title: Miser

text: When there was renewed European interest in Aesop during the early Renaissance, the Neo-Latin poet Laurentius Abstemius wrote two collections of original fables, among which appeared "Avarus et poma marcescentia" (The miser and the rotten apples, fable 179), published in 1499. This was eventually translated into English by Roger L'Estrange and published in his fable collection of 1692. It concerns a miser who cannot bring himself to eat the apples in his orchard until they start to go rotten. His son invites in his playmates to pick the fruit but asks them not to eat the rotten ones since his father prefers those. The 18th century French fabulist Claris de Florian was to adapt the story in his "L'avare et son fils" (The miser and his son, IV.9). In this version the miserly father hoards his apples and only eats those going rotten. His son, upon being caught raiding them, excuses himself on the grounds that he was confining himself to eating just the sound ones.


title: Miser

text: In 18th century Britain, when there was a vogue for creating original fables in verse, a number featured misers. Anne Finch's "Tale of the Miser and the Poet" was included among others in her 1713 Miscellany. There an unsuccessful poet meets Mammon in the guise of a miser digging up his buried gold and debates with him whether the life of wit and learning is a better calling than the pursuit of wealth. Eventually the poet is convinced that keeping his talent hidden until it is better regarded is the more prudent course. It was followed by John Gay's "The Miser and Plutus", published in his collection of fables in 1737. A miser frightened for the security of his hoard denounces gold as the corruptor of virtue and is visited by the angry god of wealth, who asserts that not gold but the attitude towards it is what damages the personality.


title: Miser

text: While these are more or less original interpretations of the theme, French fabulist Antoine Houdar de la Motte harks back to the light-hearted approach of the Greek Anthology in "The Miser and Minos", first published in his fables of 1719. Descending to the Classical underworld at his death, the miser is brought before the judge of the dead and is given the extreme punishment of returning to earth to witness how his wealth is now being spent. The Scottish poet Allan Ramsay adapted this into dialect two years later, and Charles Denis provided a version in standard English in his "Select Fables" (1754), reversing the title to "Minos and the Miser".


title: Miser

text: Misers are frequent figures of fun in the epigrams of the Greek Anthology. It is charged of them that they are not masters of their own money if they do not spend it. Niarchus tells of one who does not commit suicide because of the cost of the rope to do so; Lucillius tells of another who dies because funeral expenses are cheaper than calling in a doctor. Elsewhere in the anthology is another epigram by Lucillius of a miser's encounter with a mouse that assures him he only wants lodging, not board. In one more, a miser dreams that he is in debt and hangs himself.


title: Miser

text: The Latin writer Horace put miserly behaviour at the centre of the first poem in his first collection of satires, dealing with extremes of behaviour. In writing an imitation of it, an English poet who provides only his surname, Minshull, was to emphasise this by titling his work "The Miser, a Poem" (London, 1735).


title: Miser

text: In Dante Alighieris "Inferno", misers are put in the fourth circle of hell, in company with spendthrifts as part of their mutual punishment. They roll weights representing their wealth, constantly colliding and quarreling.


title: Miser

text: During the 16th century, emblem books began using an illustration of an ass eating thistles as symbol of miserly behaviour, often with an accompanying poem. They appeared in various European languages, among them the illustrated trencher by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger, dating from about 1630, on which an ass laden with rich foods is shown cropping a thistle, surrounding which is the quatrain:


title: Miser

text: In the third book of "The Faerie Queene", Edmund Spenser created a portrait of a man trapped between conflicting desires in Malbecco, who appears in cantos 9-10. He is torn between his miserliness and love for his wife Hellenore. Wishing to escape with a lover, she sets fire to his storeroom and forces him to choose between them:


title: Miser

text: The 18th century, so culturally rich in miser lore, furnished some notable poetic examples. Allan Ramsay's “Last speech of a wretched miser” dates from 1728 and is written in modified Scots dialect. The miser bids farewell to his riches in a comic monologue and details some of his shifts to avoid expense. Alexander Pope created another masterly portrait in the character of Cotta in his "Epistle to Bathurst" (1733). Reluctance to spend confines this aristocrat to his ancestral hall, where he refuses to engage with the world. Later in the century another Scottish poet, Dr William Stevenson (1719–83), included nine satirical epitaphs on misers among his collected works, of which the last begins:


title: Miser

text: Poetic titles from the 19th century include the Irish Arthur Geoghegan's "The Old Miser and Mammon: an Incident Poem" (Newry 1818) and Frederick Featherstone's "New Christmas Poem entitled The Miser's Christmas Eve" (1893). There was also an anonymous didactic poem titled "The Miser" (London 1831). Although miserly behaviour is referenced during the course of its 78 pages, the real focus there is the attraction of money in all its manifestations.


title: Miser

text: In the realm of popular poetry, there were a range of narrative broadside ballads concerning misers from the 17th century onward. Some of the earliest deal with the grain speculators who caused such suffering to the poorest. A representative example is "The Wretched Miser" (1682), prefaced as "a brief Account of a covetous Farmer, who bringing a Load of Corn to Market, swore the Devil should have it before he would take the honest Market price". The devil closes with the bargain and on accounting day carries off the farmer as well. The social message is carried by the refrain that follows each stanza: "O Farmers, covetous Farmers,/ why would you pinch the Poor?" The religious aspect is dealt with in the contemporary "A Looking-glass for a covetous Miser" by Thomas Jordan. Here a West Country entrepreneur and a poor husbandman debate the respective merits of anxious profit-making and contentment. The miser laments the current low price of grain and resolves not to sell or plant more until the price rises. The theme continued into the early 19th century, where a farmer is again the subject of "The life and awful death of a rich miser ".


title: Miser

text: Another common subject of these ballads was the dilemma of the miser's daughter unable to marry the man of her choice and the stratagems employed to overcome her father. In "Bite Upon the Miser", printed in the late 18th century, a sailor dresses up as the devil and scares the miser and the parson he intended as her husband into allowing the match. Much the same situation occurs in "The Politic Lovers or the Windsor Miser Outwitted", where it is a butcher who impersonates the devil and scares the miser into handing over his riches. In about 1800 there appeared an English broadside ballad called “The old miser” which was to serve as basis for what grew into a folk song with multiple versions. The scene is set in London, where a miser's daughter is courted by a sailor and the father arranges for him to be press-ganged to get him out of the way. As well as persisting in England, there are also versions in the US and Tristan de Cunha. Misers were notorious tricksters, so ingenuity transcending barely credible impersonations was generally needed. "Bite upon bite or the miser outwitted by the country lass" (1736–63) does not feature the miser's daughter but another sort of damsel in distress. A girl bears a child out of wedlock and is advised by her mother to name it Maidenhead and offer it for sale. A rich miser closes the bargain and is eventually forced to support the child by the magistrate.


title: Miser

text: Still another ballad theme was the privations of the miser's servant, a comic situation in drama and fiction also, and here principally concerned with how little food the household has to live on. One example is "The Miser's Man (dating from between 1863-85). At the start of the 19th century, the theme had figured as an episode in Robert Anderson's "Croglin Watty". A simple-minded countryman down from the fells, Watty was hired by the real-life Carlisle miser Margery Jackson (1722–1812) and served her for a quarter. The ballad mixes sung verses with prose description, both in Cumberland dialect:


title: Miser

text: Dame Margery is not named in the poem because at the time of writing (1805) she was still alive and known to be litigious. We know that it is meant to be her from the fact that in William Brown's painting of the ballad, "Hiring Croglin Watty at Carlisle Cross", it is she who figures in the foreground. About 1811, just before her death, Brown had already devoted another painting to her alone as she tramped through the town. That she is still amusedly remembered there is witnessed by the modern "Miser! The Musical" (2011), based on her life.


title: Miser

text: Misers were represented onstage as comic figures from Classical times. One of the earliest appears in the comic Phlyax plays developed in the Greek colonies in Italy during the 4th century BCE, which are known only from rare fragments and titles. They were also popularly represented on Greek vases, often with the names of the characters written above them. In one of these by Asteas two men are depicted robbing a miser. At the centre the miser Charinos has settled for sleep on top of his strongbox in the comfort of two blankets. He is rudely awoken by two rascals mishandling him in an effort to lay their hands on his riches. On the left, Gymnilos has already pulled away the blanket on top of him while, on the right, Kosios drags out the blanket beneath. On the far right, the miser's slave Karion stands with outstretched arms and knocking knees.


title: Miser

text: The character of Euclio in his "Aulularia" was to be particularly influential, as was the complicating subplot of a marriageable daughter. One of the earliest Renaissance writers to adapt the play was the Croatian Marin Držić in about 1555, whose "Skup" (The Miser) is set in Dubrovnik. Ben Jonson adapted elements from Plautus for his early comedy "The Case is Altered" (c. 1597). The miser there is the Milanese Jaques de Prie, who has a (supposed) daughter, Rachel. Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft and Samuel Coster followed with their very popular Dutch comedy "Warenar" (1617). The play is named from the miser, whose daughter is Claartje. Molière adapted Plautus' play into French as "L'Avare" (The Miser, 1668) while in England Thomas Shadwell adapted Molière's work in 1672 and a version based on both Plautus and Molière was produced by Henry Fielding in 1732. Among later adaptations there was Vasily Pashkevich's 18th-century Russian comic opera "The Miser" and pioneering dramatic works in Arabic by Marun Al Naqqash (1817–55) and in Serbian by Jovan Sterija Popović.


title: Miser

text: There were also independent dramatic depictions of misers, some of them being variations of the Pantaleone figure in 16th-century Italian commedia dell’arte. He is represented as a rich and miserly Venetian merchant, later to become the father of Columbina. The Venetian characters who reappear in English drama include the Jewish moneylender Shylock in William Shakespeare's "The Merchant of Venice" (1598) and the title character of Ben Jonson's "Volpone" (1606). In Aubrey Beardsley's title page for the latter, Volpone is shown worshiping his possessions, in illustration of the lines from the play, "Dear Saint, / Riches, the dumb god that giv'st all men tongues." A similar scene takes place in the second act of Alexander Pushkin's short tragedy "Skupoi rytsar" (1836). This concerns a son, Albert, kept short of funds by his father, the Baron. Under the title The Miserly Knight, it was made an opera by Sergei Rachmaninoff in 1906. In the corresponding act in the latter, the Baron visits his underground storehouse, where he gloats at a new addition to his coffers and moodily contemplates the extravagance of his son during a 15-minute solo.


