title: Sense of smell

text: After binding the odorant, the receptor is activated and will send a signal to the glomeruli in the olfactory bulb. Each glomerulus receives signals from multiple receptors that detect similar odorant features. Because several receptor types are activated due to the different chemical features of the odorant, several glomeruli are activated as well. The signals from the glomeruli are transformed to a pattern of oscillations of neural activities of the mitral cells, the output neurons from the olfactory bulb. Olfactory bulb sends this pattern to the olfactory cortex. Olfactory cortex is thought to have associative memories, so that it resonates to this bulbar pattern when the odor object is recognized. The cortex sends centrifugal feedback to the bulb. This feedback could suppress bulbar responses to the recognized odor objects, causing olfactory adaptation to background odors, so that the newly arrived foreground odor objects could be singled out for better recognition. During odor search, feedback could also be used to enhance odor detection. The distributed code allows the brain to detect specific odors in mixtures of many background odors.


title: Sense of smell

text: It is a general idea that the layout of brain structures corresponds to physical features of stimuli (called topographic coding), and similar analogies have been made in smell with concepts such as a layout corresponding to chemical features (called chemotopy) or perceptual features. While chemotopy remains a highly controversial concept, evidence exists for perceptual information implemented in the spatial dimensions of olfactory networks.


title: Sense of smell

text: Many animals, including most mammals and reptiles, but not humans, have two distinct and segregated olfactory systems: a main olfactory system, which detects volatile stimuli, and an accessory olfactory system, which detects fluid-phase stimuli. Behavioral evidence suggests that these fluid-phase stimuli often function as pheromones, although pheromones can also be detected by the main olfactory system. In the accessory olfactory system, stimuli are detected by the vomeronasal organ, located in the vomer, between the nose and the mouth. Snakes use it to smell prey, sticking their tongue out and touching it to the organ. Some mammals make a facial expression called flehmen to direct stimuli to this organ.


title: Sense of smell

text: The sensory receptors of the accessory olfactory system are located in the vomeronasal organ. As in the main olfactory system, the axons of these sensory neurons project from the vomeronasal organ to the accessory olfactory bulb, which in the mouse is located on the dorsal-posterior portion of the main olfactory bulb. Unlike in the main olfactory system, the axons that leave the accessory olfactory bulb do not project to the brain's cortex but rather to targets in the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and from there to the hypothalamus, where they may influence aggression and mating behavior.


title: Sense of smell

text: Insect olfaction refers to the function of chemical receptors that enable insects to detect and identify volatile compounds for foraging, predator avoidance, finding mating partners (via pheromones) and locating oviposition habitats. Thus, it is the most important sensation for insects. Most important insect behaviors must be timed perfectly which is dependent on what they smell and when they smell it. For example, smell is essential for hunting in many species of wasps, including "Polybia sericea".


title: Sense of smell

text: The two organs insects primarily use for detecting odors are the antennae and specialized mouth parts called the maxillary palps. However, a recent study has demonstrated the olfactory role of ovipositor in fig wasps. Inside of these olfactory organs there are neurons called olfactory receptor neurons which, as the name implies, house receptors for scent molecules in their cell membranes. The majority of olfactory receptor neurons typically reside in the antenna. These neurons can be very abundant, for example "Drosophila" flies have 2,600 olfactory sensory neurons.


title: Sense of smell

text: Insects are capable of smelling and differentiating between thousands of volatile compounds both sensitively and selectively. Sensitivity is how attuned the insect is to very small amounts of an odorant or small changes in the concentration of an odorant. Selectivity refers to the insects' ability to tell one odorant apart from another. These compounds are commonly broken into three classes: short chain carboxylic acids, aldehydes and low molecular weight nitrogenous compounds. Some insects, such as the moth "Deilephila elpenor", use smell as a means to find food sources.


title: Sense of smell

text: The tendrils of plants are especially sensitive to airborne volatile organic compounds. Parasites such as dodder make use of this in locating their preferred hosts and locking on to them. The emission of volatile compounds is detected when foliage is browsed by animals. Threatened plants are then able to take defensive chemical measures, such as moving tannin compounds to their foliage.


title: Sense of smell

text: Scientists have devised methods for quantifying the intensity of odors, in particular for the purpose of analyzing unpleasant or objectionable odors released by an industrial source into a community. Since the 1800s industrial countries have encountered incidents where proximity of an industrial source or landfill produced adverse reactions among nearby residents regarding airborne odor. The basic theory of odor analysis is to measure what extent of dilution with "pure" air is required before the sample in question is rendered indistinguishable from the "pure" or reference standard. Since each person perceives odor differently, an "odor panel" composed of several different people is assembled, each sniffing the same sample of diluted specimen air. A field olfactometer can be utilized to determine the magnitude of an odor.


title: Sense of smell

text: Many air management districts in the US have numerical standards of acceptability for the intensity of odor that is allowed to cross into a residential property. For example, the Bay Area Air Quality Management District has applied its standard in regulating numerous industries, landfills, and sewage treatment plants. Example applications this district has engaged are the San Mateo, California, wastewater treatment plant; the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California; and the IT Corporation waste ponds, Martinez, California.


title: Sense of smell

text: Viruses can also infect the olfactory epithelium leading to a loss of the sense of olfaction. About 50% of patients with SARS-CoV-2 (causing COVID-19) experience some type of disorder associated with their sense of smell, including anosmia and parosmia. SARS-CoV-1, MERS-CoV and even the flu (influenza virus) can also disrupt olfaction.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: The doctrine of lapse was a policy of annexation initiated by the East India Company in the Indian subcontinent about the princely states, and applied until the year 1858, the year after Company rule was succeeded by the British Raj under the British Crown.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: Elements of the doctrine of lapse continued to be applied by the post-independence Indian government to derecognise individual princely families until 1971, when the recognition of former ruling families was discontinued under the 26th amendment to the Indian constitution by the Indira Gandhi's government.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: At the time of the formal adoption of the doctrine of lapse, the East India Company had administrative jurisdiction over wide regions of the Indian subcontinent, the Presidencies and provinces of British India, and was responsible for the defence of the princely states.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: According to the doctrine, any Indian princely state under the suzerainty of the East India Company, the dominant imperial power in the Indian system of subsidiary alliances, would have its princely status abolished, and therefore be annexed into directly-ruled British India, if the ruler was either "manifestly incompetent or died without a male heir". This supplanted the long-established right of an Indian sovereign without an heir to choose a successor. In addition, the Company took upon itself the power to decide whether potential rulers were competent to rule. The doctrine and its applications were widely regarded as illegitimate by many Indians, leading to resentment against the East India Company.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: The policy is most commonly associated with Lord Dalhousie, who was the East India Company’s Governor General of British India between 1848 and 1856. However, the doctrine was articulated by the Court of Directors of the Company as early as 1834, and several smaller states had already been annexed under this doctrine before Dalhousie took over the post of Governor-General. Dalhousie used the policy most vigorously and extensively, though, so it is generally associated with him.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: By the use of the doctrine of lapse, the Company took over the princely states of Satara (1848), Jaitpur, Sambalpur (1849), Bhagat (1850), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1854), Nagpur (1854), Tore and Arcot (1855). Awadh (1856) is widely believed to have been annexed under the Doctrine, but in fact was annexed by Dalhousie under the pretext of mis-governance. Mostly claiming that the ruler was not ruling properly, the Company added about four million pounds sterling to its annual revenue by this doctrine. However, Udaipur State would later have local princely rule reinstated in 1860.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: With the increasing power of the East India Company, discontent simmered among many sections of Indian society, included disbanded soldiers; these rallied behind the deposed dynasties during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny. Following the rebellion, in 1858, the new British Viceroy of India, whose rule replaced that of the East India Company, renounced the doctrine.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: Dalhousie vigorously applied the lapse doctrine for annexing Indian princely states, but the policy was not solely his invention.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: The princely state of Kittur, ruled by Queen Chennamma, was taken over by the East India Company in 1824, when after the death of her husband and son she adopted a new son and attempted to make him heir to the throne, which the British refused to accept. This development has similarities with the later 'doctrine of lapse', which the Court of Directors of the East India Company articulated early in 1834. As per this policy, the Company annexed Mandvi in 1839, Kolaba, Jalaun in 1840 and Surat in 1842.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: The Doctrine of lapse was widely considered illegitimate by many Indians. By 1848, the British had immense power in India, since they were the "de facto" direct rulers of territories such as the Madras, Bombay, and Bengal Presidencies, Assam, Mysore, and the Punjab, as well as the indirect rulers of princely states of Rajasthan, Sind, Patiala, the Carnatic, and many others.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: Most of the rulers of the remaining states which had not yet been annexed by the British were in a weak position against their mighty forces. Not willing to spend huge amounts of money and soldiers, the Indian rulers had little option but to give in to this policy. This caused increased resentment against the British Empire in India, and was one of the causes of the Uprising of 1857.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: After the Partition of India and the departure of the British in August 1947, British India became India and Pakistan, and within a year almost all of the rulers of the princely states had been persuaded to sign an Instrument of accession to join one of them. As per the terms of these accessions, the two governments continued to recognize the status of the princely rulers, who at first continued to rule; but later they each sought to integrate the states fully into themselves. The rulers were granted monetary compensation in the form of privy purses, which were annual payments in support of the grantees, their families, and their households.


