title: Caraga

text: From 2001 to 2003, Caraga Region consistently maintained its performance vis-à-vis other regions in Mindanao. Caraga posted a 0.9% growth rate compared to the 9.5% growth rate of Region 12 and the 2.6% growth rate of the Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Caraga's growth rate in 2001–2002 and the 2002–2003 period was the same (0.9%). This was much less than the growth of the population. This performance was better however than the region's performance in the 2000–2001 period, where the region's economy declined by 1.4%.


title: Caraga

text: The region's contribution to Mindanao's domestic product is 7.58% in 2003. Caraga has the second lowest per capital income among Mindanao regions and nationwide. In 2003, the region accounted for 1.35% of the country's GNP.


title: Caraga

text: Poverty in the region decreased by 1.7% from 44.7% in 1997 to 42.9% in 2000. Another positive development is the increase in the regional annual family income based on the 1997 and 2000 Family Income and Expenditure Survey, which increased by 13.65% from ₱71,7126.00 in 1997 to ₱81,519.00 in 2000. Regional annual family expenditures also posted a 16.65% increase, from ₱61,815.00 in 1997 to ₱72,108.00 in 2000. The average annual savings slipped by 5% from ₱9,911.00 to ₱9,411.00. Poverty incidence data for 2003 is not yet available.


title: Caraga

text: On a national and Mindanao-wide perspective, Caraga Region is one of the most impoverished regions in the country. The region has the fourth highest poverty incidence level of families among all the regions in the country for years 1997 and 2000 while among Mindanao regions, Caraga has the third highest poverty incidence (in terms of incidence of families).


title: Caraga

text: The region performed fairly well in terms of regional output contributing 8.01% in 1998, 8.25% in 1999 and 8.29% in 2000 to the Mindanao GRDP. The region contributed 1.44% in 1998, 1.48% in 1999 and 1.50% in 2000, to the Philippine economy. In terms of growth rate, the region accelerated faster and outpaced the other regions in Mindanao from 1998 to 2000, except for the Southern Mindanao Region which posted a 6.06% increase in 1999–2000. Caraga Region recorded a 5.42% increase during the same period.


title: Caraga

text: GRDP in 2000 amounted to P14.336 billion as against the 1999 performance of P13.599 billion. The deceleration of the region's economy from 6.03% in 1999 to 5.42% in 2000 was attributed to the slowdown of the agriculture, fishery and forestry (AFF) and services sectors. The improved performance of the Industry sector, from 5.69% in 1999 to 6.69% in 2000, cushioned the effects of what could have been a slowdown of the region's economy.


title: Caraga

text: From the 1.4% decrease in the GRDP in 2000–2001, the GRDP bounced back in 2001–2002 by a 0.9% growth. The positive trend was maintained in 2002–2003, with the region's GRDP growing by 0.9%, the same growth rate from the previous year.


title: Caraga

text: The agriculture, fishery and forestry (AFF) sector is Caraga's banner economic sector, exhibiting an increasing growth trend of 3.8% and 6.8% growth rates in 2001 and 2003 respectively. Despite the decreasing growth trend of the agriculture and fishery subsectors, the sizeable growth rate of the forestry subsector more than compensated for the decrease. The forestry subsector grew by 36.3% in 2003, the highest growth rate for any subsector in the region. It is also important to note that Caraga Region has the highest GVA in the forestry subsector among all regions in the Philippines.


title: Caraga

text: The services sector is also one of the bright spots in the region's economy. After experiencing a decelerated growth rate in 2002 compared to the previous year's 6.1% growth rate, the sector bounced back in 2003 with a 5.6% growth rate. Moreover, the trade subsector continued to be the dominant subsector posting a 5.6%, 6.6% and 6.3% growth rate in 2001 to 2003 respectively. It is significant to note that all the subsectors posted positive growth rates in 2001 and 2003. The transportation, communication and storage sub-sector posted the highest growth rate of 8.4% among the sub-sectors in the services sector.


title: Caraga

text: The industry sector was the worst performing sector of the regional economy with a continuous decline from 2001 to 2003. Although the sector's slide slightly decelerated in 2002 (-6.7% in 2002 from -13.3% decline in 2001), it contracted by -12.1% in 2003. The construction subsector had the largest decline of 16.6%, 11.3% and 33.5% in 2001, 2002 and 2003 respectively. The mining subsector also posted negative growth rates but the decreasing trend in this subsector decelerated. The manufacturing offset the decrease in the two sub-sectors by growing at 8.9% in 2003, making it the biggest contributor to this sector. Even with the negative performance of the mining and quarrying sector, Caraga was the second highest producer of metallic minerals, with metallic mineral productions valued at PhP 1.25 billion in 2001 (Philippine Yearbook, 2003).


title: Caraga

text: Investments in the region fell by 25.4% from PhP 6.3 billion in 2002 to PhP 4.6 billion in 2003. All provinces in the region posted a negative growth rate in investments, with Agusan del Sur posting the biggest year-on-year decline of 62.6% for the 2002–2003 period. Agusan del Norte's percentage share on investments increased from 64.8% to 79.5% despite an 8.5% decline. Per advise of the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI)-Caraga office, the data on investments are partial at best and is not reflective of the whole investment level in the region. DTI Caraga's data does not include public investment figures.


title: Caraga

text: Exports decreased by 19.08% in the 2000–2001 period and 57.52% in 2001–2002. Agusan Norte, Surigao Norte and Surigao Sur posted negative growth rates in the 2000–2001 period, with Surigao Sur posting the biggest decrease in exports (81.31%). In 2002, Agusan Norte posted an impressive 741.04% increase in exports, a harbinger of increased economic activity in the province. Surigao Norte posted the biggest decrease in exports for 2002 (63.17%).


title: Caraga

text: In 2000, the region contributed 1.87% to Mindanao's exports; this expanded to 2.68% in 2001 only to decrease to 0.77% in 2002.


title: Caraga

text: The region is noted for its wood based economy, its extensive water resources and its rich mineral deposits such as iron, gold, silver, nickel, chromite, manganese and copper. Its leading crops are palay (rice), banana and coconut.


title: Caraga

text: The region features several beaches, abundant seafood, hot and cold springs, evergreen forests and balmy weather. Caraga's most famous attraction today is Siargao Island, a surfing destination in Dinagat Islands.


title: Caraga

text: Major agricultural products of the region include palay, corn, coconut, gold, banana, rubber, oil palm, calamansi, prawns, milkfish, crabs, seaweeds and mango. Caraga's proximity to Cebu and Manila makes it a favorable shipping point for products to and from these markets. Nasipit Port can serve as a secondary shipping hub to Cagayan de Oro when traffic volume from other points in Mindanao increases. With a roll-on, roll-off (RORO) ferry service now in place, Surigao City serves as a vital transportation link for trucks and buses bound for Luzon.


title: Caraga

text: The region contains one of the last ecological frontiers of the Philippines. It is home to 12 Key Biodiversity Areas identified by Haribon Foundation and the Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources. The Key Biodiversity Areas include: Mt. Kambinliw and Mt. Redondo in Dinagat Islands which is home to the critically endangered Dinagat bushy-tailed cloud rat which was recently rediscovered after decades of disappearance, the endangered Dinagat hairy-tailed rat, Dinagat Gymnure which has been declared by the EDGE Species Programme of the Zoological Society of London as one of the top 100 most evolutionary distinct and globally endangered species in the world, and a strange sub-species of the Philippine Tarsier which is unusually larger and darker in color than the common Philippine tarsier; Siargao Island Protected Landscape and Seascape in Surigao del Norte which is the surfing capital of the country; Carrascal Bay in Surigao del Sur; Consuelo and General Islands in Surigao del Sur; Mt. Hilong-hilong which is shared by Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Surigao del Norte, and Surigao del Sur and is regarded as one of the most expansive home of the critically endangered Philippine Eagle; Magsaysay in Agusan del Norte; Mt. Kaluayan-Mt. Kinabalian which is shared between Agusan del Sur and Northern Mindanao's Bukidnon province; Cagwait in Surigao del Sur; Mt. Diwata Range which is shared between Agusan del Sur and Surigao del Sur and is a focal point in the West Mindanao Ecological Frontier; Hinatuan Bay in Surigao del Sur which is famous for its Hinatuan Enchanted River; Bislig Rainforest between Agusan del Sur and Surigao del Sur; and Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary in Agusan del Sur which is part of the UNESCO Tentative List.


title: Caraga

text: Siargao, popularly known as the "surfing capital of the Philippines", hosts an annual international surfing event. The huge "pacific rollers" have been ranked among the top five breaks in the world, including the "Cloud Nine" considered one of the world's top surfing waves. Other breaks, which offer exploratory surfing without crowds, are found in the towns of Cantilan, Tandag and Lanuza.


title: Caraga

text: The islets and islands of Guyam, Daku, Naked or Pansukian, La Janosa, Pig-ot, Dinagat, Bucas Grande, Britania and the General Island in Cantilan feature white-sand beaches which are ringed by coral reefs suitable for swimming and snorkeling.


title: Caraga

text: Other attractions include naturally-carved water channels amidst mangrove forests in Barangay Manjagao; the floating village of Barangay Dayasan, the Buenavista Cave; and the tropical white sand beaches in Sagisi island. The Britania in San Agustin-Surigao del Sur features 25 islets and islands of white sand and clusters of limestone hills.


title: Caraga

text: Biking trails within Kawas, Alabel City, Surigao del Sur, Agusan del Norte and Siargao play host to cross-country and downhill competitions participated by local and international bikers.


title: Caraga

text: Mt. Mas-ai and Mt. Hilong-Hilong features panoramic views of the vast lower Agusan Valley. Close to Mt. Mas-ai lies Lake Mainit, the fourth-largest lake in the country, with an area of . Through the years, the lake has been a known lair for pidjanga, tilapia, kasili, banak, haw-an, gingaw, saguyon and igi. Migratory birds, pagosi and tabokali flowers are its intermittent added attractions.


title: Caraga

text: The mangrove forests in Del Carmen form one of the largest contiguous mangrove forests in the Philippines. Sohoton Cave and Lagoon in Bucas Grande Island, which is more than an hour boat ride from Siargao, features limestone formations to a point where one enters a narrow channel which soon becomes a cave.