title: Miser

text: Following on from the continuing success of Molière's "L'Avare", there was a spate of French plays dealing with misers and their matrimonial plans over the next century and a half. What complicates matters is that several of these had the same title but were in fact separate plays written by different authors. "L'Avare Amoureux" (The Miser in Love) by Jean du Mas d' Aigueberre (1692–1755) was a one-act comedy acted in Paris in 1729. It is not the same as the anonymous one-act comedy of the same title published in 1777.


title: Miser

text: Another set of plays borrows a title from the Italian dramatist Carlo Goldoni, who was working in France at the end of his life. He had already produced a one-act comedy titled "L'avaro" (The Miser) in Bologna in 1756. In 1776 he produced in France the five-act "L' avare fastueux" (The Spendthrift Miser). The same title was used by L. Reynier for his five-act verse drama of 1794 and by Claude Baron Godart d'Aucourt de Saint Just (1769-1826) for his three-act verse drama of 1805.


title: Miser

text: The early 19th century saw misers become the subject of the musicals then fashionable in France. Eugène Scribe and Germain Delavigne collaborated on


title: Miser

text: "L'avare en goguette" (The miser's spree) in 1823, while Jean-François Bayard and Paul Duport collaborated on the two-act "La fille de l'avare" (The Miser's Daughter) in 1835. The latter play was freely adapted in 1835 by John G. Millingen under the title of "The Miser’s Daughter". Two further adaptations of the French play were to follow later: "Love and Avarice" (1859) by J. V. Bridgeman (1819-89), and John Palgrave Simpson's "Daddy Hardacre" in 1857. Meanwhile, William Harrison Ainsworth's period novel "The Miser's Daughter" (first serialised in 1842) was spawning a fresh crop of dramas of that title. Two were played in 1842 and a further adaptation called "Hilda" in 1872. A similarly titled play was the five-act comedy partially in verse, "The Miser's Daughter or The Lover's Curse" of 1839, a schoolboy indiscretion of the future controversial churchman, Rev.John Purchas. And on the other side of the Atlantic there was a stage production of "Julietta Gordini:The Miser's Daughter", a verse play in five acts, which claimed to derive its plot 'from an Italian story'.


title: Miser

text: Douglas William Jerrold's "John Overy or The Miser of Southwark Ferry", (1828) also brings in a daughter whom the miser attempts to sell off as a mistress to her disguised lover. Earlier Jerrold had written a one-act farce, "The Smoked Miser or The Benefit of Hanging" (1823), in which a miser tries to marry off his ward to advantage. Another farce produced in Canada, Major John Richardson's "The Miser Outwitted" (1841), had an Irish theme and dealt with a plot to trick a miser out of his money. The later Thomas Peckett Prest's "The Miser of Shoreditch or the Curse of Avarice" (1854) was based on a penny dreadful story by him; later he adapted it as a two-act romantic drama set in time of Henry VIII.


title: Miser

text: The popularity of these theatrical misers is evident from the number of paintings and drawings based on them, many of which were then adapted as prints. In 18th-century England, it was Fielding's "The Miser" that attracted most attention. Samuel Wale's drawing of the second act was also made into a print. But it was principally depictions of various actors in the character of Lovegold, the play's anti-hero, which attracted artists. Samuel De Wilde pictured William Farren in the role at the Theatre Royal, Bath. Several other works became plates in one or another book dedicated to English drama. James Roberts II (1753 – c. 1810) executed a pen and ink watercolour of Edward Shuter in character which was adapted as a print for the six-volume play collection, "Bell's British Theatre". Charles Reuben Ryley made a print of Thomas Ryder in the role for "Lowndes' British Theatre" (1788), while Thomas Parkinson's painting of Richard Yates as Lovegold was adapted for the 1776 edition of that work. In the following century, Thomas Charles Wageman's dramatic head and shoulders drawing of William Farren as Lovegold illustrated William Oxberry's collection of texts, "The New English Drama" (1820). From this time too dates the coloured print of Samuel Vale acting the part of Goliah Spiderlimb, the comic servant in Jerrold's "The Smoked Miser".


title: Miser

text: Molière's "L'Avare" was not altogether eclipsed in England by the work adapted from it. A drawing by William Hogarth of the play's denouement was included as a print in the translation of Molière's work and prints based upon it were made by various other engravers. William Powell Frith devoted one of his theatrical paintings to a scene from L'Avare in 1876 while the French actor Grandmesnil in the role of Harpagon was painted by Jean-Baptiste François Desoria.


title: Miser

text: In addition, the challenging and complex part of Shylock was favoured by English artists. Johann Zoffany painted Charles Macklin in the role that had brought him fame at the Covent Garden Theatre (1767–68) and Thomas Gray portrayed a confrontation between Shylock and his daughter Jessica (1868). Character portraits of other actors in Shylock's role have included Henry Urwick (1859–1931) by Walter Chamberlain Urwick (1864-1943), Herbert Beerbohm Tree by Charles Buchel and Arthur Bourchier, also by Buchel.


title: Miser

text: There were beside many other prolific and once popular novelists who addressed themselves to the subject of miserliness. For the most part theirs were genre works catering to readers in the circulating libraries of the 19th century. Among them was the gothic novel "The miser and his family" (1800) by Eliza Parsons and Catherine Hutton's "The miser married" (1813). The latter was an epistolary novel in which Charlotte Montgomery describes her own romantic affairs and in addition those of her mother, an unprincipled spendthrift who has just married the miser of the title. Another female novelist, Mary E. Bennett (1813–99), set her "The Gipsy Bride or the Miser's Daughter" (1841) in the 16th century. Mary Elizabeth Braddon's Aurora Floyd (1863) was a successful sensation novel in which banknotes rather than gold are the object of desire and a motive for murder. It was dramatised the same year and later toured the US; in 1912 it was made a silent film. Later examples include Eliza Lynn Linton's "Paston Carew, Millionaire and Miser" (1886); "Miser Farebrother" (1888) by Benjamin Leopold Farjeon; and "Dollikins and the Miser" (1890) by the American Frances Eaton. In 1904 Jerome K. Jerome created "Nicholas Snyders, The Miser of Zandam" in a sentimental story of the occult in which the Dutch merchant persuades a generous young man to exchange souls with him.


title: Miser

text: Mediaeval art works of Christian origin take a clear moral stance on the sin of avarice in its various manifestations. The frieze on the west wall of Lincoln Cathedral depicts the torments of Hell visited on those guilty of this sin, while Sassetta made "The Blessed Ranieri showing the friars the soul of the Miser of Citerna carried to hell by demons" a panel of an altarpiece (now in the Louvre).


title: Miser

text: But the bracketing of the miser and the usurer as equally culpable types, mentioned earlier, makes it difficult to interpret the subject of later moralistic paintings, since they may represent either a hoarder, a money lender or even a tax collector.


title: Miser

text: Such paintings cluster into recognisable genres, all of which point to the sinful nature of preoccupation with money for its own sake. Hieronymus Bosch's panel of Death and the Miser, dating from the 1490s, started a fashion in depicting this subject among Low Countries artists. Bosch shows the miser on his deathbed, with various demons crowding about his possessions, while an angel supports him and directs his attention to higher things. The link between finance and the diabolical is also drawn by another Fleming, Jan Matsys, in his portrayal of the man of affairs being assisted in his double bookkeeping by a demon. The same connection is made in "The devil and the usurer" in the Valenciennes , formerly attributed to Pieter Bruegel the Younger, in which two devils pluck at the sleeve of a poorly dressed moneylender.


title: Miser

text: The Gospel Parable of the Rich Fool lies behind another series of paintings which stem ultimately from mediaeval illustrations of the Dance of Death. There a skeleton compels those from all walks of life, but particularly types of the rich and the powerful, to join him in his dance to the grave. In 1538 Hans Holbein the Younger initiated a popular treatment of this subject in which each type is separately illustrated, of which there were many imitations in succeeding centuries. Among the depictions is a man starting up in protest behind a table piled with wealth on which a skeleton is laying hands. In his print of 1651, Wenceslas Hollar makes the connection with the parable clear by quoting from it in the frame. A variation is provided by Jan Provoost's 16th century diptych in which death confronts the man of affairs with his own account. A century later, Frans Francken the Younger treats the theme twice, in both versions of which a skeleton serenades a luxuriously dressed greybeard sitting at a table. Another curious variation occurs in Pieter Quast's print of "The Miser and Death" (1643). Here the man sits at table clasping his money bags while contemplating a skull wearing a plumed hat, beside which is an hour-glass. The visitation of death is carried forward in the 19th century in similarly titled works. They include a portrayal by Franz Häussler (1845-1920) of an old man standing at his desk who peers round fearfully as he glimpses a skull reflected in a mirror. The charcoal and watercolour drawing by the Austrian Albert Plattner (1869–1919) is more ambiguous and has the figures facing away from each other in a cramped space.


title: Miser

text: Yet another genre was the Allegory of Avarice, of which one of the earliest examples is Albrecht Dürer's painting of a naked old woman with a sack of coins (1507). This makes the point that age comes to all and confiscates all consolations. A woman is chosen as subject because the Latin "avaritia" is of the feminine gender. Low Countries artists who took up the allegorical theme added the variation of making the woman examine a coin by the light of a candle or lantern, as in the paintings by Gerrit van Honthorst and Mathias Stomer. In his own allegorical treatment, Paulus Moreelse made the link with the dance of death genre by introducing a young boy slyly fingering the coins while keeping a wary eye on the woman to see if she has noticed. These Dutch variations were mostly painted during the 1620s, when Rembrandt too borrowed the imagery, but his candlelit examiner of a coin is male and the piece is variously titled "The Money Changer" or "The Rich Fool", in reference to the parable already mentioned. Jan Steen, on the other hand, makes his subject very obviously a miser who hugs a small sack of coins and holds one up for intent inspection.