title: Doctrine of lapse

text: In 1964, Maharaja Rajendra Prakash of Sirmur, the last recognized former ruler of Sirmur State, died without either leaving male issue or adopting an heir before his death, although his senior widow subsequently adopted her daughter's son as the successor to the family headship. The Indian government, however, decided that in consequence of the ruler's death, the constitutional status of the family had lapsed. The doctrine of lapse was likewise invoked the following year when the last recognized ruler of Akalkot State died in similar circumstances.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Geordi La Forge ( ) is a fictional character who appeared in all seven seasons of the American science fiction television series "" and its four feature films. Portrayed by LeVar Burton, he served as helmsman of the USS "Enterprise"-D in the , then occupied the role of the chief engineer for the rest of the series and in the films. La Forge has been blind since his birth and uses technological devices that allow him to see – a VISOR in the series and the first film, replaced by ocular prosthetic implants in the last three films.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Gene Roddenberry created the character in honor of George La Forge, a quadriplegic fan of the , who died in 1975. He was not the first to honor La Forge in the "Star Trek" franchise; a character directly named for George La Forge was written into the 1980 "Star Trek" novel "The Galactic Whirlpool" by David Gerrold.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: A casting call was placed with agencies for the role, which described him as friends with Data, and specified that La Forge should have "perfect diction and might even have a Jamaican accent" and instructed those agencies not to submit "any 'street' types."


title: Geordi La Forge

text: LeVar Burton auditioned for the role in 1986. He had previously appeared in "Roots" and other major network shows. He stated that "years ago I was doing a TV movie called "Emergency Room" and it was a fairly miserable experience. But there was a producer on that show, a man named Bob Justman... six, seven years later, I get this call from Bob Justman and he’s working at Paramount on this new Star Trek series and he said I remember your love of the show, we’ve got this character, would you be interested in coming in and seeing us? And I said was [franchise creator] Gene Roddenberry involved? He said he is. And I said I’ll be right there." Roddenberry was very pleased with Burton at his first audition. Among the other actors considered for the role were Wesley Snipes, Reggie Jackson, Kevin Peter Hall, Clarence Gilyard, and Tim Russ, who would later play Tuvok on "".


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Burton also commented that he was anxious about his role, because he feared that "ST:TNG" was going to flop: "At the beginning, you know, there was a lot of conversation in the press at what a bad idea this was [but] I thought that since Gene was involved we had a real good shot of making a good show that would carry on in that tradition of Star Trek."


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Throughout the series, Burton was equipped with Geordi La Forge's trademark VISOR, which he found extremely unpleasant to wear: "It's pretty much a living hell. 85 to 90% of my vision is taken away when the VISOR goes on. I bumped into everything the first season—light stands, overhead microphones, cables at my feet—I tripped over it all. So it's a sort of conundrum. The blind man, who puts on the VISOR and sees much more than everyone else around him, when the actor actually does that he's turned into a blind person. Then there was the pain. In the second season, we re-designed the VISOR and made it heavier and the way we actually affixed it was that we screwed it, we literally screwed it into my head and so there were screws that we would turn and there were flanges on the inside that would press into my temples and so after fifteen or twenty minutes of that I got headaches. So I had a daily headache for about six years. Which was also no fun."


title: Geordi La Forge

text: During the series, Burton's character was Chief Engineering Officer, and thus was often portrayed repairing machines or discovering new scientific phenomena. Burton commented how hard it sometimes was to deliver the technobabble used by La Forge in these scenes with a straight face: "Technobabble brings with it its own challenge. I'm not an engineer, I just played one on TV. The methodology that I found most successful was to really spit it out as fast as I possibly could. Giving the illusion that I knew what I was talking about when, in fact, I really didn't."


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Asked about his favorite scenes, Burton answered that he especially liked holodeck adventures: "The Holmes and Watson episodes for Data and Geordi, the Robin Hood episode, you know, those were a lot of fun for us. I think the holodeck was a very cool concept, you know. You can create a three dimensional reality. I mean, how cool is that?"


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Following the end of the series, Burton has stated how much he gained from "The Next Generation"; "When I got married my best man was Brent (Spiner, who portrayed the "ST:TNG" character Lieutenant Commander Data) and my groomsmen were Michael (Dorn, Lieutenant Worf) and Jonathan (Frakes, Commander Riker) and Patrick (Stewart, Captain Picard). No matter what, we will always be family to each other. I mean in every respect. There have been times when there have been feuds within the family, when it hasn't been all hugs and kisses. But we have stuck together."


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In the "Star Trek" fictional universe, a VISOR is a device used by the blind to artificially provide them with a sense of sight. A thin, curved device worn over the face like a pair of sunglasses, the VISOR scans the electromagnetic spectrum, creating visual input, and transmits it into the brain of the wearer via the optic nerves. The sensors are located on the convex side, that covers the eyes and attaches at small input jacks implanted in the temples. The only VISOR seen on screen was used by Geordi La Forge, who was blind from birth. VISOR is an acronym for "Visual Instrument and Sight Organ Replacement"; however, the complete term never appeared in the series, but only in novelizations and other written tie-in products.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: The VISOR also caused LaForge some persistent pain, which could not be treated without interfering with the device. Beverly Crusher and Katherine Pulaski, the two high-ranking doctors who served on the ship, were unfamiliar with the device when first meeting La Forge.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: The device does not reproduce normal human vision, but does allow the character to "see" energy phenomena visible to the naked human eye while expanding the wearer's full perceived spectrum to 1 Hz — 100 PHz. This also allowed the character to see human vital signs such as heart rate and temperature, giving him the ability to monitor moods and even detect lies in humans (but not aliens). In the episode Heart of Glory, Captain Picard keys the main viewer to Geordi's visor allowing him to see the way he does. Seeing all the overlapping and different wavelengths was highly confusing to the Captain, prompting him to ask Geordi how he was able to differentiate between them all. Geordi's response made the comparison of a child hearing many different sounds at once and eventually being able to pick out what they needed; it is a learned talent.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In the episode , the access to Geordi's brain through the interface makes him a target of Romulan brainwashing.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In the episode , Geordi uses an experimental interface to his VISOR. In an environment too dangerous for humans to be in, Geordi sees, hears, feels and acts through a robot.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Twice in the series, Geordi refused to be granted natural vision, first by Commander Riker, who had been given extraordinary amounts of power by Q, because it would have come at the cost of Riker's humanity, and later by Doctor Katherine Pulaski.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Sometime between 2371 and 2373, before the time of the film "", Geordi's VISOR was replaced by cybernetic eyes, performing the same functions. On film, they are depicted using a combination of cosmetic contact lenses and CGI.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: There was a short time period in "" where Geordi gained actual eyesight, due to the effects of fictional metaphasic radiation, in the atmosphere of the planet Ba'ku. However, the effects of the metaphasic radiation wore off after leaving the planet, and the cybernetic eyes were once again used in the film "".


title: Geordi La Forge

text: "New Scientist" magazine reported on research as to whether a device similar to a VISOR can actually be created for blind or visually impaired people. Partial sight has been successfully restored to blind rats by installing an implant behind the retina.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Several types of visual prosthesis are in development or trials in humans, and one device has been approved for sale in the European market. , 16 blind people worldwide have had sight partially restored in a procedure where electrodes implanted in their brains take impulses from a camera to allow patients to see lights and outlines of objects. There is a device developed by NASA called a Joint Optical Reflective Display, or JORDY, that is presumably named for Geordi La Forge.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: On August 14, 2012, the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences published an article stating the encoding of image information by the retina into patterns of action potentials has been replicated successfully by a prosthetic device and scientists have successfully restored full vision to blind mice. Scientists were able to mimic this ocular response using glasses, and speculate that a similar pair of glasses may be available for human use within two years.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: LeVar Burton, who played the character of Geordi La Forge, disliked the VISOR prop because it restricted his peripheral vision – albeit less than its prototypes – and the constant pressure of the prop's arms on his temples caused headaches. In commentary for "Star Trek Generations", film writers Ronald D. Moore and Brannon Braga noted Burton also felt the prop limited him as an actor, as it denied him the use of his eyes in conveying emotion. The original prop was inspired by a one-piece women's hair clip brought to production by Michael Okuda during the initial conceptual development of the VISOR prop.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In the series, we learn that Geordi was born blind and wears a VISOR, an arc-shaped prosthetic attached at the temples that provides him with vision. Interfacing directly with his brain, the device enables him to "see" much of the electromagnetic spectrum – radio waves, infrared, ultraviolet, and beyond, but not normal light perception, though it does allow Geordi to see the visible light section of the EM spectrum.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: La Forge was born February 16, 2335, in Mogadishu, Somalia of the African Confederation on Earth to Silva La Forge, a Starfleet command track officer and eventual Captain of the USS "Hera" (NCC-62006) and Edward M. La Forge, a Starfleet exozoologist. He has also mentioned having a sister, Arianna. La Forge stated that with two parents in Starfleet he was an "army brat", frequently moving homes depending on where his parents were stationed around Earth (or other planets), which mirrors Burton's own youth (he was born on an American base in Germany). He attended Zefram Cochrane High School and then Starfleet Academy from 2353 to 2357. In 2357, he was assigned as an ensign aboard the USS "Victory" under Captain Zimbata. After his first cruise, he was transferred to the USS "Hood" serving with then Lt. Commander William Riker for her 2361-64 cruise, during which he was promoted to lieutenant junior grade.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: La Forge once impressed Captain Jean-Luc Picard by staying up all night to fix a shuttle craft that Picard mentioned had a superficial problem. Upon learning this, Picard decided he wanted Geordi on his next command which ended up being the "Enterprise"-D where Geordi was assigned to him as a helmsman. At the beginning of , he was promoted to Lieutenant and named Chief Engineer; in , he rose to Lieutenant Commander, a rank that he held for the duration of the series and movies.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In 2372, Geordi is transferred to the new "Sovereign" class starship "Enterprise"-E. When the ship travels back in time to the 21st century, he works alongside Dr. Zefram Cochrane and helps him successfully launch Earth's first warp-capable vessel and achieve first contact with the Vulcans.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: During the Ba'ku incident, La Forge began to experience pain in his eyes after sojourning on the planet. Doctor Crusher removes his ocular implants to discover that his optic nerves have regenerated and he has gained normal sight. This effect is caused by the healing properties of the Ba'ku ring system and, at the time, it is speculated that the effect will fade after La Forge leaves Ba'ku. This diagnosis proved correct; La Forge again wears the implants in "".