title: Caraga

text: The limestone karst bedrock of some areas in Surigao and Agusan provinces (particularly in the towns of San Agustin, Tagbina, Lianga, Rosario, and Bislig) features several caves, but none of these are regular destinations for recreational cavers. Located within the towns of Tagbina and Bislig, Banbow and Tatol caves (which are ranked the 6th and 9th longest caves in the Philippines) have recently been declared by the Japanese cave explorers as the third longest cave in the country. Some of the most frequently visited and accessible caves in the region are the Buenavista and Silop Caves in Surigao City and the Libas Cave in Jabonga-Agusan del Norte. These caves have limestone formations and naturally carved stalagmites, stalactites and columns.


title: Caraga

text: The Agusan Marsh in Agusan del Sur is one of the biggest wetlands in the country and is host to diverse species of birds.


title: Caraga

text: Festivals include the Naliyagan Festival of Agusan del Sur, Kahimunan, Balangay, Kaliguan Festival of Cagwait in Surigao del Sur, Lisagan and the most famous in the region, the Bonok-Bonok Maradjaw Karadjaw festivals, in honor of its Patron Saint San Nicolas de Tolentino. Surfers from around the world converge in Siargao during the annual international surfing competition.


title: Caraga

text: The entire region is connected by roads from and to the major commercial, trading and processing centers of Cagayan de Oro and Davao. Butuan City is being developed as the regional center with modern facilities and big commercial centers. There are secondary seaports and airports in the region. It has an increasing number of telecommunication facilities and the presence of the Verano Seaport in Surigao City as the major baseport in the region.


title: Caraga

text: The region's literacy rate of 93% in 1990 was marginally higher than the National Average of 92.57%. Supporting the education of the region in 1997 were the 1,478 public and 49 private elementary schools, 110 public and 71 private secondary schools, 26 secondary school annexes, and 7 vocational schools.


title: Caraga

text: The region has a total of 49 higher education institutions comprising 45 private Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) and 4 State Universities and Colleges (SUCs). Among the Higher Education Institutions, San Nicolas College (now St. Paul University-Surigao and first university established in the entire region) is identified as the center for development in teacher education and the regional center for Gender and Development, it being the seat of Caraga Women's resources center.


title: Caraga

text: The Caraga State University (CSU) formerly known as Northern Mindanao State Institute of Science and Technology (NORMISIST), is among the 112 state-funded universities and colleges in the Philippines. It is identified by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) as the Center of Development (COD) in Information Technology, COD in Biology, and COD in Mathematics. It is the seat of the Caraga Center for Research in Environmental Management and Eco-governance (CREME), formerly known as the Caraga Center for Environmental Studies and Management (CCESM), which acts as the focal point of capability building and coordination for environmental efforts in the region. The university, through the Caraga Center for Geo-informatics (CCGeo), is also the lead implementing agency of the Geo-SAFER Mindanao (Geo-informatics for the Systematic Assessment of Flood Effects and Risks for a Resilient Mindanao), a research program that utilizes LiDAR data for mapping flood risk areas towards building a resilient Mindanao. CSU is producing Board Topnotchers in Forestry, Geodetic Engineering, Mining Engineering, and Agricultural Engineering, and has strengthened its research and innovation system through the years which resulted to its recent status as a Level IV State University, recognized by CHED as excellent in Teaching and Research.


title: Caraga

text: Father Saturnino Urios University, was founded by Caraga's most loved Spanish missionary, Fr. Saturnino Urios S.J. in 1990. The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) recognized Father Saturnino Urios University as one of the best schools in the region producing top notchers in national board examinations in Nursing, Engineering, and Accountancy. Its performance in the Licensure Examinations for Teachers (LET) and the Philippine Bar (BAR) is also relatively high. On July 12, 2006, Urios College formally announced its elevation into a university and is now renamed Fr. Saturnino Urios University (FSUU), the first home-grown university in Caraga.


title: Caraga

text: For the school year 1996–1997, the participation rate for public elementary schools was 93.65%. Public secondary schools registered a lower rate, 56%. The teacher-to-pupil ratios for both levels were within the standard of one teacher per 40 pupils. Cohort survival rates were considered low for both the elementary and secondary levels at 66.23% and 68.93%, respectively. For the school year 1996–97, dropout rate at the secondary level was high, especially in Butuan City (9.5%) and Surigao Del Sur (7.8%). This can be one of the causes why the majority of the population finished only up to the elementary school level.


title: Caraga

text: All the vital health indicators from 1992 to 1997 showed a decreasing trend except for maternal mortality rate. The crude birth rate decreased from the 1992–1996 five-year average of 21.02 to 18.71 in 1997. The crude death rate also decreased from 3.60 in the 1992–1996 average to 3.0 in 1997. The infant mortality rate increased from an average of 1.33 in 1992–1996 to 1.56 in 1997.


title: Caraga

text: All of the leading causes of morbidity from 1992 to 1997 were communicable diseases, and showed a reduction in rates for every 1,000,000 population, except for pneumonia (836.30 to 1,200.23), diarrhea (1,059.40 to 1,133.11), influenza (655.36 to 926.74), and malaria (216.80 to 366.5). With regards to the leading causes of mortality, lifestyle-related diseases like cardiovascular diseases and cancer top the list, replacing the communicable diseases.


title: Caraga

text: The region is faced with problems of endemic diseases like schistosomiasis and malaria. Although there was a slight reduction in its prevalence for the past three years, still Caraga ranked as number two in schistosomiasis cases and number six in malaria cases nationwide.


title: Caraga

text: Malnutrition rates were posted at 49.25%, of which 34.05% were classified as mildly underweight, 11.66% as moderately underweight, 1.43% as severely underweight and 3.60% as overweight.


title: Caraga

text: Life expectancy for the region, based on the 1995 census, was 65.73 years old for males and 70.98 years old for females.


title: Caraga

text: As of 1997, there were 62 hospitals in the region, of which 35 were government and 27 were private. Out of the 27 private hospitals, 20 were primary, 4 secondary and 3 tertiary. Out of the 35 government hospitals, 18 were primary, 14 were secondary and 3 were tertiary. There were 73 main health centers, 489 barangay health stations manned by 76 doctors, 147 nurses, 35 medical technologists, 45 dental aides, 52 dentists, 608 midwives and 137 sanitary inspectors. All of these were devolved to the local government units in accordance with the 1991 local Government code.


title: Caraga

text: In 1996, Caraga had 1,619 welfare facilities of which 1,238 were Day care Centers; 8 were Senior Citizens' Center; 3 were Productivity Skills capability Building for Disadvantaged Women (PSCBDW); and with 1 each were the child Learning and Resource Center, Women Center, Home for the Girls, Regional Rehabilitation Center for Youth, Lingap Center, Balay Silongan, Foster Home for Exploited Children And Women, and Halfway Home for Improved Mental Patients.


title: Caraga

text: On the community-based services, only the PSCBDW is being managed by DSWD while the rest are managed by the LGUs.


title: Caraga

text: The region had unique housing profile in 1990. While other areas complained of housing shortage, a significant number of houses, particularly in Agusan del Norte and Surigao del Norte were vacant. However, available statistics do not give the magnitude of substandard of units to be replaced and current housing backlog. Currently, the cities of Butuan and Surigao and other municipalities are not spared from housing problems, i.e. squatters bought by urbanization.


title: Caraga

text: Caraga Region has the first and only cable-stayed bridge in the entire Mindanao island, the Macapagal Bridge in Butuan City connecting the Butuan Bypass Road over Agusan River.


title: Caraga

text: The region is connected to the major centers of its neighboring regions by the Maharlika Highways that runs from the cities of Davao, Cagayan de Oro and Surigao. The provinces are interlinked with concrete roads, except for a very few parts in Surigao del Sur which is still partially concreted in select areas and is on its nearing completion. Total road length of the region runs to 7,515.596 km. Road density was at 0.3988 as of 1995. There were 1,325.558 km classified as national roads in the region and 1,289.774 km of city and provincial roads. The total municipal road length for the region was 696.46 km.


title: Caraga

text: The region had bridges with the combined length of 23,775.49 meters linear. Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur had the longest bridge length 9,288.520 m linear and 7,853.4 m linear, respectively.


title: Caraga

text: A project called 'East-West Lateral Road' forms part of the total regional connectivity between the Region XIII and Northern Mindanao. It foresees to promote development in different fields such as eco-tourism, agriculture, industry, and domestic trade. It will also provide an accessible route for the remote area settlers, thus uplifting their economic growth.


title: Caraga

text: As the overland gateway to Visayas and Luzon, the region is accessible by sea through the baseport of Verano Port and Lipata Ferry Terminal in Surigao City that connects the neighboring province of Southern Leyte. Other terminal ports are in Dapa in Siargao, Surigao del Norte, San Jose in Dinagat Islands, Tandag and Bislig in Surigao del Sur and Nasipit Port in Agusan del Norte. Fast craft ferry services used to ply the Surigao City-Cebu City route every day. Private ports can also be found in the different municipalities and cities of the region, however, only three of these 42 ports are operational.


title: Caraga

text: The region is serviced by commercial flights to and from Manila and Cebu through the airports of Butuan, Surigao and Siargao in Surigao del Norte and Tandag Airport in Surigao del Sur. The Bislig Airport used to service commercial flights before its operation were suspended. A proposed airports in Agusan del Sur and Dinagat are being studied if viable for commercial operations. There are six other private owned airports in the region among them is the PHILNICO airport located in Nonoc Is. in Surigao City. The ports and airports are supported by the road networks that connect the provinces within and outside the region


title: Scottish football league system

text: The Scottish football league system is a series of generally connected leagues for Scottish football clubs.


title: Scottish football league system

text: The Scottish system is more complicated than many other national league systems, consisting of several completely separate systems or 'grades' of leagues and clubs. As well as senior football there is junior football, and also amateur football and welfare football.


title: Scottish football league system

text: In senior football in Scotland there is one national league, the Scottish Professional Football League (SPFL), which has four divisions. There are also several regional leagues (most notably the Highland Football League and since 2013 the Lowland Football League). From 2014–15, a promotion/relegation play-off between the two regional leagues and the SPFL national league was introduced for the first time.


title: Scottish football league system

text: Two clubs based in England play in the senior Scottish system - Berwick Rangers in the Lowland League and Tweedmouth Rangers in the East of Scotland League. A small number of English amateur clubs in the lowest levels of the game, based on or around the Anglo-Scottish border, also compete in Border Amateur Football League for geographical and travel reasons.