title: Miser

text: In the Hieronymus Bosch "Death and the Miser", the pull between spirituality and materialism is highlighted by making the deathbed a scene of conflict between the angel and demons. Quentin Matsys suggests the same polarity in his "The moneylender and his wife" (1514). Here the woman is studying a religious book while her husband is testing coins by weight. In the hands of the later Marinus van Reymerswaele the contrast disappears. The wife of his moneylender is shown helping with the bookkeeping and leaning sideways, as mesmerised as her husband by the pile of coins. Gillis van Tilborch's painting of much the same scene is titled "The Misers" and again demonstrates the ambivalent targets of the moral message. The only difference is that the couple engaged in inspecting their money are old, as was the case in all the allegories of avarice. David Teniers the Younger depicted a couple similarly engaged in 1648 which was later engraved in France by Pierre-François Basan under the title "Le plaisir des vieillards" (the pleasures of old age). Verses as the bottom underline the moral: "Why do you make/ such piles of gold?/ Soon you’ll grow old/ and Death takes all.


title: Miser

text: Another area of ambivalence centres on the kind of clothes worn by the so-called misers. The subject of Hendrik Gerritsz Pot's painting from the 1640s in the Uffizi is fashionably dressed and wearing a ring. He may be inspired by the wealth and jewelry piled on his table, but he obviously has no objection to advertising his well-to-do status. On the other hand, the "Miser Casting His Accounts" presented by Jan Lievens is poorly dressed and his interest in hoarding is indicated by the way he gloats on the key that will lock his money away. The same dichotomy occurs in later centuries. Jean-Baptiste Le Prince's miser is also richly robed as he sits surrounded by his possessions, while Theodore Bernard Heuvel's miser sits on the chest containing his hoard and looks anxiously over his shoulder. Paul Gavarni's miser shows much the same apprehension as he leans on the table where his money is piled and glances round suspiciously.


title: Miser

text: A sub-theme of this kind of contrast occurred in Hans Holbein the Younger's "The Miser and his Mistress". There a young woman in luxuriant Renaissance dress stands behind an ugly miser, reaching across him to take coins from the money bags he clutches to his chest, while he looks up at her, crying out with a grimace and trying to push away her hand. An updated version by Philip Dawe was published as a print in 1773 under the title of "The Scramble, or Old Gripus plunder'd by his Young Wife". Underneath is a verse commentary:


title: Miser

text: Literary manifestations of the theme of the mismatched couple include the Malbecco episode in "The Faerie Queene" and Catherine Hutton's novel "The Miser Married".


title: Miser

text: English depictions of misers in the 18th century begin as genre paintings. Gainsborough Dupont's poorly dressed character clutches a bag of coin and looks up anxiously in the painting in the Ashmolean Museum. John Cranch (1751-1821) pictures two armed desperadoes breaking in on his. However, it is in the realm of satirical prints that the most inventiveness is found. James Gillray does not neglect the moral dimension either in his "The miser's feast" (1786). He is pictured seated at a table eating a meager meal, attended by Death in the guise of an emaciated and naked manservant holding in his right hand a tray with a bone on it and behind him, in his left hand, the dart of death. Famine, a withered hag naked to the waist, is also in attendance wearing a large hat and fashionable skirt. These characters are identified by the verse at the bottom: "What else can follow but destructive fate,/When Famine holds the cup and Death the plate?"


title: Miser

text: Among other details in Gillray's crowded print is a fashionably dressed prostitute coming through the door. Lechery was supposed to be an attribute of some misers, exposing them to a contest between satisfying this weakness and their overmastering passion to save expense, as exemplified in the Old Gripus print. Thomas Rowlandson points to one solution of his dilemma in a print showing a miser engaged with two nude prostitutes whom has hired for the price of one. In another Rowlandson revisits the theme of the meager feast, depicting his miser crouched by an empty grate and keeping himself warm by hugging his money-bags. A hag enters, bringing a tiny portion to eat on a plate which a famished cat scrambles to reach. One more dichotomy explored by Rowlandson appears in his watercolour of "The spendthrift and the miser". The drunken young man alarming the miser there is probably his son, taking up a literary theme to be found, among other places, in Allan Ramsay's comic monologue. It will be remembered too that the thriftless ne'er-do-well of "A Rake's Progress" inherited his money from a miserly father.


title: Miser

text: By the end of the 19th century the theme of the miser was distancing itself from the simple moralities of journeyman painters and becoming a subject for aristocratic amateurs. The Empress Maria Feodorovna's miser of 1890 handles a small strongbox. The Indian Raja Ravi Varma paints a Jewish character type for his miser, dated 1901, while the Hungarian nobleman Ladislav Medňanský titles his humanised study "Shylock" (1900). Apart from them, there is an etching by James Abbott McNeill Whistler which emphasises the essential isolation of such figures. His enigmatic "The Miser" of 1860 pictures an individual of indeterminate gender seated with its back to the viewer in the corner of a bare room next to the window. He is looking down as if examining something and the room behind him is spartanly furnished with just a table and bench, while a broadsheet is tacked to the wall.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: At 08:29:09 EDT on 14 August 2021, a magnitude7.2 earthquake struck the Tiburon Peninsula in the Caribbean nation of Haiti. It had a 10-kilometre-deep (6.2 mi) hypocenter near Petit-Trou-de-Nippes, approximately 150 kilometres (93 mi) west of the capital, Port-au-Prince. Tsunami warnings were briefly issued for the Haitian coast. At least 2,248 people were confirmed killed and more than 12,200 injured, mostly in the Sud Department. An estimated 650,000 people were in need of assistance. At least 137,500 buildings were damaged or destroyed.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: It is the deadliest earthquake and deadliest natural disaster of 2021. It is also the worst disaster to strike Haiti since the 2010 earthquake. UNICEF estimates more than half a million children were affected. The Haitian Civil Protection General Directorate (DGPC) warned of a possible large humanitarian crisis resulting from the earthquake. USAID provided US $32 million in foreign aid to Haiti for reconstruction efforts following the devastating earthquake. This earthquake had the most casualties of any disaster since the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake. The economic loss from this earthquake is estimated at over 1.5 billion US dollars, nearly 10% of the country's gross domestic product.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Haiti lies within the complex plate boundary zone between the North American Plate to the north and the Caribbean Plate to the south. This zone is interpreted to contain a number of microplates, particularly the Gonâve Microplate, which is bounded to the north by the Septentrional-Oriente fault zone and to the south by the Walton fault zone and the Enriquillo–Plantain Garden fault zone, all of which are active left lateral transform faults. Although dominated by lateral motion the plate boundary zone also accommodates a component of north–south shortening. This has led to overall transpression along the main strike-slip faults. The largest earthquake in the region prior to the 2021 event was in 1952, and measured 6.2 magnitude, occurring 35 km to the west.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: In the Tiburon Peninsula, the main structure is the Enriquillo–Plantain Garden fault zone, which runs along its length. This fault zone carries almost half of the left lateral displacement between the North American and Caribbean plates, with a displacement rate of about 7 mm per year. The epicentre of the 2010 Haiti earthquake was located at the eastern end of the peninsula and was caused by movement on previously unknown thrust faults that form part of the overall fault zone, without rupturing the main strike-slip fault strand. The same fault zone is thought to have been the source of the 1751 and 1770 earthquakes that destroyed the capital Port-au-Prince.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: The earthquake occurred as a result of oblique-reverse faulting on an section of the Enriquillo–Plantain Garden fault zone, west of the Haitian capital Port-au-Prince, consistent with its location and the observed focal mechanism. It had an estimated hypocentral depth of .