title: Geordi La Forge

text: During the non-canon events of the comic book mini-series "" (a prequel to the 2009 "Star Trek" film), Geordi (now a civilian) is reunited with Data and Picard during an effort to stop a massive supernova that threatens all of existence. Geordi ultimately designs the "Jellyfish", the advanced spacecraft that is piloted by Ambassador Spock in the film.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In the alternate timeline of "TNG" series finale "", La Forge has, by 2395, married "Leah" and had three children (Alandra, Brett, and Sydney) with her. He left Starfleet and became a novelist. However, these events may never happen because of the divergence of the time line at the episode's end.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In the alternate 2390 future in ""s "", La Forge is a captain and the commanding officer of the USS "Challenger", doing his best to stop Harry Kim and Chakotay from altering the time line. He had micro-implants in his eyes, allowing him to see without wearing his visor. However, Kim and Chakotay succeed in their mission, erasing the alternate time line. Despite trying his best to stop them, La Forge is sympathetic to their actions and even offers a full pardon if they stop. When they refuse, La Forge is forced to attack, but wishes them good luck and says that in their place, he would probably do the same. When the group's ship suffers a warp core breach and is going to explode, he offers to beam them aboard his ship so that they can survive, but they refuse and tell him to move off to a safe distance which he does.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In the holographic alternate history depicted in "Future Imperfect", a fictitious La Forge had cloned eye implants and had no need of his VISOR.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: Critics and fans have responded favorably to the character. Burton himself has complained on DVD featurettes about the lack of romantic interests for his character. At least one scholar, however, states that out of seven principal black characters across the "Star Trek" series, only La Forge and Tuvok "really qualify as nerds, and neither of them compares with the extraordinary geekiness of the teenaged Wesley Crusher." According to Dr. Ron Eglash, the construction of the La Forge character stands up to the standards of Afrofuturism.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In David Greven's book "Gender and Sexuality in Star Trek" (2009), he described the use of the VISOR as a means to obscure the face of the character, describing it as a "surprisingly clunky symbol of blindness". However, he felt that the bionic eyes used in the film series were an improvement but followed a pattern of African American eye modifications in fantasy and science fiction films such as Halle Berry as Storm in "X-Men" (2000). Greven suggested that these changes were to create the impression that the wearer was alien in nature and to highlight the difference between that character/actor and the others in the film.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In 2018, TheWrap ranked Geordi as the 11th best main cast character of "Star Trek" shows, noting his ability to come up with technical solutions on short notice and his friendship with Data. In 2016, the character of Geordi was ranked as the 21st most important character of Starfleet within the "Star Trek" science fiction universe by Wired magazine. In 2016, the Hollywood Reporter ranked "" as the 62nd greatest of the "Star Trek" franchise up to that time, noting that LeVar Burton has many great scenes with original cast veteran James Doohan reprising his famous character Scotty.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In 2017, IndieWire rated Geordi as the 8th best character on "Star Trek: The Next Generation". CBR ranked La Forge as the 13th best Starfleet character of "Star Trek", in 2018.


title: Geordi La Forge

text: In 2017, Screen Rant ranked La Forge the 9th most attractive person in the "Star Trek" universe. In 2018, "The Wrap" placed La Forge as 11th out 39 in a ranking of main cast characters of the "Star Trek" franchise prior to "".


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: In computer science, the Knuth–Morris–Pratt string-searching algorithm (or KMP algorithm) searches for occurrences of a "word" codice_1 within a main "text string" codice_2 by employing the observation that when a mismatch occurs, the word itself embodies sufficient information to determine where the next match could begin, thus bypassing re-examination of previously matched characters.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The algorithm was conceived by James H. Morris and independently discovered by Donald Knuth "a few weeks later" from automata theory.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The three also published the algorithm jointly in 1977. Independently, in 1969, Matiyasevich discovered a similar algorithm, coded by a two-dimensional Turing machine, while studying a string-pattern-matching recognition problem over a binary alphabet. This was the first linear-time algorithm for string matching.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: A string-matching algorithm wants to find the starting index codice_3 in string codice_4 that matches the search word codice_5.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The most straightforward algorithm, known as the "Brute-force" or "Naive" algorithm, is to look for a word match at each index codice_3, i.e. the position in the string being searched that corresponds to the character codice_7. At each position codice_3 the algorithm first checks for equality of the first character in the word being searched, i.e. codice_9. If a match is found, the algorithm tests the other characters in the word being searched by checking successive values of the word position index, codice_10. The algorithm retrieves the character codice_11 in the word being searched and checks for equality of the expression codice_12. If all successive characters match in codice_1 at position codice_3, then a match is found at that position in the search string. If the index codice_3 reaches the end of the string then there is no match, in which case the search is said to "fail".


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Usually, the trial check will quickly reject the trial match. If the strings are uniformly distributed random letters, then the chance that characters match is 1 in 26. In most cases, the trial check will reject the match at the initial letter. The chance that the first two letters will match is 1 in 26 (1 in 676). So if the characters are random, then the expected complexity of searching string codice_4 of length "n" is on the order of "n" comparisons or "O"("n"). The expected performance is very good. If codice_4 is 1 million characters and codice_5 is 1000 characters, then the string search should complete after about 1.04 million character comparisons.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: That expected performance is not guaranteed. If the strings are not random, then checking a trial codice_3 may take many character comparisons. The worst case is if the two strings match in all but the last letter. Imagine that the string codice_4 consists of 1 million characters that are all "A", and that the word codice_5 is 999 "A" characters terminating in a final "B" character. The simple string-matching algorithm will now examine 1000 characters at each trial position before rejecting the match and advancing the trial position. The simple string search example would now take about 1000 character comparisons times 1 million positions for 1 billion character comparisons. If the length of codice_5 is "k", then the worst-case performance is "O"("k"⋅"n").


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The KMP algorithm has a better worst-case performance than the straightforward algorithm. KMP spends a little time precomputing a table (on the order of the size of codice_5, "O"("k")), and then it uses that table to do an efficient search of the string in "O"("n").


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The difference is that KMP makes use of previous match information that the straightforward algorithm does not. In the example above, when KMP sees a trial match fail on the 1000th character (codice_10 = 999) because codice_25, it will increment codice_3 by 1, but it will know that the first 998 characters at the new position already match. KMP matched 999 "A" characters before discovering a mismatch at the 1000th character (position 999). Advancing the trial match position codice_3 by one throws away the first "A", so KMP knows there are 998 "A" characters that match codice_5 and does not retest them; that is, KMP sets codice_10 to 998. KMP maintains its knowledge in the precomputed table and two state variables. When KMP discovers a mismatch, the table determines how much KMP will increase (variable codice_3) and where it will resume testing (variable codice_10).


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: To illustrate the algorithm's details, consider a (relatively artificial) run of the algorithm, where codice_1 = "ABCDABD" and codice_2 = "ABC ABCDAB ABCDABCDABDE". At any given time, the algorithm is in a state determined by two integers:


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: In each step the algorithm compares codice_39 with codice_11 and increments codice_10 if they are equal. This is depicted, at the start of the run, like


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The algorithm compares successive characters of codice_1 to "parallel" characters of codice_2, moving from one to the next by incrementing codice_10 if they match. However, in the fourth step codice_45 does not match codice_46. Rather than beginning to search again at codice_47, we note that no codice_48 occurs between positions 1 and 2 in codice_2; hence, having checked all those characters previously (and knowing they matched the corresponding characters in codice_1), there is no chance of finding the beginning of a match. Therefore, the algorithm sets codice_51 and codice_52.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Here, codice_10 increments through a nearly complete match codice_56 until codice_57 giving a mismatch at codice_58 and codice_59. However, just prior to the end of the current partial match, there was that substring codice_60 that could be the beginning of a new match, so the algorithm must take this into consideration. As these characters match the two characters prior to the current position, those characters need not be checked again; the algorithm sets codice_61 (the start of the initial prefix) and codice_62 (signaling the first two characters match) and continues matching. Thus the algorithm not only omits previously matched characters of codice_2 (the codice_60), but also previously matched characters of codice_1 (the prefix codice_60).


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: This search at the new position fails immediately because codice_67 (a codice_68) does not match codice_59 (a codice_70). As in the first trial, the mismatch causes the algorithm to return to the beginning of codice_1 and begins searching at the mismatched character position of codice_2: codice_73, reset codice_52.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Once again, the algorithm matches codice_56, but the next character, codice_68, does not match the final character codice_80 of the word codice_1. Reasoning as before, the algorithm sets codice_82, to start at the two-character string codice_60 leading up to the current position, set codice_62, and continue matching from the current position.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The above example contains all the elements of the algorithm. For the moment, we assume the existence of a "partial match" table codice_86, described below, which indicates where we need to look for the start of a new match when a mismatch is found. The entries of codice_86 are constructed so that if we have a match starting at codice_7 that fails when comparing codice_89 to codice_11, then the next possible match will start at index codice_91 in codice_2 (that is, codice_93 is the amount of "backtracking" we need to do after a mismatch). This has two implications: first, codice_94, which indicates that if codice_95 is a mismatch, we cannot backtrack and must simply check the next character; and second, although the next possible match will "begin" at index codice_91, as in the example above, we need not actually check any of the codice_93 characters after that, so that we continue searching from codice_98. The following is a sample pseudocode implementation of the KMP search algorithm.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Assuming the prior existence of the table codice_86, the search portion of the Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm has complexity "O"("n"), where "n" is the length of codice_2 and the "O" is big-O notation. Except for the fixed overhead incurred in entering and exiting the function, all the computations are performed in the codice_101 loop. To bound the number of iterations of this loop; observe that codice_86 is constructed so that if a match which had begun at codice_7 fails while comparing codice_89 to codice_11, then the next possible match must begin at codice_106. In particular, the next possible match must occur at a higher index than codice_3, so that codice_108.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: This fact implies that the loop can execute at most 2"n" times, since at each iteration it executes one of the two branches in the loop. The first branch invariably increases codice_10 and does not change codice_3, so that the index codice_111 of the currently scrutinized character of codice_2 is increased. The second branch adds codice_113 to codice_3, and as we have seen, this is always a positive number. Thus the location codice_3 of the beginning of the current potential match is increased. At the same time, the second branch leaves codice_111 unchanged, for codice_3 gets codice_113 added to it, and immediately after codice_93 gets assigned as the new value of codice_10, hence codice_121. Now, the loop ends if codice_111 = "n"; therefore, each branch of the loop can be reached at most "n" times, since they respectively increase either codice_111 or codice_3, and codice_125: if codice_3 = "n", then certainly codice_111 ≥ "n", so that since it increases by unit increments at most, we must have had codice_111 = "n" at some point in the past, and therefore either way we would be done.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Thus the loop executes at most 2"n" times, showing that the time complexity of the search algorithm is "O"("n").