title: Scottish football league system

text: Until 2013 Scottish football had no pyramid league system, and as a result it was impossible for clubs in regional leagues to progress into the national leagues, unless a vacancy opened in the Scottish Football League. The final example of this was ahead of the 2008–09 season, where Gretna's demise allowed Annan Athletic to take their place. Overall, the structure of men's football in Scotland was among the most fractured and multi-faceted in Europe, being unique in having a plurality of adult male governing bodies (with Seniors, Juniors, Amateurs and Welfarers - see below). It was not uncommon for a given town or county to have clubs in as many as three or four separate systems.


title: Scottish football league system

text: Moves towards creating a pyramid system began in 2008 under the tenure of Scottish Football Association (SFA) chief executive Gordon Smith, with discussions between the SFA and the regional and junior leagues. On 7 May 2013 Scottish Premier League clubs unanimously agreed on the introduction of a pyramid structure to Scottish football along with the reintroduction of a single governing body for the 42 clubs competing at a national level, a revised financial distribution model, and the possibility of a promotion/relegation play-off between the top two divisions.


title: Scottish football league system

text: The current system has been in place since 2013–14, when the Scottish Professional Football League was formed by a merger of the Scottish Premier League (tier 1) and the Scottish Football League (tiers 2–4). At the same time, the Lowland Football League (tier 5) was founded, and from 2014 to 2021 the leagues below (tier 6) began to be incorporated as each joined the system. For each division, its official name, number of clubs, number of games, and promotion/relegation spots are given:


title: Scottish football league system

text: The leagues below level four are classed as "non-league football", meaning they are outside the Scottish Professional Football League and are played on a regional not a national basis. The Lowland League was created in 2013–14 and runs in parallel with the Highland League to form level five on the pyramid. Since 2014–15 the two league winners have played off against each other, with the winner then playing the team finishing 10th in League Two in a promotion/relegation play-off for a place in the SPFL.


title: Scottish football league system

text: Below the Highland League is the Midlands League (19 clubs); North Caledonian Football League (13 teams, including two reserve teams); and the North Region League (30 clubs, 2 divisions). Below the Lowland League is the East of Scotland Football League (60 clubs, including one reserve team, 4 divisions); the South of Scotland Football League (12 clubs, including two reserve teams); and the West of Scotland Football League (79 clubs, 5 divisions). At end of season, round robin promotion play-offs take place between the winners of feeder leagues of the Highland and Lowland League respectively (subject to each club meeting licensing criteria) for promotion to tier 5.


title: Scottish football league system

text: All clubs in tier 5 and above automatically enter the Scottish Cup, along with clubs in other divisions who are full members of the Scottish Football Association. Up to three non-SFA members can qualify for the Scottish Cup each season by winning the East, South or West leagues, or the East, South and West Cup-Winners Shield. All 42 SPFL clubs compete in the Scottish League Cup, along with the Highland and Lowland champions, and one of the runners-up. The Scottish Challenge Cup features 30 SPFL clubs from outside the Premiership, Under 21s teams, and four from the Highland and Lowland leagues.


title: Scottish football league system

text: The SFA South Region Challenge Cup is for all 164 non-league clubs in the Lowland area (excluding reserve or B teams). The SFA North Region Challenge Cup existed between 2007 and 2009. There are also a variety of smaller cup tournaments at league and regional level.


title: Scottish football league system

text: The Scottish Junior Football Association (SJFA) manages two regions: the SJFA East Region of 19 clubs; and the SJFA North Region of 34 clubs (4 clubs withdrew for 2022–23). This represents a total of 53 teams across 3 divisions. The term 'junior' refers not to the age of the players but the level of football played. These two regions joined the pyramid system at tier 6 below the Highland League in 2021–22.


title: Scottish football league system

text: Members of the SJFA, consisting of 114 teams in total from the two regions as well as the East of Scotland League and West of Scotland League (5 teams are in abeyance for 2022–23), participate in the Scottish Junior Cup. Up to three non-SFA members can qualify for the Scottish Cup each season by winning the Midlands League, North Superleague, or the Junior Cup. Banks O' Dee also enter senior tournaments in the Aberdeenshire Cup and Shield, and run an Under-20s team in the Senior development structure (the Aberdeenshire & District League).


title: Scottish football league system

text: In 2020, as part of a long process to form an integrated footballing pyramid structure, all 63 West Region Junior clubs decided to depart and join the newly founded West of Scotland Football League, a feeder to the Lowland League. Between 2017 and 2020 more than half of the East Region clubs departed the junior ranks, joining the senior East of Scotland Football League which is also below the Lowland League. The remaining clubs in the East Premiership South made the same move to the East of Scotland League for season 2021–22, and the East Premiership North clubs formed the Midlands League at tier 6 below the Highland League. The North Region also joined the pyramid structure at the same level. The northern leagues at that level entered the pyramid later in July.


title: Scottish football league system

text: Again separate from the above, and generally agreed to lie 'below' the senior and junior levels, are the hundreds of clubs in membership of the Scottish Amateur Football Association which oversees 50 leagues - although this includes Sunday League football and futsal competitions. Prestige centres around the historic Scottish Amateur Cup. A number of Senior and Junior clubs run reserve teams in Amateur football. Student and Police football is also affiliated to the SAFA.


title: Scottish football league system

text: As of 2022–23 there are 360 teams – in 12 geographic leagues containing a total of 31 league divisions – playing Saturday football under a regular August–May season. In addition there are 137 teams playing in four specialist Saturday Morning leagues (including one for Glasgow Colleges Amateur Football Association) in Dundee and Glasgow, plus 22 teams playing in Strathclyde Evangelical Churches Football League.


title: Scottish football league system

text: There are also 90 teams playing in the Summer Saturday leagues (season 2022), most of which are located in the Highland; 244 teams are in the Sunday League system. <onlyinclude>


title: Scottish football league system

text: Roughly concurrent with the Scottish Amateur Football Association is the Scottish Welfare Football Association, which has a very low profile nationally. The SWFA was established in the aftermath of World War I, and oversees leagues mainly operating Sunday and summer or midweek football, predominantly in the north of Scotland.


title: Scottish football league system

text: From a peak of over 500 clubs, there were 158 teams in membership in November 2012, down from 238 teams in 2007.


title: Scottish football league system

text: As of Season 2022 (Summer) and 2022–23 (Winter) there are 100 teams in 8 geographic leagues, plus 13 clubs playing in Warriors Premier League.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Hard Candy is the eleventh studio album by American singer and songwriter Madonna. It was released on April 19, 2008, by Warner Bros. Records. The album was her final studio album with the record company, marking the end of a 25-year recording history. Madonna started working on the album in early 2007, and collaborated with Justin Timberlake, Timbaland, the Neptunes and Nate "Danja" Hills. "Hard Candy" is primarily a dance-pop record, incorporating hip hop, electropop, disco, electro, funk and R&B. The Pet Shop Boys were also asked to collaborate with Madonna on the album by Warner Bros., but the record company later changed their mind and withdrew their invitation.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: The singer became interested in collaborating with Timberlake after hearing his 2006 album "FutureSex/LoveSounds". Together they developed a number of songs for the album, but the basis of the development was Pharrell Williams's demos. Madonna had a number of songs written down for the album, which amazed Timberlake. They had intensive discussions among themselves before recording a song. Later, Madonna recalled that most of the songs on "Hard Candy" were autobiographical in many respects. However, according to her, this was not intentional and happened while she was in the process of developing the album.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Madonna had initially decided to portray herself as the Black Madonna for the cover art, and call it the same, but later felt the idea may have been seen as controversial. She instead named the album "Hard Candy", which refers to the juxtaposition of toughness and sweetness. Critical reaction to the album were generally favorable, though some reviewers criticized it for its attempt to cater to the urban market. On release "Hard Candy" debuted at number one in 37 countries worldwide, including the United States, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Spain and the United Kingdom and became the eleventh best-selling album worldwide of 2008. The album has sold more than 4 million copies worldwide.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Three singles were released from the album. The first, "4 Minutes", was a worldwide success, topping the charts in 21 countries and becoming Madonna's 37th "Billboard" Hot 100 top-ten hit. Other singles released were "Give It 2 Me" and "Miles Away". To promote the album, Madonna went on a small promotional tour, where she played in three cities in small venues. Furthermore, Madonna embarked on the Sticky & Sweet Tour between 2008 and 2009, which went on to become the highest-grossing concert tour ever by a female artist.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: In February 2007, Timbaland said that he was working with Madonna for her upcoming eleventh studio album. It was Madonna's last studio album for Warner Bros. Records, and following the release of a greatest hits collection ("Celebration"), she would join Live Nation Artists, a new initiative launched by concert promoter Live Nation. The 10-year deal with Live Nation encompassed all of Madonna's future music and music-related businesses, including the exploitation of the Madonna brand, new studio albums, touring, merchandising, fan clubs/Web sites, DVDs, music-related television and film projects and associated sponsorship agreements. In August 2007, Timbaland spoke about the development of the album to MTV News. Together he and Justin Timberlake were confirmed to have worked on the album with Madonna and said that they wrote ten songs for her. Songs confirmed to have been developed were "La, La" and "Candy Shop", which was written by Pharrell Williams. Timbaland added,


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Me and Justin did the records. [Madonna's] got a hot album. Her album is up there with Justin's album. [...] Ah, man, there's this one song, we taking it back to 'You must be my luck-eee starrrr!' ... Remember 'Ugly' by Bubba Sparxxx? I got a beat similar to that. The hook is no words. It's saying stuff named after coffee... The name of the song is 'La, La'. Pharrell did a hot one for her too called 'Candy Shop'."


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Timbaland finished off by saying that the title of the album was not decided then, but he had to reconvene with Madonna to complete the record by September 2007. MTV described the new album as moving in an urban direction. It had initially been defined as having "a lot of producers from a lot of genres in there." Pet Shop Boys were originally asked by Warner to write and produce some songs for the album. Timbaland referred to the album as being "like 'Holiday' with an R&B groove".