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Finite-fault inversion and back projection indicated an earthquake rupture on two separate strike-slip and reverse faults that are not connected to the main strand of the plate boundary fault. The initial rupture occurred on a blind thrust fault, but movement transitioned to left-lateral strike-slip faulting. The rupture jumped a restraining bend onto another strike-slip fault; both separate branches of the plate boundary fault, and previously unidentified. The rupture process of the earthquake indicate the highly oblique motion between the two tectonic plates. The restraining bend where the rupture jumped from a reverse fault to a strike-slip fault was located beneath Pic Macaya. The reverse fault, located east of the bend experienced an estimated maximum slip of . The strike-slip fault produced up to of left-lateral displacement.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: The earthquake produced significant afterslip in its aftermath. During the first four days, afterslip east of Pic Macaya released the energy equivalent to a 7.0 earthquake. Movement propagated to the surface three days after the mainshock.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Two weeks after the 2010 earthquake, a paper was published about coulomb stress transfer due to the event. The paper identified two sections east and west of the 2010 rupture which had accumulated significant strain as a result. The 2021 rupture may have been encouraged by the 2010 event due to stress transfer. Although it struck west of the 2010 rupture, a large seismic gap exists between the two events. It is thought that stresses on that section are still insufficient to trigger an earthquake rupture.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: At least 900 aftershocks have been recorded following the mainshock, the strongest being 5.8 in magnitude and centered approximately 65 kilometers further west on the Tiburon Peninsula. Additional tremors shook Les Cayes city on August 19, 2021. On December 21, a 4.4 magnitude aftershock struck the area, causing further damage and injuring 150 people, most of them indirectly. On January 24, 2022, the same region was struck by two aftershocks, measuring 5.3 and 5.1 , respectively. The aftershocks killed two people; one from a landslide in Fonds-des-Nègres, and the other in Anse-à-Veau by a collapsing wall. 52 people were also injured. At least 191 houses were destroyed and 600 suffered damage in Nippes.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: According to the USGS PAGER service, the Modified Mercalli intensity scale (MMI) of the earthquake reached VII ("Very Strong") in Les Cayes and MMI V ("Moderate") in Port-au-Prince. The earthquake was also felt in Jamaica, where the intensity reached MMI IV ("Light") in Kingston.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Widespread tsunami warnings were issued throughout the Caribbean, with waves up to 3 to 10 feet (1–3 metres) high initially expected to hit Port au Prince. The tsunami warning was later rescinded. The tsunami only reached in height in that location.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: At least 8,444 landslides were triggered across a area. A large portion (89.4 percent) of these reported landslides occurred on the hanging wall of the fault—particularly at Pic Macaya National Park which accounted for 72.2 percent of the total or 6,100 reports. The total area of these landslides was . Landsliding was more widespread than compared to the 2010 earthquake.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: The city of Les Cayes, Haiti's third-largest city, was the closest to the epicenter of the earthquake. The city suffered extensive damage including many collapsed homes, places of worship, and commercial buildings. According to the Haitian Civil Protection Agency, at least 37,300 or more homes were destroyed and 46,000 others were damaged as of August 16. The Haitian Civil Protection General Directorate later reported that more than 60,700 homes have been destroyed and 76,100 others have sustained damages as of August 18. There were also a number of hotels that were severely damaged or collapsed. At least 53 medical facilities suffered partial damage while six were totally destroyed. In addition to that, the quake damaged or destroyed 1,060 schools.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: A report published by the Inter-American Development Bank estimated the total losses at US$1.6 billion, or 9.6% of Haiti's gross domestic product (GDP). The report stated that the estimate was based on a fatality figure of 2,500. The total damage cost range from US$1.5 to 1.7 billion.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: The Immaculee Conception Church of Les Anglais, a historical landmark constructed in 1907, collapsed when the quake struck during a Mass. The collapse of the facade of the church killed 17 people. Two individuals trapped under the rubble were rescued by nearby construction workers. At Toirac village, just outside Les Cayes, 20 people died in the collapse of the St. Famille du Toirac church during a funeral Mass. In Marceline, a small town 30 minutes away from Les Cayes, the main Catholic church collapsed. Two women cleaning the church were killed. In the Les Cay Diocese, more than 220 Catholic places of worship were destroyed.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Haitian prime minister Ariel Henry declared a state of emergency due to the high number of casualties and the severe damage. At least 2,248 people died in the earthquake, including 1,597 in Sud; 205 in Grand'Anse; 137 in Nippes; and two in Nord-Ouest. The Hôtel Le Manguier in Les Cayes collapsed in the earthquake, killing several people, including Gabriel Fortuné, the former senator and former mayor of Les Cayes. Portions of the Catholic bishop's residence in Les Cayes collapsed, killing a priest and two employees and injuring Cardinal Chibly Langlois. In addition to the deaths, at least 12,763 people have been injured and 329 are still missing.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: A report published by UNICEF on 30 August 2021 stated that at least 800,000 people, 250,000 of them children, had been affected by the quake and are in need of humanitarian aid. An estimated 81,000 Haitians have no access to safe drinking water. The United Nations (UN) in Haiti said 650,000 Haitians are in need of humanitarian aid, and the World Food Programme stated that 754,200 are experiencing food insecurity.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Search and rescue teams of Haitian police and Haitian health department workers were joined by volunteers. Foreign charities, nongovernmental organizations, and other volunteer groups sent workers, supplies, and equipment to help in the recovery and search and rescue.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: On August 23, rescue workers found 24 people, 20 adults, and four children, alive under the rubble of a collapsed building near the mountain Pic Macaya. The survivors were then transported to Camp-Perrin, where they received further treatment for their injuries. Just a few days before, on August 17, 16 people were rescued from a former UN-occupied building in Les Cayes. Rescuers also recovered nine bodies from the building.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: The UN requested over $180 million to aid in recovery efforts related to providing basic living assistance to victims and the surrounding area. Due to the destruction of critical markets and agriculture, the UN Food and Agriculture Administration requested $20 million to aid in recovering farming practices. Grand'Anse, Nippes, and Sudd have been cited as being the most negatively impacted by food loss and scarcity.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Shelter has been cited as the greatest need of the affected region. More than 50,000 homes and shelters were destroyed. Haitian people are sleeping in homes missing roofs and walls, open fields, and public buildings.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: The earthquake was also said to have triggered a surge in violent crimes in Haiti. The earthquake is also said to have triggered additional burden on working women and caused a temporary setback in their career progressions.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Rescue efforts were hindered due to rain from Tropical Depression Grace on 16 August. The National Hurricane Center forecasted Tropical Depression Grace to produce up to of rainfall in some spots in Haiti, threatening rescue and recovery efforts in the affected area. Torrential rain and flood brought by the storm threatened the affected area with the potential for mudslides.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: As a direct result, many villages were left disconnected so the villagers started voluntary rebuilding efforts. The trust towards the government is low in the areas as the citizens do not expect help due to the great complications, further mobilizing the voluntary project.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: According to Prime Minister and acting President Ariel Henry, local hospitals have been overrun by the large inflow of injured victims after the earthquake. Henry declared a month-long state of emergency for the country after the quake.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Additionally, Mexico, Peru, Argentina, Chile and Venezuela had offered assistance in the search for survivors. A group of 34 firefighters from Ecuador were dispatched to assist in search and rescue efforts.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Japanese professional tennis player Naomi Osaka, who is of Haitian descent, stated in a tweet that she would donate all her prize money at the Cincinnati Masters to support rescue and recovery efforts ongoing in Haiti.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: American sportswear brand Skechers announced on August 19 that they would be contributing US$1 million in donations to support ongoing rescue and recovery efforts. The brand said they would be donating to three organizations; CORE (Community Organized Relief Effort), Hope for Haiti and World Central Kitchen. Kenneth Cole is donating a percentage of their net sales to the St. Luke Foundation and asking their customers to donate $10 for extra support. Amazon has sent over 35,000 emergency items to Haiti: including medical supplies, tents, water filters and more.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: President Jovenel Moïse was assassinated in his home on July 7, 2021. Forty four people were arrested in connection to the assassination and Moïse's death left Haiti in political turmoil. The official presidential election date is set for November 7, 2021. Acting president Ariel Henry said that the country must appoint a new electoral board and deal with the increasing gang violence and looting. The lack of a strong government results in unorganized aid distribution and more room for gang violence and looting.


title: 2021 Haiti earthquake

text: Gangs have overtaken neighborhoods and villages in Haiti. "According to the National Human Rights Defense Network, there are more than 90 gangs in the country, likely with thousands of members and far more powerful than the police," Bloomberg reports. Gangs have control over major roads heading south. In mid-August, the gang announced a ceasefire to allow trucks to use the road to provide aid to southern communities. Several trucks were looted at gunpoint, despite the truce. On August 19, two of Haiti's doctors, including one of the few orthopedic surgeons, were kidnapped. It is unclear whether gangs were responsible for these abductions; however kidnapping is a common gang practice. The kidnappers contacted the doctor's families, however the ransom demands are unknown.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: The Doughnut, or Doughnut economics, is a visual framework for sustainable development – shaped like a doughnut or lifebelt – combining the concept of planetary boundaries with the complementary concept of social boundaries. The name derives from the shape of the diagram, i.e. a disc with a hole in the middle. The centre hole of the model depicts the proportion of people that lack access to life's essentials (healthcare, education, equity and so on) while the crust represents the ecological ceilings (planetary boundaries) that life depends on and must not be overshot. The diagram was developed by University of Oxford economist Kate Raworth in her 2012 Oxfam paper "A Safe and Just Space for Humanity" and elaborated upon in her 2017 book "" and paper.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: The framework was proposed to regard the performance of an economy by the extent to which the needs of people are met without overshooting Earth's ecological ceiling. The main goal of the new model is to re-frame economic problems and set new goals. In this model, an economy is considered prosperous when all twelve social foundations are met without overshooting any of the nine ecological ceilings. This situation is represented by the area between the two rings, considered by its creator as the safe and just space for humanity.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: Kate Raworth noted the planetary boundaries concept does not take human wellbeing into account (although, if Earth's ecosystem dies then all wellbeing is moot). She suggested social boundaries should be combined with the planetary boundaries structure. Adding measures such as jobs, education, food, access to water, health services and energy helps to accommodate an environmentally safe space compatible with poverty eradication and "rights for all". Within planetary limits and an equitable social foundation lies a doughnut shaped area which is the area where there is a "safe and just space for humanity to thrive in".


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: The social foundations are inspired by the social aims of the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations. These are:


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: The nine ecological ceilings are from the planetary boundaries put forward by a group of Earth-system scientists led by Johan Rockström and Will Steffen. These are:


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: The doughnut model is still a collection of goals that may be pursued through different actions by different actors, and does not include specific models related to markets or human behavior. The book "Doughnut Economics" consists of critiques and perspectives of what should be sought after by society as a whole. The critiques found in the book are targeted at certain economic models and their common base.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: The mainstream economic models of the 20th century, defined here as those taught the most in Economics introductory courses around the world, are neoclassical. The Circular Flow published by Paul Samuelson in 1944 and the supply and demand curves published by William S. Jevons in 1862 are canonical examples of neoclassical economic models. Focused on the observable money flows in a given administrative unit and describing preferences mathematically, these models ignore the environments in which these objects are embedded: human minds, society, culture, and the natural environment. This omission was viable while the human population did not collectively overwhelm the Earth's systems, which is no longer the case. Furthermore, these models were created before statistical testing and research were possible. They were based, then, on assumptions about human behavior converted into "stylized facts". The origins of these assumptions are philosophical and pragmatic, simplifying and distorting the reflections of thinkers such as Adam Smith into Newtonian-resembling curves on a graph so that they could be of presumed practical use in predicting, for example, consumer choice.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: The body of neoclassical economic theory grew and became more sophisticated over time, and competed with other theories for the post-mainstream economic paradigm of the North Atlantic. In the 1930s, Keynesian theory was it, and after the 1960s, monetarism gained prominence. One element remained as the policy prescriptions shifted: the "rational economic man" persona on which theories were based. Raworth, the creator of Doughnut Economics, denounces this literary invention as a perverse one, for its effects on its learners' assumptions about human behavior and, consequently, their own real behavior. Examples of this phenomenon in action have been documented, as have the effects of the erosion of trust and community on human well-being.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: Kate Raworth explains the doughnut economy is based on the premise that "Humanity's 21st century challenge is to meet the needs of all within the means of the planet. In other words, to ensure that no one falls short on life's essentials (from food and housing to healthcare and political voice), while ensuring that collectively we do not overshoot our pressure on Earth's life-supporting systems, on which we fundamentally depend – such as a stable climate, fertile soils, and a protective ozone layer. The Doughnut of social and planetary boundaries is a new framing of that challenge, and it acts as a compass for human progress this century."