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Let us say we begin to match codice_1 and codice_2 at position codice_10 and codice_132. If codice_1 exists as a substring of codice_2 at p, then codice_135.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Upon success, that is, the word and the text matched at the positions (codice_136), we increase codice_10 by 1.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Upon failure, that is, the word and the text do not match at the positions (codice_138), the text pointer is kept still, while the word pointer is rolled back a certain amount (codice_139, where codice_86 is the jump table), and we attempt to match codice_98 with codice_142.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The maximum number of roll-back of codice_10 is bounded by codice_10, that is to say, for any failure, we can only roll back as much as we have progressed up to the failure.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The goal of the table is to allow the algorithm not to match any character of codice_2 more than once. The key observation about the nature of a linear search that allows this to happen is that in having checked some segment of the main string against an "initial segment" of the pattern, we know exactly at which places a new potential match which could continue to the current position could begin prior to the current position. In other words, we "pre-search" the pattern itself and compile a list of all possible fallback positions that bypass a maximum of hopeless characters while not sacrificing any potential matches in doing so.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: We want to be able to look up, for each position in codice_1, the length of the longest possible initial segment of codice_1 leading up to (but not including) that position, other than the full segment starting at codice_95 that just failed to match; this is how far we have to backtrack in finding the next match. Hence codice_93 is exactly the length of the longest possible "proper" initial segment of codice_1 which is also a segment of the substring ending at codice_151. We use the convention that the empty string has length 0. Since a mismatch at the very start of the pattern is a special case (there is no possibility of backtracking), we set codice_94, as discussed below.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: We consider the example of codice_153 first. We will see that it follows much the same pattern as the main search, and is efficient for similar reasons. We set codice_94. To find codice_155, we must discover a proper suffix of codice_156 which is also a prefix of pattern codice_1. But there are no proper suffixes of codice_156, so we set codice_159. To find codice_160, we see that the substring codice_95 - codice_162 (codice_60) has a proper suffix codice_164. However "B" is not a prefix of the pattern codice_1. Therefore, we set codice_166.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Continuing to codice_167, we first check the proper suffix of length 1, and as in the previous case it fails. Should we also check longer suffixes? No, we now note that there is a shortcut to checking "all" suffixes: let us say that we discovered a proper suffix which is a proper prefix (A proper prefix of a string is not equal to the string itself) and ending at codice_67 with length 2 (the maximum possible); then its first character is also a proper prefix of codice_1, hence a proper prefix itself, and it ends at codice_162, which we already determined did not occur as codice_166 and not codice_172. Hence at each stage, the shortcut rule is that one needs to consider checking suffixes of a given size m+1 only if a valid suffix of size m was found at the previous stage (i.e. codice_173) and should not bother to check m+2, m+3, etc.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Therefore, we need not even concern ourselves with substrings having length 2, and as in the previous case the sole one with length 1 fails, so codice_174.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: We pass to the subsequent codice_175, codice_48. The same logic shows that the longest substring we need to consider has length 1, and as in the previous case it fails since "D" is not a prefix of codice_1. But instead of setting codice_178, we can do better by noting that codice_179, and also that a look-up of codice_180 implies the corresponding codice_2 character, codice_182, was a mismatch and therefore codice_183. Thus there is no point in restarting the search at codice_182; we should begin at 1 position ahead. This means that we may shift pattern codice_1 by match length plus one character, so codice_186.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Considering now the next character, codice_187, which is codice_188: though by inspection the longest substring would appear to be codice_48, we still set codice_190. The reasoning is similar to why codice_186. codice_187 itself extends the prefix match begun with codice_175, and we can assume that the corresponding character in codice_2, codice_195. So backtracking before codice_187 is pointless, but codice_197 may be codice_48, hence codice_190.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Finally, we see that the next character in the ongoing segment starting at codice_200 would be codice_188, and indeed this is also codice_187. Furthermore, the same argument as above shows that we need not look before codice_175 to find a segment for codice_58, so that this is it, and we take codice_205.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The example above illustrates the general technique for assembling the table with a minimum of fuss. The principle is that of the overall search: most of the work was already done in getting to the current position, so very little needs to be done in leaving it. The only minor complication is that the logic which is correct late in the string erroneously gives non-proper substrings at the beginning. This necessitates some initialization code.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: The time (and space) complexity of the table algorithm is formula_1, where formula_2 is the length of codice_1.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Combined, the outer and inner loops take at most formula_6 iterations. This corresponds to formula_1 time complexity using the Big O notation.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Since the two portions of the algorithm have, respectively, complexities of codice_217 and codice_218, the complexity of the overall algorithm is codice_219.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: A real-time version of KMP can be implemented using a separate failure function table for each character in the alphabet. If a mismatch occurs on character formula_8 in the text, the failure function table for character formula_8 is consulted for the index formula_10 in the pattern at which the mismatch took place. This will return the length of the longest substring ending at formula_10 matching a prefix of the pattern, with the added condition that the character after the prefix is formula_8. With this restriction, character formula_8 in the text need not be checked again in the next phase, and so only a constant number of operations are executed between the processing of each index of the text. This satisfies the real-time computing restriction.


title: Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm

text: Booth's algorithm uses a modified version of the KMP preprocessing function to find the lexicographically minimal string rotation. The failure function is progressively calculated as the string is rotated.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: In the Hebrew Bible, Jethro (; , lit. "His Excellence/Posterity"; ) was Moses' father-in-law, a Kenite shepherd and priest of Midian, sometimes named as Reuel (or Raguel). In Exodus, Moses' father-in-law is initially referred to as "Reuel" (Exodus 2:18) but afterwards as "Jethro" (Exodus 3:1). He was also identified as Hobab in the Book of Numbers 10:29.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Some Muslim scholars and the Druze identify Jethro with the prophet Shuayb, also said to come from Midian. For the Druze, Shuayb is considered the most important prophet, and the ancestor of all Druze.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Jethro is called a priest of Midian and became father-in-law of Moses after he gave his daughter, Zipporah, in marriage to Moses. He is introduced in .


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Jethro is recorded as living in Midian, a territory stretching along the eastern edge of the Gulf of Aqaba, northwestern Arabia. Some believe Midian is within the Sinai Peninsula. Biblical maps from antiquity show Midian on both locations.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Jethro's daughter, Zipporah, became Moses's wife after Moses had fled Egypt, having killed an Egyptian who was beating a Hebrew slave. Having fled to Midian, Moses intervened in a water-access dispute between Jethro's seven daughters and the local shepherds; Jethro consequently invited Moses into his home and offered him hospitality. However, Moses remained conscious that he was a stranger in exile, naming his first son (Jethro's grandson) "Gershom", meaning "stranger there".


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Moses is said to have worked as a shepherd for Jethro for 40 years before returning to Egypt to lead the Hebrews to Canaan, the "promised land". After the Battle at Rephidim against the Amalekites, word reached Jethro that under Moses' leadership the Israelites had been delivered out of Egypt, so he set out to meet with Moses. They met in the wilderness at the "Mountain of God"; Moses recounted to Jethro all that had taken place, and then, according to Exodus 18:9–12a:


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Following this event, it was Jethro who encouraged Moses to appoint others to share in the burden of ministry to the nation Israel by allowing others to help in the judgment of smaller matters coming before him.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: There is some disagreement over the name(s) of Moses' father-in-law. In the KJV translation of , a man named Hobab appears as Moses' father-in-law, while makes him "the son of Raguel [Reuel] the Midianite, Moses' father in law". Reuel is noted , as "a priest of Midian" who had seven daughters. "the girls returned to Reuel their father". Reuel becomes Moses' father in law in "Moses agreed to stay with the man, who gave his daughter Zipporah to Moses in marriage."


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: In Numbers 10:29, the Hebrew for the name Raguel is the same as the Hebrew for Reuel. The reason for the difference is that the Hebrew character (ayin) in is sometimes used merely as a vowel and sometimes as "g", "ug", and "Fxn", because of the difficulty of its pronunciation by European speakers. Re-u-el, with the first syllable strong accented, is nearer to the true pronunciation. Some suppose that he was father to Hobab, who was also called Jethro, a likely possibility.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: It became, however, generally accepted that he had seven names: "Reuel", "Jether", "Jethro", "Hobab", "Heber", "Keni" (comp. Judges i. 16, iv. 11), and "Putiel"; Eleazar's father-in-law (Ex. vi. 25) being identified with Jethro by interpreting his name either as "he who abandoned idolatry" or as "who fattened calves for the sake of sacrifices to the idol".


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: According to some modern scholars, "Jethro" was really a title meaning "His Excellency", and that "Reuel" was the figure's actual, given name.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Jethro, Moses' non-Hebrew father-in-law, is a central figure, particularly in the rites and pilgrimages, of the Druze religion. He is called Shuayb and viewed as the most important prophet for the Druze.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Nabi Shuʿayb is the site recognized by Druze as the tomb of Shuʿayb. It is located at Hittin in the Lower Galilee and is the holiest shrine and most important pilgrimage site for the Druze. Each year on 25 April, the Druze gather at the site in a holiday known as Ziyarat al-Nabi Shuʿayb to discuss community affairs and commemorate the anniversary of Jethro's death with singing, dancing and feasting. Another Druze shrine in Ein Qiniyye is the supposed burial place of Jethro's sister, Sit Shahwana.