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Hard Candy" features additional vocals by Timberlake, Timbaland, Williams and Kanye West and production by Madonna, Timbaland, Timberlake, the Neptunes and Nate "Danja" Hills. Previously, Madonna had worked with relatively unknown producers like William Orbit, Mirwais Ahmadzaï and Stuart Price. However, for "Hard Candy", Madonna decided to collaborate with producers and artists who were already well-known. Talking to MTV, Madonna explained her decision to collaborate with well-known producers: "Because they're good, and I like their shit. [...] I mean, I don't like to repeat myself, and I was sitting around thinking, 'What music do I love right now?' And it was actually [Timberlake's] record "FutureSex/LoveSounds". [...] I was listening to it obsessively."


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Madonna had already started work on the album with Williams, and during one of her breaks from recording, her manager Guy Oseary spoke to Timberlake, suggesting that it "would be cool" if he recorded some songs with her. Timberlake commented "'That would be awesome', but I thought, 'That'll never happen', [...] But it's a testament to Pharrell. He had already laid the groundwork where she was going with it. She played 'Candy Shop' for me, and a couple of other songs, and I thought, 'What a cool direction'. I thought she could essentially do the whole record with Pharrell if she wanted to, and I asked Tim, 'How do we fit in?' And it basically came down to how we did my record, co-producing, and just throwing Madonna in the mix." The first track recorded by Madonna and Timberlake was "Devil Wouldn't Recognize You". Timberlake felt that the song, which Madonna had been working on for years before the "Hard Candy" project, was comparable to "Frozen" (1998). He wanted to turn the line "'The devil wouldn't recognize you, but I do" into a catchy hook and make it sound like a concept.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Timberlake was impressed by the amount of recording material Madonna would already have ready. He said that he does not normally write down his lyrics, since the ideas come faster to him, but Madonna had "all these thoughts, riddles, poems, feelings, all written in huge notebooks ... she kept handing them over. It was amazing, taking these little bits here and there and putting them together like a puzzle." For recording "Miles Away", Timberlake played a guitar riff for Madonna and asked "How do we want to do this? What do we want it to be about? What do we want to say?" Madonna decided to have discussions between herself and Timberlake to develop other ideas for the songs. One of the ideas they connected on was the universality of long-distance relationships, which they felt was too personal for them, but nevertheless used the concept in "Miles Away". Madonna commented on the recorded version: "We put our stuff out there. [...] And after we did the song, everybody in the studio was like, 'Oh, I can relate to that'."


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: With "Interview" magazine, Madonna explained her inspirations behind the songs and the music of "Hard Candy". She said that "probably in many respects most of the songs [on "Hard Candy"] are [autobiographical]. But in more of an unconscious way. I don't really think about telling personal stories when I'm writing music. It just comes. And then a lot of times, six months later, eight months later, I go, 'Oh, that's what I wrote that song about.' But that's when I play the song for lots of people and they all go, 'Oh, I can totally relate to that'." Sonically, "Hard Candy" is a dance-pop, pop, hip hop, electropop, disco, electro, funk and R&B record.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Candy Shop" is the opening track of the album. Produced by The Neptunes, the song uses the word candy as a metaphor for sex. Williams said, "We were just in a studio, [...] and [Madonna] was like, 'Look, give me some hot shit.' I was looking at her like, 'She's saying hot shit?' She was like, 'What?' And I'm like, 'OK.' So we just worked and made it." The first single from the album, "4 Minutes", was initially known as "4 Minutes to Save the World". The song's development was motivated by a sense of urgency to save the planet from destruction, and how people can enjoy themselves in the process. According to Madonna, the song inspired her to produce the documentary "I Am Because We Are". The song features vocals by Timberlake and Timbaland. An uptempo dance song with an urban, hip hop style, it also incorporates Timbaland's bhangra beats. The instrumentation used in the song includes brass, foghorns and cow bells. The song's lyrics carry a message of social awareness, inspired by Madonna's visit to Africa and the human suffering she witnessed.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: In "Give It 2 Me", the album's second single, Madonna merged bounce-beats and a funky bassline. "If it's against the law, arrest me", she sings "If you can handle it, undress me." The song has a short interlude where Madonna continuously repeats the words "Get stupid", as Williams chants, "To the left, to the right". "Give It 2 Me" was written by Madonna as an anthemic, self-manifesto song which, although it appears to be about dance and sex, is a reference to Madonna's career spanning three decades in the music industry. Musically it is an upbeat dance song, featuring instrumentation from West African percussion and cowbells. Backing vocals are provided by Williams. The fourth track, "Heartbeat", has Madonna singing breathlessly and also features an interlude where the music changes from its normal rhythm, just the sound of drums.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: MTV said that "Miles Away", the third single from the album, was the most deceptively simple track because although it appeared straightforward on the surface, it had a lot of technical tricks underneath it. The song departs from the dance theme of the album and deals with the difficulties of long-distance relationships. "Miles Away" is a melancholy electronic ballad, which, according to Madonna is autobiographical, and is inspired by her then-husband Guy Ritchie. The relationship themed lyrics continue in the next track "She's Not Me", which talks about Madonna being emulated by another woman, hence she utters the line "She started dressing like me and talking like me, It freaked me out, She started calling you up in the middle of the night, What's that about?"


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: The next track "Incredible" starts off like a love song and then transforms into a plea to someone to return to a relationship. The song changes rhythm at the interlude to mimic this change in tone. In a promotional interview, Madonna described the song as full of "angst and desire" and "wanting to get back to a feeling of happiness and fulfillment," but also containing a feeling of abandonment. In a review of the album on MTV, the shift in the structure of the song reflected Madonna's own confusion about how she felt about her lover in the song. "Can't get my head around it", she sang. "I, I need to think about it." "Beat Goes On", featuring West, has a '70s R&B meeting '80s dance vibe and a rap interlude by West. Williams has commented that Madonna's work ethic was different from other artists that he had worked with before. That is reflected in songs like "Spanish Lesson" where she sings the line "If you do your homework/ Baby I will give you more". It also has influences of Spanish music. Groove inspired music is present in "Dance 2Night", which featured Timberlake.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Devil Wouldn't Recognize You" was written by Madonna before the "Hard Candy" project started. The song has a sense of mystery and starts off softly and slowly with a piano introduction. It then becomes fast and melancholy, with Madonna singing: "Your eyes are full of surprises/ They cannot predict my fate". The trip hop inspired "Voices" is the last track of the album, consisting of unresolved chords and sweeping strings, as the lyrics question who is really in control: "Are you walking the dog?/ Is the dog walking you?"


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Hard Candy" was released on April 25, 2008, in the European countries of Germany, Ireland, Austria, Italy and Netherlands. On April 28, the album was released in the United Kingdom, Brazil and throughout the rest of Europe, and on April 29, in the United States, Mexico and Canada. Before its official announcement, "Billboard" reported that the title of the album was "Licorice", as announced on the Sirius Satellite Radio programme "OutQ". In an interview with MTV Australia, Madonna explained that a prominent theme of the "Hard Candy" album was about incorporating the image of a boxer, an idea which has been repeated within the song "Give It 2 Me". According to her, "['Give It 2 Me'] is basically [opposite in meaning]. I'm not [...], 'give me all you got' [kind of person], so it's quite a sort of tough stance." Hence, initially Madonna decided that the title of the song was to be used for the then-unnamed album. This was changed following the release of a similarly named song by Timbaland. After that, Madonna decided to call the album "Black Madonna", and even shot a photograph for the cover art, wearing black make-up with white eyes. In a 2009 interview with "Rolling Stone", Madonna commented:


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "I did a photoshoot with Steven Klein for my last album cover, and I painted my face black, except for red lips and white eyes. It was a play on words. Have you ever heard of the Black Madonna? It has layers of meaning and for a minute, I thought it would be a fun title for my record. Then I thought, 'Twenty-five per cent of the world might get this, probably less, it's not worth it.' It happens all the time, because my references are usually off the Richter scale."


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: The title of the album was finally confirmed by MTV as "Hard Candy". Madonna's representative Liz Rosenberg told "Entertainment Weekly": "She loves candy, [...] [The title is] about the juxtaposition of tough and sweetness, or as Madonna so eloquently expressed: 'I'm gonna kick your ass, but it's going to make you feel good'." The album cover art was also released at the same time and featured Madonna with short cropped hair in a black leotard with a professional wrestling championship belt across her waist. The belt includes the inscription "Give It to Me", the original title of the album. The backdrop displayed pink peppermint swirls. The photo was taken during a photoshoot with Klein for "Interview" magazine's April 2008 issue.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Seven songs from the album were made available for download by mobile phone during the week prior to the album's official release. Beginning on April 21 and ending on April 27, 2008, the songs "Candy Shop", "Miles Away", "Give It 2 Me", "Heartbeat", "Beat Goes On", "Devil Wouldn't Recognize You" and "She's Not Me" were distributed. Additionally, "Hard Candy" and the "4 Minutes" music video were pre-loaded onto the Samsung F400 in France. In other markets, Vodafone and Warner Music International made an arrangement which saw the music and other forms of mobile content from "Hard Candy" available exclusively to Vodafone mobile customers prior to the album's general release. A similar deal was made with Sony Ericsson, who offered the album pre-loaded onto their phones in 27 countries worldwide. "Hard Candy" was also streamed on MySpace four days before its United States release. Furthermore, the season finale of "Ugly Betty"s second season, "Jump", solely featured Madonna's music. "Candy Shop", "Spanish Lesson", "She's Not Me" and "Miles Away" were played, as well as the 2006 single "Jump". "Miles Away" was also used in the Japanese TV drama "Change".


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Following the album's release, Madonna went on a promotional tour for the album, which was the first venture as part of her new contract with concert promoters Live Nation with media content provided by "Frank the Plumber LLC". The show consisted of a 40-minute set featuring six songs, with dates in New York City, Paris and Maidstone. In an interview with the BBC, Madonna stated:


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Obviously, I want to do new stuff because I'm very excited about it. I feel that's what people come to hear but I also want to do a few of my oldies but goodies. I chose "Hung Up" because that was the biggest hit from my last record and I chose "Music" because it's a crowd pleaser, it's anthemic and it brings people together."