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: Raworth states that "significant GDP growth is very much needed" for low- and middle-income countries to be able to meet the goals of the social foundation for their citizens.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: Leaning on Earth studies and economics, Raworth maps out the current shortfalls and overshoots, as illustrated in Figure 2.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: The Doughnut framework has been used to map localized socio-environmental performance in Erhai lake-catchment (China), Scotland, Wales, the UK, South Africa, Netherlands, India, globally and many more.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: In April 2020, Kate Raworth was invited to join the City of Amsterdam's post-pandemic economic planning efforts.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: An empirical application of the doughnut model showed in 2018 that so far across 150 countries not a single country satisfies its citizens' basic needs while maintaining a globally sustainable level of resource use.


title: Doughnut (economic model)

text: Branko Milanovic, at CUNY's Stone Center on Socio-Economic Inequality, said that for the donut theory to become popular, people would have to "magically" become "indifferent to how well we do compared to others, and not really care about wealth and income."


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: The Pact is a British television drama series written and created by Pete McTighe and mostly filmed in South Wales. Produced by Little Door Productions, it began broadcasting on BBC One on 17 May 2021. On 6 April 2022, a second series was announced, focusing on a new cast and story, which premiered on 24 October 2022.


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: Four friends, Anna, Nancy, Cat, and Louie, work in a 100-year-old family brewery in mid-Wales. The owner, Louie's brother Arwel has recently retired and has put his son, Jack, in charge. Jack is a cocaine addict and treats his staff with contempt. During the centenary party, the four abduct the drunken, stoned Jack and drive him to the woods. They photograph him in a partly undressed pose then leave. When they return to check on him, they find him dead. They make a pact not to disclose their involvement.


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: The second series focuses on a new cast and story. Christine, a social worker, and her children Will, Jamie and Megan are trying to move on from the death of a fourth sibling, Liam, through overdose. However, a stranger comes to town claiming a connection to each of them will test their family loyalties.


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: Production of the first series of "The Pact" began in September 2020 and filming took place on location at the Rhymney Brewery, Blaenavon, the Brecon Beacons National Park, the Pontsarn Viaduct, Merthyr Tydfil, the Pontsticill Reservoir, Whitecross Street in Monmouth, and St Mary's Church, Marshfield in Newport, Wales.


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: Series 2 was filmed in Cardiff and on the Vale of Glamorgan coast. The Rees family home was in Llantwit Major, with other coastal scenes being filmed in Ogmore-by-Sea and other scenes take place at Llantwit Major Beach and Dunraven Bay. Filming also took place in Penarth, Penarth Pier, Porthcawl, Swanbridge Bay Beach and Barry, Vale of Glamorgan.


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: The first series of "The Pact" was broadcast every Monday and Tuesday on BBC One between 17 May 2021 and 1 June 2021.


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: The second series was broadcast every Monday on BBC One between 24 October 2022 and 28 November 2022.


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: Writing for "The Guardian", Rebecca Nicholson gave the first series three out of five stars, stating that it saw "a starry cast and a hint of mystery". "The Independent" critic Sean O'Grady awarded four out of five stars, praising the "strong" writing and cast, but stating that "the premise does seem far-fetched." Anita Singh of "The Daily Telegraph" wrote similarly of "The Pact", describing it as a "Welsh "Big Little Lies"" where "realism wasn't a high priority".


title: The Pact (British TV series)

text: Alison Rowat in "The Herald" found series 2 “as gripping as the first one”. Jesper Rees in "The Daily Telegraph" criticised the soundtrack “which omnipresently pumps out dull doomy chords in the background, a bit like musical cloud cover. Talking of clouds, the shoot in picturesque spots such as Penarth and Margam Abbey seems to have happened under Glamorgan’s very greyest skies.”


title: How It's Made

text: How It's Made (Comment c'est fait in French) is a Canadian documentary television series that premiered on January 6, 2001, on the Discovery Channel in Canada and the Science Channel in the United States. The program is produced in the Canadian province of Quebec by Productions MAJ, Inc. and Productions MAJ 2.


title: How It's Made

text: The show is a documentary showing how common, everyday items (such as clothing and accessories, food, industrial products, musical instruments, and sporting goods) are manufactured. It also features the restoration processes of old items in some episodes.


title: How It's Made

text: "How It's Made" does not include explanatory texts to simplify dubbing in different languages. The show also avoids having an onscreen host (after Season 1 in the Canadian version) and an interview with employees explaining the process. Instead, an off-screen narrator explains the process, often with humorous puns.


title: How It's Made

text: Each episode features three or four products divided by segments, with each product getting a demonstration of approximately five minutes; exceptions are allowed in the allotted time for more complex ones. The scripts are almost identical across regional versions of the show; however, the main difference in the U.S. version is that the units of measurement are given in the United States customary units instead of metric units used in the Canadian version. At one point in the U.S. run, a subtitled conversion was shown on-screen over the original narration.


title: How It's Made

text: The "Historical Capsule" segment, which is available until Season 5, introduces historical background information for the last featured product in each episode, showing how and where the product originated, and what people used before it. It presents a series of single-line drawings which got colored for a brief amount of time after completed.


title: How It's Made

text: The "Techno flash" segment briefly introduces some novelty from industry or science development. It is only available in Season 1 and 2.


title: How It's Made

text: In April 2007, all episodes run in the United States (on the Discovery Channel and Science) had the individual season openings replaced with a new opening used for every episode. Similar to most other Discovery Channel shows, the credits now run during the last segment, with the show's website for request or feedback at the end.


title: How It's Made

text: Season 9, first aired in September 2007, features new opening graphic and segment's background music, both of which are different from the Canadian version. Zac Fine replaces Brooks T. Moore as the narrator. However, from Season 11, which premiered in September 2008, the show reinstates Moore as the narrator and uses the title sequence and background music to match with the Canadian version.


title: How It's Made

text: In June 2008, the Science Channel added "How It's Made: Remix," which consists of previous segments arranged into theme installments like "Food", "Sporting Goods", and such. In 2013, it added "How It's Made: Dream Cars", which focused exclusively on high-performance and exotic cars. These were later shown on the Velocity (now Motor Trend) channel.


title: How It's Made

text: In the Canadian version, it features Mark Tewksbury (Season 1, 2001) as the host of the show. Lynn Herzeg (Seasons 2–4, 2002–2005), June Wallack (Season 5, 2005) and Lynne Adams (Season 6 onwards, 2006–present) are the narrators.


title: How It's Made

text: In the United Kingdom, the rest of Europe, and in some cases in Southeast Asia, the series is narrated by Tony Hirst.


title: How It's Made

text: Common Sense Media gave the TV show a rating of 4/5 stars, writing "Curious kids and adults will learn from the show, and some segments can really broaden your perspective". On the show's success despite its formulaic nature, Rita Mullin, the general manager of the Science Channel, said "I think what is one of the great appeals of the show as a viewer myself is how little has changed over the years". "The Wall Street Journal" deemed it "TV's quietest hit".


title: How It's Made

text: The show's style is spoofed in the "Rick and Morty" episode "Interdimensional Cable 2: Tempting Fate", showing how a "Plumbus" is being made.


title: How It's Made

text: The YouTube channel Huggbees makes parodies of the show called "How It's Actually Made" involving a humorous narration of how the items are made. An episode called "How It's Actually Made - Bread" was accidentally featured on a newsletter of CNN.


title: Serpentinite

text: Serpentinite is a rock composed predominantly of one or more serpentine group minerals, the name originating from the similarity of the texture of the rock to that of the skin of a snake. Serpentinite has been called "serpentine" or "serpentine rock", particularly in older geological texts and in wider cultural settings.


title: Serpentinite

text: Serpentinite is formed by near to complete serpentinization of mafic to ultramafic rocks. Serpentinite can be formed wherever ultramafic rock is infiltrated by water poor in carbon dioxide. This occurs at mid-ocean ridges and in the forearc mantle of subduction zones.


title: Serpentinite

text: The final mineral composition of serpentinite is usually dominated by lizardite, chrysotile, and magnetite. Brucite and antigorite are less commonly present. Lizardite, chrysotile, and antigorite all have approximately the formula or , but differ in minor components and in form. Accessory minerals, present in small quantities, include awaruite, other native metal minerals, and sulfide minerals.


title: Serpentinite

text: Deep sea hydrothermal vents located on serpentinite close to the axis of mid-ocean ridges generally resemble black smokers located on basalt, but emit complex hydrocarbon molecules. The Rainbow field of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of such hydrothermal vents. Serpentinization alone cannot provide the heat supply for these vents, which must be driven mostly by magmatism. However, the Lost City Hydrothermal Field, located off the axis of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, may be driven solely by heat of serpentinization. Its vents are unlike black smokers, emitting relatively cool fluids () that are highly alkaline, high in magnesium, and low in hydrogen sulfide. The vents build up very large chimneys, up to in height, composed of carbonate minerals and brucite. Lush microbial communities are associated with the vents. Though the vents themselves are not composed of serpentinite, they are hosted in serpentinite estimated to have formed at a temperature of about . Sepiolite deposits on mid-ocean ridges may have formed through serpentinite-driven hydrothermal activity. However, geologists continue to debate whether serpentinization alone can account for the heat flux from the Lost City field.


title: Serpentinite

text: The forearc of the Marianas subduction zone hosts large serpentinite mud volcanoes, which erupt serpentinite mud that rises through faults from the underlying serpentinized forearc mantle. Study of these mud volcanoes gives insights into subduction processes, and the high pH fluids emitted at the volcanoes support a microbial community.