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: Jethro is revered as the chief prophet in the Druze religion. They believe he was a "hidden" and "true prophet" who communicated directly with God and then passed on that knowledge to Moses, whom they describe as a "recognised" and "revealed prophet." According to Druze belief, Moses was allowed to wed Zipporah, the daughter of Jethro, after helping save his daughters and their flock from competing herdsmen. He is also considered an ancestor of the Druze; as is expressed by such prominent Druze as Amal Nasser el-Din, and according to Salman Tarif, who was a prominent Druze shaykh, this makes the Druze related to the Jews through marriage. This view has been used to represent an element of the special relationship between Israeli Jews and Druze. The Israeli Druze also have a folktale called "Jethro's revenge on the [Sunni Muslim] inhabitants of the village of Hittin."


title: Jethro (biblical figure)

text: In Islam he is mentioned in the Quran as a prophet who was sent to the city of Midian. His people were destroyed because of their corruption except for the believers. He is thought to be the father-in-law for prophet Moses.


title: David Wilmot (actor)

text: Wilmot's theatre credits include "Six Characters in Search of an Author" at the Abbey Theatre in Dublin, "As You Like It" with the Druid Theatre Company in Galway and "Juno and the Paycock" in London's West End. He originated the role of Padraic in "The Lieutenant of Inishmore" at The Other Place in Stratford-upon-Avon in 2001, played it at the Barbican Centre in 2002, then joined the 2006 off-Broadway Atlantic Theater Company production, which later transferred to Broadway. He was nominated for the 2006 Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance, and the Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding Actor in a Play and won the Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Lead Actor and the Theatre World Award for his performance.


title: David Wilmot (actor)

text: Wilmot portrayed Dr. Ed Costello in sixteen episodes of "The Clinic" on RTÉ. He was nominated for the Irish Film and Television Award for Best Actor in a TV Drama.


title: David Wilmot (actor)

text: Wilmot's screen credits include "Michael Collins" (1996), "I Went Down" (1997), "The Devil's Own" (1997), "The Tale of Sweeney Todd" (1998), "Intermission" (2003), "Laws of Attraction" (2004), "King Arthur" (2004), "Six Shooter" (2006), "The Guard" (2011) and "Gold" (2014). He was named Best Supporting Actor in Film and nominated Best New Talent for "Intermission" at the 2003 Irish Film and Television Awards.


title: David Wilmot (actor)

text: In 2009 and 2010, Wilmot appeared in seasons 3 and 4 of the Showtime series "The Tudors" as rebel captain Sir Ralph Ellerker. In January 2012 he appeared in Sky 1's version of "Treasure Island" starring Eddie Izzard. He also appeared in the docudrama "Saving the Titanic" as the ship's Chief Engineer Joseph Bell.


title: David Wilmot (actor)

text: Wilmot played a supporting role in the BBC One drama "Ripper Street", as the cantankerous bearded Police Sergeant Donald Atherton. He similarly played police Captain Connor in 2018's TNT production of "The Alienist".


title: David Wilmot (actor)

text: On 31 October 2019, it was confirmed that Wilmot will star as a series regular in the HBO Max TV series "Station Eleven" as the corporate consultant Clark, an adaptation of the novel of the same name.


title: Puppetry

text: Puppetry is a form of theatre or performance that involves the manipulation of puppets – inanimate objects, often resembling some type of human or animal figure, that are animated or manipulated by a human called a puppeteer. Such a performance is also known as a puppet production. The script for a puppet production is called a puppet play. Puppeteers use movements from hands and arms to control devices such as rods or strings to move the body, head, limbs, and in some cases the mouth and eyes of the puppet. The puppeteer sometimes speaks in the voice of the character of the puppet, while at other times they perform to a recorded soundtrack.


title: Puppetry

text: There are many different varieties of puppets, and they are made of a wide range of materials, depending on their form and intended use. They can be extremely complex or very simple in their construction. The simplest puppets are finger puppets, which are tiny puppets that fit onto a single finger, and sock puppets, which are formed from a sock and operated by inserting one's hand inside the sock, with the opening and closing of the hand simulating the movement of the puppet's "mouth". A hand puppet or glove puppet is controlled by one hand which occupies the interior of the puppet and moves the puppet around. Punch and Judy puppets are familiar examples. Other hand or glove puppets are larger and require two puppeteers for each puppet. Japanese Bunraku puppets are an example of this. Marionettes are suspended and controlled by a number of strings, plus sometimes a central rod attached to a control bar held from above by the puppeteer. Rod puppets are made from a head attached to a central rod. Over the rod is a body form with arms attached controlled by separate rods. They have more movement possibilities as a consequence than a simple hand or glove puppet.


title: Puppetry

text: Puppetry is a very ancient form of theatre which was first recorded in the 5th century BC in Ancient Greece. Some forms of puppetry may have originated as long ago as 3000 years BC. Puppetry takes many forms, but they all share the process of animating inanimate performing objects to tell a story. Puppetry occurs in almost all human societies where puppets are used for the purpose of entertainment through performance, as sacred objects in rituals, as symbolic effigies in celebrations such as carnivals, and as a catalyst for social and psychological change in transformative arts.


title: Puppetry

text: Puppetry is a very ancient art form, thought to have originated about 4000 years ago. Puppets have been used since the earliest times to animate and communicate the ideas and needs of human societies. Some historians claim that they pre-date actors in theatre. There is evidence that they were used in Egypt as early as 2000 BCE when string-operated figures of wood were manipulated to perform the action of kneading bread. Wire controlled, articulated puppets made of clay and ivory have also been found in Egyptian tombs. Hieroglyphs also describe "walking statues" being used in ancient Egyptian religious dramas. Puppetry was practiced in ancient Greece and the oldest written records of puppetry can be found in the works of Herodotus and Xenophon, dating from the 5th century BC.


title: Puppetry

text: Sub-Saharan Africa may have inherited some of the puppet traditions of ancient Egypt. Certainly, secret societies in many African ethnic groups still use puppets (and masks) in ritual dramas as well as in their healing and hunting ceremonies. Today, puppetry continues as a popular form, often within a ceremonial context, and as part of a wide range of folk forms including dance, storytelling, and masked performance. In the 2010s throughout rural Africa, puppetry still performed the function of transmitting cultural values and ideas that in large African cities is increasingly undertaken by formal education, books, cinema, and television.


title: Puppetry

text: There is evidence for puppetry in the Indus Valley civilization. Archaeologists have unearthed one terracotta doll with a detachable head capable of manipulation by a string dating to 2500 BC. Another figure is a terracotta monkey which could be manipulated up and down a stick, achieving minimum animation in both cases. Puppets are described in the epic "Mahabharata", Tamil literature from the Sangam era, and various literary works dating from the late centuries BC to the early centuries AD, including the Edicts of Ashoka. Works like the "Natya Shastra" and the "Kama Sutra" elaborate on puppetry in some detail.


title: Puppetry

text: China has a history of puppetry dating back 3000 years, originally in "pi-yung xi", the "theatre of the lantern shadows", or as it is more commonly known today, Chinese shadow theatre. By the Song dynasty (960–1279 AD), puppets played to all social classes including the courts, yet puppeteers, as in Europe, were considered to be from a lower social stratum.


title: Puppetry

text: In Taiwan, budaixi puppet shows, somewhat similar to the Japanese bunraku, occur with puppeteers working in the background or underground. Some very experienced puppeteers can manipulate their puppets to perform various stunts, for example, somersaults in the air.


title: Puppetry

text: Japan has many forms of puppetry, including the bunraku. Bunraku developed out of Shinto temple rites and gradually became a highly sophisticated form of puppetry. Chikamatsu Monzaemon, considered by many to be Japan's greatest playwright, gave up writing kabuki plays and focused exclusively on the puppet-only bunraku plays. Initially consisting of one puppeteer, by 1730 three puppeteers were used to operate each puppet in full view of the audience. The puppeteers, who dressed all in black, would become invisible when standing against a black background, while the torches illuminated only the carved, painted and costumed wooden puppets.


title: Puppetry

text: Korea's tradition of puppetry is thought to have come from China. The oldest historical evidence of puppetry in Korea comes from a letter written in 982 A.D. from Choe Seung-roe to the King. In Korean, the word for puppet is "Kkoktugakshi". "Gagsi" means a "bride" or a "young woman", which was the most common form the dolls took. A kkoktugakshi puppet play has eight scenes.


title: Puppetry

text: The Indonesian "wayang" theater was influenced by Indian traditions. Some scholars trace the origin of puppets to India 4000 years ago, where the main character in Sanskrit plays was known as "Sutradhara", "the holder of strings". "Wayang" is a strong tradition of puppetry native to Indonesia, especially in Java and Bali. In Java, "wayang kulit", an elaborate form of shadow puppetry, is very popular. Javanese rod puppets have a long history and are used to tell fables from Javanese history. Another popular puppetry form in Indonesia is "wayang golek".


title: Puppetry

text: Vietnam developed the art form of water puppetry, unique to that country. The puppets are built out of wood and the shows are performed in a waist-high pool. A large rod under the water is used by puppeteers to support and control the puppets, creating the appearance of the puppets moving over water. The origin of this form of puppetry dates back seven hundred years when the rice fields would flood and the villagers would entertain each other. Puppet show competitions between Vietnamese villages eventually led to the creation of secretive and exclusive puppet societies.


title: Puppetry

text: The Philippines first developed its art of puppetry during the Spanish colonial period. The oldest known Filipino puppetry is the "carrillo", also known as "kikimut", "titire", and "potei". It was first recorded in 1879. It involves small carts used in puppet plays with figures made of cardboard utilized for shadow plays. In the late 1800s, another Filipino puppetry developed. "Higantes" are giant papier-mâché puppets, numbering more than a hundred, paraded through town during the Higantes Festival. These puppets are made as a devotion to San Clemente and as a mockery against colonial-era land owners who discriminated Filipinos. Various traditions are connected with the "higantes". Since the 20th century, multiple puppet arts have developed in the Philippines. A notable Filipino puppeteer is Amelia Lapeña Bonifacio.