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: The show had an expandable, five-platform stage which displayed the album's cover art. Madonna, wearing a skintight black suit and a lace top, appeared on the stage while sitting on a throne with a golden walking stick, as the music of "Candy Shop" started. Images of confectionery flashed on the television screens flanking the back of the stage. Madonna, along with her six dancers, gyrated in choreographed dance moves. Next, Madonna strapped on an acoustic guitar, took a swig from a champagne bottle and started singing "Miles Away", as images of planes taking off and landing, airports and various locations around the globe were projected across the screens behind her. After that "4 Minutes" was performed, which mimicked its video with a flashing countdown clock. Then Madonna paused for a moment to thank her collaborators, including Timberlake, West, Timbaland and others. "I feel like the luckiest girl in the world", she said, before dedicating the next song, "Hung Up" from 2005's "Confessions on a Dance Floor", to her fans. The song was mixed with the Rolling Stones track "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction". It was followed by "Give It 2 Me", during which pink and green disco beams pulsated across the crowd. The show ended with a performance of "Music" (2000), during which her dancers emerged from a false, silver subway car door. Madonna danced across the stage, touching the hands of the audience and ended the show by racing up the stage to the subway doors, behind which she disappeared.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Chris Harris from MTV reviewed the show at Roseland Ballroom, New York, and commented that, "It was an event better-suited for Madison Square Garden and one that these fans — many of whom probably had to call a sitter for the evening — won't soon forget." Ben Sisario from "The New York Times" commented, "for Madonna's fans, [the New York show] proved that seeing her for free in a 2,200-capacity hall — minuscule by her usual touring standards — was something worth waiting for. And waiting for a very long time." Silvio Pietrolungo from "Billboard" felt that "The crowd of 2,200 was certainly dedicated." The April 30, 2008, New York set was shown live via MSN in association with Control Room and Live Nation. It was broadcast internationally on May 15, 2008. The Maidstone show faced problems with the organisers due to Madonna's use of swearing, causing complaints to be made to the BBC when the show was aired on Radio 1.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: To further promote the album, Madonna embarked on the Sticky & Sweet Tour, her eighth worldwide concert tour. It began in August 2008 and was Madonna's first tour from her new recording and business deal with Live Nation. The tour was announced in May 2008, with dates for American and British venues revealed. Though initially planned, the tour failed to visit Australia due to financial problems and the financial recession. Costume designer Arianne Phillips designed the costumes, supported by a number of famous designers and brands, namely Givenchy, Stella McCartney, Yves Saint Laurent, Roberto Cavalli, and Jeremy Scott. The stage for the main show was planned similarly to that of her 2006 Confessions Tour. After the Sticky & Sweet Tour concluded in 2008, Madonna announced plans to begin a second European leg in 2009 to perform in cities she had either never been to, or had not played for a long time.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: The tour was described as a "rock driven dancetastic journey". It was divided into four acts: "Pimp", where S&M was the main theme, "Retro" where Madonna's classic songs were performed alongside displays of the work of deceased artist Keith Haring, "Gypsy", a fusion of Romani folk music and dance, with performances ranging from melancholy to joyous, and "Rave", where she performed track's featuring Eastern influences. The show ended with a sing-along of the final song with the audience. Some changes were made to the set list during the second European leg of the tour in 2009, including a dance tribute to deceased singer Michael Jackson. The tour generated positive reviews from critics.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: The Sticky & Sweet Tour broke many records in terms of ticket sales, commercial gross and audience attendance. At the time of the first leg's conclusion, it became the highest-grossing tour by a solo artist, earning $282 million, breaking the previous record Madonna herself held with her Confessions Tour. Overall, Madonna performed to over 3.5 million fans in 32 countries, grossing a total of US$408 million, making it also the third highest-grossing tour by a solo act and the highest-grossing tour by a female artist. At the 2009 "Billboard" Touring Awards, the Sticky & Sweet Tour won the Top Tour and Top Draw prizes, which acknowledge the highest-grossing and highest-attended tours of the year, respectively. Madonna's manager Guy Oseary won the Top Manager award.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "4 Minutes" was released as the lead single from the album on March 17, 2008, by Warner Bros. Records. "4 Minutes" has been praised by many contemporary critics. Some have noted, however, that it was Madonna rather than Timberlake who appeared to be the featured artist on the track. "4 Minutes" achieved international success by topping the charts in 21 countries worldwide. It became Madonna's 13th number-one single in the United Kingdom, the highest total for any female artist in the British charts. In the United States, "4 Minutes" peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100, giving Madonna her 37th Top Ten hit, breaking the record previously held by Elvis Presley. In the song's accompanying music video, Madonna and Timberlake sing and run away from a giant black screen that devours everything in its path. At the end of the video, Madonna and Timberlake are consumed by the screen. The song received a Grammy nomination in the Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals category.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Give It 2 Me" was released on June 4, 2008, by Warner Bros. Records as the second single from the album. The song received positive reviews from contemporary critics. It became Madonna's 39th number-one single on the "Billboard" Hot Dance Club Play chart. It charted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for one week, and reached a peak of 57 only. The song topped the music charts in the Netherlands and Spain and attained top-ten positions on the charts of many other European nations. "Give It 2 Me" received a Grammy nomination in 2009 in the Best Dance Recording category. "Miles Away" was released as the third and final single from the album, on October 17, 2008. It received positive appreciation from contemporary critics, though some of them noted its similarity to Timberlake's 2006 single, "What Goes Around... Comes Around". "Miles Away" reached the top forty in the official charts of United Kingdom, Canada, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The song did not appear on the official chart of the United States, but it was a success on the US dance charts, where it became Madonna's seventh consecutive number-one song on the Hot Dance Airplay chart, the most for any artist.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Hard Candy" received generally favorable reviews. The album received a score of 65/100 on Metacritic from 24 critics, which indicates "generally favorable reviews". Mark Savage from the BBC commented on the composition of the tracks, saying "if a handful of the tracks had been delivered to more producers with a touch more subtlety, "Hard Candy" could have ranked alongside Madonna's best. [...] Over and over again, she subsumes her pop sensibilities to their arsenal of clattering beats, hollered raps and over-fussy production." Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic felt that "There's a palpable sense of disinterest [in "Hard Candy"], as if she just handed the reins over to Pharrell and Timba-Lake, trusting them to polish up this piece of stale candy. Maybe she's not into the music, maybe she's just running out this last album for Warner before she moves onto the greener pastures of Live Nation—either way, "Hard Candy" is as a rare thing: a lifeless Madonna album."


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Tom Young from "Blender" gave a positive review saying "On "Hard Candy", she's like an aging master thief sneaking into the temple of pop goodies for one last big score. Album 11 is good-naturedly smutty, not confrontationally nasty, but it's a veritable filth bath compared to the C-SPAN sermons and confessional strumming of 2003's dreadful "American Life" or the woozily self-actualized club trance of 2005's "Confessions on a Dance Floor"." Kerri Mason from "Billboard" complimented the new sound and the musical direction taken by Madonna but felt that she had become a producer's puppet, leading her to comment that "Madonna makes producers, producers don't make Madonna." Chris Willman from "Entertainment Weekly" gave the album a B+ and said "[Madonna] makes it work with this surprisingly rejuvenated set." Mike Collett-White from Reuters reported: "As parting gifts go, Madonna's 11th studio album—and her last before she exits long-term record label Warner Bros.—is unusually generous, if early reviews are to be believed. [...] "Hard Candy" scored solidly among rock critics."


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Caryn Ganz from "Rolling Stone" said that "Hard Candy" is the work of "a songwriting team of American chart royalty" that helps Madonna "revisit her roots as an urban-disco queen. [...] For "Hard Candy", she lets top-shelf producers make her their plaything." Ben Thompson from "The Guardian" commented on the music by saying that ""Hard Candy" is a tough, nuggety confection offering plenty for listeners to get their teeth into. [...] Whenever [it] threatens to get boring, something always happens to recapture your interest." Sarah Hajibegari from "The Times" felt that while ""Hard Candy" is no disaster", the album's producers have "already done the same thing with Nelly Furtado, Britney Spears and Gwen Stefani." Andy Gill from "The Independent" said that the album portrayed Madonna as "how a once diverse talent has ossified into simply satisfying the sweet tooth of functional dance-pop." Thomas Hausner from "PopMatters" wrote that the album "is overpopulated with recycled pop that is indistinguishable and artificial, something Madonna's soothing arpeggiating vocals cannot alleviate".


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Tom Ewing from "Pitchfork" wondered "after listening [to the album], the question's still open—nobody involved in "Hard Candy" is anywhere near their creative peak!" Sal Cinquemani from "Slant Magazine" was disappointed with the album and said, "Madonna hasn't delivered this many vapid floor fillers on one disc since her debut, and maybe not even then. [...] There are few confessions here—nothing political, nothing too spiritual, no talk of fame, war, or the media. It's just what America ordered." Wilfred Young from "NME" felt that "Hard Candy" was "a solid enough album by the standards of most pop tarts, but from the mistress of innovation? Pretty mediocre."


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: Some international publications included "Hard Candy" in their best-of lists of the year. Sohail Hassan from the Danish magazine "Gaffa" named it one of the Top 10 Best Foreign Albums of the year, and EFE also included the record among their Top 10 Best Albums of 2008. Jenesaispop included "Hard Candy" in its list of the Best 50 Albums of 2008. The album was also recognized at some international ceremony awards. It won the Album of the Year at the Premios Oye! in Mexico, and was recognized by the Japan Gold Disc Award. "Hard Candy" was nominated in the category of International Pop Album of the Year at the Hungarian Music Awards.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: At its 10th anniversary, Chuck Arnold from "Billboard" stated is not a Madonna "classic album", but in retrospect, he called it as "her last great album". Arnold deemed it as a "sweet victory lap for Madonna as her last of 11 studio albums for Warner Bros., the label where she became the most famous female artist on the planet".