title: Serpentinite

text: Serpentinite thermal vents are a candidate for the environment in which life on Earth originated. Most of the chemical reactions necessary to synthesize acetyl-CoA, essential to basic biochemical pathways of life, take place during serpentinization. The sulfide-metal clusters that activate many enzymes resemble sulfide minerals formed during serpentinization.


title: Serpentinite

text: Experimental drilling into the gabbro layer of oceanic crust near mid-ocean ridges has demonstrated the presence of a sparse population of hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria. These may feed on hydrocarbons produced by serpentinization of the underlying ultramafic rock.


title: Serpentinite

text: Soil cover over serpentinite bedrock tends to be thin or absent. Soil with serpentine is poor in calcium and other major plant nutrients, but rich in elements toxic to plants such as chromium and nickel. Some species of plants, such as "Clarkia franciscana" and certain species of manzanita, are adapted to living on serpentinite outcrops. However, because serpentinite outcrops are few and isolated, their plant communities are ecological islands and these distinctive species are often highly endangered. On the other hand, plant communities adapted to living on the serpentine outcrops of New Caledonia resist displacement by introduced species that are poorly adapted to this environment.


title: Serpentinite

text: Serpentine soils are widely distributed on Earth, in part mirroring the distribution of ophiolites and other serpentine bearing rocks. There are outcroppings of serpentine soils in the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, the island of Cyprus, the Alps, Cuba, and New Caledonia. In North America, serpentine soils also are present in small but widely distributed areas on the eastern slope of the Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States, and in the Pacific Ranges of Oregon and California.


title: Serpentinite

text: Notable occurrences of serpentinite are found at Thetford Mines, Quebec; Lake Valhalla, New Jersey; Gila County, Arizona; Lizard complex, Lizard Point, Cornwall; and in localities in Greece, Italy, and other parts of Europe. Notable ophiolites containing serpentinite include the Semail Ophiolite of Oman, the Troodos Ophiolite of Cyprus, the Newfoundland ophiolites, and the Main Ophiolite Belt of New Guinea.


title: Serpentinite

text: Serpentine group minerals have a Mohs hardness of 2.5 to 3.5, so serpentinite is easily carved. Grades of serpentinite higher in calcite, along with the verd antique (breccia form of serpentinite), have historically been used as decorative stones for their marble-like qualities. College Hall at the University of Pennsylvania, for example, is constructed out of serpentine. Popular sources in Europe before contact with the Americas were the mountainous Piedmont region of Italy and Larissa, Greece.


title: Serpentinite

text: Serpentinites are used in many ways in the arts and crafts. For example, the rock has been turned in Zöblitz in Saxony for several hundred years.


title: Serpentinite

text: The Inuit and other indigenous people of the Arctic areas and less so of southern areas used the carved bowl shaped serpentinite qulliq or kudlik lamp with wick, to burn oil or fat to heat, make light and cook with. The Inuit made tools and more recently carvings of animals for commerce.


title: Serpentinite

text: A variety of chlorite talc schist associated with Alpine serpentinite is found in Val d'Anniviers, Switzerland and was used for making "ovenstones" (), a carved stone base beneath a cast iron stove.


title: Serpentinite

text: Serpentinite has a significant amount of bound water, hence it contains abundant hydrogen atoms able to slow down neutrons by elastic collision (neutron thermalization process). Because of this serpentinite can be used as dry filler inside steel jackets in some designs of nuclear reactors. For example, in RBMK series, as at Chernobyl, it was used for top radiation shielding to protect operators from escaping neutrons. Serpentine can also be added as aggregate to special concrete used in nuclear reactor shielding to increase the concrete density () and its neutron capture cross section.


title: Serpentinite

text: Because it readily absorbs carbon dioxide, serpentinite may be of use for sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide. To speed the reaction, the serpentinite may be reacted with carbon dioxide at elevated temperature in carbonation reactors. Carbon dioxide may also be reacted with alkaline mine waste from serpentine deposits, or carbon dioxide may be injected directly into underground serpentinite formations. Serpentinite may also be used as a source of magnesium in conjunction with electrolytic cells for CO scrubbing.


title: Serpentinite

text: It is the state rock of California, USA and the California Legislature specified that serpentine was "the official State Rock and lithologic emblem." In 2010, a bill was introduced which would have removed serpentine's special status as state rock due to it potentially containing chrysotile asbestos. The bill met with resistance from some California geologists, who noted that the chrysotile present is not hazardous unless it is mobilized in the air as dust.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Spider-Man (also known as Spider-Man: The Movie) is a action-adventure video game based on the Marvel Comics character Spider-Man. Made to promote of the 2002 movie of the same name, it was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox, GameCube and Game Boy Advance on April 16, 2002 in North America (two weeks before the film's release), and June 7 in Europe. The Game Boy Advance version was later re-released and bundled on Twin Pack cartridge with "Spider-Man 2: The Game" in 2005. While the game directly adapts the plot of the movie it is based on, it also builds upon it by including scenes from the movie and villains don't appear in the movie. Tobey Maguire and Willem Dafoe reprise their roles from the movie , as Spider-Man and the Green Goblin, respectively, while Bruce Campbell, who played a wrestling ring announcer in the movie, narrates the game's tutorial and bonus levels.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: The game was published by Activision in North America and co-published by Capcom in Japan. It was primarily developed by Activision's then recently-acquired subsidiary, Treyarch, who had previously ported Neversoft's 2000 "Spider-Man" video game to Windows and Dreamcast. Upon release, it received generally positive reviews, although some criticized its length, voice acting, and camera control, and quickly became a best-seller. After the game's success, Treyarch became the lead developer of all major "Spider-Man" titles published under Activision until 2008, including two sequels "Spider-Man 2", the video game based on the 2004 movie of the same name, and "Spider-Man 3", the video game based on the 2007 movie of the same name.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Like the 2000 "Spider-Man" game and its 2001 sequel, "", "Spider-Man" is a level-based beat 'em up video game, where the player takes on the role of the superhero Spider-Man. While most levels are indoors, there are several levels set outside, among the sky-scrapers of New York, which require the player to web-sling from building to building, as falling below a certain height will result in an instant Game Over. Levels use a scoring system that covers more aspects, such as "Time" (clear level in a set time), "Perfect" (not take damage/not be detected) and "Style" (use as many combos as possible). Some levels have other specific aspects, such as "Secrets" (uncover a secret area), "Combat" (defeat all enemies), and "stealth" (remain undetected by enemies). Players can gain, depending on difficulty, points on completing these tasks. On easy mode, each bonus is 500 points, normal is 700, and hero is 1000 each.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: The basic abilities are swinging, zipping, punching and kicking, dodging, web, camera lock, and the Web Mode in Enhanced Mode. Depending on how the player combines different buttons, it will have different results. Wall-crawling is automatic, and players are also able to lift up heavy and light objects such as cars and chairs. There are 21 different combos, which are unlocked by collecting Gold Spiders, with 4 web controls, each having a type of "upgrade" to each. The game also features stealth segments, where Spider-Man can hide in the shadows and remain undetected from the enemy. While the game is primarily in third-person, a cheat code allows players to switch to first-person view.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Completing the story mode on each difficulty unlocks different bonuses, namely alternate skins for Spider-Man: completing it on at least easy unlocks Peter Parker in his civilian outfit and Spider-Man's wrestler costume; on at least normal, Alex Ross' prototype design for the movie Spider-Man costume (which will also cause the Green Goblin to have Ross' early design during battles); and on at least hard, the Green Goblin. Unlike the others, the Goblin plays entirely different from Spider-Man, replacing his web-based abilities with gadgets, such as his signature glider, pumpkin bombs, and razor bats. If playing as the Goblin in story mode, while the levels remain unchanged, the narrative is different, and follows Harry Osborn as he becomes the Goblin after his father's death and investigates a secret plot involving Oscorp, while facing off against another Goblin, who claims to have been hired by Norman Osborn.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: More playable characters can be unlocked through cheat codes, such as the Shocker and Captain George Stacy, though they serve only as alternate skins for Spider-Man and do not provide any new gameplay mechanics. Mary Jane Watson was initially unlockable through a code as well, but was dropped in re-releases due to the perceived lesbianism implications of scenes featuring the player (playing as Mary Jane) kissing with the in-game Mary Jane.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Outcast teen genius Peter Parker develops spider-like superhuman abilities after being bitten by a genetically altered spider created by Oscorp. He learns how to use his newfound powers in the form of an optional tutorial, narrated by Bruce Campbell. Peter then decides to use his powers for personal gain and enters a wrestling competition; however, he is cheated out of his prize money by the fight promoter. The promoter is then robbed by a robber, whom Peter lets go out of spite. Shortly afterward, Peter is devastated when his Uncle Ben is killed by a robber, whom the police identify as the leader of the Skulls gang. Peter tracks down and defeats the murderer at a warehouse where he is hiding from the police, only to discover that he is the same robber he let go earlier, who then dies after accidentally slipping out of a window. Remembering Ben's words that "with great power comes great responsibility," Peter vows to use his powers to fight evil and becomes the masked superhero Spider-Man. He also gets a job at the "Daily Bugle" as a photographer after selling photos of himself as Spider-Man.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Meanwhile, Oscorp CEO Norman Osborn and his scientists are investigating the appearance of this new hero. Anxious to develop his Human Performance Enhancer "Super Soldier" serum, the main goals of which are already exhibited by Spider-Man, Osborn sends robots to capture him, but Spider-Man destroys them. Later, Spider-Man witnesses the Shocker and the Vulture robbing a jewelry store and escaping separately. Going after Shocker first, Spider-Man pursues him through the sewers and into a subway station, where he defeats him. Not wanting to let the Vulture get away with his share of the loot, Shocker tells Spider-Man that he is hiding in an old clock tower. Spider-Man climbs the tower, but the Vulture attempts to escape. After a chase through the city, Spider-Man finally defeats Vulture on top of the Chrysler Building and leaves him, along with the stolen loot, for the police to find.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Later, Oscorp creates several spider-shaped robots to capture Spider-Man. Still, they end up pursuing Scorpion instead, whom they had mistaken for Spider-Man due to him also having arachnid DNA. After returning to the subway station to take photos of his battle site with Shocker, Spider-Man runs into Scorpion and helps him fight off the spider bots. However, an increasingly paranoid Scorpion then attacks Spider-Man, believing he is trying to take him back to the scientists who experimented on him. Scorpion is defeated but manages to escape.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Meanwhile, Osborn is fired from Oscorp due to failing to complete the super-soldier serum in time. He decides to test it on himself, leading to the creation of a psychopathic alternate personality: the Green Goblin. Sporting experimental armor, a glider, and an arsenal of advanced weapons, he attacks the yearly Oscorp Unity Day Festival to exact revenge on those who fired him. Peter's friend and crush, Mary Jane Watson, is caught in the chaos, but Peter intervenes as Spider-Man and rescues her. Grateful, she kisses him, just as a spider bot photographs them from afar. Spider-Man then fights the Goblin, stopping him from harming more bystanders. Impressed, the Goblin offers Spider-Man a chance to join him, but the latter refuses. The Goblin then reveals he has planted bombs filled with deadly gas all over the city and escapes while Spider-Man finds and disarms the bombs.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: In the Xbox version only, Osborn later hires Kraven the Hunter to capture Spider-Man. Luring him to a zoo, Kraven poisons him and forces him to complete an obstacle course filled with deadly traps while hunting him. In the end, Spider-Man defeats Kraven and leaves him for the police, obtaining an antidote for the poison in the process.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: After another battle with the Goblin, Spider-Man studies a piece of the villain's gear that he recovered and learns that Oscorp manufactured it. Infiltrating the Oscorp building to investigate further, he avoids detection by the security as he makes his way to the secret labs, where he discovers chemical weapons being made and a giant robot, and neutralizes both. Spider-Man then arrives in Osborn's office and learns that the Goblin knows about Mary Jane after seeing the photograph of her kissing him. Deducing that the Goblin kidnapped Mary Jane to lure him out, Spider-Man escapes from Oscorp and chases the Goblin to the Queensboro Bridge, where he rescues Mary Jane and defeats the villain. The Goblin unmasks himself as Osborn and, in a final attempt to kill Spider-Man, accidentally gets impaled by his glider. Before he dies, Osborn asks Spider-Man not to reveal his identity as the Goblin to his son Harry. Spider-Man attempts to reveal his identity to Mary Jane but stops when she kisses him. Spider-Man then ends the game with a fourth wall break, telling the player to "go outside and play."


