resulted in an increase in IQ, by approximately one standard deviation, for the quarter of the U.S. population most deficient in iodine, explaining about "one decade's worth of the upward trend in IQ" in the U.S. (i.e., the Flynn effect). The same study documented "a large increase in thyroid-related deaths following the countrywide adoption of iodized salt, which affected mostly older individuals in localities with high prevalence of iodine deficiency".


title: Iodine deficiency

text: In iodine-deficient or mildly iodine-deficient areas of Europe, iodine deficiency is frequent during pregnancy despite the widespread use of iodised salt, posing risks to the neurodevelopment of foetuses. In one study performed in a mildly iodine-deficient area, iodine deficiency was found to be present in more than half of breastfeeding women; in contrast, the majority of their newborns had iodine excess, mostly due to neonatal exposure to iodine-containing disinfectants. A 2014 meta-analysis found that iodine supplementation "improves some maternal thyroid indices and may benefit aspects of cognitive function in school-age children, even in marginally iodine-deficient areas".


title: Iodine deficiency

text: In areas where there is little iodine in the diet, typically remote inland areas and semi-arid equatorial climates where no marine foods are eaten, iodine deficiency gives rise to hypothyroidism, symptoms of which are extreme fatigue, goiter, mental slowing, depression, weight gain, and low basal body temperatures.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable mental retardation, a result which occurs primarily when babies or small children are rendered hypothyroidic by a lack of the element. The addition of iodine to table salt has largely eliminated this problem in the wealthier nations, but as of March 2006, iodine deficiency remained a serious public health problem in the developing world.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine deficiency is also a problem in certain areas of Europe. In Germany it has been estimated to cause a billion dollars in health care costs per year. A modelling analysis suggests universal iodine supplementation for pregnant women in England may save £199 (2013 UK pounds) to the health service per pregnant woman and save £4476 per pregnant woman in societal costs.


title: Iodine deficiency

text: Iodine deficiency was previously a common disease in Norway, because the content of iodine in the drinking water was low. Before 1950 goiter was a widespread disease caused by iodine deficiency. Up to 80 per cent of the population were affected in inland areas. In the coastal communities, saltwater fish were an important part of the diet, and because of the presence of iodine in seawater, goiter was less common than in the inland districts. From the 1950s, Norwegians started adding iodine to dairy cow feed. Since milk was an essential part of the Norwegian diet, the incidence of goiter decreased in the population.


The All-Ireland Senior Football Championship (SFC) () is the premier competition in Gaelic football. An annual tournament organised by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA), it is contested by the county teams in All-Ireland.


title: All-Ireland Senior Football Championship

text: The first tournament was held in 1887; it has been held every year since 1889. Each tournament ends with a final, played by the 35th Sunday of the year at Croke Park in Dublin, with the winning team receiving the Sam Maguire Cup.


text: The first Championship to be held featured club teams who represented their respective counties after their county championship. The 21 a-side final was between Commercials of Limerick and Young Irelands of Louth. The final was played in Beech Hill, Donnybrook (not Bird Avenue) on 29 April 1888 with Commercials winning by 1–4 to 0–3. Unlike later All-Ireland competitions, there were no provincial championships, and the result was an open draw.


text: The second Championship was unfinished owing to the American Invasion Tour. The 1888 provincial championships had been completed (Tipperary, Kilkenny and Monaghan winning them; no Connacht teams entered) but after the Invasion tour returned, the All-Ireland semi-final and final were not played. English team London reached the final four times in the early years of the competition (1900–1903).


text: In 1892, inter-county teams were introduced to the All-Ireland Championship. Congress granted permission for the winning club to use players from other clubs in the county, thus the inter-county teams came into being. The rules of hurling and football were also altered: goals were made equal to five points, and teams were reduced from 21 to 17 a-side.


text: The 1903 Championship brought Kerry's first All-Ireland title. They went on to become the most successful football team in the history of the All-Ireland Senior Football Championship.


text: Unlike in other European countries, such as neighbouring England, where annual sports events were cancelled during the twentieth century due to the First and Second World Wars, the All-Ireland Championship has been running continuously since 1887, with the final running since 1889 (the 1888 competition was played but no final was held due to the Invasion mentioned above). The competition continued even in spite of the effects on the country of the Civil War and the Second World War (the National Football League was not held during the latter). In 1941, the All-Ireland Championship was disrupted by an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease but the postponed Leinster final were later rescheduled.


text: The duration of certain championship matches increased from 60 to 80 minutes during the 1970s. They were settled at 70 minutes after five seasons of this in 1975. This applied only to the provincial finals, All-Ireland semi-finals and finals.


text: The first half of the twentieth century brought the rise of several teams who won two or more All-Ireland titles in that period, such as Kildare, Mayo, Cavan, Wexford and Roscommon. In the 1990s, a significant sea change took place, as the All-Ireland was claimed by an Ulster team in four consecutive years (1991–1994). Since then Ulster has produced more All-Ireland winning teams than any other province.