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: After its release, "Hard Candy" debuted at number-one in 37 countries and was the eleventh best-selling album worldwide in 2008, according to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry. The album has sold more than four million copies worldwide. According to Nielsen SoundScan, "Hard Candy" sold 100,000 copies in the United States upon its first day of release. It debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 with over 280,000 copies sold. "Hard Candy" became Madonna's seventh number-one album, making her the female artist with the second most "Billboard" number one albums, behind only Barbra Streisand. The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on June 4, 2008, for shipments of 500,000 copies in the United States. As of December 2016, "Hard Candy" has sold 751,000 copies. In Canada, the album debuted at the top of the Canadian Albums Chart and was certified platinum by the Music Canada (MC) for shipments of 80,000 copies. As of January 2009, the album sold 169,000 units in Canada according to Nielsen Company.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: In Australia, "Hard Candy" became Madonna's seventh album to reach number one on the ARIA Albums Chart. The album was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 copies there. In New Zealand, "Hard Candy" debuted and peaked at number five on May 5, 2008, staying on the chart for nine weeks. The album debuted at number one on the Oricon weekly album chart in Japan, selling around 55,462 copies, retaining that position for a second week due to an increase of sales to almost 80,000 copies. "Hard Candy" was her first album to top the chart in 18 years since "I'm Breathless" (1990). Madonna also became the first international artist in Japanese chart history to have number-one albums in three consecutive decades. In Latin America, the album reached number three in Mexico and was certified platinum. In Argentina, the album reached the number one spot in the weekly charts and number three on the Monthly Album chart of CAPIF, and was certified platinum. It was also certified gold in Chile. The album was particularly successful in Brazil, where the songs "4 Minutes", "Give It 2 Me", "Heartbeat", "Beat Goes On" and "Candy Shop" were all certified platinum, for sales of 60,000 copies of the songs as digital downloads.


title: Hard Candy (Madonna album)

text: "Hard Candy" also debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, making Madonna one of the few artists to achieve ten number one albums, behind Elvis Presley, with eleven, and the Beatles, with fifteen. The album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for shipments of over 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. According to the Official Charts Company, "Hard Candy" has sold 335,523 copies in the UK, as of September 2009. It also reached the top of the European Top 100 Albums chart. In Germany, the album debuted at the top of the Media Control Charts and was present for forty weeks. In Ireland, the album debuted at the top of the Irish charts, replacing "25 Years – 25 Songs" by Mary Black. "Hard Candy" also topped the albums chart in France. It sold 37,963 units in the first two days and was certified platinum by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP) for shipment of 200,000 copies. "Hard Candy" was also the best-selling international album of 2008 in Italy according to "Musica e dischi" with over 170,000 units sold.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: Jeffrey William Van Gundy (born January 19, 1962) is an American commentator for ESPN and former basketball coach. He served as head coach of the New York Knicks and the Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). During his tenure on the Knicks, he led the team to the 1999 NBA Finals, where they ultimately lost to the San Antonio Spurs.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: Van Gundy was born in Hemet, California, and grew up in the town of Martinez, California. He is the son of a basketball coach, Bill Van Gundy, the former head coach at SUNY Brockport and at Genesee Community College. Jeff's elder brother, Stan, later became head coach of the NBA's Miami Heat, Orlando Magic, and the New Orleans Pelicans, and is the former head coach and director of basketball operations for the Detroit Pistons.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: As a high-school point guard, Van Gundy was a two-time All Greater Rochester selection in 1979 and 1980, leading Brockport Central to the Class AA finals. He continued his basketball playing career at Nazareth College, where he earned All-American honors, while leading the Golden Flyers to an NCAA Division III Tournament berth in 1984. He remains the Nazareth career leader in free throw percentage, at 86.8%.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: Van Gundy attended Yale University, where he was a classmate with Jodie Foster, before transferring to Menlo College, and ultimately graduating from New York's Nazareth College, in 1985.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: Van Gundy began his basketball coaching career during the 1985–86 season, at McQuaid Jesuit High School, in Rochester, New York. The following year, he became a graduate assistant under head coach Rick Pitino, at Providence College, helping the Providence Friars advance to the Final Four. In his second season with the Friars, he was promoted to assistant coach under Gordon Chiesa. The next season, Van Gundy became an assistant coach under Bob Wenzel, at Rutgers.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: On July 28, 1989, Van Gundy became an assistant coach for the New York Knicks. He spent the next six-and-a-half seasons providing support to Knicks head coaches Stu Jackson (1989–1990), John MacLeod (1990–1991), Pat Riley (1991–1995), and Don Nelson (1995–1996). During his tenure as an assistant coach, the Knicks won three Atlantic Division titles, never finished lower than third in the division, and qualified for the playoffs every year. The Knicks advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals in 1993, and the NBA Finals versus the Houston Rockets in 1994.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: On March 8, 1996, Van Gundy was named head coach of the New York Knicks, taking over the reins from Don Nelson. In his second game as head coach, he notably led the Knicks to a 32–point blowout win over the Michael Jordan-led Chicago Bulls, who had eliminated the Knicks from the playoffs four times since 1989. However, Van Gundy was unable to change that trend in the postseason, as the Knicks fell to Chicago in the conference semifinals.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: In his first full season as head coach, the Knicks tied for the third-best record in franchise history, at 57–25. In the regular season finale, the Knicks defeated the 69–12 Chicago Bulls in Chicago, preventing them from posting two consecutive 70-win seasons in a row, and tying the best home record in NBA history. Van Gundy created a memorable scene in the 1998 NBA Playoffs series between the New York Knicks and the Miami Heat. When the Heat's 6'10" (2.08 m), 240 lb. (109 kg) center Alonzo Mourning, and the Knicks' 6'7" (2.01 m), 250 lb. (113 kg) power forward Larry Johnson, engaged in a bench-clearing brawl, Van Gundy unsuccessfully tried to break the fight up. Most memorably, the 5'9" (1.75 m), 165 lb. (75 kg) Van Gundy fell to the floor, and clung to Mourning's leg. Suspensions were handed down for the brawl, but the Knicks held on to win the series 3-2 and moved on to play the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference semi-finals.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: In the lockout–shortened 1998–99 season, the Knicks struggled with injuries (namely to all-star Patrick Ewing) and finished 27–23 to finish as the eighth seed for the playoffs (they had to win six of their remaining eight games just to qualify). In the first round of the playoffs, the Knicks defied expectations and defeated the Heat in five games, avenging the previous season's playoff loss and becoming just the second 8th seed to defeat the number one seed in the playoffs. The win propelled an improbable run for the Knicks, as they swept the Hawks in the semifinals, and defeated the Pacers in six games, to advance to the NBA Finals. Without Ewing, they were no match in the Finals against the Spurs, and lost the series in five games. The Knicks were the first eighth-seeded team in NBA history to reach the NBA Finals.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: The Knicks followed up their Finals run with a 50–32 season, and advanced to the Conference Finals, where they were defeated by the Indiana Pacers. Until the 2013 playoffs, this was the last time the Knicks won a playoff series.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: In a 2001 game between the Spurs and Knicks, Danny Ferry elbowed Marcus Camby. While talking to the referee, Camby lost control and tried to punch Ferry. Camby missed and hit Van Gundy instead, who said he learned his lesson about trying to break up fights between players. The Knicks finished 48–34, but lost in the first round to the Raptors.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: Just 19 games into the 2001–02 season, Van Gundy resigned from the Knicks' head coach position. The move was unexpected, as the Knicks were on a winning streak, and coming off a 14–point victory against the Milwaukee Bucks.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: On June 10, 2003, Van Gundy was named head coach of the Houston Rockets, replacing Rudy Tomjanovich. In his first season as the team's head coach, the Rockets finished with a 45–37 record, and qualified for the playoffs for the first time in five years, but they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs by the Los Angeles Lakers.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: In his second season with the Rockets, Van Gundy guided the team, led by the Yao Ming / Tracy McGrady duo, to a 51–31 record, which was their first season with more than 50 wins in eight years. The Rockets once again lost in the first round of the playoffs, this time to the Dallas Mavericks.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: McGrady and Yao missed a combined 70 games due to injury in the 2005–06 season, and Van Gundy did not make the playoffs for the first time in his NBA head coaching career. In May 2005, Van Gundy was fined $100,000 by the NBA, for accusing referees of targeting Houston Rockets center Yao Ming. Van Gundy blamed Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban for causing the referees' alleged bias. This is the largest fine handed down to a coach in NBA history.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: The injuries and disappointments continued for the Rockets into the following season, with injuries limiting Yao to just 48 games played, and McGrady also not fully recovered from his injuries. The Rockets went on a late season run, on the back of a resurgence from McGrady, but another first round playoff loss, this time to the Utah Jazz, sealed Van Gundy's fate as the team's head coach. At the conclusion of their decisive Game 7 loss in the first round of the playoffs, Van Gundy was fired, and then replaced by Rick Adelman.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: In July 2017, it was announced that Van Gundy would be the head coach of the senior United States men's national basketball team at the 2017 FIBA AmeriCup tournament, and in the qualifiers for the 2019 FIBA World Cup in China. USA head coach Gregg Popovich would then resume coaching the team at the World Cup, and at the 2020 Summer Olympics, should they qualify for either. Team USA became Van Gundy's first coaching job since leaving the Rockets in 2007.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: Van Gundy went on to guide the US to the gold medal at the 2017 FIBA AmeriCup, and also to qualify for the 2019 FIBA World Cup.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: Following his firing from the Houston Rockets in 2007, Van Gundy was a guest analyst for ESPN's broadcast of the Phoenix Suns-San Antonio Spurs game in San Antonio, Texas, and he has since been a regular broadcast member for ESPN. He now calls games as a color commentator with play-by-play announcer Mike Breen and Mark Jackson, including the NBA Finals.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: Jeff Van Gundy was an executive board member of Pro-Vision Academy, a charter school and non-profit organization in Houston, that provides educational, job-training, and mentoring services to boys and girls aged 10–18.


title: Jeff Van Gundy

text: On May 8, 2011, Van Gundy received an honorary degree of Doctor of Humane Letters, from his alma mater, Nazareth College, during the college's 84th Annual Commencement Ceremony.


title: Geʽez

text: Geez (; ' , and sometimes referred to in scholarly literature as Classical Ethiopic) is an ancient Ethiopian Semitic language. The language originates from what is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea.


title: Geʽez

text: Today, Geez is used as the main liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the Ethiopian Catholic Church and Eritrean Catholic Church, and the Beta Israel Jewish community.


title: Geʽez

text: The closest living languages to Geez are Tigre and Tigrinya, with lexical similarity at 71% and 68%, respectively. Most linguists believe that Geez does not constitute a common ancestor of modern Ethio-Semitic languages but became a separate language early on from another hypothetical unattested common language.


title: Geʽez

text: Historically, has a basic correspondence with Proto-Semitic short and , with short , the vowels with Proto-Semitic long respectively, and with the Proto-Semitic diphthongs and . In Geʽez there still exist many alternations between and , less so between and , e.g. "taloku" ~ "talawku" ("I followed").