title: Puppetry

text: In Burma, today called Myanmar, an elaborate form of puppet shows, called Yoke thé, evolved, based on royal patronage. The probable date of the origin of Burmese marionettes is given as around 1780, during the reign of King Singu Min, and their introduction is credited to the Minister of Royal Entertainment, U Thaw. From their inception, marionettes enjoyed great popularity in the courts of the Konbaung dynasty. Little has changed since the creation of the art by U Thaw, and the set of characters developed by him is still in use today.


title: Puppetry

text: India has a long tradition of puppetry. In the ancient Indian epic "Mahabharata" there are references to puppets. Kathputli, a form of string puppet performance native to Rajasthan, is notable and there are many Indian ventriloquists and puppeteers. The first Indian ventriloquist, Professor Y. K. Padhye, introduced this form of puppetry to India in the 1920s and his son, Ramdas Padhye, subsequently popularised ventriloquism and puppetry. Almost all types of puppets are found in India.


title: Puppetry

text: India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets or marionettes. Marionettes with jointed limbs controlled by strings allow far greater flexibility and are therefore the most articulate of the puppets. Rajasthan, Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this form of puppetry has flourished. The traditional marionettes of Rajasthan are known as "Kathputli". Carved from a single piece of wood, these puppets are like large dolls that are colourfully dressed. The string puppets of Orissa are known as "Kundhei". The string puppets of Karnataka are called "Gombeyatta". Puppets from Tamil Nadu, known as "Bommalattam", combine the techniques of rod and string puppets.


title: Puppetry

text: Shadow puppets are an ancient part of India's culture and art, particularly regionally as the "keelu bomme" and "Tholu bommalata" of Andhra Pradesh, the "Togalu gombeyaata" in Karnataka, the "charma bahuli natya" in Maharashtra, the "Ravana chhaya" in Odisha, the "Tholpavakoothu" in Kerala and the "thol bommalatta" in Tamil Nadu. Shadow puppet play is also found in pictorial traditions in India, such as temple mural painting, loose-leaf folio paintings, and the narrative paintings. Dance forms such as the Chhau of Odisha literally mean "shadow". The shadow theatre dance drama theatre are usually performed on platform stages attached to Hindu temples, and in some regions these are called "Koothu Madams" or "Koothambalams". In many regions, the puppet drama play is performed by itinerant artist families on temporary stages during major temple festivals. Legends from the Hindu epics "Ramayana" and the "Mahabharata" dominate their repertoire. However, the details and the stories vary regionally.


title: Puppetry

text: During the 19th century and early parts of the 20th century of the colonial era, Indologists believed that shadow puppet plays had become extinct in India, though mentioned in its ancient Sanskrit texts. In the 1930s and thereafter, states Stuart Blackburn, these fears of its extinction were found to be false as evidence emerged that shadow puppetry had remained a vigorous rural tradition in central Kerala mountains, most of Karnataka, northern Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu, Odisha and southern Maharashtra. The Marathi people, particularly of low caste, had preserved and vigorously performed the legends of Hindu epics as a folk tradition. The importance of Marathi artists is evidenced, states Blackburn, from the puppeteers speaking Marathi as their mother tongue in many non-Marathi speaking states of India.


title: Puppetry

text: According to Beth Osnes, the "tholu bommalata" shadow puppet theatre dates back to the 3rd century BCE, and has attracted patronage ever since. The puppets used in a "tholu bommalata" performance, states Phyllis Dircks, are "translucent, lusciously multicolored leather figures four to five feet tall, and feature one or two articulated arms". The process of making the puppets is an elaborate ritual, where the artist families in India pray, go into seclusion, produce the required art work, then celebrate the "metaphorical birth of a puppet" with flowers and incense.


title: Puppetry

text: The "tholu pava koothu" of Kerala uses leather puppets whose images are projected on a backlit screen. The shadows are used to creatively express characters and stories in the "Ramayana". A complete performance of the epic can take forty-one nights, while an abridged performance lasts as few as seven days. One feature of the "tholu pava koothu" show is that it is a team performance of puppeteers, while other shadow plays such as the "wayang" of Indonesia are performed by a single puppeteer for the same "Ramayana" story. There are regional differences within India in the puppet arts. For example, women play a major role in shadow play theatre in most parts of India, except in Kerala and Maharashtra. Almost everywhere, except Odisha, the puppets are made from tanned deer skin, painted and articulated. Translucent leather puppets are typical in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, while opaque puppets are typical in Kerala and Odisha. The artist troupes typically carry over a hundred puppets for their performance in rural India.


title: Puppetry

text: Rod puppets are an extension of glove-puppets, but are often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods from below. This form of puppetry now is found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa. The traditional rod puppet form of West Bengal is known as "Putul Nautch". They are carved from wood and follow the various artistic styles of a particular region. The traditional rod puppet of Bihar is known as "Yampuri".


title: Puppetry

text: Glove puppets are also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets. The head is made of either papier mâché, cloth or wood, with two hands emerging from just below the neck. The rest of the figure consists of a long, flowing skirt. These puppets are like limp dolls, but in the hands of an able puppeteer, are capable of producing a wide range of movements. The manipulation technique is simple the movements are controlled by the human hand, the first finger inserted in the head and the middle finger and the thumb in the two arms of the puppet. With the help of these three fingers, the glove puppet comes alive.


title: Puppetry

text: The tradition of glove puppets in India is popular in Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal and Kerala. In Uttar Pradesh, glove puppet plays usually present social themes, whereas in Orissa such plays are based on stories of Radha and Krishna. In Orissa, the puppeteer plays a "dholak" (hand drum) with one hand and manipulates the puppet with the other. The delivery of the dialogue, the movement of the puppet and the beat of the dholak are well synchronised and create a dramatic atmosphere. In Kerala, the traditional glove puppet play is called "Pavakoothu".


title: Puppetry

text: Afghanistan has produced a form of puppetry known as buz-baz. During a performance a puppeteer will simultaneously operate a marionette of a markhor while playing a dambura (long-necked lute).


title: Puppetry

text: Middle Eastern puppetry, like its other theatre forms, is influenced by the Islamic culture. Karagoz, the Turkish Shadow Theatre, has widely influenced puppetry in the region and it is thought to have passed from China by way of India. Later, it was taken by the Mongols from the Chinese and passed to the Turkish peoples of Central Asia. The art of Shadow Theater was brought to Anatolia by the Turkish people emigrating from Central Asia. Other scholars claim that shadow theater came to Anatolia in the 16th century from Egypt. The advocates of this view claim that shadow theatre found its way into the Ottoman palaces when Yavuz Sultan Selim conquered Egypt in 1517. He saw shadow theatre performed during a party in his honour and he was said to be so impressed with it that he took the puppeteer back to his palace in Istanbul where his 21-year -old son, later Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent, developed an interest in the plays.


title: Puppetry

text: In other areas, the style of shadow puppetry known as "khayal al-zill", a metaphor translated as "shadows of the imagination" or "shadow of fancy", still survives. This is a shadow play with live music, "the accompaniment of drums, tambourines and flutes...also..."special effects" – smoke, fire, thunder, rattles, squeaks, thumps, and whatever else might elicit a laugh or a shudder from his audience"


title: Puppetry

text: In Iran, puppets are known to have existed much earlier than 1000 AD, but initially only glove and string puppets were popular . Other genres of puppetry emerged during the Qajar era (18th and 19th centuries) as influences from Turkey spread to the region. "Kheimeh Shab-Bazi" is a traditional Persian puppet show which is performed in a small chamber by a musical performer and a storyteller called a "morshed" or "naghal". These shows often take place alongside storytelling in traditional tea and coffee-houses ("Ghahve-Khane"). The dialogue takes place between the morshed and the puppets. A recent example of puppetry in Iran is the touring opera "Rostam and Sohrab".


title: Puppetry

text: Although there are few remaining examples of puppets from ancient Greece, historical literature and archaeological findings shows the existence of puppetry. The Greek word translated as "puppet" is "νευρόσπαστος" ("nevrospastos"), which literally means "drawn by strings, string-pulling", from "νεῦρον" ("nevron"), meaning either "sinew, tendon, muscle, string", or "wire", and "σπάω" ("spaō"), meaning "draw, pull". Aristotle referred to pulling strings to control heads, hands and eyes, shoulders and legs. Plato's work also contains references to puppetry. The "Iliad" and the "Odyssey" were presented using puppetry. The roots of European puppetry probably extend back to the Greek plays with puppets played to the "common people" in the 5th century BC. By the 3rd century BC these plays would appear in the Theatre of Dionysus at the Acropolis.


title: Puppetry

text: In ancient Greece and ancient Rome clay dolls, and a few of ivory, dated from around 500 BC, were found in children's tombs. These dolls had articulated arms and legs, and in some cases an iron rod extending up from the tops of their heads. This rod was used to manipulate the doll from above, as it is done today in Sicilian puppetry. A few of these dolls had strings in place of rods. Some researchers believe these ancient figures were simply toys and not puppets, due to their small size.


title: Puppetry

text: Italy is considered by many to be the early home of the marionette due to the influence of Roman puppetry. Xenophon and Plutarch refer to them. The Christian church used marionettes to perform morality plays. It is believed that the word marionette originates from the little figures of the Virgin Mary, hence the word "marionette" or "Mary doll. Comedy was introduced to the plays as time went by, and ultimately led to a church edict banning puppetry. Puppeteers responded by setting up stages outside cathedrals and became even more ribald and slapstick. Out of this grew the Italian comedy called Commedia dell'arte. Puppets were used at times in this form of theatre and sometimes Shakespeare's plays were performed using marionettes instead of actors.