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Activision said that Spider-Man was one of its top five best selling franchises in North America in 2002. The PlayStation 2 version of the game was ranked at number seven in sales among video game titles released in 2002 in the United States, which was mostly dominated by Grand Theft Auto titles. The game made both PlayStation's Greatest Hits and Xbox's Platinum Hits collections.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Spider-Man was developed in 18 months, compared to 2 years in development for its sequel, Spider-Man 2. The game was designed to be linear or mission-based. And the web-swinging mechanics were basic compared to its sequel, with strands shooting into the sky without attaching to anything.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: The game was inspired by the 2002 film Spider-Man when it came to web-swinging. They developed the game at the same time as the movie was made which meant that the game designers would not have been able to watch the entire film until it was finished.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: The critical reviews for the game were positive. GameRankings gave it a score of 78% for the Game Boy Advance version, 76% for the GameCube version, 75% for the PC version, 76% for the PlayStation 2 version, 78% for the Xbox version; and likewise, Metacritic gave it a score of 77 out of 100 for the GameCube version, 75 out of 100 for the PC version, 76 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 version, and 79 out of 100 for the Xbox version.


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: Many critics at the time considered it the best "Spider-Man" game. However, criticism fell on the indoor levels, Tobey Maguire's voice acting and bad camera, as well as the fact that it was too short and could easily be completed in 3 hours. "The Cincinnati Enquirer" gave the game four stars out of five and stated that it was "worth climbing the walls for".


title: Spider-Man (2002 video game)

text: By July 2006, the PlayStation 2 version of "Spider-Man" had sold 2.1 million copies and earned $74 million in the United States. "Next Generation" ranked it as the 15th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined sales of "Spider-Man" console games released in the 2000s reached 6 million units in the United States by July 2006. The PlayStation 2 version also received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. Its GameCube and Xbox versions sold over 400,000 copies each. These high sales allowed the game to enter the "Best-Sellers" of each console (PlayStation 2's Greatest Hits, GameCube's Player's Choice and Xbox's Platinum Hits). It was recently promoted to "Best of Platinum Hits" on the Xbox. In the United States, its Game Boy Advance version sold 740,000 copies and earned $23 million by August 2006. During the period between January 2000 and August 2006, it was the 30th highest-selling game launched for the Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS or PlayStation Portable in that country.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: Osvaldo César Ardiles (born 3 August 1952), often referred to in Britain as Ossie Ardiles, is an Argentine football manager, pundit and former midfielder who won the 1978 FIFA World Cup as part of the Argentina national team. He now runs his own football school in the UK called the Ossie Ardiles Soccer School.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: A competitive and skilled midfielder, Ardiles became a cult hero in England, along with Glenn Hoddle and compatriot Ricardo Villa, as a player for Tottenham Hotspur. He left England for a period on loan as a result of the outbreak of the Falklands War in 1982, thus missing most of the 1982–83 English season.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: After retirement, Ardiles began his management career in England, coaching Swindon Town, Newcastle United and West Bromwich Albion, before returning to Tottenham to become the first Premier League manager from Argentina. As manager of Spurs in the mid-1990s, he played several matches utilizing a formation that had five forwards, a formation that had not been used in English football since the 1950s. During his career, Ardiles has also coached in Mexico, Croatia, Japan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia, Paraguay and his native Argentina.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: Ardiles was born in Córdoba, and played for Instituto de Córdoba from a young age. As a youngster, Ardiles played football in the streets and was given the nickname "Pitón" (python) by his brother because of his snake-like dribbling skills. He was named as "El Gráfico's" best player of the interior in 1974, and abandoned his law degree studies in order to play professional football.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: He also played for Club Atlético Belgrano and Huracán. After the 1978 World Cup he moved to England to play for Tottenham Hotspur where he spent ten seasons.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: He helped Tottenham win the FA Cup in his third season there (1980–81), and collaborated with pop duo Chas & Dave as well as the rest of the Tottenham players for a song, "Ossie's Dream". He played a big part in another FA Cup triumph the following year, but did not play in the final because it had already been arranged with the Spurs management that he would leave early to join up with Argentina's 1982 World Cup squad. At that tournament he wore the number 1 shirt, as Argentina's policy at the time was to number their players alphabetically by surname, with an exception made so Diego Maradona could wear his preferred number 10.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: In the wake of the Falklands War between Britain and Argentina it became difficult for him to return to White Hart Lane and he went on loan to Paris Saint-Germain in France. After one season in Paris, he returned to Tottenham, helping the club to win the UEFA Cup in 1984 (coming on as a substitute in the second leg of the final). In the autumn of 1987, he was caretaker coach under caretaker manager Doug Livermore of Tottenham between the resignation of David Pleat and the appointment of Terry Venables. Ardiles left Spurs in 1988.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: He then played for Blackburn Rovers, Queens Park Rangers and Swindon Town, before being appointed as manager of Swindon Town in July 1989. He played part of the 1989 American Soccer League season with the Fort Lauderdale Strikers.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: On 7 February 2008, Ardiles, along with his fellow countryman Ricardo Villa, was inducted into the Tottenham Hotspur Hall of Fame.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: In July 1989, Ardiles moved into football management with second division Swindon Town when Lou Macari resigned to join West Ham in July 1989. He wowed fans by replacing the long ball style which had been so successful with a new "Samba style", which saw the Town playing attacking football. Part of this change was the new "diamond formation" which Ardiles implemented: a 4–4–2 style with left-sided, right-sided, attacking and defensive midfielders.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: Ten months after he had joined, Ardiles led Swindon to their highest ever league position, finishing fourth in the second division. After beating Blackburn in the first leg of the play-off semi-final, the fans paid tribute with a tickertape reception in the second leg. Swindon went on to win promotion to the top flight for the first time in their history—beating Sunderland in the Play-Off Final—only to have the promotion taken from them ten days later, when the Football League demoted them for irregular payments to players.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: The following season, Ardiles was told to sell players to keep the club alive and Wembley hero Alan McLoughlin was the first big-money departure. With Swindon rocked by their pre-season troubles, their form deserted them. By the end of February, relegation threatened, and when Newcastle offered Ardiles the chance to become their new boss, he accepted, becoming the club's first foreign manager. But his time on Tyneside was not a success and he lasted 12 months in the job before being sacked, with the Magpies bottom of the second division, though they achieved safety under his successor Kevin Keegan.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: In June 1992 Ardiles replaced Bobby Gould as manager of West Bromwich Albion, who had just missed out on the third division playoffs in 1991–92. At the end of the 1992–93 season, Ardiles guided Albion to victory over Port Vale in the Division Two playoff final. Shortly afterwards he walked out of the Hawthorns to return his former club Tottenham as manager, but his management spell was nowhere near as successful as his spell as a player. Tottenham finished 15th in the Premiership and despite the expensive acquisition of Jürgen Klinsmann and Ilie Dumitrescu in the 1994 close season, Ardiles was sacked in October 1994 with Tottenham languishing in the bottom half of the Premier League. They had just been punished for financial irregularities committed during the late 1980s: with a 1-year FA Cup ban, £600,000 fine and 12 league points deducted. The punishment was later amended to a £1.5million fine and six points deducted but the FA Cup ban and points deduction were later quashed.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: Ardiles became coach of J. League Division 1 side Yokohama F. Marinos in January 2000, but was sacked in June 2001 following a poor start to the season. From 2003 to 2005 he coached Tokyo Verdy, with whom he won the 2004 Emperor's Cup, In July 2005 Ardiles was fired after a nine-game winless streak. In mid-2006 he moved to Israel to coach Beitar Jerusalem, from which he quit after only a few months in charge on 18 October 2006 due to severe differences of opinion with the club's board of directors. After a small break he was appointed Club Atlético Huracán manager in his native Argentina in September 2007, he steered the club to 7th in the table before resigning at the end of the Apertura 2007.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: He joined Paraguayan club Cerro Porteño in May 2008 but was sacked in August of the same year after a string of poor results and was replaced by Pedro Troglio.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: Ardiles was enlisted by RTÉ Sport for their squad of pundits ahead of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. He returned to RTÉ's team for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil.