title: Geʽez

text: In the transcription employed by the Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, which is widely employed in academia, the contrast here represented as a/ā is represented as ä/a.


title: Geʽez

text: Geez is transliterated according to the following system (see the phoneme table below for IPA values):


title: Geʽez

text: Because Geez is no longer spoken in daily life by large communities, the early pronunciation of some consonants is not completely certain. Gragg writes that "[t]he consonants corresponding to the graphemes (Geez ) and (Geez ) have merged with ሰ and ጸ respectively in the phonological system represented by the traditional pronunciation—and indeed in all modern Ethiopian Semitic. ... There is, however, no evidence either in the tradition or in Ethiopian Semitic [for] what value these consonants may have had in Geez."


title: Geʽez

text: A similar problem is found for the consonant transliterated . Gragg notes that it corresponds in etymology to velar or uvular fricatives in other Semitic languages, but it is pronounced exactly the same as in the traditional pronunciation. Though the use of a different letter shows that it must originally have had some other pronunciation, what that pronunciation was is not certain.


title: Geʽez

text: The chart below lists and as possible values for () and () respectively. It also lists as a possible value for (). These values are tentative, but based on the reconstructed Proto-Semitic consonants that they are descended from.


title: Geʽez

text: The following table presents the consonants of the Geez language. The reconstructed phonetic value of a phoneme is given in IPA transcription, followed by its representation in the Geez script and scholarly transliteration.


title: Geʽez

text: Geez consonants have a triple opposition between voiceless, voiced, and ejective (or emphatic) obstruents. The Proto-Semitic "emphasis" in Geez has been generalized to include emphatic . Geʽez has phonologized labiovelars, descending from Proto-Semitic biphonemes. Geez ś Sawt (in Amharic, also called "śe-nigūś", i.e. the "se" letter used for spelling the word "nigūś" "king") is reconstructed as descended from a Proto-Semitic voiceless lateral fricative . Like Arabic, Geez merged Proto-Semitic š and s in (also called "se-isat": the "se" letter used for spelling the word "isāt" "fire"). Apart from this, Geez phonology is comparably conservative; the only other Proto-Semitic phonological contrasts lost may be the interdental fricatives and ghayn.


title: Geʽez

text: There is no evidence within the script of stress rules in the ancient period, but stress patterns exist within the liturgical tradition(s). Accounts of these patterns are, however, contradictory. One early 20th-century account may be broadly summarized as follows:


title: Geʽez

text: As one example of a discrepancy, a different late 19th-century account says the masculine singular imperative is stressed on the ultima (e.g. "nəgə́r", "speak!"), and that, in some patterns, words can be stressed on the third-, fourth- or even fifth-to-last syllable (e.g. "bárakata").


title: Geʽez

text: Due to the high predictability of stress location in most words, textbooks, dictionaries and grammars generally do not mark it. Minimal pairs do exist, however, such as "yənaggərá" ("he speaks to her", with the pronoun suffix "-(h)á" "her") vs. "yənaggə́ra" ("they speak", feminine plural), both written .


title: Geʽez

text: Geʽez distinguishes two genders, masculine and feminine, the latter of which is sometimes marked with the suffix , e.g. ("sister"). These are less strongly distinguished than in other Semitic languages, as many nouns not denoting humans can be used in either gender: in translated Christian texts there is even a tendency for nouns to follow the gender of the noun with a corresponding meaning in Greek.


title: Geʽez

text: There are two numbers, singular and plural. The plural can be constructed either by suffixing to a word (regardless of gender, but often if it's a male human noun), or by using an internal plural.


title: Geʽez

text: Nouns also have two cases: the nominative, which is not marked, and the accusative, which is marked with final . As in other Semitic languages, there are at least two "states", absolute (unmarked) and construct (marked with as well). This effectively makes nouns decline as follows, using ("elder, chief"):


title: Geʽez

text: As in Akkadian and Classical/Standard Arabic, singular and plural nouns take the same final inflectional affixes for case and state, as number morphology is achieved via attaching a suffix to the stem and/or an internal change in the stem.


title: Geʽez

text: There is some morphological interaction between consonant-final nouns and a pronoun suffix. For example, when followed by ("my"), in both nominative and accusative the resulting form is (i.e. the accusative is "not" ), but with ("your", masculine singular) there's a distinction between nominative and accusative , and similarly with ("his") between nominative (< ) and accusative (< ).


title: Geʽez

text: Quadriconsonantal and some triconsonantal nouns follow the following pattern. Triconsonantal nouns that take this pattern must have at least one "long" vowel (namely ).


title: Geʽez

text: Relative clauses are introduced by a pronoun which agrees in gender and number with the preceding noun:


title: Geʽez

text: As in many Semitic languages, possession by a noun phrase is shown through the construct state. In Geʽez, this is formed by suffixing /-a/ to the possessed noun, which is followed by the possessor, as in the following examples:


title: Geʽez

text: Possession by a pronoun is indicated by a suffix on the possessed noun, as seen in the following table:


title: Geʽez

text: Another common way of indicating possession by a noun phrase combines the pronominal suffix on a noun with the possessor preceded by the preposition /la=/ 'to, for':


title: Geʽez

text: Lambdin notes that in comparison to the construct state, this kind of possession is only possible when the possessor is definite and specific. Lambdin also notes that the construct state is the unmarked form of possession in Geʽez.


title: Geʽez

text: There are three special prepositions, /ba=/ 'in, with', /la=/ 'to, for', /ʼəm=/ 'from', which always appear as clitics, as in the following examples:


title: Geʽez

text: The normal word order for declarative sentences is VSO. Objects of verbs show accusative case marked with the suffix /-a/:


title: Geʽez

text: Questions with a wh-word ('who', 'what', etc.) show the question word at the beginning of the sentence:


title: Geʽez

text: The common way of negation is the prefix "ʾi-" which descends from "ʾəy-" (which is attested in Axum inscriptions), from earlier *"ʾay", from Proto-Semitic "*ʾal" by palatalization. It is prefixed to verbs as follows:


title: Geʽez

text: Geʽez is written with Ethiopic or the Geʽez abugida, a script that was originally developed specifically for this language. In languages that use it, such as Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called "", which means script or alphabet.


title: Geʽez

text: The Geʽez script has been adapted to write other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread use is for Amharic in Ethiopia and Tigrinya in Eritrea and Ethiopia. It is also used for Sebatbeit, Meʼen, Agew, and most other languages of Ethiopia. In Eritrea it is used for Tigre, and it is often used for Bilen, a Cushitic language. Some other languages in the Horn of Africa, such as Oromo, used to be written using Geʽez but have switched to Latin-based alphabets.


title: Geʽez

text: It also uses four series of consonant signs for labialized velar consonants, which are variants of the non-labialized velar consonants:


title: Geʽez

text: Although it is often said that Geʽez literature is dominated by the Bible including the Deuterocanonical books, in fact there are many medieval and early modern original texts in the language. Most of its important works are also the literature of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, which include Christian liturgy (service books, prayers, hymns), hagiographies, and Patristic literature. For instance, around 200 texts were written about indigenous Ethiopian saints from the fourteenth through the nineteenth century. This religious orientation of Geʽez literature was a result of traditional education being the responsibility of priests and monks. "The Church thus constituted the custodian of the nation's culture", notes Richard Pankhurst, and describes the traditional education as follows:


title: Geʽez

text: However, works of history and chronography, ecclesiastical and civil law, philology, medicine, and letters were also written in Geʽez.


title: Geʽez

text: Significant collections of Ethiopian manuscripts are found outside of Ethiopia in France, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The collection in the British Library comprises some 800 manuscripts dating from the 15th to the 20th centuries, notably including magical and divinatory scrolls, and illuminated manuscripts of the 16th to 17th centuries. It was initiated by a donation of 74 codices by the Church of England Missionary Society in the 1830s and 1840s, and substantially expanded by 349 codices, looted by the British from the Emperor Tewodros II's capital at Magdala in the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City has at least two illuminated manuscripts in Geʽez.


title: Geʽez

text: The Geʽez language is classified as a South Semitic language, though an alternative hypothesis posits that the Semitic languages of Eritrea and Ethiopia may best be considered an independent branch of Semitic, with Geʽez and the closely-related Tigrinya and Tigre languages forming a northern branch (Amharic is a more distant relative).


title: Geʽez

text: Inscriptions dating to the mid-1st millenium BCE, written in the Sabaean language in the epigraphic South Arabian script, have been found in the kingdom of Dʿmt, serving at least as a witness to a presence of speakers of Semitic languages in the region. There is some evidence of Semitic languages being spoken in Eritrea since approximately 2000 BC. Unlike previously assumed, the Geʽez language is now not regarded as an offshoot of Sabaean or any other forms of Old South Arabian.


title: Geʽez

text: Early inscriptions in Geʽez from the Kingdom of Aksum (appearing varyingly in the epigraphic South Arabian script, and unvocalized or vocalized Ethiopic/Geʽez script) have been dated to as early as the 4th century CE. The surviving Geʽez literature properly begins in the same century with the Christianization of the Aksum in the same century, during the reign of Ezana of Aksum. The oldest known example of the Geʽez script, unvocalized and containing religiously pagan references, is found on the Hawulti obelisk in Matara, Eritrea. There exist about a dozen long inscriptions dating to the 4th and 5th centuries, and over 200 short ones.


title: Geʽez

text: The oldest surviving Geʽez manuscript is thought to be the second of the Garima Gospels, dating to the 5th or 6th century. Almost all transmitted texts from this early "Aksumite" period are religious (Christian) in nature, and translated from Greek. Indeed, the range and scope of the translation enterprise undertaken in the first century of the new Axumite church has few parallels in the early centuries of Christian history. The outcome was an Ethiopic Bible containing 81 Books: 46 of the Old Testament and 35 of the New. A number of these Books are called "deuterocanonical" (or "apocryphal" according to certain Western theologians), such as the Ascension of Isaiah, Jubilees, Enoch, the Paralipomena of Baruch, Noah, Ezra, Nehemiah, Maccabees, and Tobit. The Book of Enoch in particular is notable since its complete text has survived in no other language; and, for the other works listed, the Ethiopic version is highly regarded as a witness to the original text.