title: Puppetry

text: The 18th century was a vital period in the development of all Italian theatre, including the marionette theatre. The rod puppet was mainly of lower-class origin, but the marionette theatre was popular in aristocratic circles, as a celebration of the Age of Enlightenment. The effects, and the artful and complex construction of the puppets, the puppet theatres, and the puppet narratives, were all popular, particularly in Venice. In the 19th century, the marionettes of Pietro Radillo became more complex and instead of just the rod and two strings, Radillo's marionettes were controlled by as many as eight strings, which increased control over the individual body parts of the marionettes.


title: Puppetry

text: Guignol is the main character in the French puppet show which has come to bear his name. Although often thought of as children's entertainment, Guignol's sharp wit and linguistic verve have always been appreciated by adults as well, as shown by the motto of a prominent Lyon troupe: "Guignol amuses children… and witty adults". Laurent Mourguet, Guignol's creator, fell on hard times during the French Revolution, and in 1797 started to practice dentistry, which in those days was simply the pulling of teeth. To attract patients, he started setting up a puppet show in front of his dentist's chair.


title: Puppetry

text: His first shows featured Polichinelle, a character borrowed from the Italian commedia dell'arte. By 1804 the success was such that he gave up dentistry altogether and became a professional puppeteer, creating his own scenarios drawing on the concerns of his working-class audience and improvising references to the news of the day. He developed characters closer to the daily lives of his Lyon audience, first Gnafron, a wine-loving cobbler, and in 1808 Guignol. Other characters, including Guignol's wife Madelon and the gendarme Flagéolet soon followed, but these are never much more than foils for the two heroes. Guignol's inevitable victory is always the triumph of good over evil.


title: Puppetry

text: The traditional British "Punch and Judy" puppetry traces its roots to the 16th century to the Italian commedia dell'arte. The character of "Punch" derives from the character Pulcinella, which was Anglicized to "Punchinello". He is a manifestation of the Lord of Misrule and Trickster, figures of deep-rooted mythologies. Punch's wife was originally "Joan", but later became "Judy". In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the familiar "Punch and Judy" puppet show which existed in Britain was performed in an easily transportable booth. The British Puppet and Model Theatre Guild in the early 20th century instigated a resurgence of puppetry. Two of the Guild's founders, H. W. Whanslaw and Waldo Lanchester, both worked to promote and develop puppetry with publications of books and literature, mainly focusing on the art of the marionette. Lanchester had a touring theatre and a permanent venue in Malvern, Worcestershire, regularly taking part in the Malvern Festival and attracting the attention of George Bernard Shaw. One of Shaw's last plays, "Shakes versus Shav", was written for and first performed in 1949 by the company.


title: Puppetry

text: From 1957 to 1969, Gerry Anderson produced many television series starring marionettes, starting with Roberta Leigh's "The Adventures of Twizzle" and ending with "The Secret Service". Many of these series (the most famous of which was "Thunderbirds") employed a technique called Supermarionation, which automatically synchronized the pre-recorded character dialogue to the puppets' mouth movements. Anderson returned to puppetry in 1983 with "Terrahawks" and the unaired pilot "Space Police" in 1987.


title: Puppetry

text: Current British puppetry theatres include the Little Angel Theatre in Islington, London, Puppet Theatre Barge in London, Norwich Puppet Theatre, the Harlequin Puppet Theatre, Rhos-on-Sea, Wales, and the Biggar Puppet Theatre, Biggar, Lanarkshire, Scotland. British puppetry now covers a wide range of styles and approaches. There are also a number of British theatre companies, including Horse and Bamboo Theatre, and Green Ginger, which integrate puppetry into highly visual productions. From 1984 to 1996, puppetry was used as a vehicle for political satire in the British television series "Spitting Image". Puppetry has also been influencing mainstream theatre, and several recent productions combine puppetry with live action, including "Warhorse", at the Royal National Theatre and "Madam Butterfly" at the English National Opera.


title: Puppetry

text: Many regional variants of Pulcinella were developed as the character spread across Europe. In the Netherlands it is "Jan Klaassen" (and Judy is "Katrijn"); in Denmark "Mester Jackel"; in Russia "Petrushka"; and in Romania "Vasilache". In Russia, the Central Puppet Theatre in Moscow and its branches in every part of the country enhanced the reputation of the puppeteer and puppetry in general.


title: Puppetry

text: There is a long tradition of puppetry in Germany and Austria. Much of it derives from the 16th-century tradition of the Italian commedia dell'arte. The German version of the British character of 'Punch' is called Kasperle of Kaspar while Judy is called Grete. In the 18th century, operas were specifically composed for marionette puppets. Gluck, Haydn, de Falla and Respighi all composed adult operas for marionettes.


title: Puppetry

text: In 1855, Count Franz Pocci founded the Munich Marionette Theatre. A German dramatist, poet, painter and composer, Pocci wrote 40 puppet plays for his theatre. Albrecht Roser has made a considerable impact with his marionettes in Stuttgart. His characters "Clown Gustaf" and "Grandmother" are well-known. "Grandmother", while outwardly charming, is savagely humorous in her observations about all aspects of society and the absurdities of life.


title: Puppetry

text: In Lindau, the Lindau Marionette Opera was founded in 2000 by Bernard Leismueller and Ralf Hechelmann. The company performs a large number of operas as well as a marionette ballet, "Swan Lake".


title: Puppetry

text: In Augsburg, the historic Augsburg Marionette Theatre was founded in 1943 by Walter Oehmichen. It continues to this day along with an adjoining puppet museum under the grandsons of the founder, Klaus Marschall and Juergen Marschall.


title: Puppetry

text: Much earlier in nearby Salzburg, Austria, the Salzburg Marionette Theatre was founded in 1913 by Professor Anton Aicher and is world-famous. The Salzburg Marionette Theatre still continues the tradition of presenting full-length opera using marionettes in their own purpose built theatre until recently under the direction of Gretl Aicher. It performs mainly operas such as "Die Fledermaus" and "The Magic Flute" and a small number of ballets such as "The Nutcracker". The Salzburg Marionette Theatre productions are aimed for adults although children are of course welcome.


title: Puppetry

text: There is also a marionette theatre at Schoenbrunn Palace in Vienna founded by Christine Hierzer-Riedler and Werner Hierzer over 40 years ago. The marionette theatre performs world famous operas, musicals and fairy tales.


title: Puppetry

text: Marionette puppet theatre has had a very long history in entertainment in Prague, and elsewhere in the former Czechoslovakia and then in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. It can be traced deep into the early part of the Middle Ages. Marionettes first appeared around the time of the Thirty Years' War. The first noted Czech puppeteer was Jan Jiří Brat, who was born in 1724. He was the son of a local carpenter and created his own puppet theatre. Matěj Kopecký was the most famous 19th-century Czech puppeteer, and was responsible for communicating the ideas of national awareness.


title: Puppetry

text: In 1911, Jindřich Veselý co-founded the Czech Association of Friends of Puppet Theatre and in 1912 advocated the publication of the oldest specialist puppet-theatre magazine still published today, "Loutkář". Veselý played a key role in founding UNIMA (International Puppetry Association) in 1929, and was elected its first president.


title: Puppetry

text: In 1920 and 1926 respectively, Josef Skupa created his most famous puppet characters: Spejbl and Hurvínek, comical father and his rascal son. In 1930, he set up the first modern professional puppet theatre. An important puppet organisation is the National Marionette Theatre in Prague. Its repertoire mainly features a marionette production of Mozart's opera "Don Giovanni". The production has period costumes and 18th-century setting. There are numerous other companies, including Buchty a Loutky ("Cakes and Puppets"), founded by Marek Bečka. Puppets have been used extensively in animated films since 1946. Jiří Trnka was an acknowledged leader in this area. Miroslav Trejtnar is a master puppeteer and teacher of traditional Czech marionette-making skills.


title: Puppetry

text: Throughout this period, puppetry developed separately from the emerging mainstream of actor theatres, and the 'ragged' puppeteers performed outside of theatre buildings at fairs, markets etc., continuing to be classified along with bandits and gypsies. In the 19th century, puppetry faced competition from other forms of theatre such as vaudeville and music hall, but it adapted to these challenges, for example: by developing stage acts and participating in the new forms of popular theatre, or reinventing itself in other ways and finding audiences at the newly fashionable seaside resorts.


title: Puppetry

text: The Teotihuacan culture (Central Mexico) of 600 AD made figurines with moveable arms and legs as part of their funerary rites. Native Americans also used ceremonial puppets.


title: Puppetry

text: In 1519, two puppeteers accompanied Hernando Cortez on his first journey to Mexico. Europeans brought their own puppet traditions with them, but gradually distinctive styles, forms and puppet characters developed in North America.


title: Puppetry

text: During the Depression, folk puppeteers traveled with carnivals, working with their own scripts and with dioramas and marionettes of their own manufacture.


title: Puppetry

text: Some advances in 20th-century puppetry have originated in the United States. Marionette puppetry was combined with television as early as the 1940s, with Howdy Doody of the United States being a notable marionette in this field. Bil Baird worked on revitalising marionette theatre and puppetry in the United States. He and his wife, Cora Eisenberg had their own marionette theatre in New York. Ventriloquist, Edgar Bergen also made a major contribution. In the 1960s Peter Schumann's Bread and Puppet Theater developed the political and artistic possibilities of puppet theatre in a distinctive, powerful and immediately recognizable way. At roughly the same time, Jim Henson was creating a type of soft, foam-rubber and cloth puppet which became known collectively as Muppets. Initially, through the children's television show "Sesame Street", and later in "The Muppet Show" and on film, these inspired many imitators and are today are recognised almost everywhere (Henson also branched out into animatronics through the formation of his Creature Shop, as showcased in his films "The Dark Crystal" and "Labyrinth"). Wayland Flowers also made a major contribution to adult puppetry with his satirical puppet, Madame.


title: Puppetry

text: Sid and Marty Krofft are two of Americas most well known puppeteers and were mainly known for their live action children's TV series in the 60s and 70s namely HR Puffinstuff and Lidsville.