title: Osvaldo Ardiles

text: In January 2014, Ardiles and Ricardo Villa were involved in a car crash in the Falkland Islands during the filming of Camilo Antolini's "30 for 30" documentary "White, Blue and White". Ardiles sustained minor injuries in the accident, and required more than 20 stitches in his head.


title: Stan Marsh

text: Stanley Randell William Marsh is a fictional character in the adult animated television series "South Park". He is voiced by and loosely based on series co-creator Trey Parker. Stan is one of the series' four central characters, along with Kyle Broflovski, Eric Cartman, and Kenny McCormick. He debuted on television when "South Park" first aired on August 13, 1997, after having first appeared in "The Spirit of Christmas" shorts created by Parker and long-time collaborator Matt Stone in 1992 ("Jesus vs. Frosty") and 1995 ("Jesus vs. Santa").


title: Stan Marsh

text: Stan is an elementary school student who commonly has extraordinary experiences not typical of conventional small-town life in his fictional hometown of South Park, Colorado. Stan is generally depicted as logical, brave, patient and sensitive. He is outspoken in expressing his distinct lack of esteem for adults and their influences, as adult South Park residents rarely make use of their critical faculties.


title: Stan Marsh

text: Like the other "South Park" characters, Stan is animated by computer in a way to emulate the show's original method of cutout animation. He also appears in the full-length feature film "" (1999), as well as "South Park"-related media and merchandise. While Parker and Stone portray Stan as having common childlike tendencies, his dialogue is often intended to reflect stances and views on more adult-oriented issues and has been frequently cited in numerous publications by experts in the fields of politics, religion, popular culture and philosophy.


title: Stan Marsh

text: Prior to season 22, Stan lives in South Park at 260 Avenue de los Mexicanos with his parents Randy and Sharon Marsh. During this period, Randy, who has an advanced degree in geology, works for the federal government at an earthquake monitoring facility, and Sharon is a secretary at Tom's Rhinoplasty, a plastic surgery clinic. From season 22 onward, the family lives at a farm on the outskirts of town, where Randy raises marijuana and forces his reluctant family to assist him. Stan's family includes his 13-year-old sister Shelly, who bullies and beats him, and his centenarian grandfather, Marvin, who calls Stan "Billy". Stan attends South Park Elementary as part of Mr. Garrison's fourth-grade class. During the show's first 58 episodes (1997 through the season 4 episode "4th Grade" in 2000), Stan and the other main child characters were in the third grade. His birthday is listed as October 19 (the same day as co-creator Trey Parker), 2001 on his Facebook page during the season 14 episode "You Have 0 Friends". Stan is frequently embarrassed and annoyed by his father's antics and frequent acts of public drunkenness. Stan's relationship to his uncle Jimbo received moderate attention in the show's first two seasons.


title: Stan Marsh

text: While the show's other main characters have a defining characteristic (Kyle is the only Jewish kid, Cartman is an obese sociopath, and Kenny is poverty-stricken and suffers violent deaths), Stan was originally portrayed as the viewpoint character, being "a normal, average, American, mixed-up kid". However, beginning in season fifteen as part of the show's overall shift to more complex characterization, Stan has been cynical and depressed due to his dysfunctional family, particularly in Ass Burgers which shows him abusing alcohol on a daily basis simply to tolerate normal social interaction.


title: Stan Marsh

text: Stan is modeled after Parker, while Kyle is modeled after Stone. Stan and Kyle are best friends, and their relationship, which is intended to reflect the real-life friendship between Parker and Stone, is a common topic throughout the series. The two do have their disagreements but always reconcile without any long-term damage to their friendship. As is the case with his other friends and classmates, Stan is frequently at odds with Cartman, resenting Cartman's behavior and openly mocking his weight. Stan also shares a close friendship with Kenny, while Kenny professes that Stan is one of "the best friends a guy could have". Stan can understand Kenny's muffled voice perfectly and typically exclaims the catchphrase "Oh my God! They killed Kenny!" following one of Kenny's trademark deaths, allowing Kyle to follow up with "You bastards!" Stan is the only character in the group to have had a steady girlfriend, Wendy Testaburger, and their relationship was a recurring topic in the show's earlier seasons. Despite reconciling and declaring to be a couple again in the season 11 (2007) episode "The List" after Wendy had dumped him in the season seven (2003) episode "Raisins", their relationship has received relatively less focus in recent seasons. As a running gag, a nervous Stan often vomits whenever Wendy approaches to kiss or speak to him. Stan is considered particularly attractive by the girls in the class, which is a subtle joke as all of the fourth-grade boys besides Cartman and the two disabled children use the exact same model before hair, clothing, and skin color are added. In many episodes, Stan contemplates ethics in beliefs, moral dilemmas, and contentious issues, and will often reflect on the lessons he has attained with a speech that often begins with "You know, I learned something today...".


title: Stan Marsh

text: An unnamed precursor to Stan first appeared in the first "The Spirit of Christmas" short, dubbed "Jesus vs. Frosty", created by Parker and Stone in 1992 while they were students at the University of Colorado. The character was composed of construction paper cutouts and animated through the use of stop motion. When asked three years later by friend Brian Graden to create another short as a video Christmas card that he could send to friends, Parker and Stone created another similarly animated "The Spirit of Christmas" short, dubbed "Jesus vs. Santa", in which Stan also appeared. Stan next appeared on August 13, 1997, when "South Park" debuted on Comedy Central with the episode "Cartman Gets an Anal Probe".


title: Stan Marsh

text: In the tradition of the show's animation style, Stan is composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary colors. He is not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand-drawn characters; his character is mostly shown from only one angle, and his movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion.


title: Stan Marsh

text: Ever since the show's second episode, "Weight Gain 4000" (season one, 1997), Stan, like all other characters on the show, has been animated with computer software, though he is portrayed to give the impression that the show still utilizes its original technique.


title: Stan Marsh

text: Stan is usually depicted in winter attire which consists of a brown jacket, blue jeans, red gloves/mittens, and a red-brimmed blue knit cap adorned with a decorative red pom-pom. In the rare instances, Stan is seen without his cap, he is shown to have shaggy black hair. He was given his full name in the season one episode "An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig", sharing his surname of "Marsh" with Parker's paternal step-grandfather. Parker specified that he came up with the voice of Stan while he and Stone were in film class, where they would speak in high-pitched childish voices, much to the annoyance of their film teachers. They would reuse these voices when "South Park" debuted. While originally voicing Stan without any computer manipulation, Parker now speaks within his normal vocal range while adding a childlike inflection. The recorded audio is then edited with Pro Tools, and the pitch is altered to make the voice sound more like that of a fourth grader.


title: Stan Marsh

text: Stan is foul-mouthed (a trait present in his friends as well) as a means for Parker and Stone to display how they claim young boys really talk when they are alone. In responding to certain situations, particularly during earlier seasons, Stan often exclaims "Dude, this is pretty fucked up right here". While Stan is cynical and profane, Parker still notes that there is an "underlying sweetness" to the character, and "Time" magazine described Stan and his friends as "sometimes cruel but with a core of innocence". He is amused by bodily functions and toilet humor, and his favorite television personalities are Terrance and Phillip, a Canadian duo whose comedy routines on their show-within-the-show revolve substantially around fart jokes.


title: Stan Marsh

text: Stan is an avid animal lover. He is highly against his uncle Jimbo's hunting, and was also known to commit to vegetarianism after feeling compassion for baby calves in a farm, even going as far to hide them in his room to protect them from being slaughtered. Later, he was forced to quit vegetarianism because of a severe illness he developed, however, he still fights for animal rights, becoming a member of PETA in "Douche and Turd" as well as saving whales and dolphins in "Whale Whores".


title: Stan Marsh

text: The only adult on the show that Stan liked was Chef, the cafeteria worker at his school, as Stan generally holds the rest of the show's adult population in low regard due to their tendency to both behave irrationally when subjected to the scams, cults, and sensationalized media stories of which he is often skeptical, and engage in hypocritical behavior. He doubts the legitimacy of holistic medicine, declares cults to be dangerous, and regards those claiming to be psychic mediums as frauds, specifically by declaring John Edward to be "the biggest douche in the universe".


title: Stan Marsh

text: Stan's friendships with the other main characters ended, his parents divorced and he moved out of his home. This episode formed a cliffhanger and set off widespread speculation that the series was coming to an end, but the premiere of the second half of the season resolved the arc as Stan was erroneously diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome and discovers Jameson Irish Whiskey cures cynicism. After struggling to repair his life, he finally explains he doesn't want things to go back to normal, when his parents get back together and his life is repaired, although the end of the episode implies Stan may be permanently bound to whiskey to continue an everyday life.


title: Stan Marsh

text: In 2014, Stan was ranked by IGN at third place on their list of "The Top 25 South Park Characters", commenting that he "often acts as the voice of reason in the midst of the show's insane events, and in many ways he's more mature than his father Randy". The website concluded that "his history as one of the more stable and thoughtful characters in the series made him the perfect choice for the voice of Trey and Matt's own creative/professional frustrations".


title: Stan Marsh

text: Stan frequently offers his perspective on religion, and he was at the center of one of the most controversial episodes of the series, "Trapped in the Closet" (season nine, 2005), where he was recognized as the reincarnation of Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard before denouncing the church as nothing more than "a big fat global scam".