title: Geʽez

text: Also to this early period dates Qerlos, a collection of Christological writings beginning with the treatise of Saint Cyril (known as "Hamanot Reteʼet" or "De Recta Fide"). These works are the theological foundation of the Ethiopic Church. In the later 5th century, the Aksumite Collection—an extensive selection of liturgical, theological, synodical and historical materials—was translated into Geʽez from Greek, providing a fundamental set of instructions and laws for the developing Axumite Church. Included in this collection is a translation of the Apostolic Tradition (attributed to Hippolytus of Rome, and lost in the original Greek) for which the Ethiopic version provides much the best surviving witness. Another important religious document is "Serʼata Paknemis", a translation of the monastic Rules of Pachomius. Non-religious works translated in this period include "Physiologus", a work of natural history also very popular in Europe.


title: Geʽez

text: After the decline of the Aksumites, a lengthy gap follows; Some writers consider the period beginning from the 14th century an actual "Golden Age" of Geʽez literature—although by this time Geʽez was no longer a living language; in particular in the major enterprise of translating an extensive library of Coptic Arabic religious works into Ge'ez.


title: Geʽez

text: While there is ample evidence that it had been replaced by Amharic in the south and by Tigrinya and Tigre in the north, Geʽez remained in use as the official written language until the 19th century, its status comparable to that of Medieval Latin in Europe.


title: Geʽez

text: Also at this time the "Apostolic Constitutions" was retranslated into Geʽez from Arabic. Another translation from this period is Zena ʼAyhud, a translation (probably from an Arabic translation) of Joseph ben Gurion's "History of the Jews" ("Sefer Josippon") written in Hebrew in the 10th century, which covers the period from the Captivity to the capture of Jerusalem by Titus.


title: Geʽez

text: Apart from theological works, the earliest contemporary Royal Chronicles of Ethiopia are date to the reign of Amda Seyon I (1314–44). With the appearance of the "Victory Songs" of Amda Seyon, this period also marks the beginning of Amharic literature.


title: Geʽez

text: The 14th century "Kebra Nagast" or "Glory of the Kings" by the Neburaʼed Yeshaq of Aksum is among the most significant works of Ethiopian literature, combining history, allegory and symbolism in a retelling of the story of the Queen of Sheba (i.e., Saba), King Solomon, and their son Menelik I of Ethiopia. Another work that began to take shape in this period is the "Mashafa Aksum" or "Book of Axum".


title: Geʽez

text: The early 15th century "Fekkare Iyasus" "The Explication of Jesus" contains a prophecy of a king called "Tewodros", which rose to importance in 19th century Ethiopia as Tewodros II chose this throne name.


title: Geʽez

text: Literature flourished especially during the reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob. Written by the Emperor himself were "Matsʼhafe Berhan" ("The Book of Light") and "Matshafe Milad" ("The Book of Nativity"). Numerous homilies were written in this period, notably "Retuʼa Haimanot" ("True Orthodoxy") ascribed to John Chrysostom. Also of monumental importance was the appearance of the Geʽez translation of the Fetha Negest ("Laws of the Kings"), thought to have been around 1450, and ascribed to one Petros Abda Sayd — that was later to function as the supreme Law for Ethiopia, until it was replaced by a modern Constitution in 1931.


title: Geʽez

text: By the beginning of the 16th century, the Islamic invasions put an end to the flourishing of Ethiopian literature.


title: Geʽez

text: A letter of Abba ʼEnbaqom (or "Habakkuk") to Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, entitled "Anqasa Amin" ("Gate of the Faith"), giving his reasons for abandoning Islam, although probably first written in Arabic and later rewritten in an expanded Geʽez version around 1532, is considered one of the classics of later Geʽez literature. During this period, Ethiopian writers begin to address differences between the Ethiopian and the Roman Catholic Church in such works as the "Confession" of Emperor Gelawdewos, "Sawana Nafs" ("Refuge of the Soul"), "Fekkare Malakot" ("Exposition of the Godhead") and "Haymanote Abaw" ("Faith of the Fathers"). Around the year 1600, a number of works were translated from Arabic into Geʽez for the first time, including the "Chronicle" of John of Nikiu and the "Universal History" of George Elmacin.


title: Geʽez

text: Geʽez is the liturgical language of Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo, Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo, Ethiopian Catholic and Eritrean Catholic Christians and the Beta Israel (Falasha Jews), and is used in prayer and in scheduled public celebrations.


title: Geʽez

text: The liturgical rite used by the Christian churches is referred to as the Ethiopic Rite or the Geʽez Rite.


title: Martin de Porres

text: Martín de Porres Velázquez (9 December 1579 – 3 November 1639) was a Peruvian lay brother of the Dominican Order who was beatified in 1837 by Pope Gregory XVI and canonized in 1962 by Pope John XXIII. He is the patron saint of mixed-race people, barbers, innkeepers, public health workers, and all those seeking racial harmony.


title: Martin de Porres

text: He was noted for his work on behalf of the poor, establishing an orphanage and a children's hospital. He maintained an austere lifestyle, which included fasting and abstaining from meat. Among the many miracles attributed to him were those of levitation, bilocation, miraculous knowledge, instantaneous cures, and an ability to communicate with animals.


title: Martin de Porres

text: Martin was born in the city of Lima, Viceroyalty of Peru, on 9 December 1579. He was the illegitimate son of a Spanish nobleman, Don Juan de Porras y de la Peña, and Ana Velázquez, a freed slave of African and Native descent. He had a sister named Juana de Porres, born two years later in 1581. After the birth of his sister, the father abandoned the family. Ana Velázquez supported her children by taking in laundry. He grew up in poverty and, when his mother could not support him, Martin was sent to a primary school for two years, and then placed with a barber/surgeon to learn the medical arts. He spent hours of the night in prayer, a practice which increased as he grew older.


title: Martin de Porres

text: Under Peruvian law, descendants of Africans and Native Americans were barred from becoming full members of religious orders. The only route open to Martin was to ask the Dominicans of Holy Rosary Priory in Lima to accept him as a "donado", a volunteer who performed menial tasks in the monastery in return for the privilege of wearing the habit and living with the religious community. At the age of 15 he asked for admission to the Dominican Convent of the Rosary in Lima and was received first as a servant boy, and as his duties grew he was promoted to almoner.


title: Martin de Porres

text: Martin continued to practice his old trades of barbering and healing and was said to have performed many miraculous cures. He also took on kitchen work, laundry, and cleaning. After eight years at Holy Rosary, the prior Juan de Lorenzana decided to turn a blind eye to the law and permit Martin to take his vows as a member of the Third Order of Saint Dominic. Holy Rosary was home to 300 men, not all of whom accepted the decision of De Lorenzana: one of the novices called Martin a "mulatto dog", while one of the priests mocked him for being illegitimate and descended from slaves.


title: Martin de Porres

text: When Martin was 24, he was allowed to profess religious vows as a Dominican lay brother in 1603. He is said to have several times refused this elevation in status, which may have come about due to his father's intervention, and he never became a priest. It is said that when his convent was in debt, he implored them: "I am only a poor mulatto, sell me." Martin was deeply attached to the Blessed Sacrament, and he was praying in front of it one night when the step of the altar he was kneeling on caught fire. Throughout all the confusion and chaos that followed, he remained where he was, unaware of what was happening around him.


title: Martin de Porres

text: When Martin was 34, after he had been given the religious habit of a lay brother, he was assigned to the infirmary, where he was placed in charge and would remain in service until his death at the age of 59. He was known for his care of the sick. His superiors saw in him the virtues necessary to exercise unfailing patience in this difficult role. It was not long before miracles were attributed to him. Martin also cared for the sick outside his convent, often bringing them healing with only a simple glass of water. He ministered without distinction to Spanish nobles and to slaves recently brought from Africa. One day an aged beggar, covered with ulcers and almost naked, stretched out his hand, and Martin took him to his own bed. When one of his brethren reproved him, Martin replied: "Compassion, my dear Brother, is preferable to cleanliness."


title: Martin de Porres

text: When an epidemic struck Lima, there were in this single Convent of the Rosary 60 friars who were sick, many of them novices in a distant and locked section of the convent, separated from the professed. Martin is said to have passed through the locked doors to care for them, a phenomenon which was reported in the residence more than once. The professed, too, saw him suddenly beside them without the doors having been opened. Martin continued to transport the sick to the convent until the provincial superior, alarmed by the contagion threatening the friars, forbade him to continue to do so. His sister, who lived in the country, offered her house to lodge those whom the residence of the religious could not hold. One day he found on the street a poor Indian, bleeding to death from a dagger wound, and took him to his own room until he could transport him to his sister's hospice. The prior, when he heard of this, reprimanded him for disobedience. He was extremely edified, however, by his reply: "Forgive my error, and please instruct me, for I did not know that the precept of obedience took precedence over that of charity." The prior gave him liberty thereafter to follow his inspirations in the exercise of mercy.


title: Martin de Porres

text: Martin did not eat meat. He begged for alms to procure necessities the convent could not provide. In normal times, Martin succeeded with his alms to feed 160 poor persons every day, and distributed a remarkable sum of money every week to the indigent. Side by side with his daily work in the kitchen, laundry and infirmary, Martin's life is said to have reflected extraordinary gifts: ecstasies that lifted him into the air, light filling the room where he prayed, bilocation, miraculous knowledge, instantaneous cures and a remarkable rapport with animals. He founded a residence for orphans and abandoned children in the city of Lima.


title: Martin de Porres

text: Martin was a friend of both Saint Juan Macías, a fellow Dominican lay brother, and Saint Rose of Lima, another lay Dominican. By his death on 3 November 1639, he had won the affection and respect of many of his fellow Dominicans as well as a host of people outside the priory. Word of his miracles had made him known as a saint throughout the region. As his body was displayed to allow the people of the city to pay their respects, each person snipped a tiny piece of his habit to keep as a relic. It is said that three habits were taken from the body. His body was then interred in the grounds of the monastery.


title: Martin de Porres

text: After De Porres died, the miracles and graces received when he was invoked multiplied in such profusion that his body was exhumed after 25 years and his body was supposedly found intact, and exuded a fine fragrance. Letters to Rome pleaded for his beatification; the decree affirming the heroism of his virtues was issued in 1763 by Pope Clement XIII.