title: Puppetry

text: Puppets also have been used in the "Star Wars" films, notably with the character of Yoda. His voice and manipulation was provided by Frank Oz.


title: Puppetry

text: The Aboriginal peoples of Australia have a long tradition of oral storytelling which goes back many thousands of years. They used masks and other objects to convey deep and meaningful themes about morality and nature. Masks were carved from wood and heavily decorated with paint and feathers.


title: Puppetry

text: In Australia in the 1960s, Peter Scriven founded the Marionette Theatre of Australia and staged beautiful marionette productions such as "The Tintookies", "Little Fella Bindi", "The Explorers" and "The Water Babies".


title: Puppetry

text: Phillip Edmiston, who worked alongside Peter Scriven at the Marionette Theatre of Australia, went on to mount in 1977 a lavish marionette production of "The Grand Adventure" under the umbrella of his own company, Theatrestrings. With 127 marionettes, the A$120,000 production opened in Nambour in the Civic Hall on 28 May 1977 and subsequently toured to Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. The musical was composed by Eric Gross with book and lyrics by Hal Saunders. The story broadly told of Captain James Cook's South Sea Island voyage with botanist Joseph Banks on HMS "Endeavour". Edmiston went on to tour Queensland throughout the 1980s and 1990s with numerous productions with his new company Queensland Marionette Theatre.


title: Puppetry

text: Bilbar Puppet Theatre, established by Barbara Turnbull and her husband Bill Turnbull, toured Australia extensively under the auspices of the Queensland Arts Council in the 1970s and 1980s. Their shows included "The Lucky Charm", "Funnybone", Mozart's opera "Bastien and Bastienne", and "Lazy Liza". Bilbar Puppet Theatre's puppets are now held at the Queensland Performing Arts Centre, Brisbane. David Poulton toured marionette shows via the Queensland Arts Council along his 'Strings and Things' with his wife Sally for many years from the late 1970s. Gwen and Peter Iliffe also toured with Puppet People. One of their shows was "Bees Hey" using the music of Bizet. Another successful group were Ehmer Puppets.


title: Puppetry

text: David Hamilton, one of the last remaining marionette puppeteers in Australia, tours independently and formerly toured under the auspices of the Queensland Arts Council. Some of his puppets were displayed in a special puppet exhibition mounted at the Queensland Performing Arts Complex in 2018.


title: Puppetry

text: Comedian and radio broadcaster Jamie Dunn was famous for his Muppet-style character, Agro, who featured on several Seven Network television programs throughout the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Puppetry

text: Formally trained in the United States by puppeteers from the Jim Henson Company, Brett Hansen and his Brisbane-based Larrikin Puppets company is one of only a few Muppet-style puppeteers actively performing in Australia. Cabaret Puppet Theatre, based in Brisbane's Redlands area, also tours with productions for children and adults.


title: Puppetry

text: In Melbourne, Handspan Theatre (1977–2002) evolved from humble collective beginnings to a large, design-rich theatre format dubbed 'Visual Theatre', and became a hothouse for innovative projects and multimedia collaborations within Australia and around the world.


title: Puppetry

text: A post-graduate course existed at the Victorian College of the Arts, University of Melbourne in the late 1990s, but has since been discontinued.


title: Puppetry

text: Australian puppeteer Norman Hetherington was famous for his marionette, Mr. Squiggle, who featured on an Australian Broadcasting Commission television program from 1 July 1959 until 9 July 1999. In every episode he would create several pictures from "squiggles" sent in by children from around the country.


title: Puppetry

text: Richard Bradshaw OAM is another famous Australian puppeteer. He is a past president of UNIMA Australia, former artistic director of the Marionette Theatre Company of Australia, and does shadow puppetry and writing in the field.


title: Puppetry

text: Rod Hull also made a contribution with his puppet Emu. In the 1960s, Hull presented a children's breakfast television programme in Australia.


title: Puppetry

text: Snuff Puppets is one of Australia's modern puppet theatre troupes. Based in Melbourne, their work is full of wild black humour, political and sexual satire, and a handmade aesthetic. Snuff Puppets has performed in over 15 countries, including tours to major festivals in Asia, South America and Europe.


title: Puppetry

text: There is an annual winter festival of puppets at the City of Melbourne's ArtPlay and at Federation Square in Melbourne.


title: Puppetry

text: In Sydney, Jeral Puppets, founded by John and Jackie Lewis in 1966, regularly performs at Puppeteria Puppet Theatre and on tour.


title: Puppetry

text: Spare Parts Puppet Theatre of Fremantle, Western Australia was founded by Peter Wilson, Cathryn Robinson, and Beverley Campbell-Jackson in 1981, as part of an artist-in-residency program initiated by the WA Institute of Technology (now Curtin University of Technology). The company's first project was a puppet adaptation of Christopher Marlowe's "Doctor Faustus" for the 1981 Festival of Perth.


title: Puppetry

text: From early in the 19th century, puppetry began to inspire artists from the 'high-art' traditions. In 1810, Heinrich von Kleist wrote an essay 'On the Marionette Theatre', admiring the "lack of self-consciousness" of the puppet. Puppetry developed throughout the 20th century in a variety of ways. Supported by the parallel development of cinema, television and other filmed media it now reaches a larger audience than ever. Another development, starting at the beginning of the century, was the belief that puppet theatre, despite its popular and folk roots, could speak to adult audiences with an adult, and experimental voice, and reinvigorate the high art tradition of actors' theatre.


title: Puppetry

text: Sergei Obraztsov explored the concept of "kukolnost" ('puppetness'), despite Joseph Stalin's insistence on realism. Other pioneers, including Edward Gordon Craig and Erwin Piscator were influenced by puppetry in their crusade to regalvanise the mainstream. Maeterlinck, Shaw, Lorca and others wrote puppet plays, and artists such as Picasso, Jarry, and Léger began to work in theatre. Craig's concept of the "übermarionette"—in which the director treats the actors like objects—has been highly influential on contemporary "object theatre" and "physical theatre". Tadeusz Kantor frequently substituted actors for puppets, or combined the two, and conducted each performance from the edge of the stage, in some ways similar to a puppeteer.


title: Puppetry

text: Kantor influenced a new formalist generation of directors such as Richard Foreman and Robert Wilson who were concerned with the 'object' in theatrical terms "putting it on stage and finding different ways of looking at it" (Foreman). Innovatory puppeteers such as Tony Sarg, Waldo Lanchester, John Wright, Bil Baird, Joan Baixas, Sergei Obratsov, Philipe Genty, Peter Schumann, Dattatreya Aralikatte, The Little Players, Jim Henson, Dadi Pudumjee, and Julie Taymor have also continued to develop the forms and content of puppetry, so that the phrase 'puppet theatre' is no longer limited to traditional forms of marionettes, glove, or rod puppets. Directors and companies like Peter Schumann of Bread and Puppet Theatre, Bob Frith of Horse and Bamboo Theatre, and Sandy Speiler of In the Heart of the Beast Puppet and Mask Theatre have also combined mask and puppet theatre where the performer, puppets and objects are integrated within a largely visual theatre world that minimises the use of spoken language.


title: Puppetry

text: The Jim Henson Foundation, founded by puppeteer and Muppet creator Jim Henson, is a philanthropic, charitable organization created to promote and develop puppetry in the United States. It has bestowed 440 grants to innovative puppet theatre artists. Puppetry troupes in the early 21st-century such as HomeGrown Theatre in Boise, Idaho continue the avant garde satirical tradition for millennials.


title: Puppetry

text: The International Puppet Festival (PIF) has taken place annually in mid-September Zagreb, Croatia. since 1968.


title: Algebraic structure

text: In mathematics, an algebraic structure consists of a nonempty set "A" (called the underlying set, carrier set or domain), a collection of operations on "A" (typically binary operations such as addition and multiplication), and a finite set of identities, known as axioms, that these operations must satisfy.


title: Algebraic structure

text: An algebraic structure may be based on other algebraic structures with operations and axioms involving several structures. For instance, a vector space involves a second structure called a field, and an operation called "scalar multiplication" between elements of the field (called "scalars"), and elements of the vector space (called "vectors").


title: Algebraic structure

text: Abstract algebra is the name that is commonly given to the study of algebraic structures. The general theory of algebraic structures has been formalized in universal algebra. Category theory is another formalization that includes also other mathematical structures and functions between structures of the same type (homomorphisms).


title: Algebraic structure

text: In universal algebra, an algebraic structure is called an "algebra"; this term may be ambiguous, since, in other contexts, an algebra is an algebraic structure that is a vector space over a field or a module over a commutative ring.


title: Algebraic structure

text: The collection of all structures of a given type (same operations and same laws) is called a variety in universal algebra; this term is also used with a completely different meaning in algebraic geometry, as an abbreviation of algebraic variety. In category theory, the collection of all structures of a given type and homomorphisms between them form a concrete category.


title: Algebraic structure

text: Addition and multiplication are prototypical examples of operations that combine two elements of a set to produce a third element of the same set. These operations obey several algebraic laws. For example, and are associative laws, and and are commutative laws. Many systems studied by mathematicians have operations that obey some, but not necessarily all, of the laws of ordinary arithmetic. For example, the possible moves of an object in three-dimensional space can be combined by performing a first move of the object, and then a second move from its new position. Such moves, formally called rigid motions, obey the associative law, but fail to satisfy the commutative law.


title: Algebraic structure

text: Sets with one or more operations that obey specific laws are called "algebraic structures". When a new problem involves the same laws as such an algebraic structure, all the results that have been proved using only the laws of the structure can be directly applied to the new problem.


title: Algebraic structure

text: In full generality, algebraic structures may involve an arbitrary collection of operations, including operations that combine more than two elements (higher arity operations) and operations that take only one argument (unary operations) or even zero arguments (nullary operations). The examples listed below are by no means a complete list, but include the most common structures taught in undergraduate